NMAT Review

Must Know: Biology Part 2 [THREAD]

(Topics: Circulatory System, Nervous System, Digestive System, Endocrine System, Immune System, Blood
Typing, DNA & RNA, Genetics etc.)

1. Cellular Respiration 1/2

-a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

2. Cellular Respiration 2/2

3. Key Terms:
Autotrophs
-“self-feeders” harvest the energy of sunlight through photosynthesis, converting radiant energy in to
chemical energy (i.e. plants, algae, and some bacteria)

Heterotrophs
-“fed by others” used energy/food produced by others/autotrophs (i.e. humans etc.)

4. Key Terms:

Digestion - breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones.

Metabolism - the sum of all chemical processes occurring within a living cell.
Catabolism - Destructive Metabolism
Anabolism - Constructive Metabolism

5. Blood Flow

Trivia: The muscles of the ventricles are thicker than of the atria because they pump blood to the anterior
and posterior portion of the body. Left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle because it pumps blood
to the rest of the body.

6. The rhythmic contraction of the heart is regulated by the SA Node aka pacemaker. Electrical impulse is
then conveyed through-out the heart by the Atrioventricular Bundle and received by the Purkinje Fibers
for contraction.
7. Sino-Atrial Node vs Atrioventricular Bundle

8. Blood Vessels
Arteries
-away from the heart (thicker walls because of the high pressure of blood from the heart)

Veins
-towards the heart

Capillaries
-where exchange of gases & waste materials happen; only single file of RBC can pass through.
9. Blood Vessels
Arteries
-Oxygenated Blood

Veins
-Deoxygenated Blood

Exception:
Pulmonary Arteries
-Deoxygenated Blood

Pulmonary Vein
-Oxygenated Blood

10. Types of Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation
- From heart, to the lungs and back to the heart.

Systemic Circulation
-From heart to the rest of the body & vice versa.

11. Modified Epithelium in the Stomach

Foveolar-protects the walls of the stomach against acidic environment.

Parietal
-activates pepsinogen into pepsin; maintains acidity

Chief cells
-reacts w/ HCL to be activated into pepsinogen; carry out chemical digestion

12. Nervous System

13. Nervous System
Central NS
-responsible for high intelligence based activities; brain & spinal cord

Peripheral NS
-made of all nerves and ganglia
14. Nervous System 3/4
Autonomic NS
-facilitates most of the involuntary actions

Sympathetic System
-Fight-or-Flight-or-Freeze

Parasympathetic system
-Rest-and-digest

15. Nervous System 4/4

Somatic NS
-all voluntary activities

Afferent Neurons
-transmitting impulses from the area where you received the stimulus

Efferent Neurons
-conductance of motor reflexes from the CNS to the area where the impulse where received.

16. Endocrine system

-responsible for the secretion of hormones in the growth and development of an organisms.

17. Hormones
Pituitary gland has two parts

Anterior
– produces and secretes own hormones
 Posterior
–does not produce its own hormones, but only stores and releases the hormones created by the
hypothalamus

18. Hormones

Hypothalamus
– Links endocrine and nervous system
– sends signals to the pituitary to release or
inhibit pituitary hormone production
19. Menstrual Cycle
20. Menstrual Cycle vs Estrous Cycle

21. ABO Blood Group 1/2

22. ABO Blood Group 2/2

23. Rh Factor

24. Humoral Immunity

25. Cell-Mediated Immunity

26. Nonspecific Immunity

27. Central Dogma:
DNA-RNA-Protein

Initiation: AUG
Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG

Pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine/Uracil

Purines: Adenine and Guanine

(Adenine is to Thymine; Cytosine is to Guanine)

28. DNA Replication

-the process by which the DNA replicates itself by using a strand of DNA as template.

29. Enzymes 1/2

Helicase
-Unzips the DNA

Primase
-Provides RNA primers

DNA Polymerase III

 -synthesizes in the lagging strand (3’ to 5’)

DNA Polymerase I
-synthesizes in the leading strand (5’ to 3’)

30. Enzymes 2/2

Ligase
-connects the areas of the Okazaki fragments

Topoisomerase-
relieves the tension and stress on the unzipped DNA; prevents super-coiling

Single Strand Binding Protein

-Prevents the unzipped strand of DNA from reattaching again

31. Transcription
-the process by which RNA is formed from DNA as its template.

RNA Polymerase
-main enzyme responsible for the synthesis of the nucleotide.

32. Transcription: Three Main Processes

Initiation
-occurs when the RNA polymerase meets the start codon
Elongation
-the synthesis of RNA from DNA template via the addition of nucleotides

Termination
-occurs when the RNA polymerase meets the stop codon forming mRNA
33. Translation
-the process of forming amino acid sequences (proteins) from an mRNA template.

34. Replication vs Transcription

35. DNA/Deoxyribonucleic Acid

-absence of -OH
-Double stranded;
-more stable
-Contains Purines (Adenine and Guanine) and
-Pyrimidines (Thymine and Cytosine)
36. RNA/Ribonucleic Acid
-Presence of -OH
-Single-stranded
-less stable
-Contains Purines (Adenine and Guanine) and
-Pyrimidines (Uracil and Cytosine)

37. Types of RNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

-carries amino acids to the ribosomes

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

-binds proteins in order to form ribosomes

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

-serves as template for the formation of proteins

38. Mutations

Point mutations can cause:

Silent mutations
- with no effect on protein Synthesis

Nonsense (truncation) mutations

-which produce a premature stop codon

Missense mutations
 -which produce a codon that codes for a different amino acid

39. Mendelian Genetics 1/3

Law of Dominance
-states that one of the factors for a pair of inherited traits will be dominant and the other recessive, unless
both factors are recessive.
-dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele

40. Mendelian Genetics 2/3

Law of Segregation
-states that two members of a single gene pair separate from each other during gamete formation.
-ensures that each gamete contains one of the genes of a gene pair

41. Mendelian Genetics 3/3

Law of Independent Assortment

- states that genes on different chromosomes independently behave in the production of gametes.
-genes are randomly assigned; characteristics are totally independent

42. Key Terms

Dominant-trait that is manifested

Recessive-trait that is masked
Genotype-Genetic Makeup
Phenotype-Morphological manifestation of genotype
Homozygous-trait that is pure bred; has the same type of trait
Heterozygous-combination of a dominant and a recessive traits

43. Non-Mendelian Genetics 1/4

Incomplete Dominance
-blending of characteristics
-a type of inheritance that neither traits from the parents is dominant to the other.

44. Non-Mendelian Genetics 2/4

Codominance
-no blending of characteristics
-a type of inheritance that both traits from the parents are manifested
45. Non-Mendelian Genetics 3/4

Multiple Alleles
- Characteristics have more than two alleles
-a type of inheritance where-in multiple alleles affect a certain trait.

46. Non-Mendelian Genetics 4/4

Polygenes
- Characteristics are determined by two or more genes
-a type of inheritance where in multiple number of genes affect a certain trait

47. Pedigree Analysis Symbols

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