Heinemann Prelim Textbook PDF

Heinemann Information Processes and Technology:
H e i n e m a n n
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology: Preliminary Course

Preliminary Course has been written to meet all the
requirements of the new Information, Processes and
Technology syllabus in NSW. It is designed to provide an
understanding of information processes and to develop
students’ skills in using information technology. This text
provides up-to-date information, a practical approach, and
a large number of questions that cater for a wide range of
students. The structure of the text allows teachers to
Information Processes
choose a suitable approach that combines information
processes, software applications and student projects.
Key features
• a grid matching syllabus Outcomes with the contents of
the book
• a list of chapter outcomes at the beginning of each
and Technology
chapter
• interesting IT facts and cartoons to promote class
discussion
• numerous practical tasks that can be used with any
software or make of computer
• case studies providing insights 1into
2 business
3 4 5 6processes
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• learning activities that develop teamwork skills and
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About the author !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_)_+
Greg Powers is a head teacher with many years’
experience in writing and implementing computing studies
programs. He is the author of several highly successful
texts including Computing Studies–An Introductory Course. G.K. Powers
Coming soon
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology:
HSC Course
ISBN 0 86462 512 X
ISBN 0-86462-501-4
You can visit the Heinemann World Wide Web site at

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G. K. Powers
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cataloguing-in-publication data:
Powers, G.K. (Gregory K.).
Heinemann information processes and technology:
preliminary course.
Includes index.
ISBN 0 86462 501 4.
1. Information storage and retrieval systems. 2. Electronic
data processing. 3. Information technology. I. Title
004
Disclaimer
All the Internet addresses (URLs) given in this book were valid at the time of
printing. However, due to the dynamic nature of the Internet, some addresses may
have changed, or sites may have ceased to exist since publication. While the authors
and publisher regret any inconvenience this may cause readers, no responsibility
for any such changes can be accepted by either the authors or the publisher.
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Contents
To the teacher v
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology
and the Preliminary Course Outcomes vi
Part 1 Information processes and technology 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to information skills and systems 2
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Information systems in context 6
1.3 Information processes 12
1.4 The nature of data and information 19
1.5 Digital representation of data 23
1.6 Social and ethical issues 30
Chapter review 35
Chapter 2 Tools for information processes 37

2.1 Collecting 38
2.2 Organising 48
2.3 Analysing 52
2.4 Storing and retrieving 55
2.5 Processing 62
2.6 Transmitting and receiving 70
2.7 Displaying 79
Chapter review 87
Chapter 3 Planning, design and implementation 89

3.1 Introduction 90
3.2 Understanding the problem 91
3.3 Making decisions 96
3.4 Designing solutions 100
3.5 Implementing 106
3.6 Testing, evaluating and maintaining 109
3.7 Social and ethical issues 113
Chapter review 119
Chapter 4 Personal and group systems and projects 121

4.1 Guidelines to projects 122
4.2 Personal information systems 124
Personal projects 126
4.3 Group information systems 128
Group projects 131
Part 2 Application software 133
Chapter 5 Word processing 134
5.1 Basic features 135
5.2 Editing text 139
5.3 Formatting text 145
5.4 Additional tools 152
Chapter review 159
Chapter 6 Databases 161
6.2 Modifying a database 168
6.3 Finding information 172
6.4 Reporting 177
Chapter review 181
Chapter 7 Spreadsheets 183
7.2 Formulas 190
7.3 Formatting a spreadsheet 197
7.4 Charts 202
Chapter review 207
Chapter 8 Graphics 209
8.2 Modifying a graphic 215
8.3 Bit-mapped graphics 219
8.4 Vector graphics 223
Chapter review 227
Chapter 9 Desktop publishing 229
9.2 Design elements 235
9.3 Page layout 243
9.4 Printing a publication 248
Chapter review 253
Chapter 10 Multimedia 255
10.2 Presentation software 261
10.3 Types of media 265
10.4 Multimedia design 269
Chapter review 273
Chapter 11 The Internet 275
11.2 Web browsers 280
11.3 Electronic mail 285
11.4 Internet publishing 289
Chapter review 294
Appendix: ASCII and EBCDIC codes 296
Glossary 302
Acknowledgments 310
Index 311
Function
To the teacher
This book has been written as a textbook for the New South Wales Information
Processes and Technology Preliminary Course. The aim of this course is to
enable students to become confident, competent, discriminating and ethical
users of information technologies and information processes. This book
addresses this aim and provides an excellent understanding of all aspects of
information technology.
There is no prerequisite study for this course. Students undertaking this
course will differ substantially in their knowledge, understanding and skills in
relation to information technology. This book has been written to cater for
students with a wide range of abilities. It is appropriate for students with a basic
knowledge of information technology and those with an extensive knowledge.
Organisation of the text

The book closely follows the syllabus and the software/course specifications. It is
divided into two parts:
• Part 1 focuses on the content of the syllabus. Topics include introduction to
information skills and systems; tools for information processes; planning,
design and implementation; and personal and group systems and projects.
• Part 2 focuses on the content of the software specifications. Topics include
word processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics, desktop publishing, multi-
media and the Internet. Information processes are integrated throughout
each topic to provide a link with the syllabus.
Teaching approach
Teachers can decide on the sequencing of the content depending on the ability
and knowledge of their students. This book caters for a range of approaches.
• Application approach: The application chapters (Part 2) are taught separately
and integrated throughout the teaching program. All activities within the
application chapters refer to information processes. All applications are
taught before students complete their projects.
• Information process approach: The application chapters are taught within the
topic ‘Tools for Information Processes’. Activities from appropriate
application chapters are taught within the context of the seven information
processes. Side headings (see opposite) included in the application chapters
provide cross-references to the information processes. collecting
• Project approach: The content of the course is taught through a series of
projects. Students apply their knowledge of information processing to
complete their projects using the application chapters.
Additional resources to support and extend this book are available at the
Heinemann World Wide Web site hi.com.au. These include a sample teaching
program, assessment advice, answers to exercises from the textbook and
additional literacy questions.
v
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology
and the Preliminary Course Outcomes
The following grid shows how the chapters in Heinemann Information Processes
and Technology: Preliminary Course link with the Preliminary Course Outcomes.
Numbers in bold indicate chapters in which that Outcome is emphasised
Part 1 (chapters 1 to 4) focuses on information skills and systems; tools for
information processes; planning, design and implementation; and personal and
group systems and projects.
Part 2 (chapters 5 to 11) focuses on application software, including word
processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics, desktop publishing, multimedia
and the Internet. In addition to the links shown below, each of the chapters in
Part 2 includes links to the information processes described in Part 1.
Preliminary Course Outcomes Chapter(s)
P1.1 Describes the nature of information

processes and information technology 1, 2, 3, 4
P1.2 Classifies the functions and operations of

information processes and information
technology 1, 2, 3, 4
P2.1 Identifies the information processes within

an information system 1, 2, 3, 4
P2.2 Recognises the interdependence between

each of the information processes 1, 2, 3, 4
P3.1 Identifies social and ethical issues 1, 2, 3, 4
P4.1 Describes the historical development of

information systems and relates these to
current and emerging technologies 1, 2, 3
P5.1 Selects and ethically uses computer based

and non-computer based resources and
tools to process information 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P6.1 Analyses and describes an identified need 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P6.2 Generates ideas, considers alternatives and

Functio
develops solutions for a defined need 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P7.1 Recognises and applies management and

communication techniques to project work 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P7.2 Uses technology to support group work 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
vi
Part 1
Information processes and technology
Chapter 1 Introduction to information skills and systems

Chapter 2 Tools for information processes
Chapter 3 Planning, design and implementation
Chapter 4 Personal and group systems and projects
chapter
INTRODUCTION TO
INFORMATION
SKILLS AND SYSTEMS
1
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be
able to:
• explain the impact of information technology
• represent an information system diagram-
matically
• identify the environment of an information
system
Overview • describe the purpose and context of infor-
mation systems
This chapter describes the impact of infor-
• describe the participants, data/information
mation technology. You will learn that an
and information technology of an infor-
information system requires participants,
mation system
data/information and information technology to
complete the seven information processes. • describe the seven information processes
This chapter describes the nature of data and • describe the nature of data and information
information, and how it is represented digitally. • outline the advantages and disadvantages of
It concludes by examining the issues of data digital data
security, data accuracy and copyright that arise • identify the social and ethical issues of data
from the processing of information. security, data accuracy and copyright.
Function
1.1 Introduction
Information is a vital part of our society.
Every day we receive information from
people, newspapers, books, magazines,
television, radio, video, computers and the
Internet. Today’s society is called the ‘Infor-
mation Age’ because we deal with many
times more information than at any other
time in history. The amount of information
is growing exponentially, with no prospect
of it slowing down. Many people believe
that information is more important than
natural resources as a source of social and
economic power. If people are going to
survive in this society, they need to have I realise this is the information age, but do we really need a
access to this information and know how to fax machine in every stall?
use it intelligently.
In the past few centuries, great advances have been made in our ability to
process information. Some of the major developments have been the printing
press, photography, telephones, computers and the Internet. Per capita, Australia
has among the highest levels of ownership of computers and mobile phones, and
use of the Internet. Australians have been quick to adopt the latest develop-
ments in technology, partly because of our geographical location. Technology has
cut down the time taken to transfer information. It makes it easier for
Australians to communicate with the rest of the world and across large distances
within Australia.
Information technology
Information technology (IT, pronounced ‘eye-tea’) refers to the electronic
hardware and software used to process information. Electronic computers,
which have been developed in the second half of the twentieth century, are a
major component of information technology. Their evolution is linked to
advances in integrated circuits and digital communication.
Integrated circuits are silicon chips containing transistors that can store and
process data. The first integrated circuit was built in 1958 and only contained a
few thousand transistors. Since then, the capacity of integrated circuits has been
doubling every couple of years. Today’s integrated circuits contain tens of
millions of transistors. These advances in technology have resulted in computers
with greater speed and power. Personal computers have become available at a
cost that is affordable for many people. They are much easier to use than early
computers and do not require specialist computer training.
At the same time, developments in digital communication have increased our
ability to transfer data. Local area networks (LANs) allow computers to
communicate information and share resources. Global communication is
routinely achieved using the Internet.
Impact of information technology

Information technology is having a fundamental impact on our society. There
can be little doubt that it has made our society more efficient and raised the
Introduction to information skills and systems 3

standard of living of most people. Organisations have used information
technology to save time, reduce effort, increase output, develop new products
and ultimately save money. Some of these changes are described below.
• Banking has changed drastically with the use of plastic cards, automatic teller
machines (ATMs) and electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS).
Internet banking and bill paying are further transforming the way we use
money.
• Businesses have adopted a range of software applications such as word
processors, spreadsheets and databases to become more efficient. Employees
are expected to be proficient with these software tools.
• The printing and publishing industries have become computerised, using
word processing and desktop publishing software. This has revolutionised the
way documents are published.
• The use of information technology has become widespread in the education
sector. Teachers and students have access to a range of software to improve
learning, and current information from the Internet.
• Governments now store and analyse huge amounts of information using
information technology. This allows them to provide better services to the
community and plan for the future.
• Voice mail, facsimile, mobile phones, pagers, email and video-conferencing
are widely used to aid communication, and information is accessed from the
Internet.
• Scientists use information technology to automatically collect experimental
data and investigate possible solutions to environmental problems.
• Many shops use point-of-sale (POS) systems to process transactions
efficiently. A barcode reader is used to enter data; the product description and
price is displayed on the cash register and receipt; and the system maintains
an inventory of the stock.
• Designers use computer-aided design (CAD) software to produce drawings of
products. This allows them to visualise the product in many different ways.
• Electrical engineers use sophisticated programs to design circuits for appli-
ances and for integrated circuits. It not only helps them draw the circuits but
also calculates the currents and voltages at key points.
• Pilots use flight control systems to
guide aircraft to their destination.
Sensors are used to monitor the air-
craft’s position, speed and other
information needed by the pilot.
• Managers depend on information
technology to provide data about
Functio
purchasing materials, stock inventory,

sales, payroll, orders and budgets.
• Doctors use expert systems to help
diagnose a patient’s illness and
recommend a possible treatment.
Robotic devices are used in surgery
and three-dimensional computer
Figure 1.1 Information technology is used by meteorologists to images show the position of tumours
monitor the weather and make forecasts. in the body.
4 Information processes and technology

Function
• Farmers use stock management
systems to keep detailed records of
animals. They may make use of
portable computers to collect data
in the field.
• Travel agents use specialised soft-
ware to check the availability of
flights and accommodation and
make travel bookings.
When new information technology
is introduced, the impact is not always
positive. There may be advantages for
some people and disadvantages for
others. For example, ATMs are a con-
venient technology for many people, Figure 1.2 Information technology does not necessarily benefit all
but some groups such as the elderly groups equally.
may have difficulty using them (see
Figure 1.2). Some people do not enjoy using the technology and prefer a more
personal service. In other cases, a benefit to an organisation can be a
disadvantage for the individual. For example, if new information technology
increases productivity it can lead to staff redundancies.
The introduction of information technology has forced many people to learn
new skills. Individuals need access to information and for this they may need to
be proficient in using information technologies. If they do not have access to
information, or are unable to use the technology, they will be disadvantaged.
With the increased use of information technology, a range of ethical issues
have emerged which affect people who are directly or indirectly involved with
the technology. These issues include:
• the privacy of the individual
• the security and accuracy of data and information
• the changing nature of work
• the appropriate use of information
• copyright laws
• health and safety concerns.
The social impact of these issues is discussed throughout Part 1 of this book.
Exercise 1.1
1 Why have Australians been quick to adopt the latest developments in technology?
2 What is information technology?
3 How has digital communication improved the transfer of data?
4 What has been the impact of information technology on organisations?
5 Describe the recent changes in banking that have resulted from information
technology.
6 How do pilots use information technology?

7 How can information technology benefit an organisation but be a disadvantage
for an individual?
8 List some of the ethical issues that have been raised by the introduction of infor-
mation technology.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Describe three activities that were not possible 20 years ago, but are now
possible as a result of information technology. Select the three activities that you
regard as the most significant.
2 What impact has information technology had on education since you have been
at school? Describe the positive and negative effects on students and teachers.
3 Interview three people who use information technology in their jobs. What has
been the impact of information technology on them? Outline both the positive
and the negative effects of information technology.
4 During this term, collect newspaper articles on the impact of information
technology and any issues raised by the use of information technology. Use the
articles to outline some of the positive and negative effects of information
technology on our society.
5 ‘Information technology has brought nothing but problems. It has increased
unemployment, forced people to learn new skills and invaded our privacy.’ Form
groups and debate this statement.
1.2 Information systems in context

A system is a group of elements that work together to achieve a purpose. The
education system is one example. It is made up of students, teachers, schools,
resources and processes. The education system’s purpose is to provide students
with the basic skills and knowledge necessary to take part in society. Systems can
be large, such as the legal system, or small, such as the system you use to brush
your teeth. A systems may be designed by people, such as the banking system, or
occur in nature, such as the water cycle. In this course we are concerned with
information systems.
An information system performs a set of information processes requiring
participants, data/information and information technology. It performs the
information processes of collecting, organising, analysing, storing/retrieving,
processing, transmitting/receiving and displaying information. Information
systems are created for a purpose and operate in a particular environment.
The relationships between the elements of an information system are shown
Functio
in Figure 1.3. The links between the elements are represented using two-headed
arrows. This emphasises that the elements influence each other—a change in
one can affect the others. For example, the availability of new technology could
change the information processes, which in turn might affect the type of skills
required by the participants.

Function
Purpose
Information systems have a purpose,
which means they address the needs of a
Environment
group or an individual. The system’s Purpose
purpose is the reason for its existence and
• Who is it for?
it is used to measure its success. Infor-
• Need(s) they have
mation systems are created to solve a
problem and provide benefits to an
organisation or individual. There are Information
many different reasons for existence of an system
information system.
Individuals may require an informa- Information processes
tion system whose purpose is:
• to keep track of income and expenses
• to publish a weekly newsletter for a Data/ Information
local athletics club Participants Information technology
• to design a multimedia presentation
for the next staff meeting Figure 1.3 A diagrammatic representation of an
• to communicate with other people on information system.
the Internet.
Organisations may require an information system whose purpose is:
• to provide stock inventory, sales, payroll, share market, commodity prices or
interest rates information
• to assist decision-making by summarising and comparing data
• to share data and information between individuals and offices in different
locations
• to store and organise information on consumer trends, competition products
or labour costs.
Environment
The environment is everything that influences or is influenced by an informa-
tion system and its purpose. It includes any factors that affect the system or are
affected by it. For example, the environment of the local library is not only the
building, but also factors outside the building, such as its location, electrical
power, air-conditioning, communications, and funding from the government.
The environment of a system is constantly changing. Managers of large informa-
tion systems need to be aware of new factors that are affecting the system.
One of the main reasons for the environment to change is the progress in
information technology. Twenty years ago, organisations were largely restricted
by geographical boundaries. Today, the environment of many organisations is the
world. The Internet has provided a global marketplace for goods and services.
Organisations can transfer information around the world and move finance
easily between countries. Information technology continues to change at an
extraordinary rate and will continue to affect the environment of information
systems.

Information technology is the set of tools used by an information system or its
participants to perform work—it is the hardware and software used by
information systems. It is important to understand that information technology
has no effect unless it is used within an information process. To be effective, the
information technology must be able to support the information process.
Hardware
Hardware is the physical equipment involved in processing information, such as
a computer, network cables and data storage devices. It refers to objects that you
can see and hold. Computers often form the basic hardware of an information
system. Computers are electronic devices that can process data according to
stored sequences of instructions. They have five basic functions: input, proces-
sing, storage, control and output.
• Input involves entering data into the computer. A device designed to assist
the entry of data is called an input device. Input devices include the key-
board, mouse, scanner, digital camera, video camera and microphone.
• Processing changes data to produce information by following a series of in-
structions. Processing is performed by the computer’s central processing unit
(CPU). The CPU is the ‘brain’ of the computer. It takes the data from an in-
put device, changes it to produce information and sends it to an output
device to be displayed to the user.
• Storage involves retaining data over a period of time. Before, during and after
processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data
more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape,
optical disks and flash memory are used.
• Control coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage.
The control unit is part of the CPU. The control unit is the ‘organiser’ that
INPUT
PROCESSING
CONTROL OUTPUT
Functio
ST ORAGE OUTPUT
Figure 1.4 The basic functions of a computer.

Function
directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as traffic lights
control the flow of cars at an intersection.
• Output involves the presentation or display of information to a person, or
the transfer of data to another computer. Common output devices are the
computer screen and the printer. The information presented is the result of a
participant’s work on the computer.
All the functions of computer hardware work together. Data is entered using
an input device and is processed in some way before being presented using an
output device. The computer’s power comes from its ability to perform these
functions with speed, accuracy and reliability. The concepts of input, process,
storage, control and output are used in a huge range of computers. They are
often classified according to their power and capabilities as: personal computers,
midrange computers, mainframes and supercomputers.
• A personal computer (PC, also known as a microcomputer) is a single-user
computer that generally sits on a desktop. Portable computers such as lap-
tops, notebooks and palmtops are also classified as personal computers. PCs
are suitable for individuals’ needs, such as word processing, spreadsheets and
graphics. In organisations, they can be joined together to form a network.
• A midrange computer or minicomputer is a central computer that performs
the processing for a number of users working at terminals. A terminal is an
input/output device (usually a keyboard and screen). Midrange computers
are typically used for accounting, database management and specific industry
applications.
• A mainframe computer is a central computer for a large number of users. It is
more powerful than a midrange computer and often has thousands of
terminals connected to it. Mainframe applications include payroll compu-
tations, accounting and airline seat reservations.
• A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer
(see Figure 1.5). Supercomputers are designed for applications requiring
high-volume and high-speed calculations, such as simulations of the weather
and aerodynamics design.
Advances in technology have blurred the differences between these types of
computers. Today’s PCs use similar microprocessors to both mainframes and
midrange computers. However, using PCs for a mainframe-type application
requires the PCs to be linked in a network. While midrange and mainframe
computers are designed to accept input from multiple users simultaneously, PCs
do not support this type of application.
Figure 1.5 A
supercomputer.

ITITFact
Fact
The name ‘Big Blue’ refers to IBM (International Business Machines
Corporation), whose identifying colour is blue. ‘Deep Blue’ is IBM’s
supercomputer that became known as the ‘chess machine’ after winning
against world champion chess player Garry Kasparov.
Software
Software is the detailed instructions (computer programs) used to direct the
hardware to perform a particular task. A computer needs software to tell it what
to do and it needs hardware to carry out the actual work. There are two main
types of software: application software and system software.
• Application software is a computer program used for a specific task. It allows
the computer to achieve the task for which it was designed. Application
software includes word processors, databases, graphics programs and
spreadsheets.
• System software manages and controls the hardware so the application
software can perform the required task. It determines the way the participant
interacts with the information system. System software includes operating
systems and utility software.
Data and information

Data is the raw material entered into an information system. This raw material
could be in the form of images, audio, video, text or numbers, and is entered
using an input device. Data may or may not be relevant or useful for a particular
task. A key role for an information system is to process data into information.
(Although the word ‘data’ is the plural of datum, it is widely used as both a
singular and a plural.)
Information is data that has been ordered and given some meaning by
people. It is created or modified by the information processes. The form and
content of information must be appropriate for a particular use. It is used within
the information system or is the result of the information system. (Data and
information are discussed in more detail in section 1.4.)
Participants
Participants are the people who carry out the information processes within the
information system. They are the people who do the work. Participants need to
know what to do, how to do it and when to do it. All information systems have
participants—even the most automated systems rely on people if the system
Functio
fails. Participants have an essential role in an information system, and the success
or failure of the system depends on their skills, interests and commitment.
Participants are often referred to as direct users, or simply users. They
interact with, or are in control of, the information technology (see Figure 1.6).
For example, when you use a word processor to write a letter, you are a partici-
pant in an information system. Participants have different levels of skills, from
the novice experimenting with software to system specialists. System specialists
include people such as managers and operators. Managers oversee the infor-
mation system and ensure that personnel and machines are working efficiently.

Function
Figure 1.6 Participants interact with, or are in control of, information technology.
Operators look after the information technology resources. In addition to par-

ticipants (direct users), there are also indirect users. Indirect users, such as
customers, are not part of the system, but it is their needs that form part of the
purpose of the system.
Although information systems affect participants, the systems are often de-
signed with little regard for them. The nature of the impact depends on the
individual characteristics of the participant. People come from different back-
grounds and have different levels of expertise. Some participants may be able to
work in a very structured environment and complete repetitive tasks, while
other people will find this unsatisfactory. For example, the introduction of new
technology may provide a more challenging job and an opportunity to learn new
skills. On the other hand, it might deskill a participant’s job and make it boring.
Exercise 1.2
1 What is an information system?
2 Describe the purpose of an information system.
3 Outline one reason for the environment of an information system to change.
4 List the five functions of hardware.
5 What function is performed by the CPU?
6 What part of the computer coordinates the operations of input, processing, out-
put and storage?
7 Describe four different types of computers.
8 How is system software different from application software?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Which element of an information system does each of the following represent?
a product sales for the week
b the operating system
c a manager
d a manager producing the sales figures
e the keyboard and mouse
f an annual report.
2 A personal computer will work for many years if participants are careful and
perform basic maintenance. Outline some rules for the care and maintenance of
a computer.
3 Write a checklist that a person could use to ensure that they were correctly
setting up a personal computer.
4 Describe the information technology available on today’s personal computers.
Obtain five advertisements for personal computers. Select the best value for
money and give reasons for your selection.
5 A personal computer can do wonderful things, but at times they cause problems.
Fortunately many of these problems are simple operating faults that can be
easily overcome. List some possible reasons for the following faults.
a No display on the screen.
b Software will not start or crashes.
c Unable to save work.
d Computer not working.
6 The first electronic computer, called ENIAC (for Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer), was developed in 1946 by John Presper Eckert and John William
Mauchly. Even though the capabilities of today’s personal computers are many
times greater than ENIAC’s, they have the same five basic functions: input,
processing, control, storage and output. Do you think the basic functions of a
computer will remain for another 50 years? Why? What will computers be like in
the future?
1.3 Information processes

Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing information was all done
manually. It was often a lengthy and expensive process. Data was usually
represented on paper and stored in filing cabinets. Even deciding where to put
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the paper could be a problem. Sorting and searching huge amounts of paper was
labour-intensive (see Figure 1.7). Information could not be easily transferred
from one form to another. Reports were created by copying the information into
a different form rather than transferring the data.
Developments in technology have been responsible for major changes in
information processing. Today, information processing refers to the creation of
information by processing data using information technology. This changing
of data into information involves seven steps called information processes.
These processes describe the procedures that an information system performs
to process data into information. The information processes start with the

Function
collection of data and conclude with the dis-
playing of data. The steps are not necessarily
separate and sequential. Several steps may
occur at the same time, and they may occur in
almost any order. The rate at which these
information processes are carried out is critical
to the efficiency of an information system.
Collecting
Collecting is the information process that
involves deciding what to collect, locating it
and collecting it. It involves more than simply
entering data.
Collecting involves four steps:
• defining the required data—deciding what
data is needed
Figure 1.7 Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing
• identifying the source of the data—where information were all done manually.
the data can be found
• determining how the data will be gathered—what tools will be required
• gathering the data—collecting and entering the data into the information system.
Data can come from either primary or secondary sources. Primary sources refers to data that
is collected first-hand. Many organisations prefer to generate their own primary data because
they consider it meaningful and reliable, although it is time-consuming and costly. Data from
primary sources is acquired by interviewing people, conducting surveys and questionnaires, or
observing a system in operation (see Figure 1.8). Secondary sources refers to data that is
collected or created by someone else. For example, newspapers, books, other print media,
electronic databases, CD-ROMs and the Internet are secondary sources. This is often the
quickest and least costly method of collecting data.
Data is entered into an information
system either manually or electronically.
Manual entry involves typing the data
using a keyboard. Electronic entry
involves entering the data using input
devices such as scanners, digital
cameras, microphones or sensors. It is
important that procedures are in place
to ensure the data is accurate, up-to-
date, relevant and secure. If the data
collected comes from unreliable sources
or is inaccurate, the information gained
from it will be incorrect. This is referred
to as ‘garbage in, garbage out’ (GIGO).
Figure 1.8 Surveys are a primary source of data.

Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by
other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. The
organisation of data depends on the purpose of the information system. For
example, if the information system is used to store and search a large amount of
data, the data needs to be categorised. This will allow it to be stored in a
database. Organising gives some structure to the data.
When developing an information system it is essential to determine the
format in which the data will be represented. The format of the data determines
the most appropriate software application and the processing that can be carried
out. For example, if a text document is scanned and represented as an image, the
text cannot then be processed using a word processor. If data is poorly
organised, it may result in the use of inappropriate applications or the proces-
sing of unnecessary data.
Analysing
Analysing is the process that interprets data, transforming it into information. It
involves examining data and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered
and given some meaning by people, it is called information. The particular type
of analysis depends on the format of the data and the information that is
required. For example, to obtain a report on all the sales in the past month
would involve searching, selecting and sorting data. Charts and graphs are often
used in the analysis of data. They make it easy to interpret data by making
instant comparisons and revealing trends. Charts help people to make quick and
accurate decisions.
Analysing data may involve the use of a model to represent some aspect of
the real world. When a model is used to simulate a real situation, people can
make predictions and examine the effect of their decisions. For example, an
organisation might want to know the likely impact on sales if their advertising
budget was increased by 10 per cent. In business there are many simulation
programs that help organisations make decisions about marketing and sales.
Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving is a two-step process for retaining data: storing saves data
for later use; retrieving obtains data that has been previously saved. These
processes are important, since most information systems need to retain data for
further processing and to guard against data loss. Before, during and after
processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data
more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical
disks and flash memory are used.
The loss of data is a major concern in any information system. The costs of
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replacing data that changes rapidly can be enormous. If a system crashes, the
data is retrieved from a secondary storage medium. If data is saved regularly,
then the information system can be rebuilt without a problem. However, if the
secondary storage medium is corrupted or damaged, the data may be lost. This
could occur if the information system was infected with a computer virus. A
backup is then needed to rebuild the system. A backup is a copy of data or soft-
ware kept for the purpose of safety. It is usually kept in a fireproof safe or off-
site. Secure and reliable backup procedures are vital to guard against data loss.

Function
ITITFact
Fact
‘Computerphobia’ is a term used to describe fear and anxiety associated
with computer equipment and technology. It is also referred to as
‘technophobia’ or ‘cyberphobia’.
Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data and information. It occurs whenever the
data or information is modified and updated. Processing is carried out by the
central processing unit (CPU). The CPU accepts data from an input device,
changes this data according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends
the results to an output device (see Figure 1.9). These results are the infor-
mation the user requires to solve the problem.
A processor consists of millions of
electrical components located on a thin
silicon wafer called an integrated circuit
or silicon chip. The speed of a processor
is measured in megahertz (mHz) and is
called its clock speed. Fast processors
can manipulate larger quantities of
data. In some information systems, the
processing is carried out by more than
one processor. This is called parallel
processing and is much faster than
using one processor. Parallel processing
divides the processing task among a
series of processors. This requires special
software that can recognise how to
divide up problems and bring the results
back together again.
Figure 1.9 A PC with input and output devices.
Transmitting and receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data within and between infor-
mation systems. Data is transferred between computers and devices in two ways:
serial transmission and parallel transmission. Parallel transmission is the
transmission of pieces of data simultaneously using separate lines. Serial
transmission is the transmission of pieces of data one after the other. Serial trans-
mission is used with many peripheral devices, such as mice, keyboards, modems
and plotters. Parallel transmission is used for most printers.
For data and information to be exchanged between information systems,
compatible communication settings are required. This is referred to as hand-
shaking. Communication settings include baud rate, parity and file transfer
protocol. The Internet is a tool used by millions of people to transmit and
receive information. Email is used to send data and information from one side of
the world to the other in a matter of seconds.

Displaying
Displaying is the presentation of information
from an information system. Information must
be well organised, attractively presented and
easy to read and understand. Before information
can be displayed, it is necessary to decide on the
form the information will take. For example, will
it be a text document, a report from a database,
a chart from a spreadsheet or a multimedia
presentation? Information is displayed using
different peripheral devices, including:
• screens—used to display text, numerals,
images and video (see Figure 1.10)
• printers—used to display text, numerals and
images
• speakers and synthesisers—used to display
audio
Figure 1.10 A screen used to display a chart from a • plotters—used to display images.
spreadsheet.
Case study Woolworths
Woolworths supermarket is a large uses the universal product code so that

retail store whose purpose is to sell food items are consistent on a global scale. It
and other domestic products. The identifies the country of origin, the
environment is not only the store itself, manufacturer and the product. The
but also factors such as location, elec- participants of the information system
trical power, air-conditioning, communi- are the staff working at the store and
cations, suppliers, competitors and personnel who work outside the store
customers. The environment of the on the central computer.
supermarket is constantly changing and
includes factors such as the marketing
strategies of competitors, current
interest rates and commodity prices. The
supermarket uses the POS system and
has EFTPOS available to its customers
(see Figure 1.11).
The information technology used by
the supermarket involves the use of
electronic cash registers linked to a
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central computer. Each checkout con-

tains a barcode reader (scanner) and
POS terminal (cash register). The POS
system is controlled by custom software
purchased by the company. The barcode
is data entered into the information
system. All the items have a barcode
determined by the Australian Product
Number Association (APNA). The APNA Figure 1.11 The POS system in use at a supermarket.

Function
The staff at the supermarket
are continually carrying out Purpose
information processes. The • to sell food and other domestic products
barcode on each item is passed
over the scanner at the check-
out. The product description
and the price appear on the
Information processes
checkout display panel and the • scan product • update product inventory
customer’s receipt. The price of • search database • display product information
the item is stored by the central
computer and is not part of the Participants Data/ Information
data contained in the barcode.
The manager of the super-
market determines the price of • store staff • bar code • electric cash registers
each item. Every time an item is • computing • product details • central computer
scanned, the central computer personnel • receipt • bar code reader
decreases the stock total by one INFORMATION SYSTEM
and thus keeps a running in-
ventory. Once the stock of a Figure 1.12 Purchasing goods at Woolworths.
certain item reaches a mini-
mum level, the computer auto- • transmitting and receiving—trans-
matically reorders that item. When the ferring information between the POS
transaction is completed, the customer terminal and the central computer
receives a receipt containing the date, • displaying—showing the product
the name of each item, the quantity information on the POS terminal and
purchased, the price of each item, the printing the receipt.
total price and the method of payment.
The information processes involved are: These processes do not operate in
isolation. They are all interrelated and
• collecting—gathering data by scan-
each one depends on the others. For
ning the barcode
example, storing information about
• organising—ensuring the data is in each item is dependent on collecting
the correct format to be used by the the data using the barcode reader.
database Each of the components of the infor-
• analysing—searching the database mation system is important. The super-
for the product description and price market will only be efficient and effec-
• storing and retrieving—retaining tive if participants are trained to carry
information about each item out the information processes, the data
• processing—updating the product is appropriate, and the information
inventory and calculating the price technology is reliable.
Exercise 1.3
1 Describe how information was processed 50 years ago.
2 List the seven information processes.
3 Describe the steps involved in the collection of data.
4 List some of the techniques used to collect primary data.

5 Why is the format of data important to its organisation?
6 Why are charts and graphs often used in the analysis of data?
7 Explain why storing and retrieving are important information processes.
8 Describe a processor.
9 How is the speed of a processor measured?
10 Explain the difference between serial and parallel transmission.
11 What is hand-shaking?
12 The following questions relate to the Woolworths case study.
a What is the purpose and environment of the system?
b Describe the information technology, data and participants of the system.
c List the information processes in the system.
d How are the information processes interrelated?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 What information process is used in each of the following tasks?
a backing up the daily transactions
b sorting addresses into alphabetical order
c adjusting the balance of a bank account after a withdrawal of $500
d conducting a phone survey to determine the most popular soap powder
e transferring a file to an interstate office
f printing a glossy brochure for distribution
g interpreting a sales chart
h producing a report of overdue library books
i scanning a credit card
j searching a file for a customer’s membership number
2 Describe the information processes involved in the following tasks. List the pro-
cedures and techniques used to complete the task.
a writing a letter using a word processor
b creating a document containing a piece of clip art
3 The majority of people in a random survey agreed that using a computer was an
essential skill. However, they also agreed that a personal computer is not as vital
as a car, television, telephone or microwave oven. Are these results inconsistent?
How would you rank the importance of computers compared to the other
appliances? Why?
4 Interview three people who use information technology in their jobs. Briefly de-
scribe the information system. How is information processed? Outline the data,
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information and participants.

5 Woolworths provides a shopping service using the Internet. Investigate the
services provided by Woolworths and similar companies. Outline the information
processes used in these information systems. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of Internet shopping?

Function
1.4 The nature of data and information
As we saw in the previous section, data is the raw material entered into an infor-
mation system. It is the input of the system. Data can be thought of as un-
organised facts that mean little by themselves. Information is data that has been
ordered and given some meaning. It is the output of the system. In an infor-
mation system, information technology, participants (people) and information
processes combine to transform data into information. This information may be
used as the input for another information system.
The distinction between data and information is important. It explains why it
is possible for an information system to collect huge amounts of data but fail to
satisfy an organisation’s information needs. For example, an organisation may
perform thousands of transactions each day, and record them using an infor-
mation system. Simply making a printout of every transaction, however, will not
provide useful information for managers.
The information processes of organising, analysing, processing and displaying
help to convert data into information using methods such as:
• choosing data pertinent to the problem
• deleting irrelevant data
• combining data
• displaying data in an understandable way.
Data
Data is a vital ingredient of an information system. If the data collected is
meaningless, the information presented will be meaningless. Organisations need
to ensure that appropriate data is available at the correct time for processing.
Data will be appropriate if it is:
• relevant—useful to the purpose of the information system
• accurate—collected from a dependable source and entered without errors
• timely—current, and kept up-to-date
• secure—protected from deliberate or accidental damage or loss.
Data with the above characteristics needs to be entered into the information
system in the correct form. This depends on the input device, the application
software to be used to process it, and the type of information (output) that is
required. When the data is entered into the information system it is organised as
a particular data type. The data type describes the kind of data, such as images,
audio, video, text or numbers.
• Images are data in the form of pictures, such as drawings, paintings or
photographs. They can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to
text. The meaning of an image is determined by looking at the image and
interpreting it.
• Audio is data in the form of sounds. It may be a noise used to get a user’s
attention or a voice to explain the operation of a piece of software. The
meaning of audio data is determined by listening to and interpreting the
sounds.
• Video is data in the form of pictures and sounds combined and displayed
over time. It may include text, graphics, animation and audio. The meaning of
video is determined by watching and listening to it over a period of time.

• Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other characters whose
meaning and format is not specified. For example, the characters entered into
a word processor are text. The meaning of text is determined by reading and
interpreting it.
• Numbers are data in the form of predefined characters (usually numerals)
whose meaning and format is specified. Calculations are often performed on
this data type. For example, numbers may be defined as currency, date or time.
A collection of data can contain a combination of different data types (see
Table 1.1). For example, Web pages often contain both text and images.
Table 1.1 Examples of different

Data type Examples
data types.
Text Sarah, M, Yes
Number 41, 3.456, $10, 89%
Image Diagrams, photographs, charts
Audio Music, voice recording
Video Film clips
Figure 1.13 Web pages often combine different data types.

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Information
Information is an important factor in an organisation’s current and future
success. Companies require information on their products, employees,
competitors and general operation. Information is an asset and there are sub-
stantial costs associated with its collection, maintenance and storage. However,
organisations are prepared to make this investment because information is vital
to their decision-making. Information will be valuable if it is:
• relevant—useful to the purpose of the information system
• accurate—verified to ensure it is correct

Function
• timely—appropriate and current
• organised—arranged to meet the purpose of the information system
• cost-effective—the benefit to the organisation is greater than the costs of
producing it.
Information can have the above characteristics but unless it is appropriately
presented it may not be effective. Information must be presented in a way that
is attractive and easy to read. A format needs to be chosen that is appropriate for
the end users of the information. For example, some people may understand
information better if it is presented graphically, while others may understand it
better in a table. Information technology makes it easy to present information in
many different forms using one or more data types. For example, a multimedia
document could use all of the data types in Table 1.1. Information can be dis-
played using a range of hardware devices, such as screens, printers and speakers.
If possible, information should be tested with its end users to ensure that it is
appropriate and achieving its purpose.
Case study Big V Video
Big V Video is a video store that uses an business at any time. The type of infor-
information system. The participants of mation that is regularly required
the information system are the manager includes:
and staff. The information technology • determining whether a particular
consists of a personal computer and an video is in the store
electronic database. The database stores • listing all the videos available in a
membership details, video details and particular category
all video transactions. • producing a list of overdue videos
When a new customer comes into • finding a customer’s membership
Big V Video, they fill out a membership number if a card is lost
form containing their personal details. • sending promotional material to
The member data consists of their valued customers.
family name, first name, address, phone
number, age, sex, date of birth and
work number. It is entered into a
membership table. New customers
select a personal identification number
(PIN) and receive a membership card
with a barcode.
When a new video is bought, data is
entered into a video table. The video
data consists of an identity number, the
title, the main stars, the rating and an
entertainment category. The videos are
also allocated barcodes for efficient
processing. When a customer borrows a
video, the membership and video bar-
codes are both scanned. This data is
automatically inserted into the member-
ship and video tables.
The electronic database provides
readily available information about the Figure 1.14 Customers browsing at Big V Video.

The manager and staff at Big V Video • transmitting and receiving—trans-
are continually using information tech- ferring the data between peripheral
nology to carry out the following infor- devices
mation processes: • displaying—obtaining a weekly
• collecting—scanning the video and report of all video transactions.
membership barcodes These processes are not necessarily
• organising—ensuring the data is in completed in a particular order. The
the correct format to be used by the staff can move from organising the data
database to displaying the information. However,
• analysing—searching and sorting the the rate at which these information
database to produce reports processes are carried out is critical to the
• storing and retrieving—saving the efficiency of the store. If the staff are
database to a disk not proficient in producing reports of
• processing—calculating late fees on overdue videos, the information system
overdue videos will not be operating efficiently.
Overdue videos
SURNAMES FNAMES PHONE NO TITLE BORROWED DUE BACK OVERDUE
Ashforth Leigh 729 8821 A Bug’s Life 12-Jan-00 15-Jan-00 4
Cerlini Kristen 870 4141 Sliding Doors 12-Jan-00 15-Jan-00 4
Bastion Graham 738 2456 The Mask of Zorro 12-Jan-00 15-Jan-00 4
Clark Natalie 818 1810 Ever After 13-Jan-00 16-Jan-00 3
Atta Ahmed 720 2727 Saving Private Ryan 14-Jan-00 17-Jan-00 2
Jordan Daniel 720 9191 The Full Monty 16-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 1
Ho Nguyen 701 8102 Titanic 16-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 1
Theoharis Jim 638 2356 Blade 17-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 1
De Vincentis Giulia 215 1860 The Vanishing 17-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 1
Konstas Effie 750 2709 Shakespeare in Love 17-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 1
Figure 1.15 Using the database, it is easy to produce a list of overdue videos.
Exercise 1.4
1 Explain the difference between data and information.
2 Why is data a vital ingredient of an information system?
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3 What are four characteristics of appropriate data?

4 Describe the five data types.
5 What type of information do organisations require for their current and future
success?
6 What are five characteristics of valuable information?
7 Why must information be appropriately presented?

Function
8 The following questions relate to the Big V Video case study.
a What information is stored in the database?
b List the items of data used in the member table, and their data types.
c List the items of data used in the video table, and their data types.
d Describe the procedures associated with borrowing a video.
e What information can Big V Video produce from its electronic database?
f The information system at Big V Video is very efficient. Explain how the system
is efficient in terms of effort, time and cost.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 An information system for a fitness club ‘crashed’ and some membership data
was lost. Who or what do you think is responsible for the error? What could be
done to ensure the error does not happen again?
2 Data such as customer records, financial details and management plans are
targets for computer criminals. Why would they steal this type of data? How
could they get access to the data? List any security measures that would stop the
theft of data.
3 Choose a recent event that has been widely reported in newspapers and on TV,
radio and the Internet. Find three different data sources on this event and
compare the data in terms of accuracy, security, timeliness and relevance.
Determine whether the data from each source was complete and free from bias.
4 Managers can be daunted by the amount of information available from
information systems. This ‘information overload’ can increase managerial stress
and force managers to spend more time organising information rather than
making important decisions. How could information overload affect decision-
making? What could be done to reduce it?
5 Observe a large retail business and record the different types of data that is
collected. Which type of data would be used for decision-making? Why? Does
this retail business have a Web site? If so, does the business collect data from the
Web site? How is the Web site helping the business?
1.5 Digital representation of data

People have always communicated with each other and exchanged information.
In prehistoric times, data was represented on cave walls in the form of rock
carvings and paintings. Information could be communicated only over small
distances. The representation of data has undergone many changes since pre-
historic times. Today, information technology is changing our methods of repre-
senting data. For any kind of data to be stored and processed on a computer, it
must be stored digitally. The recorded music industry shifted to digital format in
the late 1980s when compact discs (CDs) replaced vinyl records.
Traditional methods of representing data

To appreciate the benefits of digital data, it helps to be aware of some of the
traditional methods used to represent and store data.
• Filing systems: Data is filed into a filing cabinet or storage area. Individual
pieces of paper are manually sorted so that information is readily obtainable.

• Catalogue systems: Data is stored in lists, often in alphabetical order. Records
of books and other resources in a library are indicated on cards stored in a
catalogue system.
• Journals and ledgers: Amounts are recorded in columns in a special book to
keep a record of a firm’s financial transactions.
• Microfiche: Data is photographically transferred to a transparent sheet of
film about 10 × 15 centimetres. One sheet stores up to 200 pages of print.
• Printed media: Data is stored on paper in the form of newspapers, magazines
and books (see Figure 1.16).
Figure 1.16 Some examples of printed media.
Digitising trends
Data is represented digitally so that it can be used by information technology.
This allows data to be processed faster and more easily than ever before. People
and organisations have an increasing appetite for information. Information
technology has allowed more information to be collected, stored and processed.
The use of information technology and digital data offers many advantages over
other methods of representing data.
• Ease of editing: Data in the form of images, audio, video, text and numbers,
can be easily updated and modified as required.
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• Ease of storage: Large amounts of data can be stored on a disk or CD. It can
be retrieved, revised and rearranged as appropriate.
• Quick search: Large amounts data can be searched and sorted quickly and
accurately.
• Performing calculations: Precise and complex calculations can be performed
on the data very quickly. Recalculations of the data assist with predictions
and decision-making.
• Ease of transmission: Data can be easily exchanged. The Internet provides a
convenient way of accessing information throughout the world.

Function
Balanced against these advantages, there are disadvantages in the use of
information technology and digital data.
• The cost of hardware, software and installation may be prohibitive.
• Compatibility with existing technology must be investigated.
• The participants in the information system need to be trained. People are
often reluctant to adopt new methods.
• Social and ethical issues such as privacy, security, copyright and the changing
nature of work need to be addressed. (These issues are examined in Chapter 2.)
Despite these disadvantages, people and organisations are adopting infor-
mation technology and digital data at an extraordinary rate. Some of the more
recent trends include electronic newspapers, Internet banking, electronic com-
merce and Internet shopping.
Electronic newspapers allow people to access information on stories of
special interest. They provide the latest news, as the stories are being constantly
updated. Subscribers are emailed a page of news headlines on the areas they
nominate. Each item of text is linked to a full story on a Web site.
Internet banking allows customers
to view their account balances and
transaction histories, transfer money
between accounts, and pay bills over
the Internet. It provides banking
services 24 hours a day but cannot
cater for cash withdrawals.
Electronic commerce allows com-
mercial transactions to be carried out
electronically using a credit or debit
card instead of cash. It provides an
efficient service to customers and has
been quickly adopted by many Aus-
tralians.
Internet shopping allows organi-
sations to sell their goods and services
on a global scale (see Figure 1.17). It
is gaining acceptance even though
some people are concerned about the
security of their credit card details. Figure 1.17 Internet shopping is gaining acceptance despite
security concerns.
Digital data
Digital data is data that is represented using digits (numbers). The computer is a
two-state device that uses only two digits: 0 and 1. Two digits are easily
represented electronically by circuits in the computer being either on or off. The
digit 1 is used to represent the electronic state of ‘on’ and the digit 0 is used to
represent the electronic state of ‘off’. Each on or off digit is called a bit (binary
digit). A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a computer.
A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the basic unit of measurement
for digital data. Using eight bits means that there are 256 possible values for a
byte (00000000, 00000001, etc.). When used to represent text, a byte stands for
a single character, such as a letter, a number, a punctuation mark or a space.
Because a byte is such a small unit, the prefixes ‘kilo’, ‘mega’, ‘giga’ and ‘tera’ are
added to create more useful units for measuring data storage (see Table 1.2).
Unit Symbol Meaning Approximate value (bytes) Exact value (bytes)
byte b 1 1 (20)
kilobyte Kb thousand bytes 1 000 1024 (210)
megabyte Mb million bytes 1 000 000 1 048 576 (220)
gigabyte Gb billion bytes 1 000 000 000 1 073 741 824 (230)
terabyte Tb trillion bytes 1 000 000 000 000 1 099 511 627 776 (240)
Table 1.2 Units of measurement of digital data
The binary system

The normal system we use for counting is called the decimal system. It is an
arithmetic system using a base of 10 (the digits 0 to 9). The system of counting
used by computers is called the binary system (or binary code). It is an
arithmetic system using a base of two (the digits 0 and 1). Like the decimal
system, the binary system uses place value to determine the worth of a digit.
However, whereas the decimal system uses powers of ten (10, 100, 1000, etc.),
the binary system uses powers of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) for its place values. A sub-
script is used to distinguish between numbers with different bases. For example,
102 is the number ‘one zero’ in the base two (binary) system.
To change a binary number into a decimal number, we add the appropriate
place values, as shown in the example below.
Example
Convert the binary number 1001110 into a decimal number.
Powers of 2 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Value 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary number 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
10011102 = (1 × 64) + (0 × 32) + (0 × 16) + (1 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (1 × 2) + (0 × 1)

= 64 + 8 + 4 + 2
= 7810
So, binary number 100110 equals decimal number 78.
To change a decimal number into a binary number, we divide the binary
place values into the decimal number. The result of the division is the binary
digit, and the remainder is divided by the next place value. This process is
repeated for all place values.
Example
Convert 10910 into binary.
Functio
Powers of 2 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Value 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
10910 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
= (1 × 64) + (1 × 32) + (0 × 16) + (1 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (0 × 2) + (1 × 1)
= 11011012
So, decimal number 109 equals the binary number 1101101.

Function
The hexadecimal system
Binary numbers are ideal for computers but very difficult for people. Because
they use only two digits, they result in very long strings of 1s and 0s. For this
reason, many computers represent binary numbers in hexadecimal. The
hexadecimal number system, or hex, is to the base 16, and uses the sixteen
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The numbers are often
preceded by the $ (dollar) sign to indicate that they are in hexadecimal code. So
$A = 1010, $B = 1110, and so on. Because 16 is 24, it is very easy to convert
binary numbers to hexadecimal and vice versa.
ITITFact
Fact
The term ‘hexadecimal’ was made up in the early 1960s to replace the
earlier ‘sexadecimal’, which was too racy and amusing for IBM. It has since
been adopted by the computer industry.
To change a hexadecimal number into a decimal number, we add the

appropriate place values, as shown in the example below.
Example
Convert 1B0516 into a decimal number.
Powers of 16 163 162 161 160

Value 4096 256 16 1
Binary number 1 B 0 5
1B0516 = (1 × 4096) + (11 × 256) + (0 × 16) + (5 × 1)

= 4096 + 2816 + 5
= 691710
So, hexadecimal 1B05 equals the decimal number 6917.
To change a decimal number into a hexadecimal number, we divide the
hexadecimal place values into the decimal number. The result of the division is
the hexadecimal digit, and the remainder is divided by the next place value. This
process is repeated for all place values, as shown in the next example.
Example
Convert 42310 into hexadecimal.
Powers of 16 163 162 161 160

Value 4096 256 16 1
42310 = 256 + 160 + 7

= (1 × 256) + (10 × 16) + (7 × 1) = 1A716
So, decimal 423 equals the hexadecimal number 1A7.
ASCII and EBCDIC

To be used in a computer, all data needs to be converted into a binary number.
To ensure data from one computer can be used on another, there needs to be a
standard method of converting letters, numbers, characters and instructions into
binary code. Two commonly used coding methods are ASCII and EBCDIC.

The standard coding method used on personal computers is called ASCII
(pronounced ‘ass-kee’), which stands for the American Standard Code for Infor-
mation Interchange. ASCII is a system for changing letters, numbers and
symbols into a 7-bit code. For example, the letter ‘K’ is converted to the decimal
number 75 using the ASCII code, and this number is then converted to the
binary number 1001011, which can be stored by the computer. Seven-bit ASCII
allows for 128 different characters (2 7), including 96 standard keyboard
characters and 32 control characters. The keyboard characters include 26 upper
case letters, 26 lower case letters, 10 digits and 34 symbols (the complete code is
given in the Appendix). The control characters are used for computer functions
such as ‘carriage return’ and ‘form feed’.
The standard seven-bit ASCII was designed when computers were not
extensively used outside the US and UK. However, it is a problem with many
languages other than English. Many European languages include accent marks
and special characters that cannot be represented by standard ASCII. Several
larger character sets such as extended ASCII use eight bits, which gives 128
additional characters. The extra characters are used to represent non-English
characters, graphic symbols and mathematical symbols. Because there are a
number of different extended character sets, they are not always interchangeable
between different computer systems.
A coding method used on large IBM computers is called EBCDIC (pro-
nounced ‘ebb-see-dick’). It stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Inter-
change Code and was adapted by IBM from punched card code in the 1960s.
There exist at least six different versions, with one version of EBCDIC con-
taining all the characters of ASCII. This allows data to be translated between the
two codes. EBCDIC is a system that changes letters, numbers and symbols into
an 8-bit code. This allows for 256 (28) different characters (the complete code is
given in the Appendix). For example, the letter ‘A’ is converted to the decimal
number 193 using the EBCDIC code, and this number is then converted to the
binary number 11000001, which can be stored by the computer.
Exercise 1.5
1 Describe some of the traditional methods used to represent and store data.
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital data?
3 Describe four digitising trends.
4 What is a byte?
5 Why do computers represent data using only two digits?
6 Convert these measurements to the units indicated (approximate value only).
Functio
a 2 Mb = b b 160 Kb = b
c 3 000 000 b = Mb d 4 Gb = b
e 560 Mb = Kb f 8000 Kb = Mb
7 List two commonly used coding methods for digital data.
8 How many different characters can be represented using a 7-bit ASCII?
9 Why was extended ASCII developed?
Answer questions 10 to 13 using the Appendix.

Function
10 What is the ASCII code in binary for the following characters?
a B b m
11 What is the ASCII code in hexadecimal for the following characters?
a $ b DEL
12 What is the EBCDIC code in binary for the following characters?
a g b ?
13 What is the EBCDIC code in hexadecimal for the following characters?
a @ b 7
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Copy and complete the following table.
Binary code 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Decimal number
1000011 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 67
0000010
0010011
1000001
1110101
0010011
1010101
1110011
1101010
1111011

Decimal code 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Binary code
55 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0110111
18
42
49
105
75
118
65
94
123

Hexadecimal 4096 256 16 1 Decimal number
1C 0 0 1 12 28
15
17
120
264
152
24A
1A21
FE
20DF

Decimal number 4096 256 16 1 Hexadecimal

500 0 1 F 4 01F4
23
43
52
259
347
621
4096
4156
2000
5 Count the number of characters used on a page of typed text and then calculate
the number of bytes necessary to store this data. How many pages of typed text
can the school computer store in RAM? (Assume your computer uses eight-bit
ASCII and all the RAM is available to store text.)
1.6 Social and ethical issues

Social and ethical issues arise from the processing of data into information.
There are many issues that affect people as participants and as indirect users. In
this section, we will examine the security of data and information, the accuracy
of data and information, and copyright.
Data security
The security of data and information is a major issue in any organisation. The
cost of replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally damaged or lost can be
enormous. People who gain illegal access to information systems are referred to
as hackers. Hackers are often involved in information theft or financial theft.
Information theft involves stealing data from one organisation and selling it to
another organisation. Financial theft involves illegally transferring money from
one account to another.
Computer crime provides our society with a difficult issue. First, even though
hundreds of cases of computer crimes are reported each year, many crimes go
unreported. There are several reasons for this: organisations are reluctant to face
adverse publicity; publicising the event could give others ideas; and in some
cases, the crime is not discovered. Are organisations encouraging computer
Functio
crime by not reporting it? Are organisations that do not report a computer crime
guilty of a crime themselves?
Another issue is the fact that computer crime is not viewed in the same light
by the community as other crimes, such as burglary or armed robbery. Whereas
the community holds a burglar in fear or contempt, a hacker is often regarded as
clever and the crime is not regarded as dangerous or threatening. If a burglar and
a hacker each stole $200 000 from a business, does it make any difference how
the money was taken? Should the penalties for both crimes be the same?
Data security involves a series of safeguards to protect the data from
deliberate or accidental damage. Some of these are listed on the following page.

Function
• Passwords are secret words or numbers that are typed on the keyboard to
gain access to a computer system. Good data protection systems require
users to change their passwords often, so that only authorised people can
have access to certain data.
• Objects such as a key, plastic card or badge can be required to gain access to
the information system. They are often used together with a personal
identification number (PIN).
• Biometric devices are used to verify personal characteristics such as finger-
prints, hand size, signature, eye and voice.
• Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read
during transmission. The data is ‘scrambled’ so that it is meaningless to
anyone other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to
convert it back.
• Firewalls are used on computer networks to check all data coming from
outside sources (such as the Internet) for the purpose of verification and
authentication.
• Waste is secured, since discarded printouts are potential sources of
confidential information. This kind of waste can be secured by shredding.
• Backup procedures need to be secure and reliable. A regular plan of copying
and storing data will guard against data loss. It is good practice to keep at
least one backup copy in a fireproof safe or off-site.
• The weakest link in the security of any information system is the people in it.
Employees need to be carefully screened. This can be difficult, as even well-
respected and otherwise honest employees can commit computer crimes.
ITITFact
Fact
‘Jails’ are used on computer networks to lure hackers and allow system
administrators to obtain some clues as to the hacker’s identity. ‘Jails’ are
best housed on special servers that simulate a real and confidential
environment.
Data accuracy
In the past, publishing information was costly and there was less of it. Today,
there is a huge amount of information and it is relatively easy to publish on the
Internet. As a result, there is no guarantee that all information is accurate or
reliable, and it is difficult to check it in a reasonable amount of time.
Organisations can provide access to information they have not created, for
example by including a link on their Web site. This raises a difficult question.
Who is responsible for the accuracy of information? Is the creator the only
person responsible for the accuracy of data? Do organisations that provide
access to information also have a responsibility to verify its accuracy? Clearly, it
is necessary to compare data from a number of sources and determine which
data is accurate and relevant.
In addition to the issue of responsibility, there are also concerns about the
ethics of altering data. For example, photographs can be edited by adding,
changing or removing parts of the images. A person can be taken out of the
photograph and another person added. Is it acceptable to improve a photograph
by slightly altering the data? Would it be wrong for a newspaper to alter a

person’s photograph by making their teeth whiter or changing the colour of
their eyes? What about changing the background of a photo, so the person
appears to be in a different location? What limits or restrictions should be
placed on altering photographs that are published?
Data validation
Data is collected to solve problems, meet needs or help in decision-making. The
accuracy of the data must be checked before it is processed into information.
This is called data validation. It involves ensuring that the data is up-to-date,
current, complete and correctly entered. Data validation can be built into a soft-
ware application. Some examples are listed below.
• Range checks are used if the data is restricted to a small range of particular
values. For example, when a date is entered in the format 21/2/2001, the
software can check whether the first two digits are in the range of 1 to 31
and the second two digits are in the range of 1 to 12.
• List checks are used when the data can be compared to a set of accepted
data. For example, when the data entered is an Australian state, NSW would
be accepted but NSX would not.
• Type checks are used to determine whether the data type is correct. For
example, when the data entered is a person’s family name, the software can
check if the data is text. It would not accept other data types, such as numbers.
• A check digit is a number calculated from the digits of a code number and
then added to that number as an extra digit. The ISBNs (International
Standard Book Numbers) given to books include a check digit. For example,
in the ISBN 0 85859 921 4, the final 4 is a check digit. It is calculated by
applying a formula to the other numbers (085859921).
Copyright
Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists,
including software developers. It is often indicated by the © symbol. Copyright
is protected by law. In Australia, the Copyright Act regards any original work as
the intellectual property of the person who created the work. Copyright
ownership is automatic and applies whether or not the work is accompanied by
the copyright symbol. Most other countries have similar laws and have signed
international copyright agreements. It is against the law to use or copy the work
of another person without their permission. There are some exceptions. For
example, you are allowed to reproduce a small amount of someone’s work for
the purposes of study, criticism or review. However, it is always necessary to
acknowledge the creator of the work.
Information published on the Internet is protected by copyright, just as it
would be if it was in a book. Text and images obtained from a Web site should
Functio
not be reproduced without acknowledgment (see Figure 1.18). Images should

not be downloaded and used for other purposes without permission.
ITITFact
Fact
‘Salami shaving’ is a computer crime usually committed by a bank officer.
It involves the unauthorised transfer of small amounts of money from the
accounts of many individuals. These small amounts are often unnoticed
but over time add up to very large amounts.

Function
Figure 1.18 Web sites must be correctly cited.
When citing an Internet source it is important to include the following

information:
• author’s surname and initial or organisation’s name
• title of the completed work or Web page
• URL of the page
• date the document or Web page was created or updated (if known)
• download date.
Online sources often appear and disappear frequently. For this reason, the
date of download and the URL become very important. A hard copy or a soft
copy is also useful for later reference. An example of citation is given below.
Walker, Matt, ‘Jurassic spark’, New Scientist, 27 November 1999
http://www.newscientist.com/ns/19991127/newsstory5.html (accessed
14 March 2000)
Software developers are protected by copyright so that they receive money
for the time, effort and investment spent in developing a program. When
software is bought, it contains a licence agreement or registration card, which
gives the user permission to make one backup copy. The user is not allowed to
make other copies of the software without the permission of the copyright
holder. Illegal copying of software is called software piracy (or pirating). Soft-
ware piracy costs software developers billions of dollars each year and results in
higher prices for software.
Copyright protection is not the same for every piece of software. Site
licences permit an organisation to make a limited number of copies of the soft-
ware for use on the same site. A site can refer to a number of buildings, such as a
school. Purchasing a site licence is cheaper than buying individual copies of a
program. Similarly, a network licence allows people to use a program on a
network.
Shareware is software that is provided free and can be copied and distri-
buted, but the licence agreement requires users to pay for the shareware they
use. It is much cheaper than commercial software packages as there are fewer
costs associated with marketing and it is not as rigorously tested. Public domain
software, or freeware, can be freely distributed and used. Shareware and public
domain software are often distributed using the Internet.
Copyright is an ethical issue as well as a legal issue. Is it right to copy the
original work of an author or artist without their permission? Authors and artists
often spend hundreds of hours developing a product and deserve some returns
for their efforts. The fact that it is relatively easy for anyone with a computer to
make copies of data and programs is irrelevant. If people infringe copyright,
authors and artists do not receive royalties and they will be reluctant to spend
time developing good products.
Exercise 1.6
1 Who are hackers?
2 What safeguards can be taken to protect data?
3 Why is it difficult to check the accuracy of data?
4 What is data validation?
5 List four different ways that data validation can be built into software.
6 What is copyright?
7 List the information needed to cite an Internet site.
8 Explain the difference between shareware and public domain software.
9 Why are software copyright laws difficult to enforce?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Which of the following data entry errors would be picked up by data validation?
a date of birth entered as 10/23/1990 instead of 23/10/1990
b date of birth entered as 02/04/1991 instead of 04/02/1991
c date of birth entered as 12/01/89 instead of 12/01/1989
d date of birth entered as 08/06/1992 instead of 08/06/1993
e state of Australia entered as NEW instead of NSW
f state of Australia entered as vic instead of VIC
2 A friend of yours has obtained access to a bank’s financial records. Do you think
this is clever? Has your friend committed a crime? What would you do if the
friend increased your account balance? What penalties are appropriate for this
sort of action? How can organisations reduce computer crime?
3 Web sites are available that offer essays for school students. Students can
download the essay and print it out as their own work. How can teachers prevent
students claiming the work of others as their own? Explain the difference
between using the Internet for research and copying an essay. What penalties
Functio
are appropriate for students caught plagiarising? Outline any reasons students
would have for obtaining copies of essays this way.
4 Use the Internet to find information about software copyright. Compare
Australian and overseas information.
5 ‘Information technology is changing at an extraordinary rate. The only people
keeping pace with information technology are system specialists.’ Do you agree
with these statements? Why? What changes do you expect to occur in the
immediate future?

Chapter review
PART A 6 Data is the same as:
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best A raw material
answers the question or completes the B processed material
statement. C information
1 Which of the following is not an D processed information
element of an information system?
7 One gigabyte is equal to:
A participants
A 1 000 000 000 bytes
B social and ethical issues
B 1 073 741 824 Kb
C data and information
C 1024 Kb
D information technology
D 1024 Mb
2 The five functions of a computer are:
8 The smallest unit for storing data is a:
input, process, …, control and output.
What is the missing function? A byte
A data B bit
B software C ASCII
C information D RAM
D storage 9 Which of the following is not a coding
method used to represent digital data?
3 A computer designed for a single user
is called a: A ASCII
A personal computer B hexadecimal
B midrange computer C EBCDIC
C mainframe computer D extended ASCII
D supercomputer 10 A data security safeguard that prevents
data from being intercepted and read
4 Which two-step information process
during transmission is known as:
involves the retaining of data?
A data encryption
A storing and retrieving
B a firewall
B maintaining and receiving
C a password
C maintaining and retrieving
D a biometric device
D storing and receiving
5 Which information process involves
arranging, representing and formatting
data for use by other information
processes?
A analysing
B displaying
C processing
D organising

Chapter review
PART B 15 A person who gains illegal access to
For each of the following statements, information systems.
select from the list of terms the one that 16 Illegal copying of software.
most closely fits the statement. Write the
letter corresponding to your choice. List of terms
a analysing
Statements
b supercomputer
1 The fastest, most powerful and expen-
c binary
sive type of computer.
d bit
2 A central computer that performs the
e midrange computer
processing for a number of users work-
ing at a terminal. f information
g text
3 Letters, numbers and other characters
h byte
whose meaning and format is not
specified. i organising
j transmitting and receiving
4 Data that has been ordered and given
k software
some meaning by people.
l ASCII
5 The process that involves arranging,
m information technology
representing and formatting data for
use by other information processes. n hacker
o pirating
6 The process that involves transferring
p backup
data and information within and
between information systems.
PART C
7 The process that involves interpreting
data, transforming it into information. Write at least one paragraph on each of
the following questions.
8 The smallest unit of data stored in a
computer. 1 Outline the positive and negative
impact of information technology on
9 The basic unit of measurement for digit-
our society.
al data. It represents a single character.
10 A number system using base two. 2 Identify and explain the seven infor-
mation processes.
11 The electronic hardware and software
used to process information. 3 Briefly explain the following terms:
a environment
12 The detailed instructions used to direct
the hardware to perform a particular b ASCII
task. c participants.
13 A copy of data or software kept for 4 Briefly describe how data is repre-
security purposes. sented digitally.
14 A standard coding method used on 5 Why is data accuracy an important
personal computers. issue?

chapter
TOOLS FOR
INFORMATION
PROCESSES
2
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the hardware tools used in each
of the seven information processes
• identify and use the most appropriate input
device to collect data
• describe and use hardware devices for
storage and retrieval Overview
• describe the concepts and tools used to
This chapter outlines the tools used for
transmit and receive data
information processing in an information
• describe and use a range of hardware to system. The tools are categorised into the
display data information processes of collecting, organising,
• outline the software tools used in each of the analysing, storing and retrieving, processing,
seven information processes transmitting and receiving, and displaying
• describe some of the non-computer tools data. However, in reality one tool may overlap
used in each of the seven information several information processes. For each infor-
processes mation process you will investigate the
• identify the social and ethical issues in- relevant hardware, software and non-
volved in the information processes. computer tools, and a range of social issues.
2.1 Collecting
Collecting is the information process that involves deciding what to collect,
locating it and collecting it. A range of hardware devices are used to collect
different types of data. Software is used to direct the hardware collection device.
Non-computer tools are used to collect data from particular sources.
Hardware
There are many types of hardware collection devices used for different types of
data. The devices that are used specifically to enter data into a computer system
are referred to as input devices. An input device should be convenient to use,
reliable and allow data to be entered accurately. The data may be in a number of
forms, including text, numbers, images, audio and video. Common input devices
include pointing devices, scanners, digital cameras, video cameras, microphones,
keyboards and optical recognition devices.
Pointing devices
A pointing device is an input device that controls an on-screen symbol called a
pointer or cursor. They are useful for choosing commands from menus,
managing files and creating certain types of images. However, pointing devices
are not effective for entering large amounts of text. There are many different
types of pointing devices.
• A mouse is a small hand-held input device that is moved over a flat surface
to control the movement of a pointer. The bottom of the mouse is usually a
ball that senses the movement of the mouse. If a button on the mouse is
pressed or clicked, it allows an object or command on the screen to be
selected. There are a large variety of mice using different types of technology
to improve their tracking, resolution and ease of use. A mouse may have one,
two or three buttons and a scrolling wheel.
• A trackball is a pointing device that is similar to a mouse except that the ball
is on top of the device instead of the bottom (see Figure 2.1). It allows the
cursor to be moved by rotating the ball in the
desired direction. Trackballs do not require a
flat surface and are commonly used on port-
able computers.
• A pointing stick or trackpoint is a small
device shaped like a pencil eraser. It moves
the pointer by sensing the direction and
amount of pressure applied to the device. A
pointing stick is often located in the middle
of the keyboard on portable computers. They
Functio
require very little space and no cleaning.

• A touchpad or trackpad is a flat rectangular
surface that senses the movement of a finger.
When you move your finger on the touchpad
it causes a corresponding movement of the
pointer. Some touchpads have buttons to
click; on others, tapping the touchpad surface
Figure 2.1 A trackball incorporated into a three- indicates a click. Touchpads are often built
button mouse. into portable computers.

Function
• A graphics tablet is an input device that consists of a special electronic pad
and a pen called a stylus. A hand-held device called a puck is often used with
the tablet. A puck looks like a mouse, with one or more buttons, but has a
window in the centre or at one end with fine cross-hairs.
• A joystick is a pointing device consisting of a small base unit with a rod that
can be tilted in all directions to move the pointer on the screen. Joysticks are
frequently used to provide fast and direct input for moving characters and
objects in computer games.
• A light pen is a pointing device consisting
of a small rod that looks like a pen. The tip
of the pen has a light detector that senses
the intensity of light on a screen and emit
signals so that the computer can calculate
its position. A light pen is used to select
information or draw directly on the screen.
• A touch screen enters data by detecting
the touch of your finger (see Figure 2.2).
The user’s finger interrupts a matrix of
infrared light beams shining horizontally
and vertically across the screen. Touch
screens do not allow fine precision of input
and use big buttons or areas of the screen.
• Pen input devices are becoming increas-
ingly popular. They use special hardware
and software to interpret the movement of
a special pen or stylus. When the pen
touches the screen, the computer deter-
mines the coordinates of the contact point
and darkens that area. In addition to
pointing, pen input devices allow hand-
written characters to be converted to
digital text. Pen input devices are used in Figure 2.2 Touch screens are often used in
most personal digital assistants (PDAs). information kiosks.
ITITFact
Fact
The mouse was developed in 1963 by Douglas Engelbart. The name
originated because it looked like a mouse with the connecting cable the
mouse’s tail. The first mouse was made of wood.
Scanners
Scanners are input devices that can electronically capture text or images such as
photographs and drawings. The scanner converts the image into digital data that
can be processed by the computer. The digital data can be printed, edited or
merged into another document. Scanners offer a range of resolutions such as
2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi. The higher the resolution, the better the
quality of the final output. Single-pass scanners scan the image in only one pass;
multiple-pass scanners scan for each colour separately. Scanners use a software
standard called TWAIN (technology without an interesting name) that allows
Tools for information processes 39

the digital image to be used in a range
of different applications. There are
three common types of scanners.
• Hand-held scanners are used for
entering text and images that are
less than a page wide. The scanner is
held in the hand and passed over the
document. Hand-held scanners are
adequate for small pictures and
photos but are difficult for entire
pages. Software is used to join
scanned items to make a full page.
• Flatbed scanners look similar to a
small photocopier with the docu-
ment remaining flat and stationary
during the scanning (see Figure 2.3).
• Overhead scanners look like an
overhead projector. Documents are
placed face up on the scanning bed
and a small overhead tower moves
Figure 2.3 A flatbed scanner and a special type of hand-held across the page.
scanner.
Digital cameras
Digital cameras are input devices that capture and store images in digital form
rather than on film. They contain a viewfinder, a lens to focus the image and a
storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk or floppy disk to retain the
images. After a picture is taken, it is transferred to a computer and manipulated
using a graphics program. Digital photos are limited by the amount of memory
in the camera, the quality of the lens and the output device. The main advantage
of digital cameras is that making the photos is both inexpensive and quick
because there is no film processing. Most digital cameras compress and save
their images in standard JPEG or FlashPix format. Digitally captured photos are
extensively used in personal and business publishing applications such as Web
pages, magazines, business letters, ID cards and product catalogues.
Video cameras
A video camera is used to create a video clip in either analog or digital form.
Conventional (analog) video cameras capture images and sound on videotape.
This is converted into digital form using a video capture card. Each frame of the
video is interpreted as a bit-mapped image. Video capture cards compress the
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video clip using a compression algorithm that analyses the changes from one
frame to the next. They encode the starting frame and a sequence of differences
between the frames.
Digital video cameras are input devices that capture video in a compressed
digital format such as MPEG (see Figure 2.4). These video files are transferred
directly to a computer. Digital video production software is used to edit the
video. There is an increasing range of video effects that can be achieved using
this software on a personal computer.

Function
Figure 2.4 A digital camera (left) and a digital video camera (right).
Microphones
Microphones are input devices that capture sound. Sound travels through the
air in waves—it is analog data. Digital audio is sound that has been digitised. A
sound card transforms the sounds from a microphone into digital audio.
Standard sound cards on personal computers are capable of recording and
playing digital audio at 44.1 kHz stereo or CD-quality sound. Sound cards also
support MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) sequences. This allows a
musician to use a MIDI instrument to play music which can be stored and
edited on a computer (see Figure 2.5).
Microphones are also used to enter voice
data into a computer. A technique called
voice recognition converts voice signals into
digital data. Basic voice recognition systems
are restricted to narrow vocabularies because
of the difficulty of understanding the gram-
matical meaning of many words and phrases.
Natural language voice recognition interprets
the data and makes an appropriate response.
For example, you could ask the computer to
open an appropriate file, edit the contents
and send it to a friend. Voice recognition is
predicted to be the most common way of Figure 2.5 Music is entered using a MIDI
entering data in the future. devices such as this.
Keyboards
A keyboard is an input device consisting of series of keys in a standard layout. It
allows the entry of text, numbers, instructions and commands. There are many
different types of keyboards each designed to meet a particular need. For
example, the keyboard on an automatic teller machine (ATM) contains special
keys that allow the withdrawal of money. Each type of keyboard has a different
arrangement of letters, numbers and symbols, which is called its layout.

The most common keyboard layout for personal computers is the Qwerty
keyboard (see Figure 2.6). The Qwerty keyboard is named after the first six
letters of the second row. The order of the keys was designed from the layout of
keys on typewriters. The keyboard is divided into four major areas: alpha-
numeric keys, cursor control keys, special keys and function keys.
• Alphanumeric keys are the letters and numbers on the keyboard. The
numeric keypad is located on the right-hand side of the keyboard. It is used
for quick entry of numbers.
• Cursor control keys allow the cursor to be moved. They include the arrow
keys, Page down, Page up, Home and End.
• Special keys include Enter, Return, Tab, Space, Caps Lock, Backspace, Delete
and Escape. Modifier keys (such as Shift, Control, Alt(ernate), Option and
Command) are used in combination with other keys.
• Function keys (F1, F2, … F12) allow instructions to be given to the com-
puter. Their specific function depends on the software.
Figure 2.6 A Qwerty keyboard.
ITITFact
Fact
The Qwerty keyboard was developed and patented in 1867 by Christopher
Sholes. He originally arranged the keys in alphabetical order but found
that the primitive wooden type bars were too slow to fall into place and
jammed. In other words, the typists were typing faster than the typewriter
could operate. To slow the typist down, Sholes moved the most commonly
typed letters (A, O, E, T, N and S) away from the typist’s index fingers.
This inefficient layout has not been replaced as it would require retraining,
and many people would be reluctant to change, despite the benefits.
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Optical recognition devices

Optical recognition devices use a light source to read characters and barcodes.
They convert these characters into digital data.
• Optical character recognition (OCR) devices are scanners that read typed
text (and in some cases, handwritten text). First, a scanner produces a digital
image of the text. Then the character recognition software matches this
image to the shapes of individual characters. Characters are stored using
ASCII codes and can be used in word processing programs. Characters that

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cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~) as this symbol does not
appear in normal English. Using the spelling checker of a word processing
program helps to find any errors made in character recognition.
• Barcode readers are used extensively
in retail industries to input product
identification at point of sale (see
Figure 2.7). Supermarkets use a laser
to read barcodes and many firms use
hand-held barcode readers. Product
information (description, price and
code) is held on a central computer
linked to the point of sale computer.
Items passing the barcode reader are
entered quickly and accurately. The
description and price of the item is
displayed on the cash register and
printed on the receipt. Libraries and
many industries use barcode readers
to keep track of stock movement.
Portable barcode readers are used in
the field and the data can be down-
loaded on return to the office. Figure 2.7 A barcode reader.
Software
Software used for collecting includes the software that interfaces with hardware
collection devices. This software is usually classified as part of the operating system.
Operating systems
The operating system is the software that supervises and controls the hardware.
It is responsible for controlling all the peripheral devices (input and output
devices). The operating system contains specific software for each type of
peripheral device. It is responsible for scheduling all the operations of hardware
in an efficient manner. The operating system also controls how the computer
relates to memory and the management of files. On a personal computer, the
operating system is usually stored on a hard disk and starts automatically when
the computer is turned on. Loading the operating system into the computer’s
memory is referred to as booting the system. Diagnostic checks on memory and
peripheral devices are performed when booting the system. A small program
that initiates the loading of the operating system is contained in memory.
The operating system provides a convenient interface between the hardware
and its user. This is referred to as the user interface. The first widely used
operating system was the OS/360 system. It was developed in 1964 for all
computers in the IBM System/360 family. UNIX (pronounced ‘you-nicks’) is a
popular operating system that can be used on everything from personal
computers to mainframes. Like many mainframe operating systems, UNIX
timeshares the host central processing unit (CPU) to be able to run multiple
tasks and support multiple users. MS-DOS is an operating system developed by
Microsoft in 1981 for IBM’s 16-bit personal computer. It became an industry
standard and is still used to run some applications today. It is a character user
interface (CUI, also known as a command-line interface) that displays only

characters on the screen. The user types commands using a keyboard. The
graphical user interface was developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s
and was popularised by Apple Macintosh computers in the 1980s. A graphical
user interface (GUI, pronounced ‘gooey’) allows the user to give instructions
using a mouse, by clicking on icons and menus (see Figure 2.8). GUIs are also
referred to as WIMP environments. This name comes from their four main
characteristics: windows, icons, a mouse and pull-down menus. GUIs provide an
easy-to-use and consistent interface for a range of applications. Microsoft
Windows and Apple’s Macintosh OS are two popular GUI operating systems.
Figure 2.8 Microsoft Windows is an example of a WIMP environment.
Data entry
The collection of data involves entering images, audio, video, numbers and text.
The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on the
collection of each of these types of data. The following is brief summary.
• Images are created using graphics programs or are captured using a scanner,
digital camera, video camera or the Internet. Clip art refers to prepared
pictures that are grouped into topics such as technology, animals and educa-
tion. There are millions of clip art drawings and photos available to suit most
purposes.
• Video and audio are used in multimedia productions. Data collection should
be carefully planned before any data is entered. The user should clarify a
purpose, identify the audience and gather ideas.
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• Text and numbers are entered into most software applications. The collection
of data for a database often requires a great deal of research and the use of
non-computer tools such as surveys and interviews. Spreadsheets should be
carefully planned before data is collected. It is important to understand the
relationships between the data, and how a spreadsheet will solve the problem.
The Internet as a collection source

The Internet is a source of data. It allows someone at one computer to collect
data stored on another. Web sites present information on a particular topic. Each

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single document is called a Web page. In addition to the Web, data is collected
from newsgroups. A newsgroup is a discussion group on a specific topic. People
read newsgroups each day and they provide a large diversity of opinion and
knowledge. The Internet also allows data to be downloaded. It is possible to
download files containing text, graphics, animation, video, sound and software.
The Internet is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
ITITFact
Fact
Marc Andreessen developed a Web browser called Mosaic in 1993 while
working at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in the
USA. Mosaic was the first browser to offer a graphical user interface and
display hypertext documents. He left the NCSA and founded Netscape,
producing the Netscape Navigator browser.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for collecting data. A wide
range of non-computer tools are also used in many situations.
• Literature (printed text) has been the main medium for spreading knowledge
since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It can take many different
forms, such as books, reports, newspapers, magazines, newsletters and
journals. The sheer quantity of printed information available today means
that an individual can absorb only a very small proportion. Searching
literature for particular information involves using tables of contents,
summaries and indexes. Reviews and abstracts also provide an indicator to
the contents of publications. Literature may be accurate at the time of
printing but it can quickly become out-of-date as society changes.
• Surveys and interviews involve col-
lecting sample characteristics, attitudes,
behaviours and opinions. A survey
questionnaire is delivered by mail, face-
to-face or online. An interview is a
meeting of people face-to-face. Specific
questions are asked to determine the
interviewee’s opinions and feelings.
There are advantages and disadvantages
in using surveys and interviews to collect
data. These are outlined in Chapter 3.
• Data can be collected manually by re-
cording an event on paper or a pre-
designed table or form. Forms for data
collection need to be carefully designed.
It is necessary to try to anticipate the
range of possible responses. For example,
if a person is asked to state their
occupation, the form must be able to
accommodate people who have two
jobs, change jobs frequently or classify
their work differently (see Figure 2.9). Figure 2.9 Forms are used by many government agencies
to collect data.

Social and ethical issues
The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical
issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to
the collection of data.
• Data needs to be free from bias. Bias means that the data is unfairly skewed
or gives too much weight to a particular result. For example, if a survey
about television habits was only completed by teenagers and the results were
generalised to the entire population, it would have a bias. Several checks
should be made to limit the impact of bias.
• The accuracy of the collected data is a vital ingredient of an information
system. It depends on the source of the data and whether the data is entered
correctly. The accuracy of data is often difficult to check in a reasonable time.
It is often necessary to compare data from a number of different sources and
determine which data is accurate. Data validation techniques used to check
the entry of data include range checks, list checks, type checks and check
digits. (Data validation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.)
• Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists.
It is against the law to infringe copyright. You are not allowed to use or copy
the work of another person without their permission. If data is collected
from the Internet, it is protected by copyright. Text and images obtained
from a Web site should not be used without acknowledgment or permission
from the owner. (Copyright is discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.)
• Privacy is the ability of an individual to control personal data. Data collected
on individuals is not always accurate. Inaccuracies can be caused by mistakes
in gathering or entering the data, by a mismatch of the data and the person,
or by information being out-of-date. For example, a car is recorded as stolen,
but is later recovered and returned to the owner. If the data has not been
quickly updated, the legal owner runs the risk of being arrested as a car thief.
What opportunities exist to check and change data if it is wrong? Physical
privacy is the ability of an individual to avoid invasion of their personal time,
space and property. Information technology increases the opportunities to
invade physical privacy by such means as computer-generated phone calls,
junk mail and electronic junk mail (spamming).
• Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work
environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The way a computer is
used and the work environment can affect the body. Participants who enter
large volumes of data into information systems need to be aware of ergo-
nomic issues. (Ergonomics is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.)
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Exercise 2.1
1 What is a pointing device?
2 Explain the difference between a mouse and a trackball.
3 How does a touch screen work?
4 What is the difference between a hand-held scanner and a flatbed scanner?
5 Describe some of the features of a digital camera.
6 What is a digital video camera?

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7 What function is performed by a sound card?
8 Explain the difference between basic voice recognition and natural language
voice recognition.
9 What is a keyboard?
10 Describe the four major keyboard areas.
11 Why did Christopher Sholes move the most commonly typed letters to positions
away from the typist’s index finger?
12 How do OCR devices read text?
13 Where are barcode readers used extensively?
14 What is an operating system?
15 Describe some characteristics of the UNIX operating system.
16 What is a GUI?
17 How are images entered into an information system?
18 Describe some tools used in a literature search.
19 Describe the issue of privacy.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Some people feel uncomfortable using certain input devices. Which input devices
are easier for beginners to use? Why? Which require the most training? Do you
think current input devices will be used in the next 20 years? Explain.
2 Why do the majority of personal computers include a mouse and not a trackball,
even though trackballs are more precise and don’t require a flat surface?
3 ‘The keyboard is an inefficient input device and will be replaced by voice
recognition devices.’ Do you agree with this statement? Why? How might this
technology affect you in the future?
4 The Qwerty keyboard was purposely designed to slow typists down. It is an
inefficient layout. Why does it remain the most popular keyboard layout? Do you
think the Qwerty keyboard will ever be replaced? Why? Research another type of
layout and explain why it is not so popular.
5 Describe the properties and features of three input devices. Outline any specific
applications for which these input devices would be used, such as a touch screen
in a shopping centre. Find the approximate cost of each input device.
6 The latest version of an operating system is often superior to its predecessors.
Why are people reluctant to adopt new versions of their operating systems?
What features would encourage you to upgrade to the latest version of an
operating system?
7 An organisation uses different types of personal computers with different
operating systems. You are asked to rationalise their computer resources by
choosing one operating system. What operating system would you choose? Why?
Would you have made a different choice five years ago? Will the choice be the
same in five years time? Why?
8 ‘The issue of privacy was a concern long before information technology.’ Discuss
this statement. What is your view on privacy? Use the Internet to find infor-
mation about privacy. Compare Australian and overseas data.

2.2 Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by
other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. Data is
digitised using a hardware collection device. There is a range of application
software for organising data in a variety of formats. Non-computer tools for
organising include hard copy systems and pen and paper methods.
Hardware
Hardware collection devices organise data by digitising it. Digitising is the
process of translating data into the binary digits (bits) that can be stored and
processed by a computer. The fact that all data is represented as a series of bits
means that a computer can organise and transmit data of any type. It deals with
the data as a string of zeros and ones, regardless of the original format of the
data. Every type of data must be represented digitally in the form of bits to be
used by a computer.
• Text: All characters such as letters, numerals, punctuation keys, spaces and
special symbols are converted into binary using a standard method of
conversion such as ASCII or EBCDIC. These work by assigning each
character with a decimal number and converting this number into binary
code (see Chapter 1).
• Images: Images are divided into tiny dots called pixels. One or more bits are
assigned to each pixel. The relationship between the image and the bits in
memory is called bit-mapping. The number of bits assigned to each pixel
depends on the number of tones and colours used. The quality of a digitised
image is improved by increasing the number of pixels or increasing the tones
and colour (see Chapter 8).
• Audio: Sound is digitised using a method called sampling. This involves
taking a number of samples or ‘slices’ of the sound wave. This is called the
sampling rate. Each sample is assigned a number of bits. This is called the
sample size. Better quality sound is achieved by increasing the sampling rate
and/or the sampling size (see Chapter 10).
The different methods of organising data affect how it is processed. For
example, if the letters of the alphabet are captured using a scanner, they will be
represented as an image. This data could not be processed using word processing
software. To use the text in a word processor, it would be necessary to reorganise
it using character recognition software which converted the image to ASCII
text. A similar processing problem occurs if a software application interprets
numbers as text. For example, if a spreadsheet interprets a number as a label
(text) instead of a value, it will not be able to use that number in any
calculations.
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Software
Application software organises data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software
contain detailed information on how different applications organise data. The
following is brief summary.
• Paint and draw software is used to create graphics. A paint program creates a
bit-mapped graphic. It organises data by treating each pixel (dot) on the
screen individually and representing this by bits in memory. A drawing
program creates a vector graphic. It organises data by defining the graphic

Function
into objects such as a straight line, a curve or shape. Each object is defined by
its characteristics such as position, line width and pattern. These character-
istics are stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen
as pixels.
• Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, anima-
tion, audio and video. It uses at least three of these media types. Data is
organised by combining data in different formats. Audio software is used to
organise audio and animation software for video.
• Word processing is the most widely used application software. It allows
characters to be entered and documents to be created. Word processing is
used to write letters, reports, assignments, articles and books. Data is organ-
ised when creating and saving a document.
• Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine text and
graphics to create a document. It is used to create many different types of
publications such as magazines, newspapers and books. Data is organised by
combining data in different formats. Publications are built by arranging
different design elements such as headings, columns of text and graphics.
• A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to
organise and store data that requires some type of calculation. A cell is the
intersection of a row and column. The organisation of data involves entering
data into a cell as a label, value or formula. Spreadsheets perform calculations
on values (numbers) and not labels (text).
• A database is an organised collection of data. Data is organised into data
structures called files, records, fields and characters. The data structure is
defined in a data dictionary. This includes information about the charac-
teristics of each item entered in the database, such as the field name, field
size, data type and field description. A table or list arranges data into columns
(fields) and rows (records).
Figure 2.10 A range of modern application software used to organise data in a variety of formats.

File converters are used to convert a file from one format to another so the
file can be used in another application. They are often available within a soft-
ware application. For example, some word processors allow the user to save a
document as an HTML file that can be viewed on the World Wide Web.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for organising data.
Common non-computer tools used for organising include hard copy systems and
pen and paper methods.
• Hard copy systems involve organising data on paper. Examples include
telephone directories and card catalogues. A telephone directory organises
data alphabetically according to a person’s family name. Large amounts of
data are organised using catalogue systems. Each item is classified according
to a number of categories. For example, in the library each book is classified
by author’s name, title, publisher and date of publication. They are also
organised in subject categories.
• There are numerous pen and paper methods for organising data. It is com-
mon for data to be organised into tables, represented diagrammatically,
summarised and put into lists. When designing a publication, people often
use pen and paper to outline the basic structure of the document. This is
often easier, faster and more flexible than using a computer.

organising data.
• Current trends in organising data include the increasing use of the Internet
and hypermedia. The Internet is growing at a very fast rate and has become
an everyday tool for many people. Data is organised and stored using
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). In addition to the growth of the
Internet, software applications are providing better ways of accessing
different types of data. For example, in early versions of word processing
programs it was impossible to import an image into a document. Today this
process is simple.
• Poorly organised data results in irrelevant information. If a database is poorly
defined, it will contain additional data that is not necessary to solve the
problem. For example, if a nursery in Parramatta stored information on its
customers in a database, there would be no need to include a field for
‘Country’ in the address information. It is important that data types be
clearly defined for the information to be relevant and accurate.
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• Data must be appropriate and complete. This issue was raised by the threat
of the ‘millennium bug’ or ‘Y2K’ problem in the late 1990s. Not considering
the end of the millennium, programmers used a two-digit field instead of a
four-digit field to record the year. They used two digits to minimise computer
memory and processing. With the change from 1999 to 2000, computer
programs would be in danger of malfunctioning because they would identify
‘00’ as being 99 years before ‘99’ instead of one year after. It has cost billions
of dollars to fix the incompleteness of this data.

Function
Exercise 2.2
1 What is digitising?
2 How is text converted into binary data?
3 What is the sampling rate?
4 List six main categories of application software used to solve most problems.
5 How is data organised in a spreadsheet?
6 How is data organised in a database?
7 Describe a hard copy system used to organise data.
8 Outline the issue raised by the threat of the ‘millennium bug’.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Some of these activities involve the use of application software. If necessary, refer to
chapters 5 to 11 for detailed descriptions of each application.
1 ‘Application software is so expensive you should be allowed to copy the software
from your friends.’ Discuss this statement. What is your view? Why?
2 Jenny Nguyen has bought her first car and has decided to monitor its fuel con-
sumption.
a Design a data collection sheet that can be carried in the car and used to
organise data over a three-month period. Each time she buys petrol, Jenny
records the odometer reading in kilometres, the number of litres purchased
and the current cost of petrol in cents per litre. The data collection sheet
should allow for calculations such as distance travelled since last fill, the cost
of filling up each time, the total cost per month and the number of kilometres
per litre the car achieved. Construct a spreadsheet to calculate the fuel
consumption. Save it with the filename FUEL.
b Using the ‘Save As’ command, save a copy of the file as formatted text (space
delimited). Open this file in a word processor.
3 a Create a table containing at least 10 different functions of your word pro-
cessor that you find useful. The table is to contain two columns, with the
headings: ‘Command/Feature’ and ‘Purpose’. Use the Help menu as a guide to
the functions of your word processor. Save it with the filename COMMANDS.
b Save a copy of the file as HTML. Open this file in a Web browser.
4 a Create an electronic database of your CD collection. Design appropriate
tables, forms, queries and reports to organise and analyse this data. Save it
with the filename CD.
b Save a copy of the file as HTML. Open this file in a Web browser.
5 a Create a graphic or select a piece of clip art of your favourite animal. Save it
with the filename ANIMAL.
b Save copies of the file in different file formats (TIFF, PICT, EPS, GIF, JPEG). See
which of these file formats can be opened in a graphics program, a desktop
publishing program and a Web browser.
6 Write a report on a piece of software that you like using. Describe what the
software does. Why do you like this software? What key areas of the software do
you use? What do you dislike about the software? How much does the software
cost? Outline the hardware requirements to use the software.

2.3 Analysing
Analysing is the interpretation of the data. It involves examining the data and
giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given meaning by people
it is called information. The hardware requirements for analysing data depend
on the type of analysis and amount of data. There is a range of software applica-
tions to analyse image, audio, video, text and numeric data. Non-computer tools
for analysing include searching manual filing systems and creating simulations
using models.
Hardware
Hardware requirements for analysing depend on the type of analysis. When
analysis involves large amounts of data or complex simulations, the hardware
must perform a large number of computations very quickly and with a high
degree of precision. If the simulations are complex, such as in scientific applica-
tions, then a supercomputer or mainframe may be required. Analysis depends on
the storage and processing capabilities of the information system.
• Large amounts of storage are needed to receive and retain data over a period
of time. If the primary storage (memory) and secondary storage (storage)
resources are abundant, then fast processing is possible.
• Fast processing is needed to complete the many calculations often required
for analysis. This is performed by the central processing unit (CPU).
Applications requiring complex analysis use parallel processing. This is the
simultaneous processing of instructions using multiple processors or CPUs.
Parallel processing is much faster than using one CPU. This type of processing
is examined later in this chapter.
Software
Participants use a range of software applications to analyse image, audio, video,
text and numeric data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain
detailed information on how different applications analyse data. The following is
brief summary.
• Searching is the process of locating data and information. Most software
applications have a ‘Find’ or ‘Search’ command. The user types in a string of
text or numbers and the software examines the data to find a match. A query
is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. There are
three methods of entering a simple query: selecting a menu option, using
query by example and using a query language.
• Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. Sorts are
performed in either ascending order (A to Z and 0 to 9) or descending order
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(Z to A and 9 to 0). In a database, sorting can be done on more than one

field, so that records are arranged in precise order.
• Modelling and simulations are used to make predictions and examine
decisions concerning real situations. A model is a representation of some
aspect of the real world and a simulation is the use of that model. Computer
simulations use a computer to model a real system. They have been
developed for many different fields of business, industry and science (see
Figure 2.11). Simple business simulations can be performed on a personal
computer using spreadsheet, financial or statistical software. They enable
businesses to plan and analyse all the factors affecting their business. For

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example, a spreadsheet models any activity that requires calculations, such as
a budget. Advanced simulations are performed on large computers such as
mainframes. For example, proposed car designs undergo simulated wind
tunnel tests using a computer. This analysis saves time and money.
• ‘What-if’ predictions are a powerful
feature of spreadsheet software. The
software allows the user to make
changes to one item of data and
observing the effects on other items.
For example, if you had a spread-
sheet that calculated loan repay-
ments you could change the interest
rate and observe the effect on the
repayments.
• Charts are a graphical representation
of numerical data. They convert data
in rows and columns into a picture
that can be read at a glance. Charts
make data easy to understand.
Trends are revealed and comparisons
can be made quickly. There are many
different types of charts including
bar, column, line and pie charts. Figure 2.11 Simulators are used by airlines to train pilots.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for analysing data. It is often
necessary to compare and contrast computer and non-computer tools for
analysis on the basis of speed, volume of data and cost. The following are some
of the non-computer tools used for analysis.
• Searching manual filing systems to retrieve documents depends on how
accurately the data has been organised and sorted. If the filing system has not
been regularly updated and irrelevant material removed, searching may be
time-consuming and frustrating. An appropriate organisation of files is
needed if data is to be easily retrieved and analysed.
• Simulations often involve using complex mathematical processes. A set of
rules, relationships and procedures are specified. During the simulation these
mathematical processes are analysed. In addition to gaining an understanding
of the system, the simulation may result in new rules or even a new situation.
Simulations range from using simple pen and paper models to complex inter-
active computer systems. For example, researchers may use simulation tech-
niques to carry out experiments instead of using rare materials or expensive
equipment.

issues. The following are some issues that relate specifically to analysing data.
• Unauthorised analysis of data occurs when people gain illegal access to an
information system. The theft of information and its subsequent analysis is a
major concern for any organisation (see Chapter 1).

• The incorrect analysis of data results in inaccurate information. If data has
been poorly organised or an inappropriate model used to represent a situa-
tion, the analysis will be wrong. It is very costly for organisations to make
decisions based on inaccurate information.
• Privacy is eroded by linking databases for analysis. Most people in pursuit of
society’s benefits readily give information about themselves to selected
organisations. They may also leave a trail of electronic data when they use a
credit card, visit the doctor, use the library, access the Internet or subscribe to
a magazine. If data from these sources is combined it can create an accurate
picture of a person’s habits, expenditure patterns and tastes. Those people can
then be targeted very precisely by advertisers. Using information technology
to combine and analyse personal data in this way is known as ‘data ware-
housing’ or ‘data mining’. On the other hand, organisations need to have
information to allow them to operate efficiently. Governments need informa-
tion to provide services to the community, such as schools, hospitals and other
social support organisations. Doctors must have access to patients’ medical
histories to treat them, and banks need proof of customers’ credit records to
provide loans. The personal data stored by information technology enables us
to maintain our high standard of living. Invasion of privacy is not a new prob-
lem. It has always been possible for information to fall into the wrong hands.
Figure 2.12 As more and more transactions are carried out online, privacy of data is becoming
an important issue for suppliers and consumers.
Exercise 2.3
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1 Describe two hardware requirements for analysis.

2 What type of processing is needed for complex analysis?
3 What are modelling and simulations?
4 What type of computers are used for advanced simulations?
5 Describe the process of using ‘what-if’ questions to analyse spreadsheet data.
6 List two non-computer tools used for analysis.
7 How can your privacy be eroded if databases are linked for analysis?

Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 We use models to help us understand ourselves and our world. They can be used
to demonstrate and predict behaviour based on our assumptions and beliefs, the
information we use and how we interpret it. Outline a model for:
a deciding what to eat for lunch
b choosing a person to marry.
2 The Data-Matching Act permits certain agencies to check records held by
different government departments, such as the tax office and the departments
responsible for social security, employment and education. It aims to catch
people who are cheating the welfare system. Do you think this is an invasion of
privacy? Why?
3 Modelling and simulation have been used in the genetic manipulation of animals.
The models are used by scientists to breed animals with desirable characteristics.
Do you think this information technology should be applied to humans? Why?
4 ‘The use of modelling and simulators makes life too predictable for everyone.’ Do
you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
5 Open the database file called CD, which you created in Exercise 2.2. Sort the data in
ascending order by CD title. Search for all the titles with the letter ‘e’ in their name.
6 Open the spreadsheet file called FUEL, which you created in Exercise 2.2. What
would be the effect on the cost per kilometre if the price of petrol increased by
10 cents per litre? What would be the effect if the number of kilometres
travelled was halved?
2.4 Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving data is a two-step process for retaining data. Storing saves
data and information for later use; retrieving obtains the data and information that
has been previously saved. The process of storing data is called writing and
retrieving data is called reading. There is a range of different hardware devices
used for storing and retrieving. Software is used to direct and control these devices.
Non-computer tools include paper-based storage systems, microfiche and libraries.
Hardware
The hardware used for storing and retrieving data is called secondary storage, or
simply storage. Data stored on a storage medium must be read into memory
before the CPU can access it. A backup is a copy of data held on a separate
storage medium for security purposes. Backups should be performed regularly.
Information systems need to store data because memory is limited in size and
volatile. Volatile means that when the computer is switched off, or the power
supply is interrupted, the contents of memory are lost. Secondary storage
provides a non-volatile and more permanent storage area than memory.
The hardware involved in storing and retrieving includes devices such as
magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory.
Magnetic disks
Magnetic disks are the most widely used storage medium for personal
computers. A magnetic disk consists of a circular piece of metal or plastic whose

surface has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Magnetic disks
use random access (or direct access) to retrieve data. This form of access allows
an item of data to be found directly without having to access all the data that
comes before it. Random access allows data to be retrieved much faster than
sequential access, which is used on magnetic tapes.
A disk drive is a device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. The disk drive
spins the disk and uses one or more heads to read and write data. If the disk is
permanently attached to the drive, it is called a fixed disk (hard disk). A disk
needs to be formatted to store data. Formatting organises the disk into sectors
and tracks, removes any data on the disk, analyses the disk for faults and creates
a directory to record information about files. This directory is called the file
allocation table (FAT) on personal computers. It stores the filename, file size,
time and date the file was last modified, and the address of the file. The address
of the file is its track and sector number. If a sector has a flaw, it is called a bad
sector and cannot be used to store data.
ITITFact
Fact
Head crash occurs when the head in a magnetic disk drive touches the
rapidly spinning disk and causes permanent damage and loss of data. It is
caused by excess heat, moisture or a drop in pressure.
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a magnetic disk made of flexible plastic and

covered with magnetic material. Even though floppy disks do not have a large
storage capacity and are slower than a hard drive for accessing data, they are a
portable and cheap storage medium. The most common size of floppy disk is
the 31/2 inch (9 cm). It is fully enclosed in a rigid plastic casing and is used for
storing small files. To be used, a floppy disk must be inserted into the disk drive
that is usually built into the system unit.
A hard disk is a magnetic disk made of metal or glass and covered with
magnetic material. It is rigid and not flexible like a floppy disk. This rigid con-
struction allows it to be rotated 10–100 times faster than a floppy disk, giving it
faster access to data. Hard disks store more data than floppy disks because the
data is stored more densely. Their storage capacity is usually measured in
gigabytes, with larger capacities coming onto the market regularly. Hard disks
are partitioned before they are formatted. A partition is an area that functions as
a separate disk. Each partition is assigned a letter as though it were a separate
disk drive. The size of each partition is variable and must be specified. On IBM-
compatible computers, hard disk partitions usually start with the letter ‘C’.
A disk controller is responsible for the transfer of data between the
computer and the disk drive. It consists of electrical circuits built into the disk
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drive or contained on an expansion card. There are numerous standards for disk
controllers, such as EIDE, Ultra DMA and SCSI.
• EIDE (enhanced integrated drive electronics) supports a storage capacity up
to 8.4 Gb and data transfer rates up to 66 megabytes per second.
• Ultra DMA (direct memory access) has increased data transfer rates up to 66
megabytes per second and improved data integrity by using cyclical
redundancy check (CRC). It is also referred to as Ultra ATA.
• SCSI (small computer system interface) controllers are usually contained on
an expansion card. They provide data transfer rates of up to 80 megabytes
per second and support multiple disk drives.
Function
Removable cartridges are disks encased in a
metal or plastic cartridge that are removed like a
floppy disk. Removable cartridges are fast, though
usually not as fast as fixed hard disks. They
combine the best aspects of hard and floppy
disks. There are a number of types of removable
cartridges designed for use with personal
computers, with different capacities. Each type
of cartridge must be used with its own type of
disk drive. Two formats that have become popular
are Zip disks and Jaz disks (see Figure 2.13).
• Zip disks (or cartridges) are slightly larger
than a 31/2 inch floppy disk and about twice as
thick. They can store 100 or 250 Mb of data
and have a transfer rate of 1.4 megabytes per
second. Zip disks are popular for backing up
hard disks and transporting files because they
are relatively inexpensive for their capacity. Figure 2.13 Zip and Jaz disks are two popular types
Zip drives can be internal or external and of removable cartridges.
require special software for file management.
• Jaz disks (or cartridges) can store up to 2 Gb of data and have a transfer rate
of 5.5 megabytes per second. Jaz disks are suited to storing large files for
multimedia, graphics and sound.
Virtual memory is a technique used by the operating system to increase the
amount of memory. It works by setting aside part of a hard disk and treating it as
though it were memory. A common method used by operating systems to
perform virtual memory is called paging. Paging involves allocating a fixed
number of bytes every time data is transferred from memory to a disk. It requires
fast access to a disk so that ‘pages’ of data can be switched rapidly to memory.
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a long, thin strip of
plastic coated with a thin layer of
magnetic material. The tape is wound
onto reels, sometimes inside a cartridge.
Tape is read and written on a tape drive
that winds the tape from one reel to the
other, causing it to pass a read/write
head. Tape can store large quantities of
data inexpensively and is often used as a
backup medium (see Figure 2.14).
The main disadvantage with mag-
netic tape is that it uses sequential
access to retrieve data. This form of
access starts at the beginning of the
tape and reads all of the data until the
required item is found. Sequential
access is slow, making magnetic tapes
unsuitable for data that is updated
often. Magnetic tapes come in a variety
of sizes and formats.
Figure 2.14 Tape racks holding tape cartridges.

• QIC tapes (quarter-inch cartridges) look like audio tape cassettes and are
inexpensive. There are many different formats of QIC tapes with capacities
ranging from 80 Mb to 5 Gb.
• DAT cartridges (digital audio tape) are a 4 mm tape that can store between
2 Gb and 24 Gb. They require relatively expensive tape drives and have slow
data transfer rates of 2 Mb per second.
• 8 mm cartridges use the same helical-scan technology as VCR tapes to write
data at very high densities. They have capacities ranging between 5 Gb and
50 Gb and have a transfer rate of 6 Mb per second. These cartridges require
an expensive tape drive.
ITITFact
Fact
Magnetic tape was first used to record data and programs in 1951 as part
of the UNIVAC computer system.
Optical disks
An optical disk is a storage medium on which data is read and written using
laser technology. They are polycarbonate plastic disks whose surface is coated
with a reflective layer of metal. The data is written to the disk by a high-
powered laser that burns millions of tiny holes called pits on the surface. Optical
disks are portable and use random access to retrieve data. There are several
different kinds of optical disks.
• CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) disks are 12 centimetres wide
and capable of storing 650 Mb. However, once the data has been stored on
the CD, is it ‘read only’—it cannot be changed or added to (see Figure 2.15).
A CD-ROM drive is needed to read data from a CD. They are slower than a
hard disk drive but are becoming progressively faster and cheaper. The higher
the drive speed, the faster the data access. CD-ROMs are convenient for
storing data that remains constant, such as encyclopedias, reference material,
educational titles, games and multimedia applications.
• CD-R (compact disc recordable) disks
allow data to be written once but read
many times. They are also called WORM
disks (write once, read many). A CD-R
drive, or ‘CD burner’, is required to write
the data. CD-R has become a popular
storage medium as the price of CD-R
drives has dropped. A CD-R drive allows
users to create CD-ROMs and audio CDs,
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and to archive large amounts of data. Their

disadvantage is that the writing process is
permanent.
• CD-RW (compact disc rewritable) disks
allows the user to write, erase and rewrite
data. Erasing the disk is achieved by
heating the surface and quickly cooling it.
A CD-RW is slower than a hard disk and
after frequent use areas of the disk tend to
Figure 2.15 A CD-ROM drive. become inaccessible.

Function
• DVD (digital versatile disk) is a disk format that can store large amounts of
data. A DVD-ROM is the same size as a CD-ROM but provides storage of
between 4.7Gb and 17 Gb. DVD drives are compatible with CD-ROMs and
audio CDs. One of the major advantages of a DVD is that data, video and
audio have the same file structure. This file structure is called UDF (universal
disc format). This overcomes problems of incompatibility with multimedia
applications. DVDs can store full-length movies.
Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip that retains its data when the power
is removed. Flash memory is erased and written in fixed blocks ranging from
512 bytes to 256 Kb. Flash memory cards look similar to a credit card and come
in a variety of formats such as PC cards, CompactFlash and SmartMedia. They are
widely used in digital cameras, modems, mobile phones and portable computers.
Software
Software directs and controls the hardware storage sector
devices. To store data to a magnetic disk it needs to
be formatted. Formatting a disk prepares a disk to
accept data by organising it into tracks and sectors
(see Figure 2.16). A track is a band formed by con-
centric circles, and a sector is a section of a track that
can store data. The number of tracks and sectors is
determined by the operating system and the storage
medium. A 31/2 inch floppy disk is capable of storing
1.44 megabytes consisting of 80 tracks on each side
and 18 sectors per track. Each sector has an address,
so that the computer can go directly to a specific track
area (direct access). Formatting a floppy disk usually
takes a couple of minutes. When a disk is formatted, Figure 2.16 A disk showing tracks and sectors.
you can read and write data as files to that disk.
Application software stores data to a storage medium using the ‘Save’
command. The first time data is saved, it must be given a filename. The ‘Save As’
command allows the user to change the filename, location and file format of the
data. To retrieve the data, the user selects the ‘Open’ command and chooses the
required filename. Storing data should be performed frequently so that the data
is not lost. Software used for storage and retrieval includes the following types.
• Hardware interface software controls the hardware devices used for storage.
It is usually classified as part of the operating system. Each storage device has
particular specifications that are controlled by the hardware interface software.
• File management software organises files on a storage medium such as a hard
disk. It is usually part of the operating system. In general, a file is recognised
by a filename and contains either a program or data. Depending on the
operating system, the filename can be between 8 and 255 characters long.
There may be thousands of files on a hard disk and to work effectively the
user will need quick access to these files. The files are stored and organised in
folders or directories. There can be many levels of folders. The folder at the
top level contains other folders for specific purposes. Each of these folders
contains other folders or files at the next level. File management software
performs allows the user to create, delete, open, close, rename, copy and
move files and folders (see Figure 2.17).

• File formats are used for different data types. On many
types of computer systems, a filename extension is used to
identify a file format. Some of the common extensions are
BMP, JPG, GIF and PCT for graphics; WAV, MID and MP3
for audio; MPG and QT for video; and DOC, TXT and RTF
for text files. Image, video and audio files require signifi-
cantly more storage than text and numbers.
• A database management system (DBMS) is the software
used to access a database. A DBMS itself has no data in it. It
allows a user to enter, store and retrieve data. The data in a
database is organised and stored in files, records, fields and
characters. The user can choose which data is required and
how to display that information in a meaningful way.
Information is retrieved by searching the database or con-
structing a query (see Chapter 6).
• An Internet browser is a software program that allows users
to access documents stored on other computers connected
to the World Wide Web. If the address (URL) of a Web page
is entered into the browser, the browser retrieves the Web
page from that location and displays it. A search engine is a
database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using
keywords. The search engine scans the index for keywords
and retrieves a list of the Web sites that contain those
keywords (see Chapter 11).
• Passwords are secret words or numbers that the user types
on the keyboard to gain access to an information system.
Figure 2.17 Different levels of Good data protection systems require users to change their
folders on a hard disk (C: drive) and passwords often, so that only authorised people have access
floppy disk (A: drive). to certain data.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for storing and retrieving data.
The following are some of the non-computer tools used for storing and retrieving.
• Paper-based storage systems include folders, boxes, bookcases and filing sys-
tems. They are often a convenient method of data storage. However, paper
storage systems require a large amount of space and specific data is often
difficult to retrieve.
• Microfiche are transparent sheets of film about 10 × 15 centimetres that
store around 200 pages of print. They were a popular method of storing
documents for several decades, particularly in libraries. Back issues of
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newspapers and magazines were stored and retrieved using microfiche.

People could retrieve data directly without having to start at the beginning of
the document. Microfiche has largely been replaced by optical disks.
• A library is a storage and retrieval area for information in a variety of forms,
such as books, newspapers, magazines and CDs. Many countries have estab-
lished national libraries to ensure an orderly collection and storage of data.
Libraries store data using the Dewey classification system. It classifies books
into 10 main subject areas using decimal numbers. Data is retrieved using the
attributes of the book, such as the author’s name, title, publisher, subject and
date of publication.

Function
The widespread use of information technology
has raised a number of ethical issues for people.
The following are some of the issues that relate
specifically to storing and retrieving data.
• Security of data and information is a major
issue. The cost of replacing stored data that is
deliberately or accidentally damaged is
enormous. Data security involves a series of
safeguards to protect data, such as passwords,
personal objects, biometric devices, firewalls,
data encryption, securing waste, carefully
screening employees and having appropriate
backup procedures (see Chapter 1).
• Unauthorised retrieval of data refers to
people gaining illegal access to information
systems. These people are called hackers.
Hackers are often involved in information
theft or financial theft. Their crimes are
often not reported due to adverse publicity
and are not regarded in the same light as
conventional robbery (see Chapter 1).
Exercise 2.4
1 What is storage and retrieval?
2 How is data retrieved from a magnetic disk?
3 Describe some of the information stored by the file allocation table.
4 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of floppy disks.
5 What is a hard disk?
6 Describe a Zip disk.
7 What is the purpose of virtual memory?
8 What is magnetic tape?
9 What is the main disadvantage of magnetic tapes?
10 List three different types of magnetic tapes.
11 How is data written to a CD?
12 Describe a CD-ROM disk.
13 Outline one of the major advantages of DVD.
14 Describe flash memory.
15 What does formatting a disk involve?
16 Describe some of the functions performed by file management software.
17 How is information retrieved from the Web?
18 How is microfiche used in libraries?
19 List two issues related to the storing and retrieving of data.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 IBM invented the first floppy disk in 1967. The 3 1/2 inch floppy disk is still
packaged with many computer systems but other manufacturers have phased
them out. Will the floppy disk continue to be an important storage medium?
Explain. What storage medium will be used in the next 10 years?
2 A CD-ROM cookbook allows users to search for recipes that meet certain criteria
and provides video demonstrations. Outline some of the advantages and dis-
advantages of a CD-ROM cookbook over a traditional cookbook.
3 Optical disks are being used to store images of famous paintings. The images are
very clear, portions are magnified and works can be displayed instantly based on
particular criteria. Do you think national galleries will take advantage of this
technology? Explain. Who would use the optical disk? What are the advantages
of a real art gallery compared to an optical disk?
4 A large amount of memory enables a computer to retrieve and store data quickly
and thus operate at a high speed. However, memory is more expensive than
storage. When purchasing a computer, what factors need to be considered to
decide on the amount of storage required?
5 David deleted a file by reformatting his disk. Is this an appropriate method of
deleting a file? Why? Outline a reason for formatting a disk that contains data.
6 The manager of a local furniture store wants to target people who have recently
applied for an extension to their house. By sending these people a personalised
letter outlining the latest deals he will increase sales. He has offered a councillor
$2000 for a disk containing the names and addresses of all people who have pro-
posed building extensions. The manager has stressed that no one will ever know
where he obtained the information. Outline the ethical issues involved in this
situation.
7 ‘In the future, people will carry around a single disk or card that contains all the
data about their life. This would include medical records, finances, test results
and lifestyle choices.’ Do you agree with this statement? Why? Outline the
possible impact of this technology on your life.
2.5 Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data by editing and updating it. It is necessary
to select appropriate hardware for specific types of processing. The hardware
allows the application software to edit and manipulate different data types.
Non-computer tools include documenting the procedures for processing.
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Hardware
Processing is performed by a computer’s central processing unit and is measured
by the clock speed. Processing is dependent on the memory capabilities of the
system. The system unit is the collection of hardware components that includes
the central processing unit, memory and associated electronics.
Central processing unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is a set of electrical circuits responsible for
controlling and processing data within the computer. It is the ‘brain’ of the

Function
computer. The CPU accepts the data from any input device, changes this data
according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends the results to an
output device.
The CPU consists of tens of millions of electrical components located on a
thin silicon wafer called an integrated circuit or silicon chip. There are several
different types of chips including those from Intel (Pentium) and Motorola
(PowerPC). In a personal computer, the CPU is contained on a single integrated
circuit and is called a microprocessor. In more powerful computers, the CPU
may consist of more than one integrated circuit. These integrated circuits are
located on a flat printed circuit board inside the computer called the mother-
board or main board (see Figure 2.18). The motherboard also contains other
integrated circuits for special functions such as storage, video, arithmetic
and sound.
floppy disk
drive
power
supply
hard disk
drive
motherboard
CPU
Figure 2.18 Inside a personal computer.
The CPU is constantly undergoing development to make it more powerful.

Initially, there were many hardware manufacturers who competed against each
other, and their CPUs were incompatible. This meant that software designed for
one chip would not run on a computer with a different chip. Today, there are
several industry standards for CPUs. In addition, software and hardware
developers undertake joint research and development to develop better CPUs.
This allows the same programs to run on different platforms.
The CPU is made up of two components: the control unit and the arithmetic
logic unit.
• The control unit directs and coordinates the entire computer system. It is the
organiser that directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as
traffic lights control the flow of cars at an intersection. The control unit
selects and retrieves instructions from storage in sequence, interprets them
and starts the required operation.
• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is part of the CPU that carries out all the
arithmetical and logical calculations. Arithmetical calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical calculations have a
true or false answer and include relational operators (>, <, =, >=, <=, and <>)
and logical operators (AND, OR and NOT). The ALU contains several types
of registers. A register is a temporary storage area for small amounts of data
or instructions needed for processing. It provides fast access to data.
The fetch-execute cycle, or machine cycle, is a cycle of events on a single
instruction carried out by the CPU to process data. Before an instruction is
processed, the instructions and data are placed in memory. The CPU performs
the following steps for each instruction.
1 The control unit fetches the instructions from memory.
2 The control unit decodes the instructions (works out what to do) and makes
the data available to the arithmetic logic unit. The first two steps are called
the instruction time or i-time.
3 The arithmetic logic unit performs the operation on the data.
4 The control unit places the result of the operation into memory or a register.
Steps 3 and 4 are called the execution time or e-time.
2 Decode 3 Execute
i-time e-time
1 Fetch 4 Store
Figure 2.19 The fetch-execute cycle.
In the past, the CPU waited until an instruction completed all four stages of
the fetch-execute cycle before beginning work on the next instruction. How-
ever, most processors today use pipelining. In pipelining the CPU fetches a new
instruction as soon as the preceding instruction moves onto the next stage. Pipe-
lining speeds up the fetch-execute cycle as several instructions are being pro-
cessed at the same time. For example, as one instruction is being fetched, a second
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is being decoded, a third is being executed and a fourth is storing the result.
Processing speed
All computers have an electronic clock to regulate the fetch-execute cycle. The
clock generates a sequence of regular electrical pulses that the control unit
synchronises with the fetch-execute cycle. The clock speed is the number of
electrical pulses per second and is often measured in megahertz (mHz). The
higher the clock speed, the faster the CPU can execute a particular instruction.
A speed of 500 mHz means the clock is generating 500 million electrical pulses
per second.

Function
In addition to the clock speed, the system’s performance is measured using
the word size, response time and CPU utilisation.
• Word size is the number of bits processed by the CPU at one time. Most
computers use a word size of 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. The bigger the word size,
the faster the computer.
• Response time is the amount of time taken for the computer to respond to a
command. The response time varies according to the data entered or the
command issued. It is often less than one second.
• CPU utilisation refers to the amount of time the CPU is working (see Figure
2.20). It is presented as a report and often compared with the disk input and
output rate (called disk I/O). Systems lacking memory or power often spend
more time moving data to and from a disk than actually processing the data.
This is referred to as thrashing.
Figure 2.20 CPU utilisation.
Memory
Memory is the part of the computer that holds data and programs before and
after they have been processed by the CPU. Memory is internal storage as it uses
integrated circuits (silicon chips) located on the computer’s motherboard.
Secondary storage is external storage as the data is kept away from the mother-
board and the CPU. Memory is also known as main memory, primary memory,
main storage or primary storage. Memory consists of RAM, cache and ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is where data and instructions are held
temporarily. It depends on a supply of electricity to maintain data storage. When
the power to the computer is shut off, everything in RAM is lost. In other
words, RAM is volatile memory. The data in RAM can be accessed randomly.
That is, a byte of memory is accessed without touching any of the other bytes.
There are two main types of RAM.
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM, pronounced ‘dee-ram’) is memory that must be
constantly refreshed. The contents of DRAM must be updated a thousand
times a second as the capacitors used to store the data quickly lose their
electrical charge. Most memory uses DRAM chips as they are small,
inexpensive and relatively simple. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM, pro-
nounced ‘ess-dee-ram’) is a type of DRAM that is synchronised with the
CPU. It is faster than ordinary DRAM.

• Static RAM (SRAM, pronounced ‘ess-ram’) is memory that does not have to be
updated or refreshed. SRAM chips have a faster access time (10 nanoseconds)
compared to DRAM chips (60 nanoseconds). However, SRAM chips are much
more expensive than DRAM as they contain more electrical components.
SRAM chips are often found in portable computers and the cache.
A computer’s performance is dependent on its RAM. For this reason RAM
manufacturers are continually inventing new designs to provide the fastest
possible access times at the lowest possible cost. This has resulted in different
types of DRAM and SRAM chips. A computer’s memory can be upgraded by
inserting additional DRAM chips into special slots on the motherboard (see
Figure 2.21). These slots are limited and require specific types of DRAM chips.
For example, a memory slot with a 72-pin socket needs a DRAM chip with the
same number of pins. It is also necessary to make sure the DRAM chips are the
appropriate speed. If DRAM chips with different speeds are installed they will
slow down the computer.
Figure 2.21 A memory module which provides 128 Mb of RAM.
Cache (pronounced ‘cash’) is a temporary storage area used to store fre-

quently requested data and instructions. It makes the computer operate at a
much faster speed. The larger the cache, the faster the computer will operate.
There are two types of caching.
• Cache memory is high-speed memory located between the CPU and RAM.
It improves performance by using SRAM and reducing the need for the CPU
to access the slower DRAM chips.
• A disk cache works in a similar way to cache memory. It stores the most
recent data from the hard disk in RAM. When the CPU needs access to data
from the disk it first checks the disk cache. Disk caching improves the
computer’s performance because accessing data from RAM is a thousand
times faster than accessing a disk.
The effectiveness of the cache is dependent on the number of times the CPU
finds the data in the cache. This is called the hit rate. Programmers are improving
the hit rate by developing strategies to anticipate data a user might request
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based on their current use.

ROM (read only memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed at the
time of production and cannot be changed by the user or the computer. It is
permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read) and not entered
into storage (written). The instructions stored in ROM are called firmware
because they are somewhere between software and hardware. Storage of data
within the ROM protects it from being damaged or changed. Most personal
computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores important programs such
as booting the computer and checking for input and output devices. The
instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input and output

Function
devices are called the ROM BIOS (basic input/output system). The computer
manufacturer sets the actual contents of ROM and it is non-volatile. Non-
volatile memory does not lose its contents when the power to the computer is
turned off. There are a number of different variations of ROM.
• Programmable ROM (PROM, pronounced ‘prom’) chips allow data and
instructions to be entered only once and cannot be reprogrammed. The
difference between PROM and ROM is that PROM is manufactured as blank
memory while with ROM the firmware is entered during the manufacturing
process.
• Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM, pronounced ‘ee-prom’) chips can
be erased and reprogrammed by the manufacturer. Exposing the chip to
ultraviolet light clears the memory in the EPROM. EPROM chips are used in
personal computers and many games devices such as arcade machines and
poker machines. They enable the manufacturer to change the contents of
ROM to cater for new versions of the firmware and remove any errors.
Types of processing
An information system should reflect the methods used to process information. If
people are working individually and rarely share work they use a non-networked
information system. However, if people work in a group and need to share data
and resources, they require a networked information system. There are three
types of processing used with networks to increase a computer’s performance.
• Centralised processing is controlled
by a central computer. The central
computer is a mainframe or midrange
computer that performs all the pro-
cessing (see Figure 2.22). It allows
data and resources to be shared.
Centralised processing is used by
organisations that require online
access to a central database but are
geographically spread, such as an air-
line. Centralised processing is totally
dependent on the central computer.
If this computer malfunctions, the
entire system ‘goes down’.
• Distributed processing consists of Figure 2.22 Centralised processing controlled by a mainframe.
workstations connected to shared
data and resources at a local site. People do their own work on a PC or work-
station but have the ability to share work and resources. Distributed
processing will continue to operate even if some of the workstations are not
functioning. However, security can be a problem as the data is spread out.
• Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of instructions using
multiple processors or CPUs. It is much faster than using one CPU. Parallel
processing divides the processing task between a series of processors. This
requires special software that can recognise how to divide up problems and
bring the results back together again. Parallel processing is used by Internet
search engines to convert a single query into several separate queries that can
be performed simultaneously. It also has significant applications in artificial
intelligence. Parallel processing performs many processes simultaneously like
the human brain.

Software
Each piece of application software processes data. It involves editing and
manipulating data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed
information on how data is processed in different applications. The following is
brief summary.
• Text and numbers are edited in many different ways such as deleting,
inserting, moving and copying. In a spreadsheet, calculations are performed
using formulas. Errors in text are corrected using a spell checker and a gram-
mar checker. The structure of a database can be modified to take into
account new requirements.
• Images are edited using graphics tools. Graphics can be positioned, cropped,
resized and distorted. When you enlarge a bit-mapped graphic, you also
enlarge each pixel and create a jagged staircase pattern called aliasing. Vector
graphics are easily edited using a drawing program.
• Video and audio are edited using digital video production software and audio
software. Editing video involves adding text, audio and graphics to the video
clip. Sounds are edited in many different ways such as deleting sounds,
changing the speed, adding effects such as echo, overlaying (mixing) sound
files and altering the quality of the sound file.
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools are used to assist understanding of how the processing in
an information system transforms data into information. The following non-
computer tools are used for processing.
• Documentation is written to explain the procedures for processing. It may be
a detailed description of the processes or a set of steps to be followed. Docu-
mentation in the form of user manuals is provided by software companies to
explain their products.
• Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are a graphical method of representing a system
using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs
focus on the flow of data between information processes in a system. A
system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data
and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system
such as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular
actions (see Chapter 3).

Functio
processing data.
• The type of processing raises issues of security and flexibility. It is easier to
secure data on one computer rather than on numerous workstations. There-
fore centralised processing is more secure than distributed processing. On the
other hand, distributed processing is much more flexible and is not totally
dependent on one central computer.
• Ownership of processed data is causing increasing concern in society. Organ-
isations can use our preferences, weaknesses and habits to their commercial
advantage. Data on what we buy, how we pay for it, what we read, what we
watch on television and how much we earn is valuable to those who want to
Function
sell us things. Who owns this data? How is data about us being combined,
sold and exchanged? For example, if you apply to a building inspector for a
permit to extend your house, who owns this data? Does the building
inspector have the right to sell this processed data to a bricklayer? Would it
be a benefit or an intrusion of privacy if you were contacted by a bricklayer
offering to quote for laying bricks?
• Bias in processing can be caused by biased data being collected, or incorrect
manipulation of that data.
Exercise 2.5
1 Describe the system unit.
2 What is the central processing unit?
3 Decribe the two components of the CPU.
4 Describe the four steps of the machine cycle performed by the CPU.
5 Why do most processors use pipelining?
6 What is the clock speed?
7 What is RAM?
8 What are the advantages of SRAM over DRAM?
9 What is the purpose of a cache?
10 List two types of caching.
11 What is the firmware of a computer?
12 Explain the difference between PROM and EPROM.
13 Describe the types of organisations that use centralised processing.
14 What is parallel processing?
15 Describe some of the ways of editing text and numbers.
16 List two non-computer tools for processing.
17 Why is centralised processing more secure than distributed programming?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 ‘A computer is more intelligent than any person since the CPU can carry out
arithmetic operations many times faster than the human brain.’ Comment on this
statement.
2 The CPU has been described as the brain of a computer. Reverse this analogy and
apply it to the fetch-execute cycle. Select a simple task and divide it into the
actions of the fetch-execute cycle. Are there any actions that don’t fit the fetch-
execute cycle? Why is this?
3 ROM is described as permanent memory but does this really exist? Explain.
4 In 1994 Intel’s Pentium processor contained a rounding error. It would take
25 000 years for the average user to be affected by this mistake. Intel was forced
to replace every processor at a cost of a billion dollars. Do you think people
should have demanded replacement processors? Why? Should perfection be
expected in a computer? Are you prepared to pay the price for perfection?

5 Research the increases in the processor speed of personal computers over the
past five years. What do you predict will be the processor speed of a personal
computer in three years time?
2.6 Transmitting and receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data and information within and
between information systems. The hardware includes modems and networks as
well as the internal components of the computer. Software is used to direct the
use of the hardware. There is a range of non-computer tools for transmitting and
receiving data, such as mail, phone, fax, radio and television.
Communication concepts
There are two main types of digital data tranmission: serial and parallel. Serial
transfer transmits data one bit at a time through a single line. Parallel transfer
transmits more than one bit of data simultaneously using separate lines (see
Figure 2.23). Obviously parallel transfer is much quicker than serial transfer
because it can send more than one bit at a time. However, parallel transfer is
used only for distances less than a few metres, otherwise errors occur in trans-
mitting the data and the cabling is too expensive. It is used both inside the
system unit and for connecting peripheral devices such as printers and disk
drives. Serial transfer is used to connect
Serial transfer – 1 bit at a time peripheral devices such as modems and
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
printers, and is used over longer distances
→ → → → → → → → through telephone lines, coaxial cables,
fibre optic cables or microwave devices.
Serial transmission can be either asyn-
1 character chronous or synchronous. In asynchron-
ous transmission, each byte is identified
Parallel transfer – 8 bits at a time with special start and stop bits. This has
become the standard for personal com-
0 → 0 → 1 → 1 → 1 → puters. A parity bit is used to check for
1 → 1 → 0 → 1 → 0 → errors in transmission. A parity bit is an
additional bit attached to the binary code
1 → 0 → 0 → 0 → 0 →
for each transmitted character. If an odd
1 → 1 → 1 → 1 → 1 → parity is chosen, the number of ones in
0 → 0 → 0 → 0 → 1 → the eight bits must be odd. If an error has
occurred in a single bit, then the parity
0 → 0 → 0 → 1 → 1 →
will be different and an error in trans-
0 → 0 → 0 → 1 → 0 → mission has occurred. Synchronous trans-
Functio
1 → 0 → 1 → 1 → 1 → mission requires all the data to be sent at

the same rate. It is faster and more effi-
Figure 2.23 Serial and parallel data transfer. cient than asynchronous transmission, and
is used on larger computer systems.
The direction of data flow is either simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
Simplex mode allows transmission in one direction only, from the sender to the
receiver. It is limited and is not widely used in telecommunications. Half duplex
mode allows transmission in both directions but not at the same time. This
means the sender and the receiver take turns. Full duplex mode allows trans-
mission in both directions at the same time (see Figure 2.24).

Function
simplex mode half duplex mode
one way
both ways
one at a time
full duplex mode
both ways
simultaneously
Figure 2.24 Different transmission modes.
The speed of data transfer is measured either by its baud rate or by the
number of bits per second (bps). Baud rate is a measure of the maximum
number of data symbols or electrical signals that can be sent per second over the
communication link. The number of bits per second is another way of
measuring the transmission rate. It can be different to the baud rate because a
data symbol may contain more than one bit of data. For example, a 2400 bps
device might operate at 600 baud.
Hardware
Hardware for transmitting and receiving includes modems and networks as well
as the internal components of the computer.
Communication within the computer

Communication within a computer involves transferring data between
peripheral devices, the hard disk and the CPU. Every part of the computer is
linked to the CPU either directly or indirectly by a bus.
A bus is a pathway of wires and connectors that provides the link between
input, storage, process and output devices. A bus can be thought of as a highway
on which data travels within the computer. The size of the bus is called its
width. The greater the width, the more data that can be transmitted at the one
time. For example, a 64-bit bus has 64 lanes and can transmit data 64 bits at a
time. A 32-bit bus moves 32 bits at a time. The speed of the bus is also an
important factor in the performance of the computer. A faster bus will make the
applications run faster. There are two different types of buses.
• An internal bus is located on the motherboard and links the CPU and
memory. These buses are photochemically etched layers of metal that create
electrical channels.
• An expansion bus connects peripheral devices to the CPU and memory. If
the expansion bus connects directly to the CPU and bypasses RAM it is
called a local bus. There are different types of expansion buses, such as ISA,
EISA, VESA and PCI.
Peripheral devices are linked to the CPU using expansion slots and ports. An
expansion slot is an opening where a circuit board can be inserted into the
motherboard to extend the capabilities of the computer. The circuit board that
is inserted is called an expansion card or expansion board. There are many
different types of expansion cards for different purposes, such as to connect a
monitor, hard disk, scanner or other peripheral device. Expansion cards are also
used to extend memory.
ITITFact
Fact
The ‘Gang of Nine’ is a group of nine companies (AST Research, Compaq,
Epson, Hewlett-Packard, NEC, Olivetti, Tandy, Wyse Technology and
Zenith Data Systems) who joined forces in 1989 to maintain the industry
standard architecture and develop Extended ISA (EISA).
A port is a socket used to connect peripheral devices. It is usually located at

the rear of the system unit (see Figure 2.25). Ports have different connectors
that are used to attach cables to the peripheral devices. Most connectors are
available in two types: male and female. Male connectors have one or more
exposed pins like the end of a power cord. Female connectors have matching
holes like a power point. Ports are either parallel or serial.
• Parallel ports transmit eight bits (one byte) at a time along eight parallel
lines. They are used to connect devices that send and receive large amounts
of data such as printers and disk drives. There are different types of parallel
ports, such as Centronics and SCSI (small computer system interface,
pronounced ‘skuzzy’).
• Serial ports transmit data one bit at a time using only one communication
line. Serial ports are often called COM or communications ports and are
assigned a number such as COM1 and COM2. Serial ports are used to
connect almost any peripheral device, such as a mouse, keyboard, modem or
plotter. The most common type of serial port is the RS-232 (recommended
standard). It supports the use of a 25-pin connector (DB-25) or a 9-pin
connector (DB-9). Higher speed standards have been developed such as the
RS-423 and RS-422.
speaker, microphone
mouse USB and line in
ports MIDI
power
Functio
parallel port
serial ports monitor
network
keyboard
Figure 2.25 The standard ports for connecting peripheral devices.

Function
Modems
A modem is a device that enables data to be transmitted from one computer to
another. The word modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modem
converts (modulates) digital signals sent from a computer into analog signals
suitable for transmission on a telephone line. Analog signals are pulses in the
form of waves. Depending on the medium used, they can be electrical pulses or
light pulses. When the signal is received by another modem, it reverses the
process by converting (demodulating) the analog signal into a digital signal
suitable for the receiving computer (see Figure 2.26). A direct connect modem
is the most common type of modem as it is connected directly to a telephone
line. Most modems use a command set developed by Hayes and are described as
‘Hayes compatible’.
Computer Digital signal

1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Modem
Analog signal
1 0 1 0
Phone line
Modem
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Digital signal Computer
Figure 2.26 Modems modulate and demodulate signals.
Modems may be internal or external.

• Internal modems are a type of ex-
pansion card fitted into an expansion
slot inside the system unit. Internal
modems have become popular be-
cause they do not occupy desk space
(see Figure 2.27).
• External modems are usually con-
nected to a serial port (COM1 or
COM2), require a power supply and
take up some desk space. They have
a set of status lights to indicate what
the modem is doing, and are gen-
erally more expensive than internal
modems.
Figure 2.27 An internal modem being fitted into an expansion slot.

The speed of a modem is measured by the number of bits transmitted per
second or the baud rate. A common transmission speed is 56 000 bps, often
abbreviated to 56K. Modems operate with different standards. The CCITT
(Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony) V series
is a set of standards that define modem operations, speed, data compression and
error correction. These standards, which are being continually updated, include
V.21, V.32bis, V.34 and V.90.
Modems that have a facsimile (fax) capability are called fax modems. They
can send a computer-generated document to a fax machine and receive a docu-
ment from a fax machine. Some fax modems use optical character recognition
software to convert incoming fax messages to word processing files. This allows
fax messages to be edited.
Networks
When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are
connected, it is called a network. The simplest form of a network is when one
computer is connected directly to another computer using a cable. However, a
network can also consist of hundreds of computers connected together. The
devices used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor
are called terminals. Terminals can be either dumb, smart or intelligent.
• Dumb terminals do not contain a processor and usually consist of a keyboard
and monitor.
• Smart terminals can do some low-level processing such as text editing.
• Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities. Most
personal computers are classified as intelligent terminals and are called
workstations on a network.
Networks are classified according to the distances they cover and include
local area networks and wide area networks.
Local area networks (LANs) connect computers (or terminals) within a
building or group of buildings on one site. LANs operate in a small geographical
area and the terminals are linked together by cables (coaxial or fibre optic).
They are found in offices, hospitals, schools and tertiary institutions. LANs often
contain a central computer called the network server. File servers are computers
that perform a function for other computers on the network such as sharing
hardware resources.
There are three advantages in using a LAN:
• They allow limited hardware resources such as printers, hard disks and
modems to be shared.
• They allow application software (word processing, databases, spreadsheets
and graphics programs) to be shared.
Functio
• They improve communication among users on the network by allowing mes-

sages to be sent and received.
Wide area networks (WANs) connect computers (or terminals) over
hundreds or thousands of kilometres. WANs rely on links such as coaxial cables,
fibre optic cables and microwave devices. WANs often consist of a main
computer system called the host and a number of terminals (workstations or
nodes). A WAN may use a private leased line, the normal telephone network or
a combination of both. A private leased line is dedicated to the network and
offers higher transmission speeds than those available through the Public

Function
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). PSTN links are relatively cheap if work-
stations do not require constant connection but the link is not guaranteed and
can be interrupted. WANs are slower than LANs at transferring data because
they are not directly connected.
Software
All application software transmits and receives data within an individual com-
puter. Special communications software is used to send and receive data over
networks and using modems. The following is brief summary.
• Communications software manages the transfer of data, files and commands
between computers. It uses protocols to establish a connection. A protocol is
a set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers. It defines
how the information is transmitted and how errors are detected. Two com-
puters must use the same protocols, otherwise the data transfer may be
unsuccessful. There are a number of different protocols for networks, the
most popular being Ethernet and Token Ring.
• Compression reduces the number of bits required to represent data. It com-
pacts the data so that it takes up less space on a disk and requires less time to
download. Compressed data must be decompressed in order to extract the
original information. The amount a file is compressed is measured by the
compression ratio. Compression is either lossy or lossless (see Chapter 10).
• Electronic mail (email) allows communication with other users by sending
and receiving electronic messages using a computer. Email messages are often
short and are typed quickly. Messages are written offline and sent when the
user logs onto the LAN or the Internet. Attachments are computer files sent
with email messages, such as image, audio, video or text files (Chapter 11).
• Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read
during transmission. The data is ‘scrambled’ so that it is meaningless to any-
one other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to
convert it back. One popular encryption method is Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools used to transmit and receive include conventional mail,
telephone, facsimile (fax), radio and television. It is important to compare and
contrast computer- and non-computer-based communication systems.
• The mail system makes it possible to send a letter or package to the address
of any person around the world. Delivery of mail is dependent on road, rail
and air transportation systems. Mail systems have improved steadily,
especially with the development of machines that can sort letters. Further
advances in technology have given rise to faster methods of postal handling
and delivery.
• The telephone system transmits sounds or speech between distant places
along telephone lines. It is a convenient method of communicating with
people around the world. The telephone depends on the receiver being
available to accept a phone call.
• Fax machines transmit and reproduce documents by means of signals sent
over telephone lines. The fax machine scans the document and converts it
into a bit-mapped image. This image is compressed and transmitted along the

telephone network to a destination fax machine. This machine decompresses
the image and reconstructs the bit-mapped image. A thermal printer usually
prints the document. Fax machines have become very popular as people can
quickly transfer a hard copy of a document or send a written message.
Personal computers are capable of performing almost all the tasks of a fax
machine.
• Radio is the transmission and detection of sound using electromagnetic
waves that travel through the air. When a radio receiver is tuned to the
frequency of a radio station, a signal is received. Radio remains a popular
means of communication. It allows people to receive up-to-date information
and entertainment. This form of radio is re-
stricted to a one-way transmission of data.
Radio can also be used as a two-way medium
where telephones are not a feasible option
(such as in emergency service vehicles).
• Television is the transmission and detection of
images and sound using electromagnetic waves
that travel through the air. A scene to be tele-
vised is translated into a sequence of electrical
pulses that are transmitted via an antenna. The
television translates the electrical pulses into a
corresponding sequence of images and sounds
that are displayed via the screen and speakers.
To achieve rapid motion smoothly it is
necessary to transmit from 25 to 30 complete
pictures per second. At present, television is
restricted to a one-way transmission of data.
Figure 2.28 Satellites are used to transmit With the introduction of digital television it
large amounts of data at great speeds. will become an interactive (two-way) medium.

transmitting and receiving data.
• Because it is so easy to publish information on the Internet, the accuracy of
information received from the Internet is not guaranteed. It is necessary to
compare data from a number of sources and determine which data is accurate.
• The security of data transferred over the Internet is a greater problem than
for data stored on a single computer. One method to protect data from
deliberate or accidental damage is the use of certificates. A certificate or
digital signature is an encrypted code that identifies a particular person or
Functio
Web site. It aims to ensure that unauthorised persons cannot access data.
• ‘Netiquette’ refers to the way people communicate with each other on the
Internet. It is about being considerate to other users of the Internet and
thinking about the effect of your actions. There are some conventions
regarding appropriate behaviour when sending electronic mail, chatting or
using newsgroups. For example, send inoffensive messages, do not infringe
copyright, respect the privacy of people in chat rooms and be friendly to
newcomers (see Chapter 11).

Function
• Acknowledgment of sources is necessary when downloading data. Data
obtained from the Internet is protected by copyright. To cite an Internet
source it is important to include the author’s name, title of the completed
work, URL of the page and download date (see Chapter 1).
• Privacy can be an issue when receiving information from the Internet. Some
Web sites use cookies to record information about visitors to their site. A
cookie is a file that is put on the user’s hard disk when they visit a Web site.
The cookie stores information such as the date, the Web pages visited and the
transactions completed. When the user visits the same site at a later date, the
information in the cookie is available to the Web site hosts. Some people
argue that cookies store personal information about the user, and that this is
an invasion of privacy.
• In some areas of employment, information systems have improved the nature
of work—the way people do their jobs. This may involve people retraining
and learning new skills (multiskilling). However, in other areas information
systems have had the opposite effect. Some people’s jobs now require fewer
skills. This is called deskilling (see Chapter 3).
• The Internet is having an impact on traditional businesses. Some businesses
are being established that trade entirely online (see Figure 2.29). Many other
businesses are establishing Web sites as an additional way to promote and sell
their goods and services. The Internet has four main advantages over
traditional ways of doing business: it offers a global market; it allows 24-hour
access; there are lower marketing costs; and there are lower storage costs. The
amount of business being transacted on the Internet is increasing at a
phenomenal rate. Most experts predict that Internet business and the
number of customers on the Net will continue to rise over the next few
years. Traditional businesses that provide an opportunity for human inter-
action are being challenged. Do you think Internet businesses will replace
traditional businesses?
Figure 2.29 Amazon.com is an Internet book business that trades entirely online. Its lower
prices are challenging traditional bookshops. Despite its huge turnover, it is yet to make a profit.

Exercise 2.6
1 Why is parallel transfer much quicker than serial transfer?
2 Where is serial transfer used?
3 Explain the difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission.
4 Describe the three modes of transmission.
5 What is the baud rate?
6 Describe a bus within a computer system.
7 What is the difference between an internal bus and an expansion bus?
8 How are peripheral devices linked to the CPU?
9 Describe the actions taken by a modem to transfer data between two computers.
10 Outline some of the functions performed by a fax modem.
11 What is a network?
12 List the advantages of a LAN.
13 What is a WAN?
14 What is the purpose of communication software?
15 What is data encryption?
16 List five non-computer tools for transmitting and receiving.
17 How does a fax machine work?
18 What is a cookie?
19 What is the impact of the Internet on traditional businesses?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Discuss the expression ‘Two wrongs don’t make a right’ with reference to parity
checking.
2 Human communication can be classified in the same way as communication
between computers. Make a list of the different ways people communicate and
classify them as simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
3 A parity bit is used to check for errors in data transmission. Research other
methods of error detection such as CRC and checksum. Compare and contrast
each method.
4 Why is it often difficult to transfer files between computers with different
Functio
operating systems? Outline some methods used to convert files into different
formats.
5 Investigate different types of expansion buses such as ISA, EISA, VESA and PCI.
Explain the differences between each type of bus.
6 Employees have been dismissed for making comments about their bosses using
email. The courts have ruled that organisations have the right to access
employees’ email on their computer networks. Is this an invasion of privacy? Who
should have access to email at work? Why?

Function
2.7 Displaying
Displaying is presenting the output from an information system to meet a given
purpose. It is the presentation of information in the form of text, numerals,
images, audio and video. A range of hardware and software combinations are
used to display different types of information.
Hardware
Hardware for displaying includes screens, printers, speakers and plotters. They
are commonly referred to as output devices.
Screens
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback about what a
computer is doing. It can display text, numeric, image and video data. All images
on the screen are made up of tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is
the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. There are several stan-
dards for screen resolution and most screens are capable of displaying more than
one resolution. For example, a screen could display 640 × 480 (VGA), 800 × 600
(SVGA) or 1024 × 768 (XGA) pixels. The space between the pixels is called
the dot pitch. It is also important in determining the clarity of the image. In
general, the greater the number of pixels and the smaller the dot pitch, the
better the resolution. The monitor and flat screen are two common types of
computer screens.
ITITFact
Fact
‘Bodyware’ refers to any hardware device that is worn by the user for the
purpose of improving data retrieval or communications. It includes glasses
that function as small data screens (‘eyeware’) and watches that function as
remote control devices and television sets.
A monitor is a screen that uses cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to
a television. Images are produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of
the screen, which contains a coating of phosphor. The electron beam usually
starts in the upper left-hand corner and moves from left to right and top to
bottom in a series of zigzag lines called a raster scan. Monochrome monitors use
one beam and colour monitors use three beams to strike red, green and blue
phosphor (see Figure 2.30). The raster scan is repeated to maintain the image as
the phosphor only glows for a short time. This is called refreshing. Interlaced
monitors speed up refreshing by first scanning the odd lines from top to bottom
and then the even lines. However, this can cause the monitor to flicker. Non-
interlaced monitors refresh the screen by scanning every line up to 72 times per
second.
Monitors come in a range of sizes. The most widely used monitors are 15 to
19 inches (38 to 48 cm) in size and have a swivel base that allows the angle of
the screen to be adjusted. Colour monitors are essential for most modern
software applications. Most are capable of displaying millions of colours. The
number of colours depends on the amount of memory installed on the com-
puter’s video card.

Three electron guns are located
at the back of the monitor’s The beams pass through
cathode ray tube (CRT). holes in a metal plate
Each electronic gun shoots called a shadow mask,
out a stream of electrons, which aligns them with
one stream for each of the three their targets on the
primary colours: red, blue inside of the CRT’s
and green. screen.
The electrons strike the

phosphors coating the
The magnetic deflection inside of the screen,
yoke bends the path of causing them to glow.
the electron streams.
Figure 2.30 How a cathode ray tube works.
A flat screen is a thin screen that

does not use CRT technology. They are
used in portable computers (see Figure
2.31). There are also flat screens that
can be mounted on the wall. The most
common type of technology used in flat
screens is a liquid crystal display
(LCD). It consists of a layer of liquid
crystal material placed between two
polarising sheets. Light is passed
through the liquid crystal material and a
current is applied at particular points.
This causes a pixel to be activated. LCD
technology provides displays that are
very light, take up less room, produce
no heat, have no glare and emit no
radiation. Furthermore, LCDs require
less power than CRTs, allowing them to
run on batteries. The best LCD displays
can now achieve the same picture
Figure 2.31 Portable computers use a flat quality as a CRT but are very expensive.
screen.
Functio
Printers
A printer is a device that represents data on paper. It can display text, numbers
and image data. The paper containing the data is called a hard copy or printout.
The cost of a printer can vary from less than two hundred dollars to many
thousands of dollars for large colour laser printers. Printers are classified as
impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers make an image on the paper by
using some sort of physical contact. Non-impact printers make an image using
some other method. Impact printers include dot matrix printers. Non-impact
printers include laser and inkjet printers. The quality of output of a printer is

Function
called the resolution and is measured by
the number of dots per inch (dpi) it is able
to print.
A dot matrix printer prints characters
or images using dots. Each dot is formed
by the impact between a pin, a printer
ribbon and the paper. There can be
between 9 and 24 pins located in the
printer head. A 24-pin printer produces
higher quality output than a 9-pin printer.
Dot matrix printers are reliable and cheap,
but they are noisy and do not produce the
highest quality output. Dot matrix
printers have resolutions from 60 dpi to
180 dpi. They were once widely used in
the business and home computer markets
but are now restricted to particular appli-
cations such as financial printouts.
Inkjet printers produce characters by
spraying very fine drops of ink onto the
paper (see Figure 2.32). The print head of
an inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere
from 50 to several hundred small holes.
The ink is propelled through a com-
bination of nozzle holes to form the
characters. There are several methods of
forcing the ink through the nozzle. The
thermal method causes a bubble of ink to
form and uses heat to force it out of the
nozzle onto the paper. These printers are
called bubble-jet printers.
Inkjet printers produce high-quality
output in either colour or black and white.
They are quiet, light and relatively cheap
although the ink cartridges are expensive.
Inkjet printers are very popular and are an
ideal solution for people who want high-
quality output without high volume. One
disadvantage is that inkjet output is
usually not waterproof. The quality of
inkjet output is often 600 dpi or greater.
Inkjet printers use standard weight paper
for most tasks. High-quality images can be
printed on coated paper, photographic Figure 2.32 A Canon BJC 600 colour inkjet printer.
glossy paper and transparencies.
Laser printers use data from the computer to direct a laser beam at a
positively charged revolving drum. Where the drum is charged by the laser
beam it attracts toner (powdered ink). The toner is transferred onto the paper
and fused using heat and pressure to form the image. Laser printers print a
complete page at a time.
Laser printers used with personal computers print from 4 to 20 pages per
minute while high-speed laser printers can print more than 100 pages per

minute. Most laser printers offer 600–1200 dpi output and use standard size
paper. The highest quality models produce output to rival commercial printing
processes.
Even though the initial cost of a laser printer is higher than an inkjet printer,
the difference in cost per copy quickly makes up the difference for a high-
volume user. Laser printers are fast, quiet and produce waterproof output.
Colour laser printers are much more expensive than black and white ones and
the copy cost is also much greater. High-speed laser printers are finding
increasing use in the business field.
Speakers
Sounds are produced using a speaker. A small speaker is usually located in most
personal computers inside the system unit. However, high-quality stereo
speakers are often connected to the computer using a port and a sound card.
The speakers are sometimes built into the sides of the monitor. In addition to
sounds and music, speakers work with voice output. Voice output is achieved in
two ways:
• A person talks into a voice input device such as a microphone (see Figure
2.33). The words are converted and stored as digital data. This digital data is
changed back to voice so that the user can hear the words.
• Voice synthesis is the artificial production of human speech. The words in a
text document are analysed and sounds are generated for the letter
combinations. Rules are applied for intonation to make the voice sound
realistic.
Functio
Figure 2.33 Microphones are used to input voice data.
Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings such as
maps, charts and building plans (see Figure 2.34). The drawings are often larger
than the available paper sizes of a standard printer. Plotters are operated using
commands from the computer and can be used to draw an amazing array of

Function
Figure 2.34 A range of plotters.
shapes and figures. There are two different types of plotters: pen plotters and
electrostatic plotters.
• A pen plotter produces images using coloured ink pens on the surface of the
paper. Depending on the output, pen plotters are either flatbed or drum. A
flatbed plotter looks like a drafting table with pens suspended over it. The
movement of the pens is controlled by the plotter software. Most flatbed
plotters have different coloured pens of different widths. They are used in
engineering and drafting applications. A drum plotter works in the same way
except that the paper is rolled around a drum or cylinder. The pens only
move to the left and right as the drum rotates. The drawings from a drum
plotter are restricted to the width of the printer but are unlimited in length.
• An electrostatic plotter creates images by moving paper under a row of wires.
When the wires are given an electrostatic charge they touch the paper and
create the drawing. Electrostatic plotters produce high-quality output and are
faster than pen plotters.
Software
Each piece of application software displays data. The chapters in Part 2: Appli-
cation software contain detailed information on the display features of various
applications. The following is brief summary.
• Reporting is used to organise and display data from a database for printing.
Database management systems allow complete control in the design of a
report in either a tabular or column layout. It is possible to insert headings,
sort data, choose fields, switch fields, change column width and select
records. The purpose of the report determines its content, format and style.
• Formatting changes the appearance of the data. Text is formatted by
changing the font, alignment, tabs, indenting, bullets, numbering and style.
Additional design elements include headers and footers, colour, drop caps,
text effects, callouts and borders. Numbers in a spreadsheet are displayed

using built-in formats such as currency, percentage or fixed. Page layout is the
arrangement of text and graphics on a page. A publication that is well
designed will convey its message effectively and efficiently.
• Spacing between lines of text is altered to improve the appearance and
readability of a document. Character spacing refers to the spacing between
individual letters. It is changed in a number of ways such as scale, points,
position and kerning.
• Mail merge combines a letter written on a word processor with data from
another document such as a database. It saves time and makes final docu-
ments more personal.
• Tables are rows and columns of cells that are filled with text and graphics.
Text can be displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of
the rows and columns can be altered. Tables can be sorted in alphabetic,
numeric or date order.
• Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in
rows and columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make
data easy to understand.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not used to display all types of data. Information has
been displayed using non-computer methods for many years. Some of the non-
computer tools used for the displaying information are described below.
• A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image. It tells the story of a presentation. Storyboards are drawn on
paper and are changed frequently. A storyboard includes sketches and cap-
tions like a cartoon strip but in greater detail. Storyboards can be used to
outline a multimedia production. A full-length movie could require several
hundred sketches. There are four types of storyboard layouts: linear,
hierarchical, non-linear and combination (see Chapter 10).
• Traditional methods for displaying different types of data have changed as a
result of developments in technology. Text and images are displayed using
paper in many different forms such as reports, newsletters, books, newspapers
and magazines. They are also displayed using devices such as the blackboard,
whiteboard and overhead projector. We also see information in the form of
text and images displayed on billboards, T-shirts, drawings, paintings and
photographs. Audio information is displayed when we speak or use a variety
of devices such as musical instruments, radios, tape recorders or CD players.
Video and animation is displayed using a television, video recorder or at the
movies.
Functio

displaying data.
• The communications skills of those presenting displays need to be effective.
Presentations are effective if the information displayed is well organised,
attractive and easy to understand.

Function
• Current trends in display are changing the way people interact with com-
puters. Fifteen years ago screens were small and unable to handle different
font sizes and graphics. Today larger monitors can display text, graphics,
photographs and video. Display technology using large flat screens is
becoming more common.
• Visually impaired people need appropriate displays. This issue is a concern
on the Internet. Web page designers should consider how people with dis-
abilities will be able to access their information. For example, it may be
necessary to provide text alternatives to audio information for the hearing-
impaired. All people with a disability are entitled to access technology.
Special devices have been developed to help people with vision, hearing,
mobility and dexterity impairments.
• Offensive material available on the Internet such as pornographic, racist and
violent material is a major concern. Children with Internet access can
potentially view inappropriate material, either deliberately or unintentionally.
There is a significant amount of offensive material on the Internet and it is
easy to find. Some people believe that offensive material should be banned,
while others argue that banning any materials compromises our free society.
Clearly, parents and schools need to prevent children from accessing
offensive material. Censoring software such as Net Nanny can also be used to
screen out inappropriate material. Chatting on the Internet is also an issue.
Some people can behave in ways that is offensive and threatening, and may
even have criminal intentions. In order to be safe, it is advisable never to
disclose any identifying personal information to anyone over the Internet.
Figure 2.35 Censoring software such as Net Nanny can be used to screen out inappropriate material.

Exercise 2.7
1 What is a screen?
2 List two factors that affect the clarity of the image.
3 How are images produced on a monitor?
4 Explain the difference between interlaced and non-interlaced monitors.
5 Describe the most common type of technology used in flat screens.
6 What is the difference between an impact printer and a non-impact printer?
7 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of dot matrix printers.
8 How does an inkjet printer produce an image?
9 Why advantages do laser printers have over inkjet printers?
10 Describe two ways of achieving voice output.
11 What is a pen plotter?
12 Explain the difference between a flatbed plotter and a drum plotter.
13 What are the advantages of electrostatic plotters over pen plotters?
14 Describe some of the ways of formatting text for display.
15 List some of the traditional ways of displaying different types of data.
16 Outline some of the current trends in display.
17 How can parents prevent children from accessing offensive material?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 People predicted a ‘paperless office’ when computers were first used in business.
However, today’s offices use more paper than in the past. Why do businesses still
use large amounts of paper? How can they reduce their paper consumption?
2 The resolution of computer screens has increased during the past few years.
Compare the resolution of a screen to that of a printout obtained from a laser
printer.
3 ‘Young people today spend too much of their spare time staring at computer
screens playing computer games. They should be out playing sports and getting
more exercise.’ Comment on these statements.
4 Penny wants to buy a new laser printer for her home office. Investigate four
different printers and make a recommendation based on value for money.
Display this information in the form of a table listing the advantages and dis-
Functio
advantages of each printer.

5 Which type of printer will increase its market share in the next few years? Give a
reason for your choice.
6 ‘Offensive material should not be allowed on the Internet.’ Do you agree with
this statement? Investigate what the federal government is doing about
offensive material on the Internet.

Chapter review
PART A 9 A device that provides a hard copy is a:
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best A hard drive B HDD
answers the question or completes the C modem D printer
statement. 10 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are com-
1 Which of the following is not an ex- monly used with:
ample of an input device? A monitors
A a scanner B a mouse B printers
C a plotter D a digital camera C portable computers
2 Which of these keys is used in combina- D personal computers
tion with other keys? PART B
A Function B Escape For each of the following statements,
C Shift D Capslock select from the list of terms the one that
3 Which of the following terms is not most closely fits the statement. Write the
related to digitising? letter corresponding to your choice.
A file conversion B sampling Statements
C bit-mapping D ASCII 1 A small hand-held input device that is
4 The processing of instructions using moved over a flat surface to control the
multiple processors is called: movement of a pointer.
A microprocessing 2 An input device that captures and
B distributed processing stores images in digital form rather
C parallel processing than on film.
D centralised processing 3 The most common keyboard layout for
5 Which item in the list does not belong? personal computers.
A RAM B ROM 4 An input device that captures sound.
C CPU D cache 5 The process of generating digits or
6 Which of the following storage media numbers from analog data.
offers the fastest access? 6 Computer programs used for a specific
A hard disk B DAT cartridge purpose.
C floppy disk D CD-ROM 7 Computer programs that manage and
7 Which of the following is a non-volatile control hardware.
memory device similar to an EPROM 8 A temporary storage area for small
memory chip? amounts of data or instructions needed
A cache memory B flash memory for processing in the CPU.
C SRAM D DVD 9 The number of bits processed by the
8 A transmission mode that allows CPU at one time.
communication in both directions but 10 Memory that holds data and instruc-
not at the same time is called: tions that are fixed at the time of pro-
A half simplex B full simplex duction and cannot be changed by the
C half duplex D full duplex user.

Chapter review
11 A long, thin strip of plastic inside a car- j monitor
tridge used as a storage medium. k mouse
12 A storage medium on which data is l plotter
read and written using laser tech- m port
nology. n protocol
o Qwerty
13 A common type of removable cartridge.
p register
14 A device that enables the transmission q ROM
of data from one computer to another. r system software
15 A socket used to connect peripheral s word size
devices. t Zip disk
16 A set of rules that governs the transfer PART C
of data between computers. Write at least one paragraph on each of
17 A circuit board inserted into the the following questions.
motherboard to extend the capabilities 1 Describe the following pointing devices:
of the computer.
a a mouse
18 An output device that can display text b a touch screen
and graphics using CRT technology.
2 Outline some of the key features of a
19 A type of printer that is fast, quiet and graphical user interface.
produces waterproof output.
3 Explain the difference between RAM
20 An output device that produces high- and ROM.
quality drawings.
4 Outline some of the methods used to
List of terms measure a system’s performance.
a application software 5 Describe the following types of storage
b compact disc by comparing their advantages and dis-
c digital camera advantages:
d digitising a hard disk
e expansion card b magnetic tape
f laser 6 Describe some of the uses of a serial
g magnetic tape port.
h microphone 7 Compare and contrast three different
i modem types of printers.

chapter
PLANNING,
DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION
3
Outcomes
able to:
• outline the stages of the traditional system
development cycle
• understand the principles of planning,
design and implementation
• create Gantt charts and complete a fea-
sibility study
• represent systems using context diagrams,
Overview
data flow diagrams and system flow charts This chapter describes the way a system is
• compare and contrast conversion methods developed. It examines the five stages of the
traditional system development cycle. You will
• understand the importance of testing and
gain an understanding of the techniques and
evaluating a system
issues involved in each of the stages in the
• identify the social and ethical issues related development of a new system.
to system development.
3.1 Introduction
The development of a new information system to solve a problem is similar for
all types of organisations and individuals. It involves planning, design and
implementation. There are many reasons why an information system may need
to change, including the introduction of new management, new technology or
new products. The creation of a new information system is based on the belief
that it will result in some benefits to the organisation. However, in some cases
the planning results in a modification of the existing information system. In a
large organisation the development of a new information system is the respons-
ibility of a systems analyst or a group of people called a project team. Project
teams consist of systems analysts, programmers and participants. An organised
approach to system development saves time and money.
There are different models used in the development of new information
systems. This course adopts the traditional method for developing systems. It is
Understanding
the
problem
Change
Statement of problem in purpose
Making
decisions
Type of new system Change type

of system
Designing
solutions
New system Change

system
Implementing
Functio
Using new system Change use

of system
Testing,
evaluating
and maintaining
Problem with system

Figure 3.1 Stages of the system development cycle.

Function
called the system development cycle or system life cycle and consists of five
broad stages:
• understanding the problem—identifying the requirements of a system that
would solve the problem
• making decisions—determining the feasibility of a new system to solve the
problem
• designing solutions—creating the new system
• implementing—using the system to solve the problem
• testing, evaluating and maintaining—the ongoing operation of the system.
The system development cycle is important as it results in an information
system that is as efficient and error-free as possible. In each stage there are
certain tasks to be completed and builds on the conclusions of the previous
stages (see Figure 3.1). However, in the development of a new system there is
often a good reason to return to the previous stage. For example, if there is a
problem in implementing a solution it may require some modifications to the
design.
3.2 Understanding the problem

A problem presents itself as part of the planning of an organisation or in
response to a need such as inaccurate data. It must be understood in terms of
the goals of the organisation. The exact nature of the problem must be deter-
mined and whether it can be solved by an information system. This may involve
redefining the problem and identifying its important elements. A clear problem
statement is essential at this stage.
Preliminary investigation
A preliminary investigation determines
whether a quick fix of the existing system
will solve the problem or a new system is
necessary. The fundamental operations and
problems of the existing system must be
understood. Each of the information pro-
cesses are examined and any deficiencies in
the existing system are recorded. The pre-
liminary investigation takes into account the
needs and concerns of all the participants.
Participants play an important part in
developing a workable system. These views
are gathered using different data collection
methods.
Data collection
Data and information are gathered through-
out the system development cycle. Data is
used to understand the problem and develop
an appropriate solution. It is also needed to
assess the feasibility of a proposal, design a
new system and evaluate the system. There
Planning, design and implementation 91
Functio
92
Interviews Questionnaires/Surveys Observation Measurements
Delivery Face-to-face Mailed, face-to-face, online Observation Electronic or manual
Features • Specific questions asked to • Used to study characteristics, • Gathers data about activities, • Used when quantitative mea-
determine opinions and attitudes, behaviours and messages, relationships and surements (i.e. information
feelings of interviewee. opinions. influences on site. Can based on numbers) is required.
• Questions carefully • Open and closed questions include: • Different types of statistics
planned ahead of time. can be asked. — time sampling (observing can be obtained:
• Three types of questions: system for set periods of time — descriptive statistics (under-
— open-ended: ‘What do randomly) standing of the nature of the
you think ...?’ — event sampling (entire data)
— closed: ‘From this list, process is observed in action). — inferential statistics (making
which ...?’ • Must be structured and inferences from sample to
Information processes and technology

— probe: ‘Why do you ...?’ systematic. large population).
Advantages • Probing (further • Allow for greater sample size • Provides a record of what • Quick analysis of data is
questioning) is allowed. and targeted area. actually happens. possible.
• Data can be obtained • Cheap to deliver. • Is structured and systematic. • Electronic measurements are
from all sectors. • Scales can be used for quick • Physical factors that affect a usually accurate.
• Further explanations of analysis. system are identified.
answers are possible. • Anonymity is guaranteed.
• Greater depth of • Provide a quick means of
questioning. acquiring data.
Disadvantages • Costly and time- • Mailed questionnaires have • Time-consuming. • Electronic measurement is
consuming. low response rates and must • Important events may be usually expensive.
• Poor questions can be be followed up. missed due to a limited time • Further questions cannot be
asked. • The wording of questions frame. asked.
• Bias might be introduced. must be carefully chosen.
• Interviewers must be • Probes cannot be asked.
trained. • Time-consuming to produce.
Example • Consumer choices • Australian census • Production line activities • Credit card purchases
• Telemarketers • Telemarketers • Traffic flow monitoring • Hits on a Web site
• Research studies • Guest books on Web sites • Consumer choices
Table 3.1 Methods of collecting data.

Function
are several methods used for data collection, such as interviews, surveys,
observations and measurements (see Table 3.1).
Data collection is very important. If the data is incorrect, the new system
may not meet the needs of the participants. Data should be gathered in an
organised way to ensure nothing is omitted. During an interview or survey, a
person has the right not to answer a question. The interviewer must take care in
writing questions that do not discriminate on the basis of gender, religion, age or
political preferences.
After the data is collected it must be carefully interpreted to ensure that the
resulting information is valid. For example, can the results of a survey be gener-
alised to a large group of people. The reliability of the data is also an issue. If a
similar research were conducted at another time and place, would the results be
the same?
Data collected needs to be documented for it to be analysed. A diagrammatic
method of documenting data is often used, such as a context diagram, data flow
diagram or system flow chart. These methods are examined later in this chapter.
The analysis of the existing system should determine how the system works,
what it does and who uses it.
Requirement report
The requirement report is a statement about the needs of a new system. It
outlines the aims and objectives of the new system and how it will help the
organisation. The requirement report is based on data collected from the
participants. It must match the goals of the organisation to ensure that
management are satisfied with the solution. The requirement report also pro-
vides an overview of the new system in terms of the data/information to be
used, the information processes and the information technology required. The
requirement report is used to develop potential solutions to the problem.
ITITFact
Fact
Web designers use a technique called ‘click streaming’ to collect data. It
records where individual users click on a Web page and how they navigate
through a Web site.
Project plans
If the preliminary investigation recommends further examination of a new
system, a project plan is developed for the system. A project plan organises the
project by specifying who, what, how and when. It includes Gantt charts,
scheduling of tasks, journal and diary entries, a funding management plan and a
communication management plan. The project leader starts by breaking down
the development of a new system into smaller tasks. They identify all the tasks,
an estimate for the cost of each task and a schedule for each task. Project leaders
use information management software and project management software to
construct and manage a project plan.
Information management software

Information management software helps individuals to manage information and
schedule tasks. It allows email messages to be exchanged and organised. For

example, all messages from the project leader could be put into a separate
folder. Appointments, events and meetings are entered into an electronic
calendar. These activities can be viewed by the day, week or month. Information
management software allows users to store the names and addresses of indi-
viduals and organisations. All activities for each contact are recorded to form a
journal. Journal entries are organised on a timeline to quickly locate informa-
tion. Tasks in the project are assigned, sorted and organised so that the progress
made on a task can be seen at a glance.
Project management software

Project management software contains most of the features of information
management software. It is a tool to plan, manage and communicate information
efficiently in a large project. Project management software allows projects to be
joined, tasks to be split among team members, and for the project to be tracked
over the Internet or via email. It provides analysis tools to assist with decision-
making, such as ‘what if’ questions. Project management software contains
graphical tools such as Gantt charts.
A Gantt chart is a popular way of managing a project. It provides a quick
method of determining if the project is on schedule. Gantt charts are used in
meetings to review progress and identify problems. A Gantt chart is a bar chart
with each bar representing a task. The vertical axis lists the tasks and the hori-
zontal axis shows the time frame (see Figure 3.2). The success of a new system
depends on accurate time estimates for each task. If the schedule is unreason-
able it will result in delays and additional costs. It may be necessary to extend
the deadlines or reduce the scope of the system development. If the scope of the
system development is reduced, a less comprehensive solution may result.
Understanding the problem
Making decisions
Designing solutions
Implementing
Testing, evaluating
Functio
and maintaining
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (weeks)
Figure 3.2 A Gantt chart of the system development cycle.

Function
Exercise 3.2
1 List the five stages in the system development cycle.
2 How is the exact nature of a problem determined?
3 What is a preliminary investigation?
4 List three types of questions in an interview.
5 Outline the disadvantages of surveys as a method of data collection.
6 What types of statistics are obtained from measurements?
7 Describe a requirement report.
8 What is a project plan?
9 Why are Gantt charts a popular management tool?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Which stage in the system development cycle do you think would take the most
time? Explain your answer. Is this stage more important than the other stages?
Justify your answer.
2 The introduction of new information systems has resulted in many changes in
society. Interview a number of older people.
a What has been the effect of information technology on their lives?
b List any jobs that have disappeared because of information systems.
c Describe some of the changes that have occurred in the nature of work.
d Is society better for information technology?
3 In a group, select a current topic that is interesting to each member of the group.
Develop a survey to collect data on this topic. Ask other members of your class to
complete the survey. Analyse the results and draw some conclusions.
4 Choose a large organisation and collect samples of data over a period of time.
What does this data tell you about the organisation? Is your analysis of the data
accurate? Why? What other methods could be used for data collection?
5 Terry is required to organise a birthday party. He has estimated the following
time for these tasks: buying the food—2 hours; preparing the food—3 hours;
serving the meal—1 hour; cleaning up—2 hours. Draw a Gantt chart for these
tasks.
6 Allison needs to have a computer system operating in less than a day. She has
estimated the following time for these tasks: buying the hardware—1 hour;
selecting software—1 hour; setting up the hardware—2 hours; installing the
software—3 hours; testing the software—1 hour. Draw a Gantt chart for these
tasks.
7 A systems analyst has developed a new point-of-sale system for a jeans store. The
following times have been estimated for tasks in the system design: input
design—6 days; output design—2 days; data structures—4 days; internal
specifications—6 days. These tasks occur in the order given and do not overlap.
Draw a Gantt chart for these tasks.

3.3 Making decisions
This stage involves making decisions using the data gathered in the preliminary
investigation. The first task is to develop one or more potential solutions to the
problem. A computer system should be seen only as a tool that may offer the
best solution to the problem. It is not the solution to every problem. Each
potential solution is developed using the requirement report and the scope of
the problem. The scope of the problem places constraints on the new system. A
constraint is factor that affects the system and may prevent it from achieving its
objectives. There are different types of constraints such as financial, technical,
environmental and personal. For example, a financial constraint would be the
amount of money an organisation is prepared to spend on the system.
After establishing several potential solutions, the systems analyst seeks
approval from the management of the organisation. Management receives a brief
written or verbal statement outlining the advantages and disadvantages of each
solution. If the potential solutions are accepted, a feasibility study is carried out.
Feasibility study
A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a
recommendation. It does not attempt to find a detailed solution. Feasibility
studies are an extension of the preliminary investigation and are divided into
different sections (see Table 3.2).
Section Content
1 Title page Project name, report title, authors, date
2 Contents A list of report sections and page numbers
3 Problem definition Exact nature of the problem
4 Requirement report Aims and objectives of the new system
5 Summary of investigation Overview of the existing system: benefits, costs and

constraints
6 Alternative solutions Details of each proposed new system
7 Recommendations Recommended course of action, with justification
8 Project plan Schedule (if the recommendation is to proceed)
9 Appendix Supplementary material such as surveys, Gantt

Functio
charts and diagrams
Table 3.2 The typical sections of a feasibility study.
The initial sections of the feasibility study state the nature of the problem
and give an overview of the existing system. They identify problems or require-
ments that are not satisfied in the existing system. The feasibility study outlines
any constraints on the development of a new system. It also restates the aims
and objectives of the new system more precisely than the requirement report.

Function
The middle section of the feasibility study analyses the data collected in the
preliminary investigation. It often requires more data to be gathered about each
potential solution. After analysing the data, each solution is briefly described
with its expected advantages and disadvantages. These descriptions are written
in terms of the aims and objectives of the new system.
The result of the feasibility study is the recommendation. The recommenda-
tion is based on a number of criteria, such as economic, technical, schedule and
organisational.
• Economic feasibility compares the costs of developing the new system with
the expected benefits. A financial analyst is often used to assess economic
feasibility. Economic feasibility is also called cost/benefit analysis.
• Technical feasibility determines the information technology requirements of
the new system and the technical demands that will be placed on the new
system.
• Schedule feasibility determines whether time is available to implement the
new system.
• Organisational feasibility determines whether the new system will fit into
the organisation and meet its current goals. It determines if the new system
will have enough support to be successfully implemented.
A feasibility study can make one of three recommendations: no change,
develop a new system, or investigate other solutions. The decision to proceed
with a new system is made by the managers of the organisation.
Analysis
If the feasibility study recommends a new system, a more detailed analysis is
required. The existing system is investigated in greater depth to ensure all
current operations and problems are understood. The systems analyst must also
further clarify the needs of the new system. This requires more data to be
gathered using interviews, surveys, observations and measurements (see Figure
3.3). When the data is collected it must be organised and analysed. It is
necessary to understand the flow of data through the system and how the data is
processed within the system. A range of
tools are used for this purpose, such as
data flow diagrams, context diagrams
and system flow charts. These tools are
described in the next section.
Organisational charts are a good
way of understanding a system. They
show the intended structure of a solu-
tion using different levels (see Figure
3.4). The main module is at the top
level and it is refined into lower levels
as more detail is required. Control
passes from the top level down through
to the lower levels. Each module con-
tains a single entry and a single exit.
Figure 3.3 Data collection using an interview.

Figure 3.4 An organisational chart of a Web site.
When the detailed analysis is completed, an analysis report is written. It

provides more detail than the feasibility study. The analysis report provides a
basis for further development. The details of the new system are presented with
recommendations for design, implementation and maintenance. The analysis
report contains design specifications for the next stage. These specifications give
the general hardware configuration of the new system and designs for both
input and output. The analysis report also contains a more detailed costing and
schedule for the new system.
Case study A1 Designs
A1 Designs is a graphic design business to determine the best way of solving

that is five years old. Melissa Johns the problem.
started the small business and originally
employed one other designer. The 1 Understanding the problem
designer was paid a salary with the The systems analyst called a meeting
accounts handled by Melissa. The busi- with Melissa to discuss the problem. He
ness has grown in the past two years then had interviews with each em-
with more clients and staff. A1 Designs ployee and observed the existing
now employs four full-time designers system. This data was used to determine
and two part-time staff. the nature and scope of the problem.
Initially the payroll and accounts The systems analyst discovered that the
were not a problem for Melissa. How- payroll was very time-consuming for the
ever, with the growth in the business owner and her efforts would be better
more of her time has been taken away spent organising the projects. There
from the projects and is being spent on were also errors in the employee’s pay
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payroll and accounts. Projects have been and they were becoming very unhappy
delayed and the quality of work is with the business. The part-time
suffering. These problems are having a employees were also not completing
negative impact on the reputation of their time sheets correctly.
A1 Designs. Melissa believes an infor- The systems analyst wrote a require-
mation system to manage accounts is ment report that outlined the needs of
needed. She has hired a systems analyst the new system. It specified that Melissa

Function
should be relieved of working on The systems analyst compared the
payroll and accounting. Melissa received advantages and disadvantages of the
the report and agreed for the systems new system. He recommended that the
analyst to proceed with the feasibility new system be developed. It would
study to determine a possible solution. provide Melissa with more time and
control over the projects. In addition,
2 Making decisions the accuracy of the payroll would
The systems analyst started the feas- increase staff morale and confidence in
ibility study by organising another A1 Designs. Finally, the improved effici-
meeting with Melissa to determine the ency of the accounts would increase the
constraints on the system. Melissa speci- credibility of the business and reduce
fied a budget for developing a system the likelihood of error. Even though the
and accepted the need to hire a new initial cost of the technology and wages
person to operate the system. The sys- for the new employee was significant,
tems analyst investigated some of the the new system would increase revenue
information technology requirements in the long term. The systems analyst
and how the system would fit into the presented the feasibility study to
business. He determined a possible Melissa and she gave approval for a
solution and completed an economic more detailed analysis.
feasibility. There were five advantages The systems analyst gathered more
of a new system: data about the existing system. He
• increased accuracy and reduction of needed to know exactly how A1 Designs
time spent on payroll and accounts operated. Each member of the staff was
interview again and the account docu-
• automatic generation of reports for
ments were analysed more carefully.
taxation purposes
The systems analyst compared A1
• efficient payment of bills Designs to other small businesses that
• accurate and timely payments to used information systems. The security
staff and privacy of data were issues of
• increased time for Melissa to spend concern. A system of passwords to res-
on projects. trict access to files was suggested as a
The disadvantages of the new system possible solution. He wrote an analysis
included the cost of acquiring the infor- report using this data. It contained
mation technology, wages for a new some general design specifications for
person to operate the system, new information technology and new
furniture, office space and the training business processes. Melissa approved
of all staff. the analysis report.
Exercise 3.3
1 What is a constraint?
2 List four different types of constraints.
3 What is contained in the initial sections of a feasibility study?
4 What is contained in the middle sections of a feasibility study?
5 Describe four different criteria used to make a recommendation in a feasibility
study.
6 What is involved in a more detailed analysis of a new system?

7 Describe an analysis report.
8 Outline the problem for A1 Designs.
9 What was the recommendation in the feasibility study for A1 Designs?
10 How was a more detailed analysis completed for A1 Designs?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 What constraints exist in the development of a computer system for your

personal use? Is it possible to overcome these constraints and establish a poten-
tial solution? Outline any potential solutions.
2 Analyse reports from different organisations (such as their annual report) in
terms of purpose, content and style. Which report is the best? Why?
3 Analyse different types of bills such as electricity, water and phone in terms of
completeness, accuracy, presentation and timeliness. Compare your analysis with
other members of the class.
4 A systems analyst must often balance the needs of participants of a new system
with the requirements of management. Outline some possible areas where
conflicts may occur between these two groups.
5 A feasibility study is to be completed for a new reporting system at school.
a List three groups of people who will be affected by the new system.
b For each group, describe some of the possible effects on them.
c Describe some of the factors that will affect the study’s recommendations.
6 Write a requirement report using the information from the A1 Designs case
study.
7 Write a feasibility study using the information from the A1 Designs case study. It
should contain the following sections: title page, contents, problem definition,
requirement report, summary of investigation, and recommendation.
3.4 Designing solutions

When the detailed analysis is completed, the new system is designed. Systems
analysts often use a top-down approach to design a new system. This approach
divides a large, complicated problem into a series of smaller problems that are
easier to solve. The smaller problems are solved and brought together to solve
Functio
the larger problem. There are various tools used for analysis and design.
Design tools
When developing a new system, it is essential to understand how the informa-
tion processes will operate. It is often a lot easier to design a solution if a
diagram can be drawn. There are a number of diagrammatic tools that describe
the information processes within a system, including context diagrams, data flow
diagrams and system flow charts.

Function
Symbol Meaning
Single process: A circle is used to represent the

entire system.
Process
Data flow: An arrow is used to represent the flow

of data between the process and external entities.
External External entity: A square or rectangle represents

entity any person or organisation that sends data to or
receives data from the system.
Table 3.3 The symbols used in a context diagram.
book details call number

Borrower Search Borrower
Figure 3.5 A context diagram for finding a book in a library.
Context diagrams
A context diagram is a graphical method of representing a system using a single
process together with inputs and outputs (external entities). There are only
three symbols in a context diagram: the process, the data flow and the external
entity (see Table 3.3). The external entities are linked to the process by data
flow arrows. A context diagram is often the starting point of a data flow
diagram. The context diagram in Figure 3.5 shows the method for finding a
book in the library. It clearly shows the flow of data in the system.
Data flow diagrams

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical method of representing a system
using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs
focus on the flow of data between information processes in a system. They show
where data is collected, organised, analysed, stored, processed, transmitted and
displayed. DFDs provide a simple technique for visualising the movement of
data and describing what participants do, rather than what the computers do.
There are four main symbols used in a DFD: the process, the data flow, the data
store and the external entity (see Table 3.4).
The data flow and data stores are given labels which describe the data. The
processes contain a description of the change in data. They must contain at least
one input and at least one output. The DFD in Figure 3.6 illustrates the
movement of data for finding a book. The book details could be the title, author
or subject or a keyword. To draw a DFD, you start with the processes and link
them to data stores and external entities using data flows. It is often easy to start

Symbol Meaning
Process: A circle is used to represent the processes

or actions that transform inputs to outputs.
Process
Data flow: An arrow is used to represent the flow

of data between the process, external entity and
data store.
External entity: A square or a rectangle represents

External any person or organisation that sends data to or
entity receives data from the system.
Data store: An open rectangle represents the

Data location where data is stored. It could be a filing
store cabinet, hard disk or DVD.
Table 3.4 The symbols used in a data flow diagram.
book details call number

Borrower Search Borrower
book call
details number
Library
database
Figure 3.6 A DFD for finding a book in a library.
with a simple diagram and then add some more details. If the DFD becomes too
complicated it should be broken down into a smaller DFDs to create different
Functio
levels. The top-level DFD identifies the major processes while lower-level DFDs
add more detail.
DFDs and context diagrams are easy to understand as there are only three or
four different symbols used. Participants can see the tasks that are completed by
the information system. Context diagrams and DFDs often identify issues of
responsibility before the system is designed. However, the simplicity of a DFD
creates certain limitations. DFDs do not show the sequence of operations or
decisions that are needed by a programmer. For this reason, they are often con-
verted into system flow charts.

Function
System flow charts
A system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data
and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system such
as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular actions. A
system flow chart also shows the hardware used to process data, such as the
peripheral devices, storage media and processing units.
System flow charts use standard flow charting symbols plus special symbols
for peripheral devices (see Table 3.5). Some of these symbols have become out
of date, such as the punch card symbol. Each symbol contains labels and is
linked by lines called flowlines. Flowlines do not need an arrow if the flow of
control is in the main directions—top to bottom or left to right. For example, in
Figure 3.7 the flow of control is from top to bottom so there are no arrows on
the flowlines.
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
Input/output Manual operation
Paper document Magnetic tape
Direct access
Online display
storage device
Online input Flowline
Telecomunications
Punched card
link
Process Predefined process
Terminal Decision
Table 3.5 The symbols used in a system flow chart.
System design
The new system is designed in line with the feasibility study and analysis report.
It is important to focus on the aims and objectives of the new system during the
system design. This ensures that time and effort are not wasted. The system

Begin
Enter book
details
Library
software Library
database
Search
results
False Need True

printout?
Search
report
False Are you

finished?
True
End
Figure 3.7 A system flow chart for finding a book in a library.
design may involve investigating similar systems in other organisations, which

may provide ideas for the new system. The system design starts by creating the
external and internal specifications.
The external specifications outline the appearance of the new system. A
design is created for all the input and output screens. The format and layout of
each screen, menu and report must be created using good design principles.
Data validation techniques must be considered to ensure accurate data. A
sample with actual data is shown to all participants. The internal specifications
provide the technical information to build the new system. They identify the
processing required by the system. The systems analyst develops specifications
Functio
for input, data, process and output for a programmer. If a database is required, a
data dictionary is created to accurately represent the new system.
The external and internal specifications provide a basis for the information
technology. The software requirements of the new system may be satisfied by
application software that is readily available. Software packages can be bought
to cover most requirements. They may be specific to a type of organisation, such

Function
as library software, or suitable for many
different organisations, such as a word
processor (see Figure 3.8). A software
package may not meet the exact require-
ments of the problem, but it is easy and
cheap to obtain and saves time. Custom
software is written by programmers to meet
the exact specifications for the new system.
A programmer uses a programming language
to write programs. Custom software is
labour-intensive and more expensive than a
software package.
The internal specifications provide a basis
for hardware acquisition and installation.
Existing hardware may be sufficient in some
cases. If new hardware is required, the
technical specifications need to be identi-
fied. The systems analyst determines these
specifications by researching magazines, the
Internet, organisations and other experts in
the field. The technical specifications are
sent to information technology suppliers to Figure 3.8 Microsoft Office is a popular integrated
obtain quotations. The quotations are software package that contains a number of applications
evaluated and the best one is selected. commonly used in business.
ITITFact
Fact
A ‘clone’ is a piece of software or hardware that is almost the same as the
original. The term ‘IBM clone’ refers to a PC that performs in the same way
as an IBM personal computer. The word ‘clone’ comes from a Greek word
‘klou’ for propagation.
A new system must be thoroughly tested before implementation. This

ensures that the hardware and software will work together. Test data is prepared
to identify and eliminate any potential problems. It should cover a wide range of
values to ensure that the solution can deal with unexpected data. If the solution
works for the test data, a beta test is completed. A beta test is carried out by
participants of the system using real data. It aims to find errors in the solution
caused during the daily operation of the system. If problems are resolved in the
design stage, the solution will be easier to implement.
Documentation is a written description to explain the development and
operation of an information system. It may explain the information processes,
software packages or logic of a program. Even though documentation should be
developed during the design stage, it is often neglected and left until last. This
results in inadequate documentation, making the new system difficult to under-
stand and modify. User documentation provides directions for any person using
the solution. It may be a document, such as a user manual, or in electronic from,
such as on-screen help. User documentation must be user-friendly. Screen
dumps are useful to explain important procedures. Inexperienced users require
simple instructions written without technical terms.

Exercise 3.4
1 List the symbols used in a context diagram.
2 What is a data flow diagram?
3 How are data flow diagrams drawn?
4 Describe a system flow chart.
5 Explain the difference between external and internal specifications.
6 What is the advantage of custom software compared to a software package?
7 How are technical specifications used?
8 Why is a new system tested before implementation?
9 Real data is used to test a system prior to implementation. What properties of
the system are tested by this strategy?
10 What is user documentation?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The development of different types of technology has created some problems for
society. List some of the problems for society by the invention of the motor
vehicle. How has society tried to overcome these problems? Now do a similar
analysis of the introduction of information technology.
2 Many technical factors affect the design of a new system. Describe at least two
technical factors. Identify how these factors affect the system.
3 A marking system is a process used to determine the result of an assessment task.
Students complete the assessment task and receive a mark from the marking
system. A teacher constructs a marking scale for the assessment task and receives
each student’s mark. Construct a context diagram for the marking system.
4 The marking system in question 3 is extend to include a spreadsheet to store and
moderate the marks. Construct a data flow diagram to show the marking system.
5 A teacher uses a spreadsheet in the marking system from question 4 by following
the processes: enter student marks, store marks, calculate statistics, moderate
marks, print moderated marks. Construct a system flow chart for the system.
3.5 Implementing
The implementation stage delivers the new information system to the
Functio
participants. It involves using the solution to solve the problem. If a software

package, such as database management system, is chosen, implementing a
solution involves applying the software to the problem. The implementation
phase may involve a major change in the way organisations operate. This
requires conversion to the new system and training.
Conversion
Conversion involves changing from the old system to the new system. It must
be carefully planned and executed to avoid errors. The actual method chosen for

Function
ITITFact
Fact
In IT, ‘downsizing’ refers to a reduction in a company’s level of computer
equipment. It usually refers to companies changing from mainframes to
smaller computers such as personal computers.
conversion depends on the nature of the work and the characteristics of the new
system. There are four methods of conversion: direct, parallel, phased and pilot.
Direct conversion involves an immediate change to the new system. A date is
chosen on which the old system ends and the new system begins. All data from
the old system is transferred to the new system. Direct conversion is not popular
even though there are minimal transition costs. It does not allow time to check
whether the new system will operate correctly and that participants understand
the system. If the new system fails or problems occur, the old system is not
available as a backup.
Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems working together for
some time. Participants can compare the two systems and obtain a good under-
standing of the differences between them. If there are any problems with the
new system they can be solved before the old system is discontinued. However,
parallel conversion results in additional workloads for participants as they must
operate both systems. It may also result in confusion about which system has the
correct data.
Phased conversion involves the gradual implementation of the new system.
Certain operations of the new system are implemented while the remaining
operations are completed by the old system. When one operation of the new
system is successful, another operation is implemented until the new system is
Name Method of conversion over time
Direct conversion
Old system New system
Parallel conversion
Old system
New system
Phased conversion
Old system
New system
Pilot conversion
Figure 3.9 Methods of conversion.

fully operational. Each operation is individually tested. If there is a problem with
a certain operation it is possible to switch back to the old system. Unfortunately
phased conversion is often confusing, with some participants working on the old
system and some on the new system.
Pilot conversion involves trialling the new system in a small part of the
organisation. The old system is still available if the new fails or experiences
problems. Pilot conversion is usually undertaken by a keen group of participants
who appreciate the benefits of the new system. If pilot implementation works, it
is usually easier to motivate the other participants of the organisation to adopt
the new system.
Training
Training ensures that participants can use the new system and understand its
benefits. The type of training depends on the knowledge of the participants and
the features of the new system. The suppliers of the hardware and software may
carry out some training. Training manuals and presentations are used to explain
the new system and any changes in the information processes. Initial training is
completed before the old system is converted to the new system.
Management may decide to train
one person who will then have respon-
sibility for training others. Training is
provided by a range of different people.
Training specialists teach participants
how to operate their system. Training is
needed in the installation of a new sys-
tem and to ensure that the computer is
being used efficiently. Participants may
also need regular training to keep pace
with the latest developments in hard-
ware and software. Technical support
staff are people who assist participants
of a system. This service is usually pro-
vided over the phone and is known as a
help desk. Technical support staff need
to be completely familiar with the
Figure 3.10 A training specialist. system.
Exercise 3.5
1 What is involved in the implementation stage?
Functio
2 List the factors that affect the methods of conversion.

3 What are the disadvantages of direct conversion?
4 Why is parallel conversion popular?
5 Describe phased conversion.
6 Who usually starts a pilot conversion?
7 How is the type of training determined?
8 Describe two types of people involved in training.

Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The implementation of a new information system can raise many problems, such
as obtaining staff support for the changes. Imagine you are the manager of an
organisation about to implement a new information system. How would you
ensure staff support? One of the employees is reluctant to change to the new
system. Outline a specific strategy that could be used to gain their acceptance.
2 An organisation has just decided to increase its use of information technology.
This will result in staff redundancy and retraining. Describe some of the methods
that could be used for retraining. What method would you choose? Why?
3 Write an outline of a training program to help computer users develop good
ergonomic habits.
4 ‘Most people find it stressful to use a computer at work.’ Work in groups and
present your views for class discussion on this statement.
5 Discuss each of the four methods of conversion in terms of their implications for
the participants of a new system.
6 Construct a table to compare and contrast the four methods of conversion:
direct, parallel, phased and pilot. Give an example of a situation in which each
method might be appropriate.
3.6 Testing, evaluating and maintaining

After the new system is fully implemented, participants expect the system to be
working correctly. The successful operation of a system involves the information
technology working correctly and the participants using it effectively. People re-
sponsible for operation of the system include computer operators and managers.
Computer operators perform tasks on
computer equipment, such as starting up,
monitoring performance, running jobs and
backing up. The operations manual is used
to specify tasks to be completed on a
regular basis. If there are problems and the
system breaks down, it must be diagnosed
and corrected immediately. The computer
operator attempts to identify the problem
and if necessary liaises with a technician to
rectify the problem. The managers are
responsible for the effective use of the
system. They oversee the computer opera-
tion and ensure that participants and
machines work efficiently (see Figure
3.11). There are many different types of
managers with slightly different roles. An
information systems manager plans and
oversees all the information resources in
the organisation.
After the new system has been in
operation for a number of months, it must Figure 3.11 Air traffic controllers are users of an information
be tested and evaluated. system.

Testing and evaluating
Testing a solution ensures that it works. It is carried out throughout the system
development cycle. In this stage the performance of the system is tested and
then evaluated. The evaluation determines whether the system is working as
expected or if changes are required. It occurs after the new system is established
and minor problems have been fixed. The systems analyst often completes an
evaluation in consultation with participants. It is based on interviews, surveys,
observations and measurements. The results of the new system are compared to
the initial aims and objectives outlined in the requirement report.
Evaluation is ongoing. If the new system is not performing, changes need to
be made. If a major upgrade is required, the system development cycle starts
again. The results of the evaluation are the basis for understanding the problem
in the next cycle. Systems are involved in a constant process of evaluation,
analysis and development to improve their efficiency. The evaluation is also used
to improve the processes involved in the system development cycle. In some
situations the evaluation results in the system undergoing maintenance.
Maintenance
Maintenance is the modification of the system by making minor improvements.
During the operation of the system, participants may discover deficiencies and
suggest improvements. For example, a secretary may suggest a change in the
format of an input screen. Maintenance may also involve installing new hard-
ware and upgrading software packages. The longer the system has been
operational, the more difficult it is to change. However, good documentation
makes it easier to complete maintenance without causing problems elsewhere.
Simple changes in a large information system are often complex and require
retesting of other parts of the system. This often results in starting the system
development cycle again. The tasks in this stage are ongoing and continue until
the system is terminated or another system is developed.
Case study A1 Designs
A systems analyst was given responsi- The information in the data flow
bility to develop a new system using the diagram provided an outline of the
analysis report. It contained changes to general nature of the tasks required by
the business procedures and speci- the new system. Then the systems
fications for outputs such as a payroll analyst detailed each distinct task, such
report, pay slips, journals, invoices and as the method of calculating the pay for
yearly tax reports. Input screens were each staff member.
required for employee data, payroll The systems analyst used all the infor-
Functio
data, accounts and tax information. mation to complete a system design. He

chose a personal computer with a fast
Designing solutions processor and large amounts of memory
To design a solution the systems analyst and storage. The hardware chosen
created many different data flow allowed for future growth in the bus-
diagrams to understand every part of iness. Payroll and accounting software
the new system (see Figure 3.12). He packages were chosen as a cost-
also constructed system flow charts to effective solution that covered most re-
specify the required hardware devices. quirements. The technical specifications

Function
time sheets Owner time sheets
Employee checks Calculate wage Pay
pay employee
sheets
time wage personal

worked data
Payroll Employer
database database
Figure 3.12 One of the DFDs used for A1 Designs.
and software requirements were given person and Melissa on the specific
to five organisations to provide a quote. details of the new system. The new
Melissa and the systems analyst decided person entered the current data. All the
on the best quote. Ergonomic furniture staff were shown the new system and
was purchased and Melissa, in consult- how it would operate. They were given
ation with her staff, found an appropri- new procedures and forms to complete.
ate site in the office. After the training, conversion from the
The systems analyst set up the new old system to the new system started.
computer system. He installed the Even though Melissa felt confident with
software and developed appropriate the new system, she decided on parallel
inputs and outputs using the templates conversion. The systems analyst sug-
in the software and the required gested both systems operate together
specifications. Files were created for for three months. The old system was
accounts, employees, payroll and tax. discontinued at the end of that period.
Backup procedures were developed
using magnetic tape. Melissa expressed
a concern about some of the forms used
Testing, evaluating and
in the accounting software. There was a maintaining
need to modify the proposed business Testing and maintenance was started
procedures. Finally, the systems analyst once the new system began. The new
designed some test data. There employee monitored the system and
appeared to be no problems. Docu- suggested some minor changes to the
mentation was written to explain the format of the input screens. The systems
new system. It contained information analyst’s job had finished. Melissa com-
about the business processes in addition pleted a formal evaluation of the new
to the information technology. When system after six months. All the staff
the systems analyst was confident with and Melissa were happy with the
the new system, he presented a report system’s performance. It had achieved
to Melissa. She approved the implemen- the expected benefits. Eventually the
tation. systems analyst might be asked to initi-
ate another system to replace this
system. That might occur if A1 Designs
Implementation grew beyond expectations or develop-
Melissa hired a person to operate the ments in technology demanded a
system. The systems analyst trained this change.

ITITFact
Fact
Diagnostic programs test components and report on problems in order to
check that the computer system is operating correctly. POST (POwer Self-
Test) executes automatically every time a PC is turned on and before any
other action is taken.
Exercise 3.6
1 List the tasks performed by a computer operator.
2 Why should a new system be evaluated?
3 How is the requirement report used in an evaluation?
4 What happens if a major upgrade is required?
5 What is maintenance?
6 List two tasks that may be performed during maintenance?
7 Describe the new system designed for A1 Designs.
8 List some of the tasks completed by the systems analyst in setting up the new
computer system for A1 Designs.
9 How was the new system for A1 Designs implemented?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Carry out some research to identify software packages that have recently been
upgraded (released in a new version). Find out the technical requirements to run
the new versions. Will this new software run on your school’s computer system?
Explain your answer.
2 The systems analyst in the case study chooses a computer with a fast processor
and large amounts of memory and storage. What are the technical specifications
required to meet those needs? Investigate the cost of purchasing a computer
with these specifications. List the available prices and options.
3 An accounting software package is part of the solution in the case study.
Investigate the latest accounting software. Suggest the most appropriate
packages for the situation described in the case study. Justify your answer.
4 Peripheral devices are not specifically mentioned in the case study. What
peripheral devices would be required by the system? Investigate the options and
costs of each device. List these details.
Functio
5 ‘A system that is correctly designed should not need any ongoing evaluation and
maintenance.’ Outline your views on this statement.
ITITFact
Fact
‘Outrage’ occurs when a system refuses service to at least one user for a
period of time. The period of time depends on the application’s require-
ments.

Function
3.7 Social and ethical issues
Information systems depend on people and affect people in many different
ways. The impact is often not caused by the technology itself, but by the way
people use the technology. Systems can be either machine-centred or human-
centred.
Machine-centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer must
do at the expense of participants. They assume people will follow procedures
that may be confusing in order to get the end result they want. If errors occur in
a machine-centred system, they are usually blamed on the participant (operator
error) rather than the technology. Machine-centred systems are not always the
best systems for participants. People and machines have different strengths and
weaknesses. People are good at understanding and coming up with new ideas,
whereas machines are good at repetitive tasks.
Human-centred systems are those that make participants’ work as effective
and satisfying as possible. They allow people to do their work without wasting
time and effort dealing with the information technology. Human-centred
systems are user-friendly. In the past, information systems were difficult to use.
People needed to understand a programming language to complete the simplest
tasks. With developments in technology such as graphical user interfaces,
computers are much more user-friendly. However, systems must be developed
that pay attention to the work environment and the needs of the participants as
well as the information technology.
Work environment
The implementation of a new system may result in major changes in the work
environment. The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires employers to
maintain a safe working environment and protect workers against foreseeable
risks. It requires both employers and employees to establish and maintain a safe
environment.
Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work
environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The work environment,
and in particular the way a computer is used, can have an affect on the body
(see Figure 3.13). The work environment includes the desk, chair, hardware,
software, keyboard, work routine and indoor climate. The participant’s relation-
ship with all these factors affects health and efficiency. If computers are being
used in the correct way, the working environment is safe and the participant will
be able to work at maximum efficiency. Conversely, incorrect use of computers
can cause health problems such as eyestrain, headaches, backaches, fatigue,
muscle pain and repetitive strain injury
(RSI). Carpal tunnel syndrome and teno-
synovitis are two common forms of RSI.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a
pinching of the nerve that passes
through the wrist. It is produced by
repeating the same small movements
many times. Typical symptoms are
numbness or burning in the fingers or
wrist. CTS can cause permanent nerve
damage.
Figure 3.13 The work environment.

• Tenosynovitis is a narrowing and inflammation of the tendon sheath. It occurs
when a repetitive activity exceeds the tendon sheath’s ability to lubricate the
tendon. Tenosynovitis causes pain and swelling in the tendons and may cause
fingers to lock in one position.
To help reduce these health problems there have been numerous reports and
standards produced that deal with ergonomics and information technology. The
Australian Standard AS3590.2 and the Worksafe Australia checklist are
standards adopted in Australia. These standards can contain slightly conflicting
results as they are based on different anthropometric data (body size and shape).
The general recommendations are outlined below.
Furniture
Furniture needs to be adjusted to suit each person’s body, otherwise problems
may develop in the back, neck, shoulders, arms and legs. The desk and chair
need to be positioned so that these body parts are used effectively without strain
and undue fatigue.
• Desk height should be between 660 mm and 680 mm for a fixed desk, and
between 610 mm and 720 mm for an adjustable desk. The depth of the desk
should be 900 mm with at least 50 mm for the wrists between the front edge
of the desk and the keyboard. This reduces the strain on the forearms when
typing.
• Chairs should have an adjustable seat height that ranges from 370 to
520 mm from the floor. This allows a clearance of 200 mm between the seat
and the desk. An adjustable backrest should be between 170 to 250 mm
above the seat and fit snugly into the small of the back. The seat should be
flat, well padded and slanted slightly backwards. This forces the participant to
lean against the backrest and maintain good posture.
Hardware and its placement are an important ergonomic factor. The system unit
bought as a tower or mini-tower can be placed away from the screen, keyboard
and mouse to provide increased desk space. The recommendations for the
screen, keyboard and mouse are outlined below.
• The screen should be about an arm’s length away with the user looking
down on the screen. It should also be between 15 and 30 degrees below eye
level and adjusted so that it is at right angles to the line of sight. Adjustments
of angle, brightness and contrast should be possible to cater for individual
differences.
• The keyboard must be detachable and positioned so that the forearms are
parallel to the floor. The angle of the keyboard relative to the desk should be
Functio
between 5 and 18 degrees with the keys requiring a minimum of pressure.

• The mouse must fit the hand and be easily moved. The button should
require a minimum of pressure. The sensitivity of the mouse should be easily
adjusted to suit the operator.
Software should be ergonomically designed to make the user feel relaxed and
comfortable. A range of software has been developed to meet the needs of
everybody, depending on their level of software understanding and their task

Function
1 The top edge of the 5 To reduce eye strain,
monitor should be at 5 focus on a distant
eye level or slightly object, then focus on
lower. 1 a close object. Repeat
this several times.
2 Keep your elbows level
with the keyboard and
ensure your wrists
remain straight at all
times.
2
3 Do not lean forward 3
or slouch in your chair.
Shift positions often
and stand up to stretch
at least once an hour.
4 Use a fully adjustable 4

chair that provides
support for your lower
back. Contoured chair
seats relieve pressure 6 Make sure your feet
on the legs. are flat on the floor.
6
Figure 3.14 Some important ergonomic work practices.
requirements. It should be designed to minimise movement, improve speed and

be easy to use. If the software is easy to understand and use, it is user-friendly.
Most people find the GUI (graphical user interface) environment to be user-
friendly.
Environmental factors
The work environment is affected by environmental factors such as lighting,
indoor climate and noise.
• Incorrect lighting can cause eyestrain, double vision and headaches, and
reduce visual powers. Lighting needs to be uniform and bright enough for all
text to be read easily on the screen, keyboard and paper. All parts of the work
environment should have non-reflective surfaces to minimise glare. Glare is
reduced by using shades on windows, diffusers on overhead lighting and anti-
glare filters on screens.
• If the climate of a room is uncomfortable, it can cause weariness, sleepiness,
loss of performance and increased errors. The comfortable temperature range
varies depending on many factors. For a clothed and resting person, the
temperature should range between 20 and 23°C. If the relative humidity of
the air is between 30 and 70 per cent it will not create any discomfort. Air
movements such as draughts are unpleasant if they exceed 0.2 m/s.
• Excessive noise in the work environment can be a significant distraction.
Noise levels should not exceed 55 decibels, as this makes communication
with others difficult and can affect concentration. Protection from noise can
be obtained by sound-insulating a room, enclosing the source of the noise
with sound-absorbing materials, or by using headphones, ear plugs and soft
music.

Impact of systems on work
The impact of information systems on
a person’s work can be positive or
negative. Work that is satisfying is the
result of a job design that involves a
variety of tasks and a balance between
work and rest. When appropriate rest
pauses are taken, the effects of fatigue
are reduced and efficiency improves.
It is important that the workload is
evenly spread throughout the day and
year. Most people who use an infor-
mation system do not find it stressful
and enjoy the interaction.
‘My screen is hard to read. Can I have a bigger monitor?’ On the other hand, the impact of
the system may be negative. Work
pressure can cause high levels of stress and adversely affect health and effi-
ciency. There are a number of factors that influence work pressure, such as
workload, job design, social relations and job security. Undue pressure may
result in feelings of anxiety, tension, depression, anger, fatigue, lack of vigour and
confusion. The introduction of a new information system often makes a person’s
work easier but they may be expected to do more. Some people believe that
stress levels have increased due to information overload—being weighed down
by the use of email, the Internet, faxes and personal computers.
Use of skills
The introduction of information systems has improved the skills of people in a
number of jobs. It has also forced people to retrain or risk long-term
unemployment. When people retrain and learn new skills it is called multi-
skilling. In Australia, employers have a
legal responsibility to either retrain
people or provide an appropriate
termination package if they are made
redundant by technology. There are many
jobs that now require multiskilled people.
For example, today’s secretary may
perform a range of tasks not required 10
years ago, such as using email, updating a
Web page or maintaining a database.
Unfortunately, information systems
may have the opposite effect on some
Functio
jobs, resulting in a job requiring fewer

skills. This is called deskilling. For
example, watches are now mass-produced
using semi-skilled workers whereas in the
past they were made by highly skilled
watchmakers. Deskilled workers may
suffer problems of low morale and low
self-esteem.
Figure 3.15 When people retrain and learn new skills it
is called multiskilling.

Function
Meaningful work
For a job to be meaningful, people need to understand the importance of their
work. The meaning of work done on a computer may be a problem. Computer
work may not involve direct contact with the results of the system. It is abstract
in nature and focused on symbols on the screen. People need to see the result of
their work in order to achieve some satisfaction. Work also needs to consist of a
variety of tasks. People become bored if their work is routine and repetitive.
Information technology makes fundamental changes in people’s experience
of their work. One example is telecommuting, in which people work on a
personal computer at home and use electronic mail to communicate with
people in the office. It provides participants with flexible hours and savings on
transport, clothing, food and time. Many people enjoy the benefits of tele-
commuting, including those who are physically impaired or want to combine
work with looking after small children. However, telecommuting can also have
problems. There is a need for a separate work area in the home to minimise
interruptions from family and friends. Telecommuters can also experience
loneliness, isolation and a lack of support that is enjoyed by people who work
with colleagues in an office environment.
Nature of the workplace

Organisations are increasing their use of information technology and this is
contributing to many changes in the workplace. There are increases in part-time
work, the proportion of women in the workforce and the use of contracted
labour. Employees are required to be multiskilled and undertake ongoing
training. It is also likely that people will change jobs many times throughout
their career, which was not common practice 20 years ago.
Technology is a major factor in changing career paths. A person can expect to
have many different types of jobs throughout their career. The expectation that
a person will remain in the same job from the time they leave school to when
they retire no longer exists. In the next 10 years new jobs will be created and
existing jobs will change as a result of developments in information technology.
Social relationships
People need to be able to com-
municate with others. Social inter-
action may change when a new
system is implemented. For
example, a new information system
may mean that a process that was
once done by face-to-face inter-
action is now done via a computer
network. People who spend most of
the day looking at a screen tend to
have less time for social interaction.
On the other hand information
systems can improve social relation-
ships. Electronic mail has provided
opportunities for social relation-
ships to develop between people
who are separated geographically. Figure 3.16 There is an increasing demand for IT skills.

Exercise 3.7
1 Explain the difference between a machine-centred system and a human-centred
system.
2 List the ergonomic factors that affect health and efficiency.
3 What health problems are caused by the incorrect use of computers?
4 Describe the recommendations for desk and seat height.
5 How does the screen cater for individual differences?
6 Outline the ergonomic recommendations for a keyboard.
7 Why should software be ergonomically designed?
8 What are the effects of incorrect lighting?
9 List factors that affect the climate of a room.
10 What may be some of the negative results of work pressure?
11 What does it mean when a person becomes ‘deskilled’? Provide an example.
12 Why is computer work not always meaningful?
13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting?
14 How has the nature of the workplace changed as a result of information tech-
nology?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 The manager of an organisation would like to replace many of its staff with
computers. The manager argues that machines never stop work, go on holidays
or waste work time discussing the football. Do you think machines should replace
people? Give reasons to support your argument. List any jobs where people
cannot be replaced.
2 You are offered a job in an office without ergonomic furniture. The manager
believes that ergonomics is incorrectly blamed for many health problems. Outline
your view on the importance of ergonomics.
3 ‘People have been doing repetitive jobs for centuries without knowing about
ergonomics. A person’s attitude to work is more important than their work
routine.’ Comment on these statements.
4 Telecommuting offers several advantages to both employees and employers.
However, its success depends on the employee’s personality, the employer’s
willingness to make changes and the nature of the work. What type of person is
suitable for telecommuting? Would you be successful at telecommuting? Why?
5 Interview a person who telecommutes.
Functio
a What changes did the person make to their home?

b How is working at home different from going to a place of work?
c What are the advantages and disadvantages of working from home?
d Is the person a better worker at home?
e Has the person made sure their work environment and work practices are
ergonomic?
6 ‘It is the worker’s responsibility to ensure a safe working environment.’ Do you
agree with this statement? Why?

Chapter review
PART A 6 The method that describes the gradual
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best implementation of the new system is:
answers the question or completes the A pilot
statement. C parallel
B direct
1 During the development of a new sys-
tem, the details of the time frame for D phased
each task would appear in the: 7 Determining whether a new system will
A requirement report be implemented by a deadline is:
B project plan A economic feasibility
C feasibility study B schedule feasibility
D data flow diagram C organisational feasibility
2 The purpose of a feasibility study is to: D technical feasibility
A describe the information processes 8 Technical specifications should be done
within a system during the:
B outline the aims and objectives of A requirements report
the new system B feasibility study
C show intended structure of a solution C design
D judge the appropriateness of a solu- D implementation
tion
9 In which stage in the development of a
3 In a context diagram, a person who system do participants have the least
receives data would be represented by: involvement?
A a process A Making decisions
B a data flow B Designing the solution
C an external entity C Understanding the problem
D an online output D Testing, evaluating and maintaining
4 The second stage in the development 10 The evaluation of a new system is per-
of a system involves writing the: formed to:
A requirement report A determine whether the system is
B internal specifications working as expected
C technical specifications B check the working of the system
D analysis report using test data
C compare possible solutions to deter-
5 In which stage in the development of a
mine the best one
system is the staff trained?
D determine the economic feasibility
A making decisions
of the system
B designing solutions
C implementing
D testing, evaluating and maintaining

Chapter review
PART B List of terms
For each of the following statements, a beta test
select from the list of terms the one that b context diagram
most closely fits the statement. Write the c design specifications
letter corresponding to your choice. d evaluation
Statements e feasibility study
f Gantt chart
1 The stages involved in the development
g maintenance
of a new system to solve a problem.
h pilot conversion
2 A statement about the needs of a new i parallel conversion
system. j requirement report
3 It provides a quick method of deter- k system development cycle
mining whether a project is on schedule. l system flow chart
4 A short report that analyses potential PART C
solutions and makes a recommendation.
Write at least one paragraph on each of
5 The general hardware configuration of the following questions.
a new system and designs for both in- 1 Describe the five stages in the system
put and output. development cycle.
6 It represents a system using a single 2 Name and describe the four elements
process together with inputs and out- of a data flow diagram.
puts.
3 Explain the use of the following tools
7 It represents both the flow of data and in the design of a new system:
the logic of a system.
a a context diagram
8 It is carried out by participants of the b a data flow diagram
system using real data. c a system flow chart
9 It involves the old and new systems 4 Direct conversion is one method of im-
working together for some time. plementing a new system.
10 It involves trialling a new system in a a Explain the process of direct conver-
small part of an organisation. sion.
b What are the advantages and dis-
11 It determines whether a system is
advantages of direct conversion.
working as expected or if changes are
required. 5 Documentation is required throughout
the system development cycle. For each
12 The modification of a system by mak-
stage in the cycle, list and briefly
ing minor improvements.
describe some of the documentation
that needs to be written.
6 A barcode system is to be installed in
the school canteen. Outline the impact
of this system on the participants.

chapter
PERSONAL AND
GROUP SYSTEMS AND
PROJECTS
4
Outcomes
able to:
• develop a personal and group information
system to solve an information problem
• apply the stages in the system development
cycle
• apply project management tools to develop
a system
• recognise and apply management and
Overview
communication techniques to project work Students are required to complete two projects
• generate ideas and alternative solutions to a worth 20 per cent of their assessment. This
problem. chapter includes guidelines for completing the
projects. The projects are classified as either a
personal information system or a group
information system.
4.1 Guidelines to projects
In this course, project work involves the planning, design and implementation of
an information system as outlined in Chapter 3. Project work provides a focus to
develop each student’s technical, communication and management skills. It
requires you to solve an information problem.
Developing a solution
Developing a solution to a problem requires an appreciation of the planning and
design process. You must first understand the nature of the problem and
determine where to get additional information. It is often useful to examine
existing solutions. For example, if your project requires an advertising brochure,
it would be useful to analyse professional brochures to get some ideas. Develop-
ing a solution may require data to be gathered. If you are conducting a survey or
interviewing a person, it is appropriate to make prior arrangements with this
person. Remember that their time is valuable. If you are conducting an
interview, the questions should be carefully prepared before the interview.
Project management is a critical aspect of the project. You need to plan the
overall stages of the project and the tasks to be completed. Make sure you care-
fully check each stage before proceeding. The project must be completed within
a time frame. You will not be able to complete the project in class time; you will
be expected to do work outside the classroom. Tasks will need to be carefully
organised and scheduled. Check off deadlines as they have been reached.
File management is an important but often neglected procedure. The
project will require you to create different files. If an efficient file structure and
naming system is implemented, it will save time. The importance of backing up
your project cannot be overstated. Students need to implement a process for
backing up their project on a regular basis, such as after each session spent on
the project.
Developing a solution does not involve using the computer for every possible
task. It is often easier to design a solution using pen and paper first before using
a computer. Paper, pencils, eraser and ruler are useful tools for design. Most in-
formation technology professionals spend a significant amount of time using
these tools. There are many tasks that can be done without the computer such as:
• outlining the structure and
writing the questions for a survey
• deciding on the format of a
newsletter
• designing a form to enter data
into a database
• designing the layout of a budget
Functio
with easily identifiable areas

• creating a storyboard for a multi-
media presentation
• creating context diagrams, data
flow diagrams and flow charts.

Function
After a solution has been designed, it can be changed. The development of
most new systems requires changes to the initial solution. At each stage of the
system development cycle there is often a good reason to return to the previous
stage. For example, during implementation the layout of a form may be found to
be inappropriate. It may need to be redesigned to allow data to be entered
accurately.
Written report
In addition to an electronic copy of the information system, a written report
should be submitted for each project. The written report is prepared using a
word processor. It must be kept short and to the point. The quality of your work
is more important than the quantity. Your written report could divided into the
following sections: cover page, contents, stages in developing systems, social and
ethical issues, journal and bibliography. These are only a guide; they can be
changed with approval from your teacher.
It is suggested that students maintain and submit a journal as part of the
written report. The journal is to be completed in the last five minutes of every
lesson. The journal concludes with a brief report on the success of the project.
The written report should also contain a brief description of the social and
ethical issues that result from the new system. You may have to describe
possible issues and steps to address these issues.
The main section of the written report is a description of the five stages in
the system development cycle. A checklist for each stage is provided below as a
guide to some of the documentation that is required. The type of information
problem and your solution will determine the specific documentation submitted
under each stage.
Understanding the problem

A project plan must be submitted that outlines the development of the new
system. It should identify tasks, the time frame for each task and responsibilities
for each group member. The differences between the projected and actual time
for each task should be noted.
❑ Problem statement ❑ Project plan
❑ Data collection ❑ Gantt chart
❑ Requirement report
Making decisions
A feasibility study must be submitted to analyse potential solutions and make a
recommendation.
❑ Constraints ❑ Detailed analysis
❑ Feasibility study ❑ Analysis report
❑ Recommendation
Designing solutions
The system must be represented using a context diagram, data flow chart or
system flow chart. Specifications for the new system are to be stated.
❑ Context diagram ❑ Specifications
❑ Data flow diagram ❑ Information technology
❑ System flow chart ❑ Test data
❑ System design ❑ Documentation
Personal and group systems and projects 123
Implementing
Screen dumps, printouts and reports that illustrate important parts of the new
system are to be submitted.
❑ Methods of conversion ❑ Demonstration (to the teacher)
❑ Training ❑ Documentation
Testing, evaluating and maintaining

A brief description of the testing methods and user documentation is to be
submitted.
❑ Testing ❑ Maintenance
❑ Evaluation ❑ Documentation
Preparation of the written report

Each section of the written report will require editing. Firstly, the document is
examined on screen to detect any errors. If the document contains text, it
should be spell-checked. Secondly, a draft copy is checked and any errors
corrected. It is often useful to have an independent person proofread each
section They can often find problems that have been overlooked.
When writing a report it is much easier to enter the data first and format it
later. This applies to most software applications. It is more important to solve
the information problem than spend a lot of time formatting the solution. Most
software applications have templates and wizards that will save time formatting.
Good design principles are stressed throughout the chapters on software tools
(Chapters 5 to 11). These principles need to be adopted in your written report.
The header and footer should be used to provide information about the author,
project name, class, filename, date and page number. Refer to Chapter 5 for
detailed information on word processing tools and techniques.
A bibliography is the last section of the report. It is a list of source material
used in the development of the project. The bibliography should include
material obtained or referenced from the Internet.
4.2 Personal information systems

Personal information systems are those with only one participant. Their purpose
is to meet the needs of the individual. Personal information systems often involve
a personal computer with appropriate software. There are many examples of
personal information systems, such as a scriptwriter using a word processor to
produce an episode of a television program.
ITITFact
Functio
Fact
‘Rafting’ refers to a person taking on new projects in the technology
industry when they are finding it difficult to cope with the fast pace of
change.

Function
Case study Angus Trading
Katja Olsen is an accountant in the amount that each department can

accounting department of Angus Trad- spend on calls. Katja also needs to be
ing. In an effort to reduce the com- able to present her projections at the
pany’s costs she has identified the seven next accounting department meeting.
departments that most often use the Katja uses Microsoft Excel to produce
phone. Table 4.1 shows the number of the spreadsheet solution. She sets up a
calls made by the seven departments in spreadsheet with the appropriate rows
one year. Phone costs will soon have to and columns and enters the data (see
be paid by each department. Katja Figure 4.1). Katja uses Excel’s charting
knows there will be a rise in the cost of functions to produce the graph shown
calls. She wants to make some projec- in Figure 4.2. The graph clearly shows
tions of the increases to the phone both the number of calls and the cost to
budget and calculate an average each department. Katja has chosen a
bar graph as the most appropriate for
Department Units
. (number of calls) her purpose, but other types of graphs
such as pie charts or linear graphs are
Hardware 4320 also available.
Katja includes the charts in her
Jewellery 4300
report. She also inserts the spreadsheet
Menswear 3700 and chart into Microsoft PowerPoint to
develop a presentation for the next
Ladies wear 3420 company meeting. She can email the
Automotive 3120 spreadsheet to individual departments
if necessary. Katja saves her spreadsheet
Gardening 2700 solution and also saves a copy as a tem-
Kitchen 2561
plate, so that figures can be altered
from year to year. She deletes all the
Table 4.1 Phone calls for Angus Trading specific values in the template but
Value to be altered
= $B$5*B9
Formulas filled down
Formatted for currency
= SUM(C9:C15)
= AVERAGE(C9:C15)
Figure 4.1 The spreadsheet created by Katja Olsen.

retains all the formulas. Finally, she password-protected the spreadsheet
backs up the file and stores the backups template so that no one could change
in an off-site location. If security of data the formulas in it. She could also have
had been an issue, she would have ‘locked’ values that would never change.
Figure 4.2 A chart from the phone call spreadsheet.
Exercise 4.2
PERSONAL PROJECTS
Solve one of the following information problems. It is a personal project—you must
complete it on your own. The project involves using more than one software tool
and a combination of data types.
1 Students in Year 11 have decided to have a formal party at a local venue. You
have been given the responsibility of choosing the venue. Investigate a number
of different venues and gather data such as the name and address of the venue;
the cost per head; the initial deposit required; details of meals; and available
dates. Store this data in an information system and create reports that allow you
to compare venues. Design a survey for Year 11 students that will decide on the
Functio
venue. Students will vote on the venue if they are committed to attend. The
survey should also decide on possible dates and meal arrangements.
2 Matthew Law works for the tourist bureau. He has been asked to collect and
organise data on all Australian beaches. The data collected should include the
location, physical characteristics, surf rating, surf club, amenities and usage
patterns. Develop a solution for Matthew. It requires a questionnaire to be
designed and sent to all councils that are responsible for a beach. Store real or
fictitious data and produce various printed reports to highlight the beach with
the best surf rating and amenities. Create a sign to promote this beach.

Function
3 Tony Costa is considering purchasing a nightclub in the local area. Each week the
nightclub buys $5000 of stock for the bar and bistro. This stock is sold at a profit
of 70%. The wages bill for the week is $6500 and he needs to repay a loan of
$4000 per month. The nightclub attracts about 700 people each week. Tony
needs to analyse this data to determine the cover charge for the patrons and its
relationship to any profits he would receive. Tony wants to create and cost
promotional material for the nightclub. Develop a solution for Tony. It should
provide information about whether to buy the nightclub and the possible effects
of the cover charge and increasing or decreasing the number of patrons. Create
promotional material for Tony’s nightclub.
4 The principal would like to promote the positive features of your school outside
the local community. She is presenting these features at a conference centre.
Develop a solution for the principal. It requires a presentation containing
numerous slides describing the characteristics and best features of the school (see
Figure 4.3). The presentation should contain different media types.
Figure 4.3 Information technology in the classroom.
5 Keith Senter is a local firefighter who needs information on the types and
quantities of chemicals stored by organisations in the local community. This will
enable him to deal more effectively with an emergency. Develop a solution for
Keith. Create a survey to collect data for the system. Store fictitious data from
the survey on the organisation’s name, contact person, address, phone number
and operating hours, and the type and quantity of the chemicals. Create forms
and reports to display the most dangerous sites.
6 Jane Cummins is a political analyst employed by a major political party. She needs
to determine the impact of different issues on an election. For example, what
will happen if there is an increase in unemployment? What if the Prime Minister
supports an issue that is unpopular with one group of people but popular with
another? There are many things that might make a difference to the way people
vote. Develop a solution for Jane. A survey is to be created, conducted and
analysed on current issues in the local community. For example, if the party sup-
ports legalising marijuana, 2 per cent of men and 3 per cent woman will switch
to another party. However, the party gains 8 per cent of the people aged
between 18 to 35 but loses 7 per cent of the people aged between 50 and 65.
The results of the survey are to be displayed using charts.

7 The school computer coordinator needs to update the school’s Web site. He wants
to add Web pages about the latest information technology resources in the school.
Develop the Web pages for the computer coordinator. Data needs to be collected
regarding the school’s hardware and resources. The Web page must outline how
this information technology is used in administration and computing courses.
8 Dennis Spring is an author who won the best book award for Night Sea Crossing.
It is a children’s book that deals with the journey to a mysterious island. Dennis
needs to promote the book to the local community. Develop a solution for
Dennis. Store fictitious data on residents in the local community, such as their
name, address, postcode, and whether they have children. Mailing labels are to
be created for those residents with children only. Create a flier containing
graphical images to encourage the residents to buy the book.
9 Neil Woods is a landscape gardener who has operated a business for the past 10
years in your local community. He is willing to take on any job, large or small.
Neil would like to work as a subcontractor for the local municipal council. He
believes a more active promotional campaign is required to promote himself to a
wider audience. Develop a solution for Neil. It must include advertising
brochures, a business card, advertisements for newspapers and a monthly
newsletter for clients.
10 The student council has decided to submit a proposal for a school dance to the
executive at their weekly meeting. They have appointed you to do the
presentation. The project requires you to create a multimedia presentation. It
should outline the advantages and disadvantages of the dance, a budget that
specifies the expenses (security guard, disc jockey and stationery), and the
proposed date, time and dress regulations. The presentation should contain
different media types.
11 Eleanor Rigby is a self-employed artist who works primarily in the clothing
industry. She works in Sydney and has experience in designing garments, tags,
logos, brochures and promotional plans. Eleanor is having difficulty organising
and accessing data about her clients. She was recently asked to create a logo for
Wave Clothing to appear on a series of T-shirts. Develop a solution for Eleanor. It
must store fictitious data about her clients, such as their name, address, contact
person, phone number, email address, invoice number and job details. Create a
logo and invoice form for Wave Clothing.
12 David Lee wants to produce a personal Web site about himself. The Web pages
are to be a multimedia product. Develop a solution for David. Create a fictitious
family, friends, hobbies, likes and dislikes, sporting achievements and musical
interests. The Web pages are based on this data and should contain a minimum
amount of material sourced from the Web.
Functio
4.3 Group information systems

Group information systems are those in which participants work in groups to
meet a need. There are many examples of group information systems, such as
people working together to produce a Web site for the local community. Group
information systems are often connected to form a network. Communication
with other group members is carried out over the network. Interpersonal and
communication skills are important for people working in groups.

Function
Case study JANDZ Pty Ltd
JANDZ Pty Ltd is a large Australian com- mendations. It involves entering product
pany. It produces a wide range of orders received by fax into a database.
specialist products for the gardening, This data is used to generate customer
welding and automotive industries. The invoices and monthly accounts; monitor
company’s information system is 10 stock and supply levels; generate pro-
years old and is out of date. The mana- duction reports; and produce other
ger needs a system that can produce internal reports to assist in the overall
more detailed information about prod- management of the company.
uct sales and stock levels. He has hired EP Consulting discovered that many
the services of a company called EP customers needed a faster supply of
Consulting to solve the problem. products for their stores. The new
Two consultants from EP Consulting system allows JANDZ Pty Ltd to produce
completed a preliminary investigation internal reports that summarise and
and feasibility study. They developed a detail the monthly sales of each
solution based on the study’s recom- product. It generates exception reports
DETAILED PRODUCT SALES (by customer)

Product Description Greenfingers Plants Bonsai Palms
code Nursery Hire Plants Plus
11005 LeafLustre (5 litre) 24 48 76 43
11025 LeafLustre (25 litre) 3 6 7 4
12005 MealyRid (5 litre) 21 20 34 42
12025 MealyRid (25 litre) 3 1 5 2
13003 MiteRid (300 gram) 36 20 16 11
SUMMARY OF MONTHLY SALES (by product code)

Product Description February
code sales
Total of
11005 LeafLustre (5 litre) 191
product sales
11025 LeafLustre (25 litre) 20 for the month
12005 MealyRid (5 litre) 117 of February
12025 MealyRid (25 litre) 11
13003 MiteRid (300 gram) 83
EXCEPTION REPORT (by product code)

Product Description Projected min. Stock Stock balance
code monthly stock level balance at end of
February is
11005 LeafLustre (5 litre) 200 34 below the
11025 LeafLustre (25 litre) 25 6 projected
12005 MealyRid (5 litre) 150 45 monthly
requirement
Figure 4.4 Reports generated by JANDZ Pty Ltd.

to ensure that stocks are always main- The new system produces different
tained at adequate levels (see Figure types of graphs. This makes operational
4.4). These reports are used to deter- decisions at JANDZ Pty Ltd much easier.
mine production levels and timelines for A bar graph is used to show sales to
the next month. They assist the different customers; a pie chart is used
manager to implement appropriate to show the company’s most popular
processes to meet the demands of the products; and a line graph is used to
customers. show trends in sales (see Figure 4.5).
Monthly sales Most popular products

80
70
60
20%
50
44%
Sales
3%
40
28%
30 5%
20
10
0
Greenfingers Plants Bonsai Palms
Nursery Hire Plants Plus
Customer
Leaf Lustre (5 L) Mealy Rid (25 L)
Six-monthly sales Leaf Lustre (25 L) Mite Rid (300 g)
250 Mealy Rid (5 L)
200
150
Sales
100
50
0
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Month
Leaf Lustre Mealy Rid Mite Rid
Functio
Figure 4.5 Charts generated for JANDZ Pty Ltd.
ITITFact
Fact
A ‘honky tonk’ is a person who disguises the fact that they are a computer
expert by not boasting about their competence.

Function
Rules for group work
A group should consist of three to five students. Your teacher will decide on the
formation of these groups. All students must function as part of a group. The
success of the project depends on group members working cooperatively
together. Each group will have different characteristics and must follow these
two rules:
1 Group member’s work together: Each student must contribute to all sections
of the project. For example, it is not satisfactory for one student to design the
system while another writes the written report. All students must be
involved in journal writing.
2 Role of group members: Each student is given a role in the project. They
contribute to all sections of the project but have specific responsibilities
depending on their strengths and weaknesses. For example, one student
might have good organisational skills and be responsible for the project
management. Each student needs to negotiate and understand his or her role
in the group. They need to complete their tasks according to a deadline,
otherwise the project might be delayed.
Exercise 4.3
GROUP PROJECTS
Solve one of the following information problems. It involves using more than one
software tool and a combination of data types.
1 The local library consists of children’s and
adult sections, fiction and non-fiction,
magazines, encyclopedias, videos and audio
CDs. It uses an information system but it is
command driven and not user-friendly.
Borrowers are demanding a faster and more
efficient method to access materials (see
Figure 4.6). Develop a solution for the library.
It must store fictitious data for each item in
the library, such as title, author, classification
number, category (section), publisher, date of
publication, subject and keywords entered
into a database program. Create tables and
reports that classify the data according to its
type, subject and time of publication. The
library needs to promote the benefits of the
new system to its borrowers. Create a letter
for borrowers that explains the new system. Figure 4.6 The library.
2 Peter Tran has accepted a teaching position at a local primary school. He is

moving away from home and is concerned about his finances. Develop a solution
for Peter’s finances. Peter receives $35 583 per annum (before tax) and is paid
fortnightly. He has $2500 invested in a major bank and interest is paid half-
yearly. Peter wants to purchase a car and needs a personal loan of $20 000 from
a bank. Payments will be paid monthly for five years. Peter needs to budget for
the following expenses: rent, food, services, clothing, entertainment, car
repayments and savings. The savings are needed for an overseas holiday at the

end of the year. Investigate the local community to obtain appropriate living
expenses. The solution must provide Peter with an analysis of his finances. The
analysis is to be written as a formal report. Printouts that illustrate ‘what if’
questions are required. Create a number of charts to illustrate Peter’s finances.
3 A local club provides a hospitality service to its 854 members and their guests. It is
open every day of the year for 14 hours, except Christmas Day. The club is
currently undergoing the initial stages of building a new clubhouse at the cost of
$3 million. It is planning to install a new information system to cope with the
increase in business. Develop a solution for the club. It must store fictitious data
on members and be able to produce letters (such as reminders for membership
fees) and a newsletter. Mailing labels are to be created for the letters and the
newsletter. Create promotional advertising for the new clubhouse.
4 A local supermarket is open seven days a week and employs 21 people on a full-
time or part-time basis. It has a POS system and EFTPOS facilities. The super-
market is having problems with stock records and needs a new information
system. Develop a solution for the supermarket. It must store fictitious data for
each item, such as name, product description, price, brand, quantity and uni-
versal product code. Create relevant queries, forms and reports. The supermarket
maintains its prices are lower than the competitors’. Investigate the prices of a
range of goods in your local community. Create a flier for the local supermarket
to promote its lowers prices.
5 Townbank needs the approval of the local council for a personal banking centre.
It is to be staffed by two people with a team of branch managers located in head
office. The personal banking centre has multimedia terminals with touch screens
that provide information on the bank’s products, such as credit cards and interest
rates. A laser printer provides a high-quality printout of requested information.
Video-conferencing booths allows the customer and banker to see each other on
the screen. The personal banking centre allows decisions such as an approval for
a loan to be made immediately by the head office staff. The technology is taking
some of the frustration out of banking. Develop a solution for Townbank. Create
a multimedia presentation to seek approval of the local council. Also create
advertisements for the local newspaper and a flier to be distributed to local
residents advertising the service.
6 Your teacher would like to promote each student in your class to the wider
community by producing a class Web site. The Web pages are to be a multimedia
product. Develop a solution for your teacher. Investigate some of the
characteristics (family, friends, hobbies, likes, dislikes, etc.) of each person in your
class. Create the Web pages using this data. Do not include data about a student
without their approval. Personal phone numbers and addresses should not be
included. The Web pages should be stored on a hard disk, not uploaded to a
Web server.
Functio

Part 2
Application software
Chapter 5 Word processing

Chapter 6 Databases
Chapter 7 Spreadsheets
Chapter 8 Graphics
Chapter 9 Desktop publishing
Chapter 10 Multimedia
Chapter 11 The Internet
chapter
W O R D P RO C E S S I N G 5
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the advantages of using a word
processor
• create, save and print a document using a
word processor
• make editing changes to an existing
document
Overview • move and copy blocks of text
This chapter will help you to become an • format the characters and paragraphs in a
accomplished user of a word processor. It document
examines the basic features of word pro-
• use a range of tools to produce profes-
cessors and the major information processes sional-looking documents.
involved in their use. It explains the different
ways of editing text, such as moving text and
using a spell checker. You will learn to use a
variety of word processing tools to format
characters and paragraphs.
Function
Word processing is an application that can be used across most of the seven
information processes. In creating and using a word processing document, the
information processes are often not distinct—the user switches back and forth
between different processes.
Word processing emphasises four information processes:
• Collecting: Data can be gathered using hardware and software or using
non-computer techniques (such as a survey or literature search). Text can
be entered into the word processor using a scanner and optical character
recognition software, or by typing using the keyboard. (See section 5.1.)
• Storing and retrieving: A word processing document can be saved to a
storage device, such as a hard disk. Documents should be saved frequently
and backed-up to a second storage device so that valuable work is not lost.
(See section 5.1.)
• Processing: Text can be edited, sorted and modified. (See section 5.2.)
• Displaying: Text is displayed on the screen and can be formatted in various
ways. Word processing documents are often displayed using a printer. (See
sections 5.3 and 5.4.)
5.1 Basic features

Word processing is the most widely used computer application. A word processor
is a software application that allows users to enter characters (text and numerals)
and create documents. Word processors are used to write letters, reports,
assignments, articles and books. They carry out these tasks quickly and efficiently.
Word processors have the following advantages over other methods of writing:
• ease of editing text—mistakes can be corrected and text moved
• formatting options—a wide range of different typefaces is available, each
with a particular size, style and weight
• ease of storage—text is stored and retrieved as required.
Modern word processors offer many advanced features, but users only need
to be familiar with some of the more basic features to gain the advantages listed
above. A menu bar and/or toolbar at the top of the word processing screen is
used to select commands or operations (see Figure 5.1).
menu bar
toolbars
Figure 5.1 The menu bar and toolbars are used to select commands.
Word processing 135

collecting Creating a document
A new word processing document can be created from scratch using the ‘New’
command from the ‘File’ menu. The document window is empty, like a blank
piece of paper, and the user simply starts typing. Most modern word processors
display the document on the screen as it will be printed. This feature is called
WYSIWYG (pronounced ‘wizzy wig’), which stands for ‘what you see is what
you get’. Some other basic word processing features are wordwrap, scrolling,
moving the cursor, and selecting different views.
• Wordwrap means that when a line is full, text is automatically moved to the
next line. There is no need to press the ‘Return’ key at the end of every line,
as you need to do on a typewriter. This is very useful if the document is
edited or reformatted. For example, if you change the margins in a
document, wordwrap will automatically ‘reflow’ the text to the new line
length. The ‘Enter’ or ‘Return’ key should be used at the end of a paragraph.
When the ‘Enter’ key is pressed, a special non-printing symbol (generally ¶ or
↵) appears and the cursor moves to the start of the next line. The symbol
character is called a paragraph marker.
• Scrolling is the method of moving within a document to view the writing.
The word processing screen only allows a portion of the document to be
seen. The document can be moved (scrolled) up, down, left and right using
the scroll bars. Scroll bars are located at the bottom and side of the
document window. Scroll tips that show the current page and section help
the user to move through the document.
• In word processing, the cursor takes the form of an insertion point, which is
indicated by a flashing vertical line. The insertion point is where new text
will appear if the user types on the keyboard. The cursor is moved around
the document using a mouse or the arrow keys on the keyboard. The arrow
keys move the cursor one character or one line at a time in the chosen direc-
tion. Holding down the arrow key will repeat the movement. The space bar
should not be used to move the cursor. The word processor regards a space as
a character, so typing spaces is just like typing any other character.
• Some word processors allow you to view the document in several ways. In
Microsoft Word, normal view is recommended for entering and editing text.
In this view you cannot see multiple columns, drawing objects, headers and
footers or page margins. Because of this, the word processor operates more
quickly. Page layout view is recommended when you want to see the docu-
ment as it would be printed.
storing&
retrieving
Saving and retrieving a document
One of the advantages of a word processor is that documents are stored on a
device such as a hard disk and can be retrieved when required. This involves
Functio
saving the document. To save a document for the first time, the user selects the
‘Save’ command from the ‘File’ menu, gives the document a filename and
chooses a location for it. After that, choosing the ‘Save’ command stores the
active file with its given filename, location and file format. The ‘Save As’
command creates a copy of the active file and allows the user to change the
filename, location and file format. It is important to save a document regularly,
so that if something unexpected happens, only a small portion of the work is
lost. This is especially advisable when working on long documents.
To retrieve a document, the user selects the ‘Open’ command from the ‘File’
menu and types in or selects the document’s filename.
136 Application software
Function
Printing a document displaying
A word processing document is displayed on the screen or on paper. Printing a
document transfers it onto a piece of paper. This is called a hard copy or a print-
out. To print a document, you select the ‘Print’ command from the ‘File’ menu.
The word processor must recognise the printer in use otherwise an error
message will result.
There are many options to choose when printing a document. These options
may be selected in a number of ways, depending on the computer and word
processor being used.
• Page range specifies which pages will be printed. This could be the entire
document, a selected block of text, an individual page or a range of pages
(e.g. pages 10 to 14).
• The number of copies can be specified.
• The type of paper can be specified. Many printers allow documents to be
printed on glossy paper or transparent sheets.
• Different paper sizes can be selected. Standard sizes include A4 (210 mm ×
297 mm), letter (8.5 inches × 11 inches), legal (8.5 inches × 14 inches), A5
(148.5 mm × 210 mm) and A2 envelope (4.12 inches × 9.5 inches).
• The print quality can be changed from high quality (best) to draft quality
(economy). Draft quality speeds up printing and is useful in the early stages
of writing when the user is more concerned about the content than the for-
matting.
• Orientation is the way the page is turned. In portrait (vertical) orientation,
the page is taller than it is wide. In landscape (horizontal) orientation, the
page is wider than it is tall. Text is normally printed in portrait orientation.
Tables with a large number of columns are often printed in landscape
orientation (see Figure 5.2).
• Some word processors have a Print
Preview function, which shows how a
document will look when printed. It
gives an overall view of the page in a re-
duced size on the screen. Even though
the text may be too small to read, the
user can review the document’s overall
appearance. In other word processors,
the user simply ‘zooms’ in and out to
see the document at different sizes. Figure 5.2 Selecting page orientation and paper size and type.
Exercise 5.1
1 List the main information processes involved in word processing.
2 What is a word processor?
3 What are three advantages in using a word processor over other methods of
writing?
4 Describe a WYSIWYG word processor.
5 What is wordwrap?
6 Explain the difference between the ‘Save’ and ‘Save As’ commands.
Word processing 137

7 Why is it important to regularly save a document to a disk?
8 List seven options users can specify before they print a document.
9 Explain the choices available with the page range option.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Use a word processor to create the document shown in Figure 5.3 and save it
with the filename EDIT.
Figure 5.3 The EDIT document.
2 Use a word processor to create the document shown in Figure 5.4 and save it
with the filename FEATURES.
Figure 5.4 The FEATURES document.
3 The computers of tomorrow will become easier to use because they will reflect
the way humans think and work. Use a word processing program to write an
essay describing the computer of the future. Save your essay with the filename
Functio
TOMORROW.
4 Open the file you created called EDIT.
a Analyse the page setup of the document. What are the margins, paper size
and orientation?
b If your word processor has a Print Preview function, use it to view the docu-
ment. If your word processor does not have a Print Preview function, view the
document by zooming in and out.
c Print the document.

Function
5.2 Editing text
In the process of writing and rewriting a document, text needs to be edited.
Editing involves changing the text in some way. This could include:
• correcting typing mistakes, spelling errors or punctuation
• adding, deleting or moving sections of text
• searching and replacing text
• using a spelling checker.
Editing is carried out on a character or a block of text. A character is a single
letter, number, punctuation mark or special symbol. A block is a section of text,
such as a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph, that is selected by the user. A
block of text is selected using the mouse or a combination of keys. A block of
text is usually displayed in a distinctive way (such as white text on a black
background), as shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 A block of text.
Correcting text processing

There are a number of ways to correct mistakes using a word processor.
The undo or restore command reverses the user’s last action, such as typing
or deleting a word or changing a font style. If the user decides that they wanted
the change after all, they can select the redo or undelete command. Some word
processors have multiple levels of undo or redo commands. The user can restore
the document to a past state by undoing the required number of actions.
Adding text to a document is called inserting. To insert text, the cursor is
placed exactly where the new text is to be inserted. When the new text is typed,
any existing characters to the right of the insertion point are moved further to
the right or wrapped onto the next line. When inserting text, the new characters
are simply added to the existing text. Some word processors have an overwrite
feature. If overwriting is selected, the new text overwrites or replaces the
existing text to the right of the cursor position.
Removing text from a document is called deleting. To delete text on most
keyboards you press the ‘Delete’ key or ‘Backspace’ key. The ‘Delete’ key erases
the character to the right of the cursor. The ‘Backspace’ key erases the character
to the left of the cursor and moves the text to the left to fill this gap. If a word
or paragraph has to be deleted it is easier to block the text.
Moving text processing

Cut and paste are commands used to move a block of text to another place in
the same document or to another document. To cut a block of text, select the
Word processing 139
‘Cut’ or ‘Move’ command from the ‘File’ menu. This command removes the
block of text from the screen and brings back the remaining text to fill the gap.
The text is not permanently removed, but is stored in the computer’s memory.
This temporary storage area is often called the clipboard. After the selected text
has been cut it is necessary to move the cursor to the new location where the
text is to be inserted or pasted. To paste a block of text, select the ‘Paste’
command from the File menu. The text in the clipboard is inserted at the cursor
location and the remaining text moves down.
Copy and paste are the actions required to copy a block of text to another
place in the same document or to another document. To copy a block of text,
select the ‘Copy’ command from the ‘File’ menu. This command copies the
block of text into the clipboard but does not remove it from the document as
the ‘Cut’ command does. The text is then pasted into a new position using the
‘Paste’ command.
Drag and drop is an easy way to move or copy a block of text a short dis-
tance using the mouse. To move a block of text using drag and drop editing,
point to the selected text and hold down the mouse button. Drag the text to the
new location and release the mouse button. Copying text using drag and drop
editing is similar to moving text except that the Ctrl key (Windows) or Option
key (Macintosh) is pressed when pointing to the selected text.
Most operating systems allow users to cut a block of text or an object from
one application and paste it into another application. For example, a table or
chart from a spreadsheet program can be copied into a word processing
document using the Copy and Paste commands in the two applications. The
user can usually choose one of two ways of copying the text or object. It can be
copied in an active way, so that if the original object (the spreadsheet) is later
modified, the copy of it (in the word processing document) is automatically
updated. Or it can be copied in a static way, so that the pasted text or object is
fixed and does not change. In Windows applications, these options are called
object linking and embedding (OLE). Linked objects automatically change if
the source object is changed. Embedded objects are fixed and do not change if
the source is changed. In Macintosh applications, the Publish and Subscribe
commands carry out a similar function.
processing Find and replace

A word processor can search for text such as a character, word, or phrase. This is
a useful feature if you have a long document. To find text, select the ‘Find’ or
‘Search’ command from the ‘Edit’ menu. Type the text to be found. The word
processor examines every character in the document and highlights the text that
matches your request.
Replacing text is another useful feature. For example, a document may
contain an error that is repeated many times (such as a misspelt name). Using
Functio
the replace or change function, the incorrect name can be replaced with the
correct name throughout the document. To replace text, select the ‘Replace’ or
‘Change’ command from the ‘Edit’ menu. In the appropriate boxes, type the
text to be found (the incorrect text) and the replacement text. Replacement can
be automatic (all instances of the incorrect text are automatically replaced) or
require the user to confirm each replacement. The user can also specify whether
the replacement includes parts of words (this is usually the default option) or
affects whole words only. Care should be taken with this option, particularly if
doing an automatic replacement. For example, a user may want to replace the

Function
Figure 5.6 Using the Find and Replace function.
word ‘tall’ with the word ‘high’ throughout a document. If he or she does not
select the option of ‘whole words only’, the word processor will also change the
word ‘stall’ to ‘shigh’ (see Figure 5.6).
Spelling and grammar processing

When a document is completed it should be checked for errors. This is called
proofreading. Proofreading involves checking for spelling errors and grammatical
mistakes. Word processors contain spell checkers and grammar checkers to assist
the user with this process.
Spell checker
A spell checker checks the spelling of words in the document and provides the
user with correct spellings. It works by comparing every word in the document
with an in-built dictionary. If a word cannot be found in the dictionary, it is
highlighted in some way. The user is given the options of correcting it, ignoring
it or adding the word to the dictionary. Some word processors will correct
typing or spelling errors as you type, such as replacing ‘bcak’ with ‘back’. This
feature is called AutoCorrect (see Figure 5.7). The AutoCorrect feature also
corrects errors in capitalisation by adding and removing capital letters to
appropriate words such as the names of the days.
When using a spelling checker it is important to remember the following
points:
• Spelling checkers do not check meanings. If the word exists in the dictionary
it will not be identified as wrong. For example, ‘David is a buoy’ would not
be identified as an error.
• Word processors are packaged with different dictionaries for different
countries. An American dictionary will have different spellings to an
Australian dictionary (such as ‘computerized’ instead of ‘computerised’). You
should make sure your word processor uses an Australian dictionary.
Word processing 141

Figure 5.7 The AutoCorrect feature fixes commonly misspelt words as you type.
Thesaurus
Most word processors also come with a thesaurus to improve the precision and
variety of your writing. The thesaurus provides synonyms (words with the same
meaning) and sometimes antonyms (words with opposite meaning) for the
selected word. Using a thesaurus is similar to using a spell checker except that it
displays a list of synonyms (or antonyms). A thesaurus is useful if a word is over-
used in a document and needs to be replaced with a more interesting word. It
should be used with care because the actual meaning of a word can vary with its
context.
Grammar checker
The English language is very complex, with many different rules for grammar.
Modern word processors include grammar checkers to examine some basic
aspects of grammar, such as word duplication, homophones, overuse of words,
punctuation errors and long sentences. Homophones are words with the same
pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, such as ‘there’ and ‘their’.
Grammar checkers provide some indication of the readability of the text by
analysing the average word length and the average number of words in a
sentence. It is also possible to customise grammar checkers for a particular
purpose, such as formal, business or casual writing.
Functio
Exercise 5.2
1 Describe some of the ways of editing text.
2 How are recent mistakes corrected?
3 How is text inserted?
4 Explain the difference between the ‘Backspace’ key and the ‘Delete’ key.

Function
5 Describe the actions required to move a block of text.
6 What is a linked object?
7 When is it appropriate to use the replace feature?
8 How does a spell checker work?
9 What is a thesaurus?
10 List the aspects of grammar checked by a grammar checker.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the document shown in Figure 5.8 and save it with the filename SPORT.
a Insert the word ‘electronic’ before the word ‘scoreboard’ each time it appears.
b Delete the abbreviation ‘SCG’ and insert the words ‘Sydney Cricket Ground’.
c Insert the word ‘head-high’ before the word ‘bouncer’.
d Delete the word ‘many’ and insert the words ‘a whole range of’.
e Cut and paste the second paragraph so that it appears as the third paragraph.
Figure 5.8 The SPORT document.
2 Create the document shown in Figure 5.9 and save it with the filename SALES.
The document should include the intentional typing mistakes.
a Delete the upper case letter ‘S’ in the word ‘figuresS’.
b Delete the extra ‘the’ in the sentence ‘the the final sales figures’.
c Change the upper case ‘N’ to lower case in the word ‘FinaNcial’.
d Insert the word ‘Super’ between the words ‘Pear’ and ‘microcomputer’.
e Insert the phrase ‘for our new Pear Super microcomputer’ after the word
‘quarter’ at the end of the second paragraph.
f Remove one copy of the sentence ‘Sales for the fourth quarter were up 21%
for an overall year’s increase of 17%’.
g Replace the word ‘recieved’ with ‘received’.
h Replace the word ‘steared’ with ‘steered’.
i Replace the phrase ‘overall year’s increase’ to ‘overall annual increase’.
j Cut and paste the last paragraph so that it appears as the third paragraph.
Word processing 143

Figure 5.9 The SALES document.
3 List eight places you would like to go for a holiday. Enter this data into a word
processing document. Press the ‘Enter’ key after each place so that the next place
starts on a new line. Save the document with the filename HOLIDAY.
a Cut and paste these places so that they are in order of preference.
b Write a reason next to each place explaining why you would like to go there
for a holiday.
c Delete the last four places.
4 Enter the following text into a word processor
document: ‘My favourite number is ’.
a Copy and paste the sentence so that it
appears 10 times in the document.
b Add numbers to the end of each line as
shown in Figure 5.10.
c Cut and paste the lines so the numbers are
in ascending order.
d Save the document with the filename
NUMBER.
Functio
Figure 5.10 The NUMBER document.
5 Read the following text: ‘Their is a spell checker in most word processors. It
cheques the spelling of words and suggests the correct spelling. It compares
every word in the document with its dictionary. If a word cannot be found, it is
highlighted with red wavy under lines so that it can be corrected, ignored or
added to the dictionery’.
a List the mistakes that would be found by a spell checker and grammar
checker.

Function
b What mistakes in this text would be missed by the spell checker and grammar
checker?
c Enter the text in a word processing document and run a spell checker and
grammar checker. Compare the results with your answers to questions a and b.
d Use a thesaurus to replace the words ‘corrected’, ‘ignored’ and ‘added’.
e Save the document with the filename SPELL.
6 Using a word processor, write a poem or short story about technology. It should
be at least 10 lines of text.
a Run a spell checker and grammar checker.
b Correct any mistakes and save any other words that are not recognised by the
spell checker into the user dictionary.
c Use a thesaurus to replace at least three words.
d Save the document with the filename POEM or STORY.
5.3 Formatting text

Formatting means changing the appearance of a document. A well-formatted
document communicates information effectively by being easy to read. Word
processors offer many features for formatting characters and paragraphs.
Formatting characters displaying

A character is a single letter, number, punctuation mark or special symbol that
can be displayed on the screen or printed. Formatting characters involves chang-
ing the font and character spacing.
Fonts
Modern word processors allow users to select different fonts for the text. A font
is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and
stroke weight. In word processing, the term font is commonly used to refer only
to the typeface: this is technically incorrect.
• A typeface is a set of characters with a particular design, such as Times New
Roman. Within the Times New Roman typeface there are many different
fonts that can be chosen by changing the size and style. Typefaces can be
divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif (‘sans’ is French for
‘without’). Serif typefaces are those that have little tails (serifs) at the ends of
the characters; Times New Roman and Century Schoolbook are common
examples. Sans serif typefaces have smooth characters without serifs; Arial
and Helvetica are common examples (see Figure 5.11).
• The type size or font size is a measure of the physical size of a character. The
height of characters is measured in points, where one point is equal to
0.351 mm or 1/72 of an inch.
• The type style describes the general shape of the typeface, such as italic or
outline.
• The stroke weight is a measure of the thickness of the lines used to construct
the characters. A typeface is usually available in light, medium, regular, bold
or extra bold weights.
Word processing 145

Figure 5.11 Serif and sans serif typefaces in different sizes.
Some word processors use the term font style to refer to a combination of
type style and stroke weight. Fonts can also be altered by a range of effects, such
as underlining, changing the colour, strikethrough and embossing.
ITITFact
Fact
The confusion between fonts and typefaces is a result of the electronic
manipulation of fonts. In the past, typesetters needed to have separate sets
of characters in every size and weight of a typeface. Each set was a font.
The computer, however, is able to create characters in any size from a
single typeface.
Working with fonts

There are some generally accepted principles about fonts that help to produce
effective documents.
• A serif typeface is easier to read than a sans serif one in the body of the text.
• The body of the text should be in plain (regular) text, using lower case, with
a type size of 10 to 12 points, depending on the typeface and printer used.
• Font variations, such as bold or italics, should be used sparingly in the body of
Functio
the text for emphasis.

• Headings can be formatted in either serif or sans serif typefaces, as the
difference in legibility is not as great.
• Only a small number of fonts should be used in a single document. Frequent
changes of fonts distract the reader from the meaning of the words.
Character spacing
Character spacing refers to the spacing between individual letters. It can be
changed in a number of ways, such as scale, points, position and kerning.

Function
• Scale: The characters are condensed or ex-
panded by a specified percentage. For
example, a scale of 200% would expand
the characters to twice their normal width.
• Points: The spacing between characters is
changed by a specified number of points.
• Position: Characters are raised or lowered
in relation to a base line.
• Kerning: The spacing between certain
pairs of characters is reduced by a speci-
fied amount to improve the appearance of ‘You need to retype this. On Casual Fridays, we use a sloppy
the text. handwriting font.’
Formatting paragraphs displaying

In word processing, a paragraph is a sequence of characters ending with
paragraph marker (¶). A paragraph usually consists of a number of lines of text
but it can also be a single line of text, a word or just a character. Formatting
paragraphs can include changing the alignment, line spacing, tabs and indenting,
and adding bullets, numbering, borders and shading.
Alignment
Alignment refers to the way the text lines up. It involves positioning text in
relation to a fixed reference point, usually the right or left margin. There are
four types of alignment (see Figure 5.12).
• Left-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the left margin. The left margin is
straight and the right margin is uneven or ragged.
• Right-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the right margin. The right
margin is straight and the left margin is ragged.
Figure 5.12 Types of paragraph alignment.
Word processing 147

• Justified text is aligned with both the left and right margins. Space is
automatically added between words so that both margins are straight.
• Centred text is aligned with an imaginary line down the middle of the page.
Both the left and right margins are ragged. Centred text is often used for
headings.
In general, it is easier to read documents that are aligned on the left-hand
side, so left-aligned or justified should be used for body text.
ITITFact
Fact
The word ‘alignment’ comes from the French word aligner, meaning ‘into
line’.
Line spacing
Line spacing or leading (pronounced ‘ledding’) refers to the spacing between
lines of text. It improves the appearance and readability of a document. Word
processors allow the line spacing to be specified for any paragraph. Users can
specify a measurement (usually in points) or can choose from the predefined
settings.
Single spacing consists of the actual size of the font plus a small amount of
extra space. It is usually set at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the font
size. For example, a type size of 10 points would have an extra 2 points of space
between the lines (20% of 10) giving a total line spacing of 12 points. Double
spacing is twice single spacing and triple spacing is three times single spacing
(see Figure 5.13).
Figure 5.13 Examples of line spacing.
Tabs
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Tabs align the text to set horizontal positions called tab stops. When the ‘Tab’
key is pressed the cursor moves to the next tab stop. A non-printing tab
character (→) is inserted in the empty space on the screen. The next text that is
entered will be aligned at this tab stop. It is important to use tabs and not the
space bar to position text on a line. Positioning text using the space bar does not
ensure the correct alignment in a printout.
In most word processors, tab stops are shown on a ruler. The word processor
usually has a default set of tabs stops that apply to all paragraphs. These are set
every half inch (1.27 cm) from the left margin. The user can override these and
set tab stops at particular locations.

Function
Tabs can also have different alignments, such as left tab, centre tab, right tab
and decimal tab. These work in a similar way to paragraph alignment. For
example, a left tab aligns the left-hand edge of the text at the tab stop; a right
tab aligns the right-hand edge of the text at the tab stop. When starting a new
document, it is useful to set the tabs for the first paragraph. Subsequent
paragraphs will then have the same tab settings.
Indenting
Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. All the lines in a para-
graph can be indented or only the first line. There are three main types of indents:
• Left indent and right indent move a paragraph from the left margin, right
margin or both margins. They are used to draw attention to the paragraph or
show that it is a subsection.
• First line indent moves the first line of each paragraph to the right so that
readers can pick out the start of each new paragraph (see Figure 5.14). First
line indents are created by pressing the ‘Tab’ key or by moving the first-line
indent marker.
• Hanging indent is the reverse of the first line indent. The first line is aligned
with the left margin and the succeeding lines are all indented a specified
amount from the left margin. Hanging indents are often used in glossaries,
résumés and other types of lists.
For any of these types of indents, specifying a negative indent moves a
paragraph into the margin.
Indents can generally be set using the ruler. The users selects the paragraph
and drags the indent markers to the appropriate position. Some word processors
also have increase and decrease indent buttons. These buttons move a paragraph
to the next (or previous) tab stop.
left
indent
right
indent
left and
right indent
first line
indent
hanging
indent
Figure 5.14 Examples of paragraph indenting.
Word processing 149

Bullets and numbering
Bullets and numbering are used to organise lists of related items. They can make
a document more interesting and easier to read (see Figure 5.15).
Bullets are symbols, such as a circle (•) or a check box (❏), that are used at
the beginning of an item in a list. When the bullet command (or style) is selected,
the bullet symbol is inserted on the left margin and a hanging indent is applied.
Numbered lists are paragraphs that each start with a number or letter. The
number command (or style) works in the same way as the bullet command
except that numbers or letters are inserted automatically instead of bullets.
Items in the list are automatically renumbered if an item is inserted, deleted or
moved. Numbered lists generally have a preset format (1, 2, 3, etc.) but can also
be customised to suit a particular need. For example, items in a list could be
numbered:
• a), b), c), etc. or
• i, ii, iii, etc.
Numbering is also commonly used for headings.
Figure 5.15 A bulleted list. The ruler indicates the hanging indent.
Exercise 5.3
1 What is the difference between a font and a typeface?
2 List the two main groups of typefaces.
3 What is the type size of a character?
4 List the accepted design principles for producing effective documents.
5 List four ways to change character spacing.
6 Describe right-aligned text.
7 What is line spacing?
8 Explain the difference between a first line indent and a hanging indent.
Functio
9 Why do people use bulleted and numbered lists?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a document similar to Figure 5.16 using eight different typefaces. Save the
document with the filename FONTS.
a Change ‘Times New Roman in 10 point’ to bold.
b Change ‘Century Schoolbook in 12 point’ to italics.
c Change ‘Arial in 14 point’ to underlined text.

Function
Figure 5.16 The FONTS document.
d Change ‘Lucida in 16 point’ to outlined text.

e Change ‘Broadway in 18 point’ to shadowed text.
f Change ‘Garamond in 24 point’ to blue text.
g Expand ‘Times New Roman in 10 point’ by 5 points.
h Condense ‘Impact in 36 point’ by 3 points.
i Raise ‘Westminster in 28 point’ by 20 points.
j Lower ‘Broadway in 18 point’ by 30 points.
2 Enter the following paragraph into a word processor: ‘Wordwrap automatically
moves words to the next line when a line is full. It makes it easier to type and is
used if the document requires a change in format’. Copy and paste the para-
graph so that it appears nine times in the document. Save the document with the
filename WORDWRAP.
a Centre the first paragraph.
b Align the second paragraph right.
c Align the third paragraph left.
d Justify the fourth paragraph.
e Indent the fifth paragraph 4 cm from the left margin.
f Indent the sixth paragraph 4 cm from the right margin.
g Indent the seventh paragraph 3 cm from both margins.
h Format the eighth paragraph with a first line indent 2 cm from the left
margin.
i Format the ninth paragraph with a hanging indent 2 cm from the left margin.
3 Enter the names of the nine people you admire the most into a word processor
document. Press the ‘Enter’ key after each name so the next name starts on a
new line. Copy and paste the nine names to obtain ten separate lists. Save the
document with the filename PEOPLE.
a Format the first list as a bulleted list using the ‘•’ symbol.
b Format the second list as a bulleted list using the ‘❏’ symbol.
c Format the third list as a numbered list using 1, 2, 3, etc.
d Format the fourth list as a numbered list using i, ii, iii, etc.
Word processing 151

e Format the fifth list using 1, 2, 3, etc. Delete the second and sixth names from
the list.
f Format the sixth list with double line spacing.
g Format the seventh list with triple line spacing.
h Format the eighth list with a multiple of 1.5 line spacing.
i Format the ninth list with a multiple of 4 lines line spacing.
j Delete all the paragraph markers from the tenth list. Set the first tab stop to
6 cm and the second tab stop to 12 cm. Display the nine people in three
columns using these tab stops.
Figure 5.17 The INVITATION document.
4 Create the document shown in Figure 5.17 and save it with the filename
INVITATION.
a Format the text as Times New Roman 12 point, aligned left.
b Format ‘Invitation’ as Arial 16 point, bold and italic, centred.
c Format ‘From: Social Organisers’ as Bookman 14 point, blue, underlined.
d Expand ‘Dear: Friends’ by 5 points.
e Left indent ‘Dress – informal’ to the first tab stop.
f Left indent ‘Venue – Mounties’ to the second tab stop.
g Align ‘Date: 26th February’ to the right.
h Centre ‘Time: 7.00 p.m.’.
5.4 Additional tools

Functio
Modern word processors include an increasing number of tools that allow users
to produce professional-looking documents. These tools include styles,
hyphenation, page setup options, tables, columns, drawing tools and clip art.
displaying Styles
A style, or style sheet, is a set of properties that can be applied to a paragraph
(or in some cases a word). These properties can include the font, line spacing,
indentation and justification. Styles are used to define the appearance of

Function
recurring text elements such as headings, body text and bulleted lists. A style is
chosen using a style name from a drop-down list or a dialogue box (see Figure
5.18). There are three main reasons to use styles:
• Styles make a document easier to format. For example, you might set up a
long document and individually format each heading to Arial 14 point bold.
If you later decided to change the headings to 16 point, you would need to
reformat each heading individually. If you had named and defined a style
(such as ‘Heading 1’) and applied that style to each heading, you would
simply redefine the style as 16 point. All text with the ‘Heading 1’ style
would automatically change.
• Styles provide a document with a
consistent look. All other docu-
ments created with this style will
have the same appearance. This
provides uniformity for large
organisations.
• Styles can be imported into other
applications, such as desktop
publishing programs. This makes
the layout and design of docu-
ments much easier.
Word processors include a range
of predefined styles for different
types of text and headings. Users can
use these styles, modify them or Figure 5.18 The Style dialogue box shows the properties of the
create their own. selected style (in this case ‘Heading 5’).
ITITFact
Fact
The term ‘leading’ comes from the time when type was set by hand using
individual letters cast in lead. Additional strips of lead were added
between lines to increase the line spacing.
Hyphenation displaying
As we have seen, word processors have a feature called wordwrap that
automatically moves words to the next line when a line is full. However, in
certain situations it is preferable to break a word and insert a hyphen (-) at the
end of a line. This process of breaking words at certain points and inserting a
hyphen is called hyphenation. Hyphenation can be used to improve the appear-
ance of a document. When justified text is formatted in narrow columns, as in
newspapers, there can often be large gaps between words which form ‘rivers of
white’ down the page. Hyphenation can be used to close up the gaps.
Hyphenation must be used correctly otherwise it can affect the way text is
read. For example, hyphenating the word ‘therapist’ as ‘the-rapist’ would cause
confusion for readers. In most word processors, hyphenation can be done
automatically or manually. With automatic hyphenation, the word processor
decides the best places to break the words. Manual hyphenation allows the user
to decide whether and where to hyphenate.
Word processing 153

displaying Page setup
Page setup options are those that affect the entire page. They include the printer
options described in section 5.1 and information about margins, page breaks,
headers and footers. In some word processors these options are referred to as
document formatting.
Margins
Top margin
Margins are the distances between the
edge of the paper and the text (see
Margins
Figure 5.19). Each document has top,
Margins are the distances between the edge bottom, left and right margins. The wider
of the paper and the text. Word processors do the left and right margins, the narrower
not print text inside the margins, except for the page. The wider the top and bottom
headers and footers. Margins usually have a margins, the shorter the page. Word
Left default value, which can be changed by the Right
margin margin processors do not print text inside the
user.
margins, except for headers and footers.
Margins are usually preset to default
values, which can be changed by the user.
If printing on both sides of a page, it is
possible to have the margins on facing
pages mirror each other. There may also
be an option to specify the width of a
gutter. A gutter is an amount of extra
space added to the margin for binding. In
addition to using the Page Setup menu
item, margins can be set using a ruler by
dragging the margin boundary to the
Bottom margin required position. This enables the user
to preview the effect of changes to the
Figure 5.19 Margins. margin.
Page breaks
A word processor adds a soft page break automatically when text reaches the
bottom of the page. It adjusts the soft page breaks as the text is edited and
formatted. A hard page break, or manual page break, is one inserted by the user.
It forces the text to break to a new page at a
particular position, such as the beginning of a new
section. In normal view, a soft page break appears
as a dotted line. In page layout view, the pages are
shown as they will print.
When the word processor updates the page
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breaks it is called repagination. This occurs auto-

matically during pauses in typing, when switching
to page layout view, or when printing a document.
Headers and footers

Headers and footers help readers to identify a
document and find their way through it. A header
prints at the top of each page and a footer prints Figure 5.20 A document with a
at the bottom. Headers and footers usually header and a footer.

Function
contain recurring information, such as the page number, date, title of the
document or section, and author (see Figure 5.20). It is also possible to specify
different headers and footers for odd and even pages. Initially, headers and
footers are connected. If one header is changed, all other headers of the same
type will also change. Headers and footers usually do not appear in normal view
but are shown in page layout view.
Tables and columns displaying

A table is made up of rows and columns of cells that are filled with characters or
graphics. Tables are used to align numbers in columns or to arrange text and
graphics in side-by-side paragraphs. Using a table to organise information makes
it easy to change the information and move it as a single item. The borders and
shading of a table can be changed to emphasise particular cells. Most word
processors allow the user to choose from predefined table formats. Text can be
displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of the rows and
columns can be altered easily. The content of tables can also be sorted in alpha-
betic, numeric or date order.
A column is a vertical area reserved for text. Word processors enable the user
to specify the number of columns in a document or section (see Figure 5.21).
Most newspapers and magazines contain two or more columns per page. Text in
columns flows from the bottom of one column to the top of the next. The space
between the columns and the width of the columns can be altered. The user can
see the document in columns by selecting page layout view or the print preview
option. Most people prefer to create a document in a single column and put it
into multiple columns once the text is finalised.
Figure 5.21 A survey created in two columns using check boxes as bullets.
Word processing 155

collecting Drawing and clip art
Although word processors are a writing tool, they also include a range of tools to
create graphics and make documents more interesting. In some word processors
these tools are built-in. In others they are provided as separate but integrated
drawing and painting ‘modules’.
• Drawing tools: These include basic tools for drawing lines, arrows, rectangles
and ovals. Options are available to use different fill colours, line colours or
shading effects. Objects can be grouped, cropped, resized or distorted.
• Word art: This feature allows the user to
add attractive text effects, such as curving
the text or aligning it along a diagonal line.
• Shapes: These are ready-made shapes used
to create graphics or charts. In addition to
lines there are basic shapes, block arrows,
flow chart elements, stars and callouts.
• Symbols: These are characters and small
graphics that are available in special fonts
such as ‘Wingdings’ ‘Zapf Dingbats’ or
‘Cairo’. These symbols can be edited in
the same way as other characters.
Figure 5.22 Some of the text effects available in Microsoft In addition to graphic tools, word pro-
Word.
cessors are usually packaged with a range of
pictures called clip art. Clip art refers to
prepared pictures that are grouped into topics, such as technology, animals and
education. They can be inserted into documents and changed to suit different
purposes. Clip art pictures can be moved, resized, rotated, distorted and cropped
and can have text wrapped around them.
collecting Borders and shading

Borders and shading can be used to highlight a section of a document. A border
is a line or box around selected text, paragraphs, tables or graphics. It is possible
to choose different colours and decorative styles for borders (see Figure 5.23).
Shading applies a colour or shade of black to the background area of a section of
a document. In addition to different colours, the user can shade the area with
different gradients, textures and patterns.
Figure 5.23 Examples of

some border and shading
options in Microsoft Word.
Functio

Function
Exercise 5.4
1 What are the reasons for using styles?
2 What is hyphenation?
3 How can hyphenation affect the way text is read?
4 Describe the effect of increasing the margins in a document.
5 When does repagination occur?
6 What are headers and footers?
7 Explain the difference between a table and a column.
8 List some of the drawing tools available in a word processor.
9 What are symbols?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the table shown in Figure 5.24
and save it with the filename TABLE.
a Format the table by changing the
shading and borders.
b Use an autosum feature to find the
totals.
c Create a footer that contains a page
number. Figure 5.24 The TABLE document.
2 Enter the following items from a shopping list into a word processor. Insert a
semicolon (;) after each item, as shown: eggs; $3.70; ice cream; $4.30; rice; $2.45;
toothpaste; $2.10; tomatoes; $2.50; honey; $2.29; bananas; $1.90; sugar; $2.90;
soft drink; $1.60. Save the document with the filename SHOPPING.
a Convert the text to a table with two columns and nine rows.
b Format the table using borders and shading.
c Create a header containing the date and time.
3 Create an advertisement for a school disco using the following data: name of
your school; time (7.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m.); today’s date; the school’s address; cost
($3.00). Enter this data into a word processing document. Save the document
with the filename DISCO.
a Set all four margins to 3 centimetres.
b Centre the text horizontally and vertically on the page.
c Format the document to improve its appearance by changing the typeface,
type size and type style.
d Insert an appropriate clip art picture.
e Edit the graphic by resizing or distorting it.
4 Enter the details from five different clothing labels into a word processor
document. Press ‘Enter’ at the end of each item so the next label starts on a new
line. Save the document with the filename CLOTHING.
a Format the text in a sans serif typeface at 18 points, aligned left and bold.
b Insert hard page breaks so that each clothing label appears on a new page.
c Insert a header that contains your name.
d Format the header in a serif typeface at 14 points, aligned right and italic.
Word processing 157

e Insert a footer that contains the page number.
f Format the footer in a serif typeface at 12 points, centred and bold.
g View the pages using page layout view or print preview.
5 Create a document with three columns similar to Figure 5.25. Save the document
with the filename SPACING.
Figure 5.25 The SPACING document.
a Single-space the first column. b Double-space the second column.

c Triple-space the third column. d Change the column width to 4 cm.
e Change the column width to 2 cm. f Justify the three columns.
g Hyphenate the text using a hyphenation zone of 0.5 cm.
h Hyphenate the text using a hyphenation zone of 1.0 cm.
6 Enter an article from a magazine into a word processor document. Save the
document with the filename MAGAZINE.
a Format the heading as Arial 14 point, bold, centred.
b Format the body text as Times New Roman, 12 point, aligned left.
c Display the body text in two columns.
d Justify the text.
e Insert a clip art picture into one of the columns.
f View the pages using page layout view or print preview.
7 Create a document similar to

Figure 5.26 using approxi-
mately the same formats. Save
the document with the file-
name DINNER.
Functio
Figure 5.26 The DINNER document.

Chapter review
PART A 6 Alignment refers to:
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best A the exact placement of a graphic on
answers the question or completes the a page
sentence. B moving text a certain distance from
a margin
1 Wordwrap is a basic feature of a word
C the distance between the edge of
processor that:
the paper and the text
A changes the appearance of a docu-
D the way text lines up
ment
B displays the document on the screen 7 When the first line is at the left margin
as it would be printed and the following lines are all indented
C automatically moves words to the a small distance from the left margin,
next line when a line is full this is:
D allows the user to move through a A first line indent
document to view the writing B hanging indent
C aligned left
2 When a page is taller than it is wide it
is called: D alignment
A portrait orientation 8 When the text reaches the bottom of
B landscape orientation the page, a word processor auto-
C full page view matically adds:
D page layout view A a footer
B a page number
3 The easiest way to move or copy a
C a soft page break
block of text a short distance is using:
D a hard page break
A drag and drop
B find and replace 9 Used to define the appearance of re-
C copy and paste curring text elements in a document:
D cut and paste A styles
B typefaces
4 Spell checkers:
C page setup
A check the meaning of words
D fonts
B provide synonyms (and antonyms)
C check for word duplication 10 Hyphenation is used to:
D compare words to a dictionary A print recurring text at the top of a
page
5 Italic and underline are examples of: B make a document easier to format
A typefaces C align numbers in columns or arrange
B fonts text
C type styles D close up gaps or ‘rivers of white’ in
D stroke weights justified text
Word processing 159

Chapter review
For each of the following statements, a column i typeface
select from the list of terms the one that b delete j undo
c edit k type size
letter corresponding to your choice.
d find l bullet
Statements e font style m gutter
1 Store text to a disk. f save n block
2 Change the text of the document. g tab o leading
3 Delete the last action, such as typing a h table p scroll
word. PART C
4 Searches for text. Write at least one paragraph on each of
5 Removes text from a document. the following questions.
6 A combination of type style and stroke 1 Describe the steps taken to create a
weight. word processing document. Your de-
scription should include the funda-
7 The design of a set of characters. mental features of a word processor.
8 Aligns text to set horizontal positions. 2 Describe some of the methods used to
9 Rows and columns of cells that are edit text.
filled with text. 3 Briefly explain the following terms:
10 Vertical area reserved for text. character spacing, line spacing, bullets
and numbering.
11 Method of moving within a document.
4 Describe the purpose of a table and
12 A section of text, such as a word, phrase, some of the formatting options for
sentence or paragraph, that is selected tables.
by the user.
5 Computers are not intelligent and do
13 A measure of the size of a character. not understand language. Explain how
14 The spacing between lines of text. spell checkers and grammar checkers
work. Are these tools always correct?
15 A symbol used at the beginning of an Explain your answer.
item in a list.
16 The amount of extra space added to
the margin for binding.

chapter
DATABASES
6
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the advantages of electronic data-
bases over manual databases
• understand and distinguish between the
data structures (files, records, fields and
characters)
• design and display data in forms and tables
• edit data and amend the design of a database
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an
• sort records in a database
accomplished user of a database. It examines
• create search specifications using relational the basic features of databases and the major
and logical operators information processes involved in their use.
• create and print reports based on a selective You will learn how to modify a database,
query search and sort data, construct a query and
• create a mail merge document. generate a report.
Electronic databases can be used across most of the seven information
processes. These processes are not distinct, and tasks often involve a
combination of processes. The development of a database emphasises the
following information processes:
• Organising: Data structures can be described and data can be arranged in
tables. (See section 6.1.)
• Analysing: Data can be interpreted by sorting and searching. (See section 6.3.)
• Processing: Data can be modified. (See section 6.2.)
• Displaying: Reports can be generated to present data. (See section 6.4.)
6.1 Basic features

A database is an organised collection of data. Some examples of databases are
taxation records, library catalogue systems, car registration records, student
records, CD-ROM encyclopedias and census reports. People have used manual
databases for hundreds of years, long before the advent of the computer. One
common example of a manual database is the telephone book. It is a database
arranged alphabetically by family name. Electronic databases have several
advantages over manual databases:
• ease of editing—data can be corrected and updated without having to retype
all the data
• ease of storage—large amounts of data can be stored and retrieved as
required
• ease of searching—data can be searched and sorted quickly and accurately to
obtain the required information
• display options—data can be presented in a variety of ways using tables,
forms and reports to suit most purposes.
Databases are accessed by a database management system (DBMS). A
DBMS has no data in it. It is a software package that allows the user to enter,
maintain and provide access to a database. The user can choose which data is
required and how to display that data in a meaningful way. The term database is
often used as shorthand for DBMS. DBMSs are classified according to the way
they organise information. Two common types of DBMSs are flat file and rela-
tional. This chapter examines flat file databases. These DBMSs organise data
into a single table and are suitable for many small applications.
Functio
ITITFact
Fact
DBASE is one of the leading database management programs for personal
computers. Wayne Ratliffe originally designed it because he needed a
program to help him calculate the odds in a football tipping competition.

Function
Data structures organising
Data is the raw material entered into the information system. Databases store
data in data structures called files, records, fields and characters. The telephone
book is used to illustrate these data structures (see Figure 6.1).
• A file is a block of data. When you have done some work on the computer it
is stored in a file. The L–Z telephone book would represent a file. A file in a
database is divided into a set of related records.
• A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database.
Information about a person in the telephone book is a record. A record is
divided into one or more related fields.
• A field is a specific category of data. The family name, address and telephone
number in the telephone book are all fields. Fields are also known as data
items or categories, and are made up of characters.
• A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle, and includes
letters, numbers and special symbols.
CHARACTER
4
CHARACTER
RECORD Space
La M
FIELD
40 Pauls St
Ermington CHARACTER
823 5961 Laan H
J
RECORD
FILE FIELD CHARACTER
Laan H
L–Z 4 John St 4 John St
Balmain
O
Telephone book Balmain
605 8231
CHARACTER
FIELD
H
Labab J 605 8231
7 Mary St
Raby CHARACTER
821 4391
N
CHARACTER
Other records
Space
Other characters
Figure 6.1 The telephone book as an example of a database.
Databases 163
collecting Creating a database
A database is created for a particular purpose. For example, large organisations
create a database for personnel records to provide faster access to addresses,
telephone numbers, salaries and service details. All databases are created to meet
a specific need; however, they are not the solution to every problem. Clearly, a
database would not be used if you had to write a letter or draw a map.
Collecting data to be entered into the database may require a great deal of
research or may involve the development of a questionnaire. It may be more
appropriate to use oral questioning or interview techniques to collect data. If a
database is to remain current, the collection of data and the checking of data
will be ongoing.
organising Data dictionaries

A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a database. It is
information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such
as the field names, field sizes, data types and field descriptions (see Table 6.1).
• The field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully selected to avoid
confusion. Field names should be relatively short, clear and unambiguous.
• The data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field stores
data of a single data type. Some common data types are text, number, cur-
rency, yes/no and date/time.
• The field size, or field width, is the number of characters in each field. To
keep the size of the database small and to help it work faster, the field size
should be limited to the smallest number of characters that can be expected
for that field.
• The field description specifies the contents of the field.
Field name Data type Field size Description

Family name Text 25 Person’s family name
Given name Text 20 Person’s given name
Street Text 30 Name of street
Suburb Text 20 Name of suburb
Postcode Numeric or text 4 Postcode of suburb
Home phone Numeric or text 8 Person’s home phone
Table 6.1 A data dictionary for a database of names and addresses.
Database keys
Functio
organising
The organisation of data often involves a key. Keys are fields that are used to
sort and retrieve information. It holds a data item that is unique for each record
(such as a student ID number). When the records are sorted, the key is used so
that not all the data is read. There are different types of keys:
• A single key is a field where each item of data is unique. Care must be taken
when choosing a single key, as some fields (such as family names) are not
always unique.

Function
• A composite key, or compound key, is made by joining two or more fields
together. It is used when no item in any field can be guaranteed to be unique.
For example, a compound key can be made from fields such as Gender and
Date of birth.
• A primary key is a single key or compound key that must have a value.
Primary keys cannot be empty or null.
• A secondary key is a field that contains useful items of data often used in
searches. Secondary keys are not always unique.
Tables and forms organising

A table, or list, organises data into columns (fields) and rows (records). It will
display more than one record but only the number of fields that will fit across
the screen (see Figure 6.2). Additional fields are brought into view by scrolling.
displaying
A table is convenient when working with several records, or entering new data
in only one field. There are several ways to change the screen layout of a table,
such as changing the width of columns, hiding a column, and altering the row
height. Data in a table is usually entered using a form, retrieved using a query,
and printed using a report.
Figure 6.2 A table in the ADDRESS database.
A form, or label, is used to view, enter and change data in a table. It is often
used to display the data for every field in a single record (see Figure 6.3). In
most databases, the layout of the form can be changed. The user can position
fields, headings, instructions and graphics. A well-designed form provides
information explaining the required data and any
rules that apply to particular fields. For example, a
field name ‘Sex (M/F)’ leaves no confusion about its
required data. Fonts need be carefully chosen to
ensure the screen is easy to read. The type size, stroke
weight and colour of the font will have an impact on
the user and the accuracy of the data that is entered.
When entering data into a table or form, the user
types the data for the first field and presses the
‘Enter’ or ‘Tab’ key to move to the next field. After
entering the data for the last field of a record, the
next record will appear. This process continues until Figure 6.3 A form showing fields in the
all the data has been entered. ADDRESS database.
Databases 165
Exercise 6.1
1 What is a database?
2 Describe the advantages of electronic databases over manual databases.
3 What is the purpose of a DBMS?
4 What is a flat file database?
5 List the four data structures used in databases.
6 What is a data dictionary?
7 Explain the difference between a table and a form.
8 Describe a well-designed form.
9 A database is to be created containing student information. Construct a data
dictionary using these fields: Family name, First name, Sex, School year, Class,
Street, Suburb, Postcode, Phone, DOB (date of birth) and Age.
10 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2.
a How many fields are there in the database?
b How many records are contained in the database?
c What is the name of the third field?
d Write down the data in the second record.
e What is the last entry in the ‘Suburb’ field?
f What is the maximum number of characters needed for the ‘Postcode’ field?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the EFTPOS database using the data in Figure 6.4. Save the database with
the filename EFTPOS. Set the data type of the ‘Balance’ field to currency.
Figure 6.4 The EFTPOS database.
a Enter the data into a table.

Functio
b Design a form that displays all the fields.

c How many fields are in the EFTPOS database?
d How many records are contained in the EFTPOS database?
e What is the data type of the ‘Street’ field?
f What is the second entry in the ‘Given’ field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the ‘Bank’ field?
2 Create a customer database using the data in Figure 6.5 and save it with the
filename CLIENT. Set the data type of the ‘Last bill’ and ‘Amount owing’ fields to
currency, and the ‘Date of bill’ field to date/time.

Function
Figure 6.5 The CLIENT database.

c How many fields are in the CLIENT database?
d How many records are contained in the CLIENT database?
e What is the data type of the ‘Company’ field?
f What is the fourth entry in ‘Date of bill’ field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the ‘Suburb’ field?
3 Create a database of the students in your class using the following field names:
Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Height, Hair colour. Describe their height as
tall, medium or short. Save the database with the filename STUDENTS.
c How many fields are in the STUDENTS database?
d How many records are contained in the STUDENTS database?
e What is the data type of the ‘Height’ field?
f What is the third entry in ‘Family name’ field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the ‘M/F’ field?
4 Create a database of movie or sports stars using the following field names:
Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Famous film/sport. Save the database with
the filename STARS.
c How many fields are in the STARS database?
d How many records does the STARS database contain?
e What is the data type of the ‘Famous film/sport’ field?
f What is the fifth entry in the ‘Given name’ field?
g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the ‘Age’ field?
Databases 167
6.2 Modifying a database
Modifying a database helps to maintain data integrity. Data integrity is the
reliability of the data. Data in a database should be correct and current. A
database with inaccurate data is useless. This is why the telephone book is
updated each year. To maintain data integrity, data needs to be checked when it
is entered and updated when it changes. This is done immediately or at regular
intervals depending on the nature of the database.
processing Editing data

There are many reasons why data may need to be edited. For example, the user
may need to change a person’s address or include a new employee in the address
database. Editing data involves inserting data, deleting data and moving data.
ITITFact
Fact
‘Data diddling’ is a computer crime that involves the unauthorised editing
of data. Data diddlers are people who modify data for their own benefit,
such as changing university results.
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the cursor in the
desired location. New records are inserted by moving to the last record and
typing in the new data. The user can insert new records by choosing an
appropriate command. It does not matter where the new records are inserted, as
the records can be rearranged by sorting.
Data is deleted from a field in a table or a form by placing the cursor to the
right of the character to be deleted and pressing the ‘Backspace’ key. A block of
characters can be deleted by selecting the data and pressing the ‘Delete’ key. The
user can replace existing data by selecting the data and typing in the new data.
To delete a record, the user selects the record and then presses the ‘Delete’ key
or chooses an appropriate command (see Figure 6.6).
Functio
Figure 6.6 Records selected in the ADDRESS database.

Function
Data is edited using the cut, copy and paste commands. These commands can
be used on a block of text, one or more fields, whole records or the entire table.
The actions are the same as in a word processor. First select the data and then
use the ‘Copy’ and ‘Paste’ or ‘Cut’ and ‘Paste’ commands. It is possible to copy
data from more than one field, or copy an entire record. Most databases have a
spell checker that will check for spelling errors in fields whose data type is
defined as text.
Amending the design processing

After a database has been put into use, the design may need to be changed. The
structure of the database can be modified to accommodate new requirements.
The data dictionary and the layouts of tables and forms can be redesigned.
To add a field, the user must first decide on
the field name, field size and data type. The
user will then need to go back to each record
and enter data into that field. Remember, it is
convenient to use a table to enter new data
into a single field across many records. Deleting
a field should be done with caution. If a field is
deleted, all its data from every record is gone.
Furthermore, if a field is inserted or deleted,
the user will probably need to edit existing
forms, queries or reports. If a field name is
confusing, it can be easily changed.
The layout of forms and tables can be easily
amended. In a form, the user can move fields,
headings, instructions or graphics anywhere on
the screen. In a table, the user can change the
width of a column, rearrange the columns or
hide a column. In addition to making these
changes, the look of the text in forms and
tables can be changed by selecting different
fonts, styles or colours (see Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7 The layout of a form in the ADDRESS

database.
Databases 169
Exercise 6.2
1 What is data integrity?
2 List three ways of editing data.
3 Describe how new records are inserted into a database.
4 Describe how records are deleted from a database.
5 Why would it be necessary to modify the structure of the database?
6 Describe how to add a field in a database.
7 Why should care be taken when deleting a field?
8 How is the layout of forms and tables amended?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the inventory database using the data in Figure 6.8. Save the database
with a filename of INVENTORY. Set the data type of the fields ‘Date purchased’
to date/time and ‘Purchase price’ to currency.
Figure 6.8 The INVENTORY database.
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields.
b The serial number was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend
the data.
• Amplifier, Technics: 0982233
• Heater, Haan: DA25900002
• Tuner, Technics: 55673800
c The following purchases were made after the database was created. Insert the
new records.
• Television, Phillips, NE-FR24, 76392965, 26-Jun-00, $650.00
Functio
• Calculator, HP, CFX-9850, N7898, 9-Jul-00, $35.00

• Coffee maker, Sharp, GP-484123, 4898341, 27-Jul-00, $90.00
d The radio alarm clock was accidentally damaged and could not be repaired.
Delete this record from the database.
e The place of purchase is a useful piece of information for an inventory
database. Add a field called ‘Place purchased’. Insert the data into this field if
all the items purchased before 1999 were bought at Grace Bros and those
purchased after 1999 were bought at David Jones.

Function
2 Create a library database using the data in Figure 6.9. Save the database with the
filename LIBRARY.
Figure 6.9 The LIBRARY database.
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields.
b The subject was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend the data.
• Skills and Tactics, Motor car
• Today’s Music, Rock music
c The following books were purchased after the database was created. Insert
the new records.
• Australian Technology, Johnson M, Computer, 001.75, 0 86421 674 X, Rigby
• Modern Tennis, Norman C, Sport, 768.4, 0 97843 434 X, Reed
d The books on travel were given to a friend. Delete any books on travel from
the library database.
e Delete the ‘Publisher’ field and all its data.
3 Open the file called CLIENT and amend the data.
a The amount owing for the following clients needs to be changed. Amend the
data.
• Advance Cellars, $200.00
• Holmers Computer, $0.00
• Hanil Restaurant, $500.00
b There are two regular clients to be added to the client database. Insert the
new records.
• Central Motors, 200 High St, Penrith, $600.00, October 23 2000, $400.00
• Julia’s, 2 Iluka St, Rose Bay, $1000.00, November 12 2000, $600.00
c Add a field called ‘Postcode’ and insert the postcodes of all the suburbs.
Ashfield 2131, Balmain 2041, Bondi 2026, Bronte 2024, Coogee 2034, Darling-
hurst 2010, Hunters Hill 2110, North Parramatta 2151, North Sydney 2060,
Penrith 2750, Rose Bay 2029, Sydney 2000, Ultimo 2007, Wentworthville 2145
d Delete Tony’s Fruit.
4 Open the file called STARS and amend the data.
a Add a field called ‘Nationality’. Insert each star’s nationality and save the file.
b Insert the following records:
• Mel Gibson, M, 42, Mad Max, Australian
• Cathy Freeman, F, 26, Athletics, Australian.
Databases 171
6.3 Finding information
Database management systems are powerful tools because they can manage and
allow the interpretation of massive amounts of data. They can search data very
quickly and find in seconds information that may have taken hours using manual
methods. For example, the telephone book only allows easy access to data if you
know the person’s name. With the same data stored in an electronic database, you
could search using a phone number or address to find the person’s name.
analysing Sorting
Database information is always easier to use when the records are arranged in a
meaningful order, not randomly, as they were entered. Sorting is the process of
arranging data in a particular order. It is a way of organising the data. Sorts can
be performed in either ascending or descending order. Ascending order arranges
data from smallest to largest (0–9) or from first to last (A–Z). Descending order
is the reverse: from largest to smallest (9–0) or from last to first (Z–A).
To carry out a sort, the user first chooses the field on which the sort is to be
based and then selects ascending or descending order. Data can be sorted on more
than one field so that records are arranged in a precise order. For example, the
data shown in Figure 6.10 is sorted on two levels: ‘Suburb’ is the primary sort
field and ‘Family name’ is the secondary sort field. The result is that the records
are arranged alphabetically by suburb; where there are multiple records with the
same suburb, they are arranged alphabetically by family name. A telephone
directory is an example of a three-level sort based on family name, first initial and
second initial. A filter is used to limit the records viewed in the database. Records
are filtered by selecting the records or specifying a certain condition.
Figure 6.10 The ADDRESS database sorted on two levels.

Functio
analysing Searching
One of the major advantages of an electronic database is that data can be
storing&
retrieving
retrieved quickly and easily. Searching is the process of examining a database to
retrieve data. For example, you could step through each record using a form
view or browse in a table. Most DBMSs have a ‘Find’ or ‘Search’ command (see
Figure 6.11). The user types in a word or a string of characters and the DBMS
searches through the data looking for a match. It is often possible to limit the
search to a particular field.

Function
This method is satisfactory for
small databases with a few records
but would be very time-consuming
for large databases containing
thousands of records. The most
efficient way of searching a large
database is to construct a query. Figure 6.11 The ‘Find’ command is used to search the database.
Querying the data analysing

A query is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. It is a
question you ask of the database. For example: What is the name of the
employee who lives at Eastwood? The results of a query are usually displayed in
storing &
retrieving
a table but can be used as the basis of a form, report, graph or even another
query. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time and
perform built-in or custom calculations on data.
To create a query, the user selects the ‘Query’ command and chooses the
fields to be displayed. A simple query is then constructed in the form:
<Field name> <operator> <data>
For example, if you were looking for a person with the family name of Davey
in the ADDRESS database, the query would be in the form:
‘Family name = Davey’.
The data in the query is often called the criteria. There are three methods of
entering a simple query:
• Menu: This is often the easiest way to pose a query but is the least flexible.
The DBMS presents the user with a list of options from which to choose.
• Query by example (QBE): This requires the user to enter the criteria against
a field. For example, if you were looking for people who lived in Eastwood,
you would type ‘Eastwood’ in the ‘Suburb’ field and leave the remaining
fields blank. The DBMS would then search the database and select all records
that have Eastwood in the ‘Suburb’ field (see Figure 6.12).
• Query language (QL): This is a specialised language designed to allow users
to access information from the database. It is the most complex method
because the user must learn the language but it provides the most power and
flexibility. Different DBMSs support different query languages. SQL
(Structured Query Language) is a standard query language but there are
different versions of it in use.
Figure 6.12 A query on the ADDRESS database using QBE.
Operators
A query is constructed using an operator such as those in Table 6.2. The
operator represents the action to be performed in the query. Operators are
classified as either relational or logical.
Relational operators (=, <>, <, >, <=, >=) are characters or symbols indicating
the relationship between two expressions. They are used for simple queries.
Databases 173
Wildcard characters represent one or more unknown characters. Some common
wildcard characters are the asterisk (*) that substitutes for any number of
characters and the question mark (?) that substitutes for one character. A query
such as ‘Family name = Dav*’ would find family names such as Dave, Davo,
Davis or Davey. However the query ‘Family name = Dav?’ would only find
family names such as Dave or Davo.
Logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) are used to combine simple queries so
that a search is carried out on one or more fields. It is important to understand
the difference between these operators.
• The AND operator requires both the first and the second query to be true.
Only records satisfying both queries will be found. For example, if you are
looking for a person with a family name of Davey who lives in Eastwood, the
query would be:
‘Family name = Davey’ AND ‘Suburb = Eastwood’
• The OR operator requires either the first or the second query to be true.
Records satisfying either of the queries will be found. For example, if you are
looking for all of the people with a family name of Davey and all the people
who live in Eastwood, the query would be:
‘Family name = Davey’ OR ‘Suburb = Eastwood’
Operator Description
Relational
= Equal to
<> Not equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
contains
does not contain
begins with
ends with
is blank
is not blank
Functio
Logical
AND together
OR either one
NOT exact opposite
Table 6.2 Examples of operators.

Function
Exercise 6.3
1 Explain the difference between ascending and descending order.
2 What is a sort on two levels?
3 Describe a simple way to search a small database.
4 What is a query?
5 What is the usual form of a simple query?
6 List three methods of entering a simple query.
7 What is a query language?
8 What are the advantages of using a query language?
9 Describe two common wildcard characters.
10 Explain the difference between the AND operator and the OR operator.
11 Write the meaning of the following queries:
a Class = 11IPT
b Mark > 50
c Sex = F
d Family name begins with B
e Given name = Mi*
f Postcode = 276?
g Suburb = Cabramatta AND Given name = Penny
h Price > $100 AND Colour = Blue
i Postcode = 2457 OR Family name = Brown
j Bill < $100 OR Street number = 5
12 Write out queries using relational operators for each of the following. You can
make up appropriate field names.
a All the girls in the school.
b Year 11 girls in the school.
c Customers who live in either Parramatta or Bankstown.
d Boys in the basketball club who are eligible to play in 16 and under teams.
e All customers who owe more than $20 000 for the month of March.
13 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2.
a Write down the second record if sorted on ‘Postcode’ in ascending order.
b Write down the fourth record if sorted on ‘Given name’ in descending order.
c Which of the Johns would come first if the primary sort field was ‘Given name’
and a secondary sort field was ‘Home phone’ in ascending order?
d Write down the second record if the primary sort field was ‘Suburb’ and a
secondary sort field was ‘Family name’ in descending order.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open the EFTPOS database and construct the following queries.
a All the people who live in Five Dock.
b All the people with a given name of Doug.
Databases 175
c All the people with a family name of Nguyen.
d All the people who live in Fairfield.
e All the people with a postcode greater than 2200.
f All the people whose family name contains the letter ‘a’.
g All the people whose home phone number does not contain the digit ‘1’.
h All the people who live in a street.
i All the people whose family name contains the letter ‘s’ and given name
contains the letter ‘e’.
j All the people whose given name is Olivia or who live in Rose Bay.
2 Open the CLIENT database and construct the following queries.

a All the clients whose suburb is Sydney.
b All the clients whose last bill was greater than $900.
c All the clients who have an amount owing.
d All the clients whose date of last bill was 25 September 2001.
e All the clients who sell computers.
f All the clients who sell shoes.
g All the clients who owe more than $500.
h All the clients with an amount owing and who own a restaurant.
i All the clients in Ultimo who have an amount owing.
j All the clients who sell computers or have an amount owing.
3 Open the STUDENTS database and construct the following queries.

a All students who are female.
b All 16-year-old students.
c All students over 16.
d All students with brown hair.
e All students with black hair.
f All students who are tall.
g All students who are medium in height.
h All students who are 16 and tall.
i All short students with brown hair.
j All students who are 17 or have blond hair.
4 Open the STARS database and construct the following queries:

a All stars whose age is 42.
b All stars with a family name of Freeman.
c All stars who are female.
Functio
d All stars who are Australian.

e All stars who are over 20.
f All stars who are male or American.
g All stars who are female and Australian.

Function
6.4 Reporting
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data. Examples of
reports are mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries and telephone lists. DBMSs
allow complete control of the design of a report in tabular (column) layout. It is
possible to insert headings, sort data, choose the fields, switch fields, change
column width and select records. The purpose of the report will determine its
content, format and style. Most DBMSs allow different reports to be created
from the database for different purposes. For example, the user might create one
report that groups data and calculates totals, and another report for printing
mailing labels (see Figure 6.13).
Figure 6.13 Mailing labels generated from the

ADDRESS database
Creating a report displaying

Before creating a report, the user needs to select the required records. For
example, when generating mailing labels you may not need a label for every
person in database. Reports are often constructed using a query or the ‘Find’
command.
The next step is to select the fields to be included in the report. These fields
are placed in appropriate positions, formatted and sorted. For the mailing labels
shown in Figure 6.13, the fields chosen were:
<Given name> <Family name>
<Street>
<Suburb> <Postcode>
Reports can include functions such as count, sum and average that perform
calculations on selected fields. Reports typically have a number of standard
sections.
Report sections
Most DBMSs allow the user to define the
following sections in a report:
• The report header appears once at the
beginning of a report. It is used for items
such as a company logo, the report title
and the date (see Figure 6.14).
• The page header displays information
such as a title, column headings or any
other information needed at the top of
every page. A page header appears after
the report header on the first page of Figure 6.14 The sections of a report
the report. generated from the ADDRESS database.
Databases 177
• Most of the information will be displayed in the detail section. The user has
a variety of tools to manipulate and format fields.
• The page footer displays information such as the date, page number or any
other information the user wants at the bottom of every page.
• The report footer appears once at the end of the report. It displays items
such as report totals. The report footer appears after the page footer on the
last page of the report.
Report format
Before a report is printed, it is necessary to ensure the report has the correct
format. When formatting a report, the user needs to adopt the following good
design principles:
• Use headings that identify the purpose of the report.
• Use layouts (such as tabular or column) that present the information
effectively.
• Balance text on the page either vertically or horizontally.
• Ensure styles are consistent throughout the report and suit its purpose.
• Ensure columns have clear and descriptive headings.
• Use white space appropriately to improve readability.
• Include page numbers and the date in the header or footer.
ITITFact
Fact
Online databases are databases that can be accessed via the Internet. They
typically provide current information on news, sport, shares and other
areas of special interest. Online databases are updated daily.
displaying Mail merge

Organisations often send the same letter to more than one person. For example,
an organisation might want to inform its customers of a new service. One
solution is to write a letter, photocopy it and type in the required names and
addresses. A more efficient solution is to use mail merge. Mail merge combines a
letter written on a word processor with data from another type of file, such as a
database. Mail merge saves time and makes the final documents more personal.
There are three basic steps in carrying out a mail merge:
• set up a data source (or database document)
• set up a word processor document (or merge document)
Functio
• merge the two documents.

The mail merge is generally carried out in the word processing application.
The user selects the mail merge command from the relevant menu and is then
prompted for the name of the data source. The user positions the cursor in the
word processor document where the data is to be inserted and chooses a merge
field from the data source. The process is repeated when more than one field is
to be included (see Figure 6.15). Finally, the user selects a command to merge
the documents. The selected fields are replaced with information from the data
source. Each row of information from the data source produces a unique version
of the word processor document.

Function
Figure 6.15 A mail merge document showing the field names that will
be replaced with data from the database.
Exercise 6.4
1 What is a report?
2 What determines a report’s content, format and style?
3 How are records selected for a report?
4 List five sections of a report.
5 What sort of information generally appears in a report header?
6 Why is white space used in a report?
7 What are the advantages of mail merge?
8 How is a mail merge document created?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open the CLIENT file and create the following reports:
a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by suburb.
b A tabular layout of clients that are restaurants.
c A tabular layout of all the records, containing only the ‘Company’ and
‘Amount owing’ fields.
d A column layout to be used as a mailing label that contains only the
‘Company’, ‘Address’ and ‘Suburb’ fields.
2 Open the STARS file and create the following reports:
a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by family name in ascending order.
b A column layout that contains only stars’ first names and family names.
c A tabular layout of all the stars who are male.
d A column layout showing all the fields, sorted by age in descending order.
Databases 179
3 Open the file called EFTPOS and create the mailing labels shown in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16 Mailing labels generated from the EFTPOS database.
4 Create the letter shown in Figure 6.17 and save it with the filename PAYMENT.
Figure 6.17 A form letter using the CLIENT database.
a Insert the merged fields from the CLIENT database into the letter.
b Merge the letter and the database so that each person receives a payment
letter.
c Create a query so that only clients with an amount owing will receive the pay-
Functio
ment letter.
5 Create personalised invitations for your next birthday party.
a Write an invitation to your party using a word processor and save it with the
filename BIRTHDAY.
b Insert the relevant fields from the STUDENTS database into the letter.
c Merge the letter and the database so that a personalised letter is printed for
each person.

Chapter review
PART A 7 A database is used to store birthdays
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best using the date format (DD/MM/YY).
answers the question or completes the Five records are shown in Table 6.3.
statement.
1 Electronic databases cannot: Name Birthday
A search and sort data quickly and Briggs, Teena 07/02/85
accurately
Lopez, Paul 25/07/85
B perform recalculations on data quick-
ly and accurately Tang, Hu Long 01/11/85
C correct and update data Young, Patsy 25/02/85
D present data in a variety of ways Table 6.3 A table from the BIRTHDAYS database.
2 Which of the following lists are in order
from smallest to largest? These five records are then sorted in
ascending order by ‘Birthday’. What is
A field, character, record
the name of the last person in the
B field, record, character sorted list?
C character, field, record A Briggs, Teena C Tang, Hu Long
D record, field, character B Young, Patsy D Lopez, Paul
3 Which data type in a database stores 8 The database feature that is used to
alphabetic characters? rearrange data in alphabetical order is
A word C field called:
B text D record A searching C sorting
4 A field that contains unique data in B copying D organising
every record is a: 9 A business has created a database of its
A primary key customers in Australia. The conditional
C secondary key part of the query to retrieve all cus-
B field key tomers in Sydney who are over 20 years
D compound key of age would be:
A City = ‘Sydney’ AND Age < 20
5 Layouts in forms and tables of a data- B City = ‘Sydney’ AND Age > 20
base are easily amended by:
C City = ‘Sydney’ OR Age < 20
A deleting a field
D City = ‘Sydney’ OR Age > 20
B constructing a query
C designing a report 10 Which of the following is not a good
design principle?
D moving fields, headings or instruc-
tions A Use layouts that present the infor-
mation effectively.
6 The most effective way of searching a B Balance text on the page either
large database is to: vertically or horizontally.
A use a search or find command C Use many different styles through-
B print a report out a report.
C browse a table D Ensure columns have clear and des-
D construct a query criptive headings.
Databases 181
Chapter review
For each of the following statements, a data dictionary i sort
select from the list of terms the one that b data type j table
c database k field size
d field l search
Statements e form m data integrity
1 The process of arranging data in a parti- f query n operator
cular order.
g record o filter
2 The kind of data in the field. h report p key
3 A specific category of data.
PART C
4 A comprehensive description of each Write at least one paragraph on each of
field in a database. the following questions.
5 An organised collection of data. 1 What is the difference between search-
6 Displays more than one record but only ing and sorting a database?
allows the fields that fit across the
2 Briefly explain the following terms:
screen.
a database management system
7 It is used to view, enter and change (DBMS)
data in a table. b query language.
8 A collection of facts about one specific 3 Outline the four data structures used in
entry in a database. databases.
9 A search of a database for records that 4 You are going to enter a large CD col-
meet a certain condition. lection into a database.
10 The formatted and organised presenta- a Name five fields that you think
tion of data. would be the most relevant.
11 Fields used to store and retrieve infor- b List two searches on this data that
mation. would be frequently carried out.
12 The number of characters in each field. 5 Fisher’s Ghost Golf Club wants to use a
database to manage the records of its
13 The reliability of data. members. What tasks would they use
14 The process of examining the database the database for? Design a suitable
to retrieve data. database for the golf club.
15 It is used to limit the records viewed in

a database.
16 It represents an action to be performed
in the query.

chapter
SPREADSHEETS
7
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the uses and advantages of an
electronic spreadsheet
• create a spreadsheet by entering labels,
values and formulas
• use a spreadsheet’s built-in arithmetic, sta-
tistical and logical functions
• move and copy data from one location to
Overview
another in a spreadsheet This chapter will help you to become an
accomplished user of spreadsheet software. It
• use absolute and relative referencing of
examines the basic features of spreadsheets
cells
and the major information processes involved
• format a spreadsheet in their use. You will learn how to enter
• use a spreadsheet to create a chart of each formulas and functions, format a spreadsheet
type from numerical data and create an appropriate chart to convey
• identify and describe the purpose of each particular kinds of information.
type of chart.
Spreadsheets can be used across all the seven information processes. The
processes are not distinct and tasks often involve a combination of processes.
The development of a spreadsheet emphasises the following information
processes:
• Organising: Data is arranged into rows and columns, and formulas are
developed. (See section 7.1.)
• Processing: The cells in a spreadsheet can be edited. (See section 7.1.)
• Analysing: The user can ask ‘what if’ questions and identify trends using
charts. (See sections 7.2 and 7.4.)
• Displaying: Cells can be formatted and information presented in charts.
(See sections 7.3 and 7.4.)
7.1 Basic features

A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to organise
and store data that requires some type of calculation. For centuries, people have
used pencil and paper to construct rows and columns of numerical data and
manipulate it in some way. For example, people used ledgers to keep records of
their sales, income and payments. Today, a software application called a spread-
sheet is used to do these tasks.
A spreadsheet is an excellent tool to help solve problems that require many
calculations. Business people use spreadsheets to keep track of financial trans-
actions and stock. The spreadsheet allows them to present data in tables and
charts, and make predictions based on trends. Spreadsheets are also used by
scientists, engineers and people in a wide range of professions to carry out many
different tasks. A spreadsheet can be used to plan a budget, calculate loan repay-
ments, keep track of income and expenses, and perform countless other
activities dealing with numbers.
Electronic spreadsheets have five advantages over manual spreadsheets:
• ease of calculation—numerical calculations can be performed quickly and
accurately
• ease of editing data—mistakes can be corrected before printing, and data can
be moved and copied
• recalculation—if one item of data is changed, all other data that depends on
it is recalculated, which allows users to try out different ‘what if?’ options.
• ease of storage—large amounts of data can be stored and retrieved as
Functio
required
• display options—data can be presented in many different ways using tables
and charts.
organising Structure of a spreadsheet

All spreadsheets consist of rows that run horizontally across the screen and
columns that run vertically down the screen. Rows are usually numbered 1, 2, 3,
4, and so on, while columns are often named in alphabetic terms: A, B, C, up to

Function
Z; then AA, AB, AC up to AZ; then BA, BB, and so on. Some spreadsheets use
numbers for both rows and columns, so that the rows are referred to as R1, R2,
R3, etc. while the columns are referred to as C1, C2, C3, etc. It is not possible to
view all the rows and columns on the screen at one time. However, the user can
scroll up, down, left, or right in the spreadsheet window to view other sections
as required. Some spreadsheet programs create a workbook made up of one or
more spreadsheets, called worksheets or sheets. These sheets allow the user to
organise related information in a single file. Different sheets are accessed by
clicking the sheet number on a tab.
A cell is the intersection of a row and column (see Figure 7.1). The position
of the cell in the spreadsheet is called its cell reference (or cell address). Clearly,
every cell in a spreadsheet has a unique cell reference. For example, the cell
reference of the highlighted cell in Figure 7.1 is C4, because it is at the inter-
section of column C and row 4.
If a cell is highlighted in a spreadsheet it is called the selected cell or active
cell. Data can be entered or changed in the selected cell. A cell is selected by
clicking the mouse inside it, and is indicated by a frame around the cell. The
‘Tab’ key selects the next cell to the right (i.e. in the next column) and the
‘Enter’ key selects the next cell down (i.e. in the next row). Holding down the
‘Shift’ key together with the ‘Tab’ or ‘Enter’ key reverses the direction of the
selection.
cell formula bar

reference
row 2
selected
cell C4
worksheet column E
Figure 7.1 A blank spreadsheet showing some of the basic parts.
Spreadsheets are very particular about the type of data that is entered into
each cell. There are three main types of data:
• A label is text entered into a cell to explain part of the spreadsheet. This data
is not used in carrying out calculations. Labels are used for the headings of
rows and columns.
• Values are numbers stored in a spreadsheet. This data is used in carrying out
calculations.
• Formulas are instructions to perform a calculation. The answer to the calcu-
lation appears in the cell that contains the formula; the formula itself is not
shown. The user can create a formula or select from predefined functions.
Spreadsheets 185
collecting Creating a spreadsheet
Time should be spent planning the spreadsheet before any data is entered. The
user should ask themselves:
• How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem?
• What data needs to be entered?
• How will I obtain the data?
• What will be the headings and titles?
• How will the numbers look?
• What is the relationship between the items of data?
• Does it require a calculation? What formulas are to be used? What results are
required?
collecting Entering data

Data is entered into a cell as a label, value or formula. The first step is to decide
into which cell the data is to be entered. Once this cell is selected, the user
types the text and presses the ‘Enter’ or ‘Return’ key. The text appears in the
selected cell. Most spreadsheets treat anything they cannot interpret as a value
(number) or label. Labels that do not fit in one cell, such as a heading, the text
will be displayed in the next cell. The #### symbol in a cell indicates that the
cell is not wide enough to display the number it contains. The user must either
widen the column by dragging the border in the column heading or adjust the
type size. In Figure 7.2 a spreadsheet has been created to calculate the total cost
of items purchased by a sporting goods store. Labels have been entered in all
cells containing words; values have been entered for the number of units and
their cost price (cells B5 to C10); and formulas have been entered to calculate
the totals (cells D5 to D10 and D12).
=B5*C5
=B6*C6
=B7*C7
=B8*C8
=B9*C9
=B10*C10
=SUM(D5:D10)
Functio
Figure 7.2 A spreadsheet containing labels, values and formulas.
processing Editing data

Data in spreadsheets may need to be edited, to correct mistakes or update
values. The simplest way to edit data in a cell is to highlight the cell and make
the changes in the formula bar. Data is inserted or deleted as in a word pro-
cessor. The new data will replace the old data after pressing the ‘Enter’ key. It
may also be possible to double-click the cell and modify the data directly in the
cell. In addition to correcting mistakes, editing may include moving data and
replacing data.

Function
It is possible to copy values, labels, cell references and formulas from one cell
to another, or to a range of cells. The action of moving data in a spreadsheet is
similar to the actions in a word processor. The user can cut and paste, copy and
paste, or drag and drop. First the cells to be moved are highlighted and the ‘Cut’
or ‘Copy’ command is selected. The content of the cells, including their format-
ting, is transferred to the clipboard. If the user is moving values and labels, these
are inserted into the new location using the ‘Paste’ command. To copy the
contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells, select the ‘Fill down’ or ‘Fill
right’ commands. The ‘Fill down’ command copies cells down the column, while
the ‘Fill right’ command copies cells across a row.
ITITFact
Fact
Financial spreadsheets are used to manage money and are the most
common application of spreadsheet software. Financial spreadsheets can
be used to calculate budgets and loan repayments, produce profit and loss
statements, and monitor investments on the stockmarket.
A spreadsheet allows users to search for specific data that is part of a label,
value or formula and, if required, replace it. For example, you could find all cells
that contained a particular cell reference or all cells whose contents match the
selected cell. The Find and Replace functions are similar to those of a word pro-
cessor except that the user can search for values or formulas by row or by column.
Spreadsheet layout displaying

The spreadsheet layout is the appearance of the spreadsheet. There is no one
correct way to design a spreadsheet. Each particular problem has its own design
requirements. However, a well-designed spreadsheet has four easily identifiable
areas called the instruction, input, calculation and output (see Figure 7.3).
• The instruction area contains information about the spreadsheet or
directions for use of the spreadsheet. It is usually at the top of the spread-
sheet and includes a title, a description, names of the authors, and the date.
Larger spreadsheets include a brief outline of their structure, directions and
parameters. A parameter is an input value that determines the information
produced by the spreadsheet.
• The input area contains labels for headings and values on which calculations
are based. The format of values and labels is often completed after the data
has been entered. For example, when
entering money values there is no
need to include the $ sign as this will instruction area
happen automatically if the values are
formatted as currency.
• The calculation area contains formulas
and functions that complete the work calculation
area
of the spreadsheet. The calculation
area is the heart of a spreadsheet.
• The output area displays the result of
output
the spreadsheet. In many spreadsheets area
the output area and the calculation input area
area are the same. Figure 7.3 Spreadsheet layout.
Spreadsheets 187
Exercise 7.1
1 What is a spreadsheet?
2 Outline the advantages of electronic spreadsheets over manual methods.
3 How are rows and columns named in a spreadsheet?
4 Describe the three main types of data in a spreadsheet.
5 Describe some of the planning that should take place before data is entered into
a spreadsheet.
6 What is the simplest way to edit data in a cell?
7 List four identifiable areas of a well-designed spreadsheet.
8 If the following data were entered into a spreadsheet, would it be classified as a
label, a value or a formula?
a New South Wales b =D1+E2 c 12
d B1-B7 e ‘2003 World Cup’
9 Write down the data stored in these cells of the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.2.
a A6 b B8 c A1
d D4 e C12 f D10
10 What is the cell reference for the following data in the spreadsheet shown in
Figure 7.2?
a Golf shoes b $80 c 110
d Units e =B8*C8 f =SUM(D5:D10)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Start up a spreadsheet program.
a View the entire spreadsheet by scrolling.
b What is cell reference of the cell in the last row and the last column?
c How many cells make up the spreadsheet?
d Move to the following cells in order: A14, S45, Z1, AD33, AA100.
e Move to cell A1 and type in your name.
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.4 and save it with filename EXPENSES.
a List the cells that contain labels.
b List the cells that contain values.
Functio
=SUM(C5:C11)
Figure 7.4 The EXPENSES spreadsheet.

Function
c List the cells that contain formulas.
d Increase the clothing expenses to $25 per week.
e Decrease the entertainment expense to $12 per week.
f Change ‘Eating out’ to ‘Restaurants’.
g In cell D4, insert the label ‘Monthly’.
h Enter formulas in cells D5 to D11 to calculate the expenses on each item for
one month. (Assume there are four weeks in a month.)
i Enter a formula in D13 to calculate total monthly expenses.
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.5. Use the ‘Fill’ command to copy the
formulas. Save the spreadsheet with the filename PLANTS.
=B6-C6
=SUM(B6:B10)
=AVERAGE(B6:B10)
Figure 7.5 The PLANTS spreadsheet.
a Identify the range of cells in the:

i instruction area ii input area
iii calculation area iv output area.
b A scientist completed the same experiment with ivy. Add a row after Lily so
that it appears as row 11.
c Enter the label ‘Ivy’ in cell A11.
d The ivy’s growth with light was 18 and its growth without light was 6. Add
this data to the spreadsheet.
e Enter a formula in cell D11 to calculate the difference in growth for the ivy.
3 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.6 and save it with the filename MARKS.
a Identify the range of cells in the:
i instruction area
ii input area
iii calculation and output area.
b Which student has the highest average?
c Which student has highest maximum?
d Add a column after Task3 so that it appears as column F.
e Enter the label ‘Task4’ in cell F5.
f In cells F6 to F16, enter the marks 56, 80, 64, 88, 75, 90, 62, 88, 58, 70 and 60.
g Adjust the formulas for Max, Min and Aver so that they include the new
column of data.
h Betty Tang got a job and left school. Delete this data.
Spreadsheets 189
=AVERAGE(C6:E6)
=MIN(C6:E6)
=MAX(C6:E6)
Figure 7.6 The MARKS spreadsheet.
4 Create a spreadsheet to analyse your time management. For each day of the
week, enter the amount of time (in hours) you spend on sleep, eating, television,
homework, study and other activities. Use the spreadsheet to total the hours for
each activity and find their weekly averages.
7.2 Formulas
A formula is an instruction to perform a calculation. Formulas are what give
spreadsheets real power. Whenever values (numbers) are changed, the formulas
recalculate and produce new results. A formula usually starts with a particular
symbol, such as the ‘=’, ‘@’or ‘+’ signs. Some examples of formulas are:
• =4+3
• =A4*2
• =SUM(A1:A5).
The asterisk (*) is used for multiplication to avoid confusion with the letter ‘x’.
organising Creating formulas

Formulas consist of four main elements: numbers, cell references, operators and
functions.
Cell references
A formula refers to a cell using a cell reference, such as A2. For example, if you
wanted one cell to contain the same value as another cell, you would enter an =
sign followed by the cell reference. Cell references allow formulas to refer to
Functio
other cells in the same sheet, or even to cells in other sheets.

Formulas can contain a range of cells, such as =SUM(A1:A5). A range is a
group of adjacent cells in a single row or column, or in several adjacent rows and
columns. For example, the range B7:C9 refers to the cells B7, B8, B9, C7, C8
and C9. Names are sometimes used to replace a cell reference and a range in a
formula. After the formula is entered, the result of the calculation appears in the
spreadsheet. The formula for the selected cell is usually displayed in the formula
bar. If a formula refers to itself, either directly or indirectly it is called a circular
reference. For example, if the contents of cell B4 was ‘=B4+1’, this is a circular
reference. It will result in an endless loop and an error message will be displayed.
Function
A spreadsheet recalculates a formula if values in the cell references have
changed. This is one of the most powerful features of a spreadsheet and helps
users to try out all sorts of ‘what if’ scenarios. This is the
process of making changes to the data and observing
their effects. For example, car manufacturers may use a
spreadsheet to see what effect an increase in the cost of
windscreens would have on the overall production costs
of a vehicle. Users can specify whether recalculating is
done automatically or only on request. When a calcula-
tion is performed by a formula, it uses the value stored
in the cell, which may be different to the displayed
value. For example, two cells may each contain the
value of 5.005, but this figure may be displayed as
$5.01 (currency format). If the two cells are added
together, the result would be $10.01 not $10.02. The
result is based on the actual value, not the displayed
value. It is possible to change this option so that calcu-
lations are based on the displayed values.
Operators
Operators are used to perform a process, and are used to create formulas.
Operators can be grouped as arithmetic, relational and text (see Table 7.1). For
example, =A1*A2 multiplies the values in cells A1 and A2. If several operators
are combined in a single formula, the operations are carried out according to
mathematical rules. Multiplication and division are carried out before addition
and subtraction unless parentheses are used to group the operations. For
example, the formula =4+8/2 gives an answer of 8, but =(4+8)/2 gives 6.
Operator Description Example

Arithmetic
+ addition =6+2 gives 8
- subtraction =6-2 gives 4
* multiplication =6*2 gives 12
/ division =6/2 gives 3
^ exponentiation =6^2 gives 36
% per cent =15% gives 0.15
Relational
= equal to =3+2=4 gives FALSE
<> not equal to =22-1<>20 gives TRUE
< less than =22<20 gives FALSE
> greater than =22>20 gives TRUE
<= less than or equal to =15+4<=20 gives TRUE
>= greater than or equal to =15+4>=20 gives FALSE
Text
& text joining =‘A=’&FALSE gives A=FALSE
Table 7.1 Some operators.
Spreadsheets 191
Functions
Functions make calculations easier. Spreadsheet programs contain about 100
built-in formulas known as functions. Functions are used to perform simple or
complex calculations. To use a function you must follow special rules or syntax.
Functions consist of a function name such as SUM, a set of parentheses ( ) and
arguments. Arguments are values on which the functions operate. Arguments are:
• numbers such as 2,3 in the formula =SUM(2,3).
• cell references such as B4, B5,B6,B8 in the formula =SUM(B4,B5,B6,B8).
• a range of cells such as B4:B8 in the formula =SUM(B4:B8).
• other functions such as MAX(B5,B9) in the formula =SUM(B4,MAX(B5,B9)).
Functions are more efficient than making up your own formula. For example, to
add cells from A1 to A10 the formula is =A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A9+A10
or =SUM(A1:A10). In addition to being quicker to enter, functions allow you
insert or delete rows or columns. For example, if you deleted row 3 the first
formula would be incorrect and require editing. However, the formula that uses
a function would remain correct. Functions can be grouped as arithmetic,
statistical or logical (see Table 7.2 opposite).
processing Absolute and relative referencing

When a formula is copied from one cell to another, you may want the cell
references in the formula to stay the same, or you may want them to change to
coincide with the new destination cell. Spreadsheets allow for this by providing
two ways of referring to cells: absolute referencing and relative referencing.
Absolute referencing (or absolute addressing) means that the cell references
in a formula do not change if the formula is copied or moved. The formula is
copied exactly, with the cell references remaining the same. The $ sign is used to
indicate an absolute cell reference. For example, cell E5 may contain the
formula =$B$5*$D$5, which multiplies the contents of cells B5 and D5. If this
formula is copied to cell E6, the formula remains =$B$5*$D$5, and the result of
the formula stays the same.
Relative referencing (or relative addressing) allows you to copy the mathe-
matical processes in a formula (such as the operators and functions) while
changing the cell references so that they relate to the new destination cell.
Relative referencing is the default option, so no special symbol is required. For
example, cell E5 may contain the formula =B5*D5, which multiplies the
contents of cells B5 and D5. If this formula is copied to cell E6, it would change
to =B6*D6, which multiplies the contents of cells B6 and D6. The cell
references have changed to coincide with the destination cell (see Figure 7.7).
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=B5*D5
=B5*C5
=E5-F5
Figure 7.7 The SPORT spreadsheet.

Function
Function Description Example
Arithmetic
ABS absolute value =ABS(-12) gives 12
INT integer part =INT(2.99) gives 2
LOOKUP searches a range of cells for a =LOOKUP(B6,A9:C14)
lookup value
PI mathematical constant =PI()
ROUND rounds to a number of =ROUND(3.14159,3) gives 3.142
decimal places
SQRT square root of a value =SQRT(144) gives 12
SUM adds up all the values in a list =SUM(B4,B5,B6,B7)
Statistical
AVERAGE average of its arguments =AVERAGE(2,4) gives 3
COUNT how many numbers in the =COUNT(5,1,12,5) gives 4
list of arguments
MAX maximum value in a list of =MAX(3,6,1,4) gives 6
arguments
MEDIAN median (middle) of the given =MEDIAN(8,3,10) gives 8
numbers
MODE most common value =MODE (4,6,6,4,4,4) gives 4
MIN minimum value in a list of =MIN(3,6,1,4) gives 1
arguments
STDEV standard deviation =STDEV(5,10,15) gives 5
Logical
AND returns TRUE if all the =AND(2+2=4,2+3=5)
arguments are true; gives TRUE
returns FALSE if one or more =AND(2+2=5,2+3=5)
arguments are FALSE gives FALSE
FALSE returns the logical value FALSE =FALSE()
IF returns one value if logical =IF(5<7,1,2) gives 1
test evaluates to TRUE and =IF(8<7,1,2) gives 2
another value if it evaluates
to FALSE
NOT reverses the logic of the =NOT(1+1=2) gives FALSE
argument
OR returns TRUE if any arguments =OR(1+1=2,2+2=5) gives TRUE
are TRUE; returns FALSE if all =OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) gives FALSE
arguments are FALSE
TRUE returns the logical value TRUE =TRUE()
Table 7.2 Some functions.
Spreadsheets 193
It is possible to have a formula containing both absolute and relative
references. This is called a mixed cell reference. For example, if the formula
=$B$5*D5 in cell E5 is copied to cell E6, it would change to =B5*D6.
Formulas can be copied into adjacent cells using the ‘Fill’ command. Select
the cell that contains the formula and the destination cell(s), and then choose
the ‘Fill’ command. Both absolute and relative referencing can be used in this
process.
collecting Templates
A template is a kind of ‘master document’ or blueprint that is created for re-
peated use. A spreadsheet template contains labels and formulas to solve a
particular problem. The user enters the values to obtain the required solution. If
numerous spreadsheets need to be created to solve similar problems, a template
can save time and effort. Many spreadsheet programs contain standard tem-
plates for a range of uses, such as budgets, profit and loss statements, loan re-
payments and stock investments. There are four advantages in using a standard
template:
• predetermined layout—the labels and formulas are already entered
• ease of use—detailed understanding of formulas is not required
• reliability—the templates are fully tested, so it is unlikely that they will
produce errors
• adaptability—templates can be modified to suit specific needs.
Figure 7.8 shows an example of a simple
template used to calculate the daily income from
each type of room in a motel. A single room costs
$50, a double room $70 and a suite $100. The
income is determined by multiplying the number of
rooms in use by their appropriate rates. These
formulas have been entered into cells D5, D6 and
D7. They show a result of $0.00 until the number
of rooms in use has been entered into cells B5, B6
and B7. The spreadsheet allows the manager to
Figure 7.8 The MOTEL spreadsheet. quickly determine the total income for each day
and helps make decisions about room rates.
Creating a template involves the following steps:
• Understand the problem: Determine the precise requirements of the
template. How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem? What data
needs to be entered? What information needs to be calculated?
• Design the template: Determine the solution to the problem using a spread-
sheet. What will be the headings? How will the numbers look? What is the
Functio
relationship between the data? What formulas are to be used? What will the
spreadsheet layout be? Remember—a problem can have more than one
correct solution.
• Construct the template: Enter the labels and formulas and format the
template.
• Test the template: Make sure the template is perfect. Test the template with
a variety of values and make modifications if necessary.
• Document the template: Make the template easy to use. Add instructions on
the screen or provide a manual for users of the template.

Function
Exercise 7.2
1 What is a formula?
2 Write the following cells as a range of cells:
a C3, C4, C5, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10
b D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9, D10, D11
c A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, C3
3 What is a circular reference?
4 List three different types of operators.
5 Give the results of the following formulas:
a =8*2 b =2^4 c =21%
d =17-10/2 e =(20-12)/2 f =4+2*4+7
g =4^2/4 h =(23-7)/(2*4) i =50%+40%
j =((24-4)*(13+7))
6 What result do the following formulas produce?
a =6*3=18 b =15-8<>7 c =5+8<15
d =4*4>12 e =14/7<=3 f =6*5>=35-5
g =2+3*3<12 h =(2+3)*3<14
7 Explain the difference between absolute and relative referencing.
8 Describe four advantages in using a template.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.9
and save it with the filename ARITHMETIC.
a Change the contents of the following
cells: B3 to 12; D3 to 4; B4 to 18; D4 to
10; B5 to 9; D5 to 6; B6 to 24; D6 to 12.
b Extend the spreadsheet by adding a row
that finds the average of two numbers.
c Extend the spreadsheet by adding a row
that counts the number of calculations.
Figure 7.9 The ARITHMETIC spreadsheet.
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in

Figure 7.10 and save it with the file-
name DEPARTMENT.
a Change the number of employees
for each department as follows:
i Woman’s to 12
ii Men’s to 14
iii Children’s to 9
iv Electrical to 10
v Furniture to 5
vi Kitchen to12 Figure 7.10 The DEPARTMENT spreadsheet.
vii Sport to 11.
Spreadsheets 195
b Harry’s Department Store is expanding into hardware.
i Enter the label ‘Hardware’ into cell A12.
ii Enter ‘5’ into cell B12.
iii Amend all the formulas in cells D5 to D10 to include this new data.
3 Start up a spreadsheet program.
a Enter the following data:
A2 16 A3 64 A4 =A2
A5 =SUM(A2:A4) C2 5 E2 35
b Copy the range of cells A3 to A5 to cells C3 to C5 using relative references.
c Copy the range of cells A3 to A5 to cells E3 to E5 using absolute references.
4 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.11. The formulas shown in cells C5 and
D5 need to be copied down their respective columns to row 10 using relative
references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename DISCOUNT.
=B5*(1-C5)
=IF(B5<50,10%,15%)
Figure 7.11 The DISCOUNT spreadsheet.
a Amend the formulas in the spreadsheet so that employees receive:

i a 12% discount if the price of an item is less than $50, and a 17% discount
if the price of an item is greater than or equal to $50
ii a 10% discount if the price of an item is less than $100, and a 20% discount
if the price of an item is greater than or equal to $100.
b Wayne’s World is offering employees a discount on an exercise bike.
i Add a row after ‘Shoes’ so that it appears as row 7.
ii Enter the label ‘Bike’ into cell A7.
iii Enter the value ‘190’ into cell B7.
iv Enter formulas in cells C7 and D7 to calculate the discount rate and
discount price.
5 Create the template shown in

Figure 7.12. The formulas shown in
Functio
cells C5 to C10 need to be copied

into columns D and E using relative
references. (They indicate price
changes as a result of the growing
season.) Save the spreadsheet with
the filename VEGETABLE.
Figure 7.12 The VEGETABLE spreadsheet template.

Function
a Use the template to calculate total vegetable prices for October, November and
December for two different years. The September prices (per kilogram) were:
i potatoes $1.29, onions $1.59, carrots $1.99, beans $2.29, peas $2.99, mush-
rooms $5.99
ii potatoes $1.19, onions $1.79, carrots $2.09, beans $2.19, peas $3.49, mush-
rooms $5.89.
b Add a row after ‘Beans’ so that it appears as row 9.
c In row 9, enter the following data: zucchini; September price of $1.99;
decrease of 3% in price for each of October, November and December.
d The supply of vegetables for next season will be affected by a drought. The
expected percentage increases on the September prices are as follows:
potatoes 25%, onions 17%, carrots 12%, beans 10%, zucchinis 10%, peas 8%,
mushrooms 5%. Modify the formulas in the template using this data.
7.3 Formatting a spreadsheet

Formatting means changing the appearance of the spreadsheet. There are many
ways to format a spreadsheet and make it more appealing. However, it is most
important that the format is appropriate for its purpose and helps communicate
the information. Formatting a spreadsheet involves changing the rows and
columns and the cell formats.
Rows and columns displaying

Spreadsheet programs allow the user to adjust the height of rows and the width
of columns. This is necessary to accommodate headings, larger type sizes or
wrapping text. Row height and column width are changed in several ways:
• Drag the border in the row heading or column heading to the required width.
• Redefine the default row height or column width. This adjusts all rows and
columns to the same width. Different spreadsheet programs have different
defaults for row height and column width.
• Adjust the row height and column width to the minimum necessary to
display the contents of the selected cells.
• Hide selected rows and columns. Hiding rows and columns does not delete
them from the spreadsheet.
In a spreadsheet, it is often necessary to add or delete rows and columns.
When a row is inserted, all the rows below it are moved down one place. When
a column is inserted, all the columns to the right are moved to the right one
place. Including empty rows and columns to add spacing can improve the
readability of the spreadsheet. Deleting rows and columns from a spreadsheet
reverses this process. The rows below move up and the columns to the right
move to the left. Cell references are automatically changed when adding and
deleting rows and columns unless they are absolute cell references.
Cells displaying
Each spreadsheet program includes a number of different ways of displaying
text and numbers. Formatting a cell does not change the contents of the cell but
determines the way it is displayed. There are numerous options for formatting
cells, such as number, alignment, fonts, borders and shading.
Spreadsheets 197
Number
Cells that contain numbers are formatted using the toolbar or a command from
the menu bar. Modern spreadsheet programs automatically apply a built-in
format based on the data the user has entered. Number formats for selected
cells include the following:
• General: The number is displayed exactly as it is typed. No specific number
format is applied.
• Fixed: The number is displayed to a specified number of decimal places. For
example, if two decimal places are specified, 8.592 would appear as 8.59.
• Comma: The number is displayed with commas every three places. For
example, 12345678 would appear as 12,345,678.
• Currency: A dollar sign ($) is added at the beginning of the number, which is
usually expressed to two decimal places. For example, 8.592 would appear as
$8.59.
• Per cent: The number is expressed as a percentage by multiplying it by 100
and adding the per cent symbol (%). For example, 0.34 would appear as 34%.
• Scientific: The number is expressed in scientific notation. Many spreadsheet
programs automatically use scientific notation to display very large or very
small values. For example, 12 000 000 would appear as 1.2E+7 (which stands
for 1.2 × 107).
• Date: The number is displayed in a
specified date format (see Figure 7.13).
For example, 4/7/01 could appear as
04/07/2001, 4-Jul or 04- Jul-01 .
• Time: The number is expressed as a
time value. For example, 14:30 could
appear as 2:30 PM, 14:30 or 14:30:00.
• Fraction: The number is expressed as a
fraction. For example, 0.5 could appear
as 1/2, 2/4 or 50/100.
• Special: This format is used to display
special numbers such as postcodes and
Figure 7.13 Some of the cell formats available in Microsoft Excel. phone numbers.
Alignment
Alignment is the way text lines up, and it is used to distinguish different types of
information. The contents of a cell are aligned either vertically or horizontally.
The default vertical alignment is to the bottom of the cell. However, it can be
changed to top, centre or justified. The default horizontal alignment depends on
the type of data. Labels are aligned left and numbers, dates and times are aligned
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right. There are several options for horizontal alignment:

• Align left aligns the contents at the left edge of the cell.
• Align right aligns the contents at the right edge of the cell.
• Centre aligns the contents around the middle of the cell.
• Centre across selection centres the contents of the left cell in a selected range.
• Wrap text applies wordwrap to the text in a cell.
• Shrink to fit reduces the size of the font so that the selected cell fits the
column.

Function
The orientation of the text in a cell can also be changed. This involves rotating
the text a set number of degrees. For example, if the user needs text to read
vertically upwards, a rotation of 90 degrees is required. Rotated text is generally
harder to read but it does allow longer, more descriptive headings to be used.
Fonts
As with word processors, spreadsheet programs allow users to apply a range of
fonts to emphasise important parts of a spreadsheet. Fonts can applied to
characters within cells, a selected cell or a range of cells. Modifications can be
made to the typeface, type size, type style, stroke weight and colour. Some
spreadsheets provide built-in styles and table formats, which can be used to
ensure a consistent format.
ITITFact
Fact
The first Internet arrest occurred in the USA on 19 May 1996. Leslie Ibsen
Rogge, wanted on bank robbery and other charges, was arrested as a result
of his picture being posted on the FBI’s Web site.
Borders and shading

Borders, patterns and shading can be used to increase the readability and
improve the appearance of a spreadsheet. They can be applied to a selected cell
or range of cells. There are many options to change the style of a border, such as
line weight and colour, background colour and pattern.
Macros processing
Modern spreadsheet programs allow users to create and use macros. A macro is
a series of commands stored in a file that can be executed by pressing a few
keys. Macros are used to automate repetitive tasks; they save time and reduce
storing &
retrieving
keyboard errors. For example, your name may appear in all your spreadsheets. If
you stored your name in macro and assigned it to the F2 key, every time you
pressed F2 the macro would enter your name. This is a simple example, but
macros can be used to perform much more complex series of actions. They can
open menus, choose commands, enter text and do hundreds of other tasks
extremely quickly.
The easiest way to create a macro is to record it. The user selects the
appropriate ‘Record macro’ command and enters a name for the macro, so it can
be saved as a file. The user then carries out the desired series of actions, which
are recorded by the macro recorder. When the actions are completed, the user
stops the macro recorder by selecting the appropriate command or button. The
saved macro can then be used by selecting the appropriate ‘Run macro’
command. This command will carry out all the actions stored in the macro. In
some programs, a macro can also be assigned to a button on a toolbar.
In addition to using the macro recorder, macros can be created using a macro
language. This requires an understanding of computing programming, and is not
part of this course.
Spreadsheets 199
Exercise 7.3
1 Why is it necessary to adjust the height of rows and the width of columns?
2 Describe the effect of deleting rows and columns.
3 List 10 different ways in which numbers can be formatted.
4 What is currency format?
5 Describe the default horizontal alignment.
6 Explain the difference between ‘centre’ and ‘centre across selection’.
7 What is orientation of text?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create and format the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.14. The formulas shown in
cells E11, F11 and G11 need to be copied down their respective columns to row
16 using relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename FLEET.
=$D$7
=D11*$D$6
=C11*$D$5
Figure 7.14 The FLEET spreadsheet.
a Enter a formula into cell H11 to add the depreciation, kilometre and parking
expenses.
b Copy the formula in cell H11 to cells H12 to H16 using relative references.
c Enter a formula into cell E18 to add the depreciation expenses for the six
vehicles.
d Enter a formula into cell E19 to average the depreciation expenses for the six
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vehicles.
e Copy the formulas in cells E18 and E19 to cells F18 to H19 using relative
references.
f The price of petrol increases. Change the parameter in cell D6 from $0.35 to
$0.36.
g You find another parking station that charges $200 per month. What savings
would be made to the total monthly fleet cost by using this parking station?
h Amend the kilometres driven for each fleet vehicle as follows:
i NNO583 to 167 ii TTR444 to 320 iii OJP875 to 270
iv QYF639 to 360 v RRE810 to 291 vi STE568 to 594.

Function
i Porter’s Communication expands its vehicle fleet. Add two rows after delivery
vehicle RRE810 and insert the following data:
i Row 13: Delivery; HQA266; $37,500; 160
ii Row 14: Executive; OGP484; $61,000; 250.
j The delivery vehicle NNO583 is sold. Delete its data.
2 Create and format a spreadsheet using the data in Figure 7.15 and save it with
the filename TAX.
=B4
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:A12)
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:B12)
=C16*C17
=C14-C15 =E15+E17
=LOOKUP(B4,A7:C12)
Figure 7.15 The TAX spreadsheet.
a Use the spreadsheet to calculate the tax payable on the following taxable
incomes:
i $5000.00 ii $15 000.00 iii $36 500.00
iv $38 000.00 v $100 000.00
b The government decides to change the tax rates to 0%, 15%, 30%, 35%, 40%
and 45%. Amend the tax spreadsheet.
c In addition to the above tax rates, the government includes another tax
bracket. People who have a taxable income above $60 000 pay a base tax of
$19 256.50 with a tax rate of 50%. Insert the data to include this tax bracket.
3 Create and format a spreadsheet

using the data in Figure 7.16. The
formulas shown in cells D7, E7 and
F7 need to be copied down their
respective columns to row 12 using
relative references. Save the spread-
sheet with the filename BONUS.
=D7+E7
=IF(AND(B7>8,C7>100),200,0)
=IF(OR(B7>8,C7>100),10*C7,0)
Figure 7.16 The BONUS spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets 201
a The data entered for Sue Lane is incorrect. She has completed 9 years of serv-
ice with 75 hours of overtime. Correct her data.
b Bob’s Cakes has decided to increase the additional bonus from $200 to $300.
Make the necessary change to the formulas in column E.
c In addition to increasing the additional bonus, Bob’s Cakes has decided to
calculate the bonus and additional bonus on 50 hours of overtime instead of
100 hours. Make the necessary changes to the formulas in columns D and E.
4 a Create an enrolment spreadsheet for Elizabeth High School. Enrolments this
year were as follows:
Year 7 110 Year 8 125 Year 9 107
Year 10 95 Year 11 71 Year 12 60
b A new housing estate has been built near the school and the number of
enrolments is expected to increase by 15% within the next three years. Use
the spreadsheet to calculate the projected student numbers in three years.
c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more
appealing.
5 a Create a spreadsheet that shows the advertising budgets of the Gourmet
Pizza Company for the past two years. Last year, the budget was allocated as
follows:
newspapers $25 000; television $14 000; radio $5000; Internet/email $11 000;
magazines $8000. This year the allocations are: newspapers $32 000; television
$12 000; radio $7500, Internet/email $20 000; magazines $5500.
b Use the spreadsheet to compare the total budget for each year and the
changes in allocations as a percentage of the total allocation for each medium.
c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more
appealing.
7.4 Charts
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. While tables are a useful
way of organising data, the reader must study them closely to understand the
information. By representing the data graphically, charts make it much easier to
understand. Charts show trends in the data and allow comparisons to be made
quickly. For that reason, they are widely used in business to help people make
quick and accurate decisions. Charts are also more inviting to look at than a
large chunk of text or numbers, so are good to include in reports. One of the
strengths of electronic spreadsheets is that they can quickly convert rows and
columns of data into a chart that can be read at a glance.
Functio
analysing Creating a chart

To create a chart the user needs to complete the following steps.
displaying • Select the data to be charted. A chart must include data from more than one
row or column. Non-adjacent rows or columns can be selected. Figure 7.17
shows four rows of data selected to create a line chart.
• Choose the appropriate chart type. The user can choose the chart type that
presents the data most clearly and effectively.

Function
Figure 7.17 The RAINFALL spreadsheet.
• Specify the data for the axes. Axes are the lines that border the chart data.
They provide a frame of reference for comparisons. The X-axis is the
horizontal line and the Y-axis is the vertical line (see Figure 7.18).
• Insert appropriate titles. A chart title describes the information within the
chart while an axis title identifies an axis.
• Insert text to make the chart easier to understand. Data labels are additional
text that provides more information about the data. A legend is a key that
explains the patterns, colours or symbols associated with the chart data
chart title
Y-axis
legend
Y-axis title
X-axis
X-axis title
Figure 7.18 A line chart showing data from the RAINFALL spreadsheet.
Types of charts analysing

There are many different types of charts including bar, column, line and pie.
Each chart type has many variations allowing the user to show data differently. displaying
Bar charts
A bar chart presents data in horizontal rectangles. The length of the rectangle
gives a visual representation of its value. In bar charts, numeric values are
plotted along the X-axis and categories along the Y-axis. Categories are divisions
of the chart data. Bar charts are good for showing comparisons between items
and variation over a period of time.
In Figure 7.19, a bar chart has been created from a spreadsheet to analyse
airport profits. Each rectangle is called a data marker. A set of related data
markers corresponding to a single row or column is called a data series. Column
B (Year 1) and column C (Year 2) from the spreadsheet each form a data series.
A legend has been used to describe each data series. Each airport is a category
along the Y-axis and a scale for the numeric values has been constructed along
the X-axis.
Spreadsheets 203
Figure 7.19 The AIRPORT spreadsheet and bar chart.
Column charts
A column chart presents data in vertical rectangles. The height of each rectangle
gives a visual representation of its value. In column charts, categories are plotted
along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Like bar charts, column
charts are also good for making comparisons between items and showing
variation over a period of time.
In Figure 7.20, a column chart has been created to compare sales in New
South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Row 7 (NSW), row 8 (QLD) and row 9
(VIC) from the spreadsheet each form a data series.
data series
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Figure 7.20 The SALES spreadsheet and column chart.

Function
Line charts
A line chart presents data by joining adjacent values with a line. Each value is
plotted as a dot called a data marker or data point. In line charts, categories are
usually plotted along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Line charts
are good for showing trends or changes in data over a period of time. They
emphasise time flow and rate of change rather than the amount of change.
In Figure 7.21, a line chart has been created to show the trends in the
number of trips booked by a travel agent over four months. Row 6 (Uluru), row
7 (Perth), row 8 (Gold Coast) and row 9 (Cairns) each form a data series.
Figure 7.21 The TRIPS spreadsheet and line chart.
Pie charts
A pie chart presents data as sectors of a
circle (‘slices’ of a ‘pie’). Each area of a
sector is a data marker and there is
always only one data series. A pie chart
shows the relationship or proportions of
parts to a whole. Pie charts appeal to
people because they are easy to read
and are attractive.
In Figure 7.22, a pie chart has been
created to show the proportions of
different types of waste products
handled by a waste disposal company.
Clearly, pie charts do not have axes but
show the relative percentages of each
data marker.
Figure 7.22 The WASTE spreadsheet and pie

chart.
Spreadsheets 205
Exercise 7.4
1 Why would you create a chart?
2 Outline the steps needed to create a chart.
3 How are axes used on a chart?
4 Distinguish between a data label and a legend.
5 Describe four different chart types.
6 Describe the data marker in: a a bar chart b a pie chart.
7 What is shown in a pie chart?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create the spreadsheet and bar chart shown in Figure 7.19 and save it with the
filename AIRPORT.
a In the spreadsheet, add a row after ‘Hobart’ so that it appears as row 11.
b Enter the label ‘Bankstown’ into cell A11.
c Enter 6 into cell B11 and 8 into C11.
d Create a bar chart with this additional data.
e Enter ‘Airports’ as the Y-axis title.
f Change the chart title to ‘Profits of airports’.
g Print the bar chart.
2 Create the spreadsheet and column chart shown in Figure 7.20 and save it with
the filename SALES.
a In the spreadsheet, the sales for NSW in year 3 should have been 5.7. Edit this
data.
b Create the column chart with the amended data.
c Enter ‘Years’ as the X-axis title.
d Change the Y-axis so that the maximum value is 7.
e Print the column chart
3 Create the spreadsheet and line chart shown in Figure 7.21 and save it with the
filename TRIPS.
a In the spreadsheet, delete the data for December.
b Create the line chart with the amended data.
c Delete the chart title.
d Change the units on the Y-axis from 100 to 50.
e Print the line chart.
4 Create the spreadsheet and pie chart shown in Figure 7.22 and save it with the
Functio
filename WASTE.
a In the spreadsheet, delete the ‘Other’ waste category (row 9) and add a new
category for metal.
b Change the percentage for each waste product as follows:
i Paper to 29% ii Food to 32% iii Plastic to 22%
iv Glass to 10% v Metal to 7%.
c Create the pie chart with the new data.
d Print the pie chart.

Chapter review
PART A 6 Which of the following is a built-in
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best function?
answers the question or completes the A =A1+2
statement. B Save
C Percentage
1 Electronic spreadsheets cannot:
D Average
A perform calculations quickly and
accurately 7 When creating a template you need to
B generate charts to present data enter:
C carry out recalculations to help A labels and formulas
decision-making B values
D quickly and accurately search a large C labels
amount of data D formulas
2 A series of cells placed vertically in a 8 A pie chart is used to show:
spreadsheet is a: A trends or changes in data over a
A row period of time
B column B the relationship or proportions of
C value parts to a whole
D label C comparisons between items
3 Instructions to perform a calculation in D variation over a period of time
a spreadsheet are called: 9 Which type of chart presents data as
A a template sectors of a circle?
B an operator A a bar chart
C an argument B a line chart
D a formula C a column chart
4 The value on which a function operates D a pie chart
is called: 10 A business wants to show the trend in
A an operator its share price over a period of one
B a formula week. The best type of chart to
C a function name represent this information is:
D an argument A a column chart
B a bar chart
5 In a spreadsheet, the contents of cell E1
C a line chart
is =$C$4. This is copied and pasted into
cell F1. The formula as it appears in cell D a pie chart
F1 is:
A =$D$4 B =$D$5
C =$C$4 D =$C$5
Spreadsheets 207
Chapter review
PART B 14 A cell that is highlighted in a spread-
For each of the following statements, sheet.
select from the list of terms the one that 15 An area of a spreadsheet that contains
most closely fits the statement. Write the labels and the values on which calcu-
letter corresponding to your choice. lations are based.
Statements 16 An area of a spreadsheet that contains
formulas and functions.
1 A formula that refers to itself, either
directly or indirectly. List of terms
2 A graphical representation of numeri- a cell i chart
cal data. b cell reference j value
3 A group of cells in a single row or c label k macro
column, or in several adjacent rows and d formula l input area
columns. e range m template
4 A way of specifying a cell in a formula f circular reference n calculation area
so that it stays the same when the g operator o fill down
formula is copied to another location. h absolute reference p selected cell
5 An instruction to perform a calculation.
PART C
6 A number stored in a spreadsheet on
which calculations are carried out.
7 Performs a process and are used to
1 Explain the difference between the
build up required formulas.
three main types of data in a spread-
8 Text entered into a cell to provide an sheet. Give examples of each type.
explanation of the spreadsheet.
2 Briefly explain the following terms:
9 The intersection of a row and a column. a function
10 The position of a cell in a spreadsheet. b ‘what if’ prediction
c relational operator.
11 A command used to copy the contents
of a cell into a range of adjacent cells. 3 Briefly describe the options for format-
ting cells.
12 A master document that is created for
repeated use. 4 What types of charts can be created
using a spreadsheet? Outline the steps
13 A stored series of commands that can
required to create a chart.
be executed by pressing a few keys.

chapter
GRAPHICS
8
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the advantages of using a com-
puter graphic
• describe the essential features of painting
and drawing programs
• create and manipulate bit-mapped graphics
• create and manipulate vector graphics as Overview
geometric shapes
This chapter will develop your knowledge and
• crop, resize and distort graphic images skills in relation to computer graphics. It
• describe the relationship between resolu- examines the basic features of graphics and
tion, colour and file size the major information processes involved in
• compare and contrast bit-mapped graphics their use. You will learn how to modify a
and vector graphics. graphic by positioning, cropping, resizing and
distorting it.
Most modern application software contains some basic graphics tools.
Specialist graphics programs are also available for all types of computers. They
enable you to draw pictures, save them and alter them in a variety of ways.
Graphics software can be used across all of the seven information processes
with particular emphasis on the following processes:
• Collecting: Graphics can be created, captured or obtained in the form of
clip art. (See section 8.1.)
• Organising: Images can be represented using paint and draw software.
• Processing: Images can be edited and manipulated. (See section 8.2.)
8.1 Basic features

One of the most powerful ways of presenting information is by using a graphic.
A graphic is a picture such as a drawing, painting or photograph. A graphic
created, displayed or stored using a computer is called a computer graphic. The
ability to present information in graphic form has become an important feature
of most software applications. There are three main reasons for using a graphic:
• Displaying information: Graphics are sometimes the only effective method of
presenting information such as an X-ray or ultrasound.
• Ease of understanding: The Chinese proverb that says ‘A picture is worth a
thousand words’ is often very true. Graphics often convey a message more
effectively than text.
• Visual interest: Graphics make a document more attractive, helping to keep
the reader’s interest.
Computer graphics are used extensively in business, entertainment, art and
education. For example, every aspect of television—advertisements, news and
movies—all rely heavily on the use of computer graphics. Graphics can have a
number of different purposes:
• A symbol is a graphic that
represents words. It allows people
to obtain information quickly and
accurately, even if they cannot
speak the local language (see
Figure 8.1).
Functio
• A logo is a symbol designed to

identify an organisation. Logos are
included in advertising and on
signs and stationary. Logos contain
graphics to help identify a com-
pany, product or service.
Figure 8.1 Some common symbols.

Function
• A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. Charts convert data
in rows and columns into a picture that can be understood more quickly.
• A diagram is a graphic that explains the parts or operation of a thing (such as
a video recorder) or a process. The reader’s understanding of the text will be
improved by the inclusion of an appropriate diagram.
All computer graphics when displayed on the screen are made up of tiny
dots called pixels (for picture element). A pixel is the smallest part of the screen
that can be controlled by the computer. The total number of pixels on the
screen depends on the type of computer screen you are using and is called its
resolution. The more pixels used in an image, the higher the resolution and the
more detailed the picture.
Inserting graphics collecting

Methods of creating graphics are discussed in the next section; however, it is not
always necessary to create graphics from scratch. It is possible to use clip art and
capture graphics from other sources.
Clip art
Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are often provided with other
application software (such as word processors) or distributed separately on CD-
ROM or via the Internet. The pictures are generally grouped by subject, such as
technology, animals or education (see Figure 8.2). There are millions of clip art
drawings and photographs available in a wide variety of formats. You can import
a clip art image into a graphics program and change it to suit your purpose. Clip
art images can be resized, rotated or retouched. This makes it very easy to
include an appropriate picture in your document. Clip art may have various
degrees of copyright control, so it is important to use clip art in a way that does
not infringe copyright. (Copyright is discussed in more detail on pages 32–3.)
Figure 8.2 Examples of clip art provided with the Microsoft Office software package.
Graphics 211
Capturing graphics
Capturing a graphic involves obtaining an image in digital form so that it can be
stored, edited and printed by a computer. Graphics are captured from paper or
the Internet or using a digital camera or video camera.
• A scanner is used to capture graphics from paper. The scanner converts the
image into digital data that can be processed by the computer. Scanners offer
a range of different resolutions, such as 2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi.
The higher the resolution, the better the quality of the image but the larger
the file size.
• Web browsers allow users to capture graphics from Web sites and paste them
into other applications. However, most graphics on the Internet are protected
by copyright and may only be used in ways that do not infringe copyright.
• A digital camera captures images like a conventional camera, but saves them
on a storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk drive or floppy disk.
• A video camera captures moving images on video tape. These can be
converted to digital form and transferred to a computer using special
hardware and software. There are also digital video cameras that record
images directly in digital format.
organising Types of graphics programs

Images are classified according to the type of graphic program used to create them.
Paint programs
A paint program creates a graphic by telling the computer how to display each
pixel. Paint programs include tools such as pencils, erasers and paintbrushes.
They contain geometric shapes and a large selection of colours and patterns.
Colours, lines and shapes can be placed exactly where you want them. Images
are edited by erasing or adding dots. Some common paint programs are
Paintbrush, PixelPaint, SuperPaint, GEM Paint, Photoshop, Canvas and Deluxe
Paint. AppleWorks (formerly ClarisWorks) includes a paint module.
The graphics created by a painting program are called bit-mapped graphics or
raster graphics. Bit-mapped graphics produce good quality images when shading
and detail are needed. They are excellent at manipulating detail in scanned
images, such as photographs. However, when transformed (resized or stretched),
bit-mapped graphics become ragged and suffer loss of resolution (see Figure 8.3).
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Figure 8.3 A transistor enlarged as a bit-mapped graphic and as a vector graphic.

Function
Draw programs
A draw program creates graphics by dividing the picture into a number of
objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes. Each object is defined by its
characteristics, such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are
stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen as pixels.
Objects are created using a variety of tools. The basic tools are a straight line,
circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and polygon. Users can change the line
thickness of each of these tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or
pattern. The range of colours is often more limited than in paint programs.
Graphics are edited by changing the characteristics of each object, not by erasing
or adding dots. Some common drawing programs are ClarisDraw, Adobe
Illustrator, CorelDraw, Macromedia FreeHand and Microsoft Draw. AppleWorks
(formerly ClarisWorks) includes a draw module.
The graphics created by a drawing program are called vector graphics or
object-oriented graphics. Vector graphics do not lose resolution when they are
transformed (resized or stretched) and require less memory than bit-mapped
graphics (see Figure 8.3). Vector graphics are not converted into dots until their
size and resolution has been specified for printing.
Graphic tools
Although painting and drawing programs create different types of graphics, they
share some common graphic tools and techniques. Table 8.1 contains the basic
tools found in many graphics packages. To create a graphic, the user selects the
appropriate toolbox icon and moves the pointer to the window. Colours and
Tool Name Use

Selection arrow Select, move and change the size of objects
Text tool Enter text in different fonts and sizes
Magnifier Enlarge the view of the selected area
Straight line tool Draw straight lines
Rectangle tool Draw rectangles and squares
Rounded rectangle tool Draw rectangles and squares with rounded corners
Circle tool Draw circles and ovals
Arc tool Draw arcs (smooth curved lines)
Irregular polygon tool Draw irregular polygons
Eraser Remove unwanted parts of a graphic
Paint brush Draw freehand lines of a chosen colour and width
Paint can Fill an enclosed area with a chosen colour or pattern
Spray can Create an airbrush effect by spraying a chosen colour
Table 8.1 Some of the basic tools of a graphics program.
Graphics 213
patterns can be chosen from palettes and used to fill the inside of a shape or
change the colour of the shape. Images are processed (edited) using these basic
tools.
ITITFact
Fact
The development of the mouse allowed painting with a computer to be
more intuitive. Prior to that, people had to use the arrow keys on the
keyboard, which was a fairly artificial way of drawing.
Exercise 8.1
1 What is a graphic?
2 List three reasons for using a graphic.
3 What is the resolution of a graphic?
4 How can you use clip art to create an appropriate picture in your document?
5 How can you capture a graphic?
6 How does a paint program create a graphic?
7 Describe some of the tools used in a painting program.
8 How does a draw program create a graphic?
9 Describe some of the tools used in a drawing program.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Open a clip art file in a graphics program. Alter the graphic by changing its size
and background colour. Save the graphic with the filename CLIPART.
2 Draw the transistor shown in Figure 8.3 using a painting program and a drawing
program. Save the graphic with the filename of TRANSISTOR. Compare and
contrast the output of the two graphics programs.
3 Draw the wine logo shown in Figure 8.4

using a painting program. Alter the graphic
using different colours and patterns and save
it with the filename WINE.
Functio
Figure 8.4 The wine logo.

Function
4 Draw the arrow shown in Figure 8.5
using a drawing program. Alter the
graphic using different line sizes,
colours and patterns and save it with
the filename ARROW.
Figure 8.5 Arrows.
5 Draw a computer keyboard using a graphics program and save it with the file-
name KEYBOARD.
8.2 Modifying a graphic

Complex computer graphics are built up slowly from a variety of standard
shapes. Graphics programs allow you to position a graphic anywhere on the
page. In addition, depending on the type of graphic, it may need to be cropped,
resized or distorted. These features make it easy to create the perfect image.
Positioning processing
You will often need to move a graphic (or an object within the graphic) to a
particular position. Before you can move a graphic it must be selected. In a
painting program, you can select a region using a special selection tool, such as a
rectangle or a lasso. The selected region is usually shown using a dotted line. In a
drawing program you use the selection arrow to choose an object by clicking the
interior or border of the object. If you have successfully selected the object, it
will display handles. Handles are usually located in the four corners and in the
middle of each side. Most drawing programs allow you to select multiple objects
(usually by holding down the ‘Shift’ key) to make the same change to several
objects. After the graphic or item has been selected, it can be moved by holding
down the mouse button and dragging the selection to the required position.
Rulers and grids make it easy to move a graphic to the exact position.
ITITFact
Fact
The term ‘morphing’ comes from the word ‘metamorphosis’, which means
‘transformation’. In graphics, morphing is a special effect that gradually
transforms one image into another.
Graphics 215
processing Cropping
Cropping means using only part of an image. The method of cropping a picture
varies between programs but it usually involves selecting the graphic and
dragging the mouse to specify the areas to be cropped (omitted). In some
programs the user must first select a cropping tool.
Cropping can have different effects in different programs. In some cases, the
cropped parts of the image are permanently deleted. In other programs, the
cropped parts are not deleted but simply hidden. The picture can be restored to
its original state (see Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6 The effect of cropping a graphic.
processing Resizing
Resizing means making a graphic smaller or bigger. It keeps the proportions the
same so that the picture will not be distorted. In a drawing program, a graphic
can be resized without affecting its quality. Resizing usually involves selecting
the graphic or object and dragging one of its handles inward to shrink the
picture or outward to expand it (see Figure 8.7). In some cases one or more keys
must be held down at the same time to maintain the picture’s proportions. If
the graphics program does not have handles around objects, there is usually a
special resize command.
Functio
Figure 8.7 The effect of resizing a graphic.

Function
Distorting processing
Distorting means changing the appearance and proportions of a graphic. In a
drawing program you can distort a graphic without affecting its quality. Dis-
torting may involve stretching, tilting, flipping or rotating a picture.
Stretching a graphic changes its size and proportions (ratio of height to
width). Stretching a graphic or object usually involves selecting the graphic and
dragging one of its handles inward or outward to change its width or height (see
Figure 8.8). Tilting a graphic puts it on a slant.
Figure 8.8 The effect of distorting a graphic.
A graphic can also be changed using the ‘Flip’ and ‘Rotate’ commands (see
Figure 8.9). The ‘Flip Horizontal’ command creates a ‘mirror image’ of the
graphic: the right side becomes the left side and vice versa. The ‘Flip Vertical’
command creates a ‘mirror image’ by swapping the top and the bottom. The
‘Rotate’ command allows you to spin the graphic or object a certain number of
degrees.
Figure 8.9 The effect of flipping a graphic horizontally and vertically.
Exercise 8.2
1 What tools in a painting program can be used to select a region?
2 How do you select an object in a drawing program?
3 Where are the handles of a selected object usually located?
4 What is used to move a graphic to an exact position?
Graphics 217
5 How do you crop a picture?
6 Explain the difference between resizing and distorting.
7 How do you resize a graphic?
8 List four ways you can distort a graphic.
9 How do you stretch a graphic?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Draw the house shown in Figure 8.6 using a drawing program and save it with
the filename HOUSE.
a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns.
b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating
and flipping.
2 Draw the shapes shown in Figure 8.7 using a drawing program and save it with
the filename DESIGN.
a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns.
and flipping.
3 Draw the magician shown in Figure 8.8 using a painting program and save the
graphic with the filename TOPHAT.
a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns.
and flipping.
4 Draw the basketball shown in Figure 8.9 using a painting program and save it
with the filename BASKETBALL.
and flipping.
5 Draw the tennis racquet shown in Figure 8.10
using a drawing program and save it with the
filename TENNIS.
a Alter the graphic using different colours and
patterns.
b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving,
copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and
flipping.
Functio
Figure 8.10 Tennis racquet.

Function
8.3 Bit-mapped graphics
A bit-mapped graphic, or raster graphic, treats each pixel (dot) on the screen
individually and represents this by bits in memory. A bit (binary digit) is the
smallest unit for storing data, and is either a 0 or a 1. Bit-mapped graphics are
created by painting programs. They are suitable for realistic illustrations and
scanned photographs.
The computer controls the number, size, tone and colour of each pixel. These
characteristics, together with the number of pixels, determine the size of the file
needed to store the graphic. A high-resolution graphic (one with more pixels per
inch) requires more memory than a low-resolution graphic.
Bit-mapping organising
Bit-mapping, or memory mapping, is the relationship between the image on the
screen and the bits in memory. One or more bits must be stored for each pixel
on the screen. At the simplest level, one pixel can represent one bit: a 0 would
storing
retrieving
&
mean the pixel was off and a 1 would mean the pixel was on. Consider a black-
and-white graphic that is 640 pixels horizontally and 400 pixels vertically: this
amounts to 256 000 (640 × 400) pixels and would require 256 000 bits of
memory. Bits are combined in groups of eight to form bytes. It follows that the
graphic would require 32 000 (256 000 ÷ 8) bytes, or about 32 Kb of memory.
Tones, or greyscale, refers to the progressive series of shades ranging from
black through to white. Tones are used in graphics to add detail to images but
they require more memory than simple black and white. Instead of one bit being
sufficient to represent one pixel, several bits will be required, depending on the
number of tones. For example, if two bits are used to represent one pixel, four
shades will be possible, since two bits result in four binary numbers: 00, 01, 10
and 11. If three bits are used to represent one pixel, eight shades will be
possible, since three bits results in eight binary numbers: 000, 001, 010, 011,
100, 101, 110 and 111. It follows that if you increase the number of bits
assigned to each pixel by one, the number of tones or shades is multiplied by
two (see Table 8.2). As a result, if we
change the 640 × 400 graphic from
black-and-white to 16 tones it will re- Number of bits Number of tones
or colours
quire four bits per pixel. The graphic
would then require four times the 1 2
amount of memory, or about 128 Kb 2 4
(4 × 32 Kb).
3 8
Colour graphics are obtained from
an RGB (red-green-blue) monitor that 4 16
uses combinations of red, green and 5 32
blue light to display a wide range of
colours. The minimum number of 6 64
colours that can be displayed is eight: 7 128
red only; green only; blue only; red 8 256
and green (yellow); red and blue
(magenta); blue and green (cyan); red, 16 65 536
green, and blue (white); and no colour 24 16 777 216
(black). Displaying and storing colour
32 4 294 967 296
graphics requires more bits per
pixel—more memory. For example in Table 8.2 The relationship between bits and
Table 8.2, if eight bits represent one tones or colours.
Graphics 219
pixel, a graphic could contain 256 colours, or 64 colours each with 4 tones (64 ×
4), or 32 colours each with 8 tones (32 × 8). As a result, if the 640 × 400 pixel
black-and-white graphic is changed to 16 tones and 16 colours it will require
eight bits per pixel. The graphic would then require eight times the amount of
memory, or about 256 Kb (8 × 32 Kb).
processing Editing bit-mapped graphics

Bit-mapped graphics are edited using a
painting program (see Figure 8.11). It
is important to remember that bit-
mapped graphics are interpreted as a
collection of dots or pixels, so they can
only be edited by erasing dots or
adding dots. Painting programs contain
a range of tools to edit graphics. The
eraser tool ‘rubs out’ pixels. The
bucket tool fills an enclosed area with
the selected colour or pattern. The
selection rectangle or lasso are used to
select parts of a graphic, which can
then be deleted, moved, cut, copied
and pasted.
Figure 8.11 A bit-mapped graphic in a painting program.
Editing a bit-mapped graphic at an

object level is often a problem. Enlarging
the graphic enlarges each pixel, creating
a staircase pattern known as aliasing.
Resizing a bit-mapped graphic can also
result in distortion. This problem is
greater with black-and-white graphics
than with greyscale or colour. With
greyscale or colour bit-mapped graphics,
a process called anti-aliasing can be used.
Intermediate tones or colours are used to
create a gradual transition from one
colour to another, tricking the eye into
seeing smooth lines. Black-and-white bit-
Functio
mapped graphics need to be kept as close

as possible to the original size and shape.
ITITFact
Fact
Many graphics programs have their own storage formats. There have been
many attempts to create standard graphics format, but each format has
advantages and disadvantages.

Function
Bit-mapped graphic formats storing &
To import pictures into a painting program, it is important to have some know- retrieving
ledge of file storage formats. Table 8.3 shows some of the common file storage
formats for bit-mapped graphics. The three-letter filename extension is used on
IBM-compatible computers to identify a picture’s format. For example, a file
called PICTURE.TIF is stored as a Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) graphic.
This is a standard file format commonly used for scanning, storage and inter-
change of bit-mapped, greyscale and colour images.
Graphic format name Extension Description

Bit-map BMP A standard format used by Microsoft
Windows applications.
PC Paintbrush PCX A common, older format, compatible
with BMP.
Tagged Image File Format TIF A format used for scanned images
(TIFF) up to 300 dpi.
Joint Photographic Experts JPG A compression format used for
Group (JPEG) high-quality still images. Widely used
on the Internet.
Graphics Interchange GIF A format used mainly for Web
Format graphics.
Table 8.3 Some common file formats for bit-mapped graphics.
Exercise 8.3
1 What is a bit-mapped graphic?
2 What characteristics determine the size of a graphic file?
3 What is bit-mapping?
4 Calculate the number of bytes needed to store the following graphics:
a a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 800 × 600 pixels and
2 tones
b a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels and
16 tones
c a colour graphic with a resolution of 1280 × 1024 pixels and 4 colours
d a colour graphic with a resolution of 640 × 480 pixels and 256 colours
e a colour graphic with a resolution of 1600 × 1200 pixels and 4 colours each
with 4 tones
f a colour graphic with a resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels and 32 colours each
with 8 tones
g a colour graphic with a resolution of 800 × 600 pixels that uses 4096 colours
and 16 tones.
5 What causes the staircase pattern called aliasing?
6 Why is resizing a black-and-white bit-mapped graphic a greater problem than
resizing a greyscale or colour graphic?
Graphics 221
7 Why is it important to have some knowledge of file storage formats?
8 What is the file extension for the Microsoft Windows bit-map format?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Draw a dog like the one shown in Figure 8.11 using a painting program and save
it with the filename PUPPY.
b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture.
2 Draw the leaf shown in Figure 8.12 using a

painting program and save the graphic with the
filename LEAF.
patterns.
b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or
enlarging the picture.
Figure 8.12 Leaf.
3 Draw the Australian flag shown in Figure 8.13

using a painting program and save it with the
filename FLAG.
patterns.
b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or Figure 8.13 The Australian flag.
enlarging the picture.
4 Draw the chef shown in Figure 8.14 using a

painting program and save it with the filename
CHEF.
patterns.
b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or en-
larging the picture.
Figure 8.14 Chef.
5 Draw the cup shown in Figure 8.15 using a

painting program and save it with the filename
Functio
COFFEE.
patterns.
b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or en-
larging the picture.
Figure 8.15 Cup of coffee.

Function
8.4 Vector graphics
Vector graphics are made up of objects such as straight lines, curves or shapes.
Each object is defined by its characteristics, such as position, line width and
pattern. These characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and are
displayed on the screen as pixels. Vector graphics are created by drawing
programs. They are scalable, which means you can resize a vector graphic
without reducing its quality—the lines appear smooth with no noticeable
aliasing. You can also distort the picture to create dramatic designs and special
effects. Vector graphics print at the highest resolution of the output device being
used. They are suitable for line drawings, logos and diagrams that do not use
much shading, but they are not good at reproducing gradual colour transitions
such as those in a photograph.
Drawing elements collecting

Objects are created in a vector graphic program using drawing elements. The
basic tools are the straight line, circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and
polygon (see Figure 8.16). You can change the line thickness of each of these
tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or pattern. Colour is assigned to an
object, though there is often a limit to the number of colours. Some drawing
programs have additional tools such as stars, triangles, hearts and flow chart
symbols. When you draw a shape it usually starts at a corner, although it is
possible to create some shapes from the centre. In addition to all of the drawing
tools, text can be entered in a variety of fonts and sizes.
Figure 8.16 A drawing program showing some of the basic tools.
Editing vector graphics processing

Vector graphics are edited using a drawing program. Even though the graphic is
displayed on the screen using pixels, the computer defines the graphic by the
characteristics of each object. For this reason, editing involves altering the
characteristics of the objects rather than adding and deleting pixels. This is a
fundamental difference between bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
Objects can be deleted, moved, cut and copied. First, the object to be edited
must be selected using the selection tool.
Graphics 223
• To delete an object, press the ‘Backspace’ or ‘Delete’ key or select the ‘Clear’
command.
• To move an object, drag the object to its new position.
• To cut an object and move it into the clipboard, select the ‘Cut’ command.
The object will disappear. The clipboard can be used as a temporary storage
area for objects.
• To copy an object into the clipboard, select the ‘Copy’ command.
• To paste an object from the clipboard, select the ‘Paste’ command. The
object will reappear and you can move it to the desired position.
After you have drawn an object, you can always go back and change its size
or shape. Resizing makes the object smaller or bigger.
• To resize an object, select the object and drag the handles inward to make it
smaller or outward to make it bigger. You may need to change the handles to
a resize icon depending on the drawing program.
Distorting changes the appearance of an object. For example, you can change
the proportions of an object by stretching it. Objects can also be rotated to the
left or the right, and flipped horizontally or vertically. Remember that resizing
and distorting an object does not reduce its quality.
Objects in a vector graphic can overlap (see Figure 8.17). In general, the
most recently created objects are displayed in front of older ones. However, you
may want to rearrange objects. To move an object to the top, select the ‘Bring to
Front’ command. To move an object to the bottom, select the ‘Send to Back’
command. The overlapping star and squiggly lines in Figure 8.17 are arranged
using these commands.
Figure 8.17 Overlapping objects.
Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single
object. For example, you may have used several objects to draw a car. If you
Functio
group these objects together you can move or resize the car as a whole, rather
than having to change each object. Editing is much easier if associated objects
are grouped. Objects can be ungrouped if you need to edit a single object.
storing& Vector graphic formats

retrieving Table 8.4 shows some of the common file storage formats for vector graphics.
The three-letter filename extension is used on IBM-compatible computers to
identify a picture’s format. For example, a file called IMAGE.EPS is stored as an
Encapsulated Postscript file. The Encapsulated Postscript (EPS) format can

Function
contain vector or bit-mapped graphics. It is the format of Adobe’s Postscript
printer language that is commonly used in professional publishing. Typesetting
machines can print these graphics at resolutions up to 2400 dpi, which is
suitable for publication.
Graphic format name Extension Description

Computer Graphics CGM An international standard for vector
Metafile graphics
Encapsulated Postscript EPS A Postscript format used in
professional publishing
Macintosh PICT PCT A format widely used on Apple
Macintosh computers
Windows Metafile Format WMF A format commonly used in Windows
applications
WordPerfect Graphic WPG The format used for graphics in
WordPerfect (a word processor)
Table 8.4 Some common file formats for vector graphics.
Exercise 8.4
1 How does the computer store the characteristics of each object?
2 List six basic tools used to create a vector graphic.
3 How is colour used in a drawing program?
4 How do you edit a vector graphic?
5 List four ways you can change the characteristics of an object.
6 How do you resize an object?
7 List the commands used to rearrange objects that overlap.
8 Why are objects grouped?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Draw the overlapping star and squiggly lines shown in Figure 8.17 using a
drawing program and save it with the filename STAR. Rearrange the two objects.
2 Draw the pyramid shown in Figure 8.18 using a drawing program and save it
with the filename PYRAMID.
Figure 8.18 Pyramid.
Graphics 225
3 Draw the telephone shown in Figure 8.19 using a
drawing program and save it with the filename
TELEPHONE.
a Alter the graphic using different line sizes,
colours and patterns.
b Group all the objects to make the graphic appear
as a single object.
c Edit the graphic by moving, copying, resizing, dis-
torting, rotating and flipping.
Figure 8.19 Telephone.
4 Draw the truck shown in Figure 8.20 using a drawing

program and save it with the filename TRUCK.
a Alter the graphic using different line sizes,
colours and patterns.
b Group all the objects to make the graphic appear
as a single object.
c Edit the graphic by moving, copying, resizing, dis-
torting, rotating and flipping.
Figure 8.20 Truck.
5 Draw the sailing boat shown in Figure 8.21

using a drawing program and save it with
the filename SAILING.
a Alter the graphic using different line
sizes, colours and patterns.
b Group all the objects to make the
graphic appear as a single object.
c Edit the graphic by moving, copying,
resizing, distorting, rotating and
flipping.
Figure 8.21 Sailing.

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Chapter review
PART A 6 A graphics program in which editing is
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best carried out at the pixel level is a:
answers the question or completes the A drawing program
statement. B painting program
C clip art image
1 Resolution is usually measured in terms
of the: D resolution editor
A amount of memory on the graphics 7 Bit-mapped graphics are suitable for:
card A logos
B size of the screen B diagrams
C total number of pixels on the screen C line drawings
D total number of characters on the D realistic illustrations
screen
8 Distorting a graphic:
2 A pixel is: A hides part of the picture you do not
A a picture containing tiny dots want to see
B the smallest part of the screen that B makes it smaller or bigger
can be controlled by the computer C changes its appearance and propor-
C the relationship between the image tions
on the screen and the bits in memory D moves it to a particular position
D a group of tiny dots in a picture
9 Draw programs create graphics by
3 A graphic created by a painting dividing the picture into a number of:
program is called a: A objects
A picture graphic B frames
B vector graphic C sections
C bit-mapped graphic D bits
D PIC file
10 A vector graphic is not good if you
4 Cropping a graphic: want to:
A changes its appearance and propor- A resize the image without reducing
tions quality
B hides or deletes part of an image B distort the image to create dramatic
C makes it smaller or bigger designs
D moves it to a particular position C print the image at the highest
quality
5 To move a graphic to a particular
position it first must be: D reproduce gradual colour transitions
A chosen
B named
C selected
D dragged
Graphics 227
Chapter review
PART B 13 Obtaining an image in digital form so
For each of the following statements, that it can be stored, edited and printed
select from the list of terms the one that by a computer.
most closely fits the statement. Write the 14 A graphic that represents words.
15 Colours or patterns can be chosen from
Statements it to fill the inside of a shape.
1 A tiny dot in a computer graphic. 16 It is usually displayed on an object from
a vector graphic after it has been
2 The total number of pixels that can be
selected.
displayed on a screen.
3 Creates a graphic by telling the com- List of terms
puter how to display each pixel. a aliasing i resolution
b bit-mapping j vector graphic
4 A graphic created by a painting pro-
gram. c bit-mapped graphic k capturing
d clip art l palette
5 Creates a graphic by dividing the pic- e cropping m symbol
ture into a number of objects.
f draw program n handle
6 A graphic created by a drawing pro- g paint program o distorting
gram. h pixel p group
7 Prepared pictures that are generally
PART C
grouped by subject, such as technology,
animals or education. Write at least one paragraph on each of
8 Deleting or hiding part of a picture you
do not want to see. 1 Describe four common tools found in
graphics programs.
9 The relationship between the image on
the screen and the bits in memory. 2 Explain the difference between a paint-
ing program and a drawing program.
10 A staircase pattern formed when you
enlarge a bit-mapped graphic. 3 Briefly explain the following terms:
a bit-mapping b resolution.
11 Changing the appearance and pro-
portions of a graphic. 4 Describe three ways of modifying a
graphic.
12 Objects in a vector graphic that are
associated together to act as a single 5 Describe the differences between
object. editing a bit-mapped graphic and a
vector graphic.

chapter
DESKTOP
PUBLISHING
9
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the stages in desktop publishing
• create publications using a desktop pub-
lishing program
• describe and use the basic design elements
• create publications using good design
principles Overview
• use the page layout tools of a desktop
This chapter will develop your knowledge and
publishing program.
skills in relation to desktop publishing. It
examines the basic features of desktop
publishing and the major information
processes involved in their use. You will learn
the basic design elements, the principles of
page layout and how to print a publication.
Planning, creating and distributing a publication spans all seven of the infor-
mation processes. Desktop publishing software emphasises the following
information processes:
• Collecting: The publication is planned and text and images are gathered.
• Organising: Data is combined in different formats. (See section 9.2.)
• Processing: Text and images are manipulated in the desktop publishing
program. (See section 9.1.)
• Displaying: The page layouts are viewed on screen and printed. (See
sections 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4.)
9.1 Basic features

Desktop publishing (DTP) is the use of specialised software to combine text
and graphics to create a publication. The specialised software enables the user to
control everything on the page. Desktop publishing software is used to create
many different types of publications, including magazines, newspapers and
books. The term was first used by Paul Brainerd on the release of PageMaker 1.0
in 1984.
Prior to the introduction of desktop publishing, the page layout process
involved a team of specialists:
• a typesetter, who typed and formatted the text
• a designer, who planned the overall design of the publications
• a photographer and an illustrator, who provided the graphics
• a layout artist, who physically laid out the pages on grid sheets, or ‘boards’.
Today, using a desktop publishing program, it is possible for one person to
take a publication through all of its stages. Desktop publishing offers four main
advantages over previous methods:
• Greater control: The designer can position the
elements anywhere on a page, and can experiment
with different designs.
• Ease of editing: Text, graphics and colour can be
changed easily throughout the publication process.
• Reduced cost: Savings are possible because fewer
people are involved, text does not need to be
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retyped, and designs can be modified and reused.

However, there are the additional capital costs of
computer hardware and software.
• Reduced time: Publications are quicker to produce
because fewer people are involved and changes
can be made instantly.
Modern word processors are capable of combining
text and graphics, and can be used to create basic
publications such as advertisements or multi-column

Function
newsletters. However, desktop publishing programs are better at these sorts of
tasks because they give the user greater control in positioning the elements on a
page. Word processors and desktop publishing programs work in fundamentally
different ways. With word processing, the emphasis is on the text: formatting and
document layout are usually carried out after the text is written and edited. With
desktop publishing, the page is generally designed before the final text is imported.
Stages in desktop publishing

The four main stages in desktop publishing are described below.
Planning and design collecting

The first step is to spend some time planning a publication. Poor planning leads
to publications that are confusing and fail to deliver the intended message. Well-
planned publications present information in a clear, attractive and effective way.
Planning involves the following steps:
• Identify the purpose: What is the reason for publishing the document?
Determine the essential information and the design elements to create a
good design.
• Identify the audience: Who will read the publication? This is a critical factor,
as the audience will determine the tone, content level, and the use of
graphics and headlines.
• Gather ideas: Find a good design and adapt the ideas. Desktop publishing
programs contain templates to help inexperienced users.
After a publication has been planned, it can be helpful to make a pencil
sketch of the design ideas. Desktop publishing software can then be used to
create a sample document using ‘place-holder’ text and graphics. This sample
document should contain all the planned design elements—the position of
headings, the number of columns for text, the borders, the placement of
graphics and the type styles used for text. It will serve as a guide during the page
layout stage. A good design makes it easy for the reader to receive information.
Creating content collecting

Text can be entered directly into the desktop publishing program or imported
from a word processing program. Because word processors contain superior text organising
editing tools, it is best to use a word processor if the text exceeds a paragraph in
length. Most desktop publishing programs can import text in a wide range of file
formats and can preserve a document’s formatting if necessary.
Graphics can be prepared using the drawing tools in the desktop publishing
program or imported from a graphics program. The drawing tools included in
desktop publishing programs are very basic and are only suitable for simple
drawings. Most desktop publishing programs can import graphics in a wide
range of file formats, including bit-mapped and vector graphics.
Page layout processing

Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. Publications are
built from design elements such as text and graphics. These elements can appear
side-by-side or even overlap. Words can be stretched, turned and twisted into a
picture. Stories can jump from page to page. This control is achieved by treating
each element as an object. Objects in a desktop publishing program are similar
Desktop publishing 231

POWERSPARK
P
PS Electrical Services Pty Ltd
National Distributor for
Merlin Gerin U.P.S.
• 160 VA-1600 VA Offline • 320 VA Online
Manufactured to ISO 9001-support-service
456 2777
Unit 5, Easecote Road, Epping 2121
Figure 9.1 The Powerspark logo.
to objects in a drawing program. There are text objects, picture objects and
drawn objects: text objects contain words; picture objects contain graphics; and
drawn objects include lines, borders and geometric shapes. A desktop publishing
document is a combination of different kinds of objects. The sign in Figure 9.1 is
created using a combination of text objects and graphic objects.
In desktop publishing, objects are defined by creating a frame. A frame is a
space or box that holds text or a graphic. If a text frame is created, you can type
words into that frame, making a text object. If a picture frame is created, you
can import a picture into it, making a graphic object. The number of objects on
the page increases as a design becomes more complex. The content of each
object is independent of its frame and is easily formatted.
You can control the way text flows in a publication by connecting, or linking,
text frames. A text frames on one page can be connected to another text frame
on the same page or on a different page. This is useful in newspapers and
magazines, where a story begins on one page and is continued several pages later.
Text frames are connected using a ‘Connect’ command or clicking with a special
linking tool. If a text frame contains too much text, the excess text is stored in
an invisible overflow area. To see this text, you must increase the size of the text
frame, decrease the size of the text, or connect the frame to another text frame.
displaying Viewing and printing a publication

When creating a publication using a desktop publishing program, it is often
necessary to view parts of the publication at different sizes. To refine a small
design element, it helps to be able to work at an enlarged view. To get an overall
impression of the publication, it helps to be able to view a whole page or
double-page spread. Desktop publishing programs allow the user to zoom in or
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out to view a publication at different sizes (see Figure 9.2). Full page view
generally doesn’t allow you to read the text (depending on the size of your
screen) but it is useful in creating or changing the design. Actual size view is
used to read words or precisely position pictures. The ‘Zoom in’ and ‘Zoom out’
commands provide close- or long-range views. The viewing mode is often shown
as a percentage of the actual size. For example, a zoom of 50% is one-half of the
actual size (100%), while a zoom of 200% is twice as big as the actual size.
Printing is the final stage in desktop publishing. A draft copy can be printed
on an inkjet or laser printer to check the publication. Once any necessary changes
have been made, the publication can be printed on a high-resolution printer.

Function
Figure 9.2 Part of a document at actual size, or 100% view (left) and at 50% view (above).
Exercise 9.1
1 Outline four advantages in desktop publishing.
2 Explain how using a desktop publishing program is different to using a word
processor.
3 List the basic stages of desktop publishing.
4 Why is the audience a critical factor to a publication?
5 Describe the three kinds of objects in a desktop publishing program.
6 What is a frame?
7 How do you connect text frames?
8 What happens if a text frame contains too much text?
9 Explain the purpose of full page view and actual size view.
10 What proportion of the actual size are the following viewing modes?
a zoom of 50% b zoom of 400%
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a ‘Wanted’ poster using a desktop publishing program by following these
steps.
a Make a text frame near the top of the page and enter the word ‘WANTED’.
b Select the text and alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text
frame if necessary.
c Import a picture of yourself or someone else.
d Resize the picture.
e Crop the picture as required.
f Position the picture frame in the centre of the page and add a border around it.
g Add another text frame below the picture. Type in the details of the wanted
person and the reward offered.
h Alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text frame if necessary.
i Add a border around the outside of the poster.
2 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.1 using a DTP program and save it
with the filename POWERSPARK.

3 Create a letterhead similar to Figure 9.3 using a DTP program and save it with
the filename LETTERHEAD.
42 Elizabeth Drive
Liverpool NSW 2170
Figure 9.3 A letterhead.
4 Using a DTP program, create a two-page document with a two-column page lay-
out. Save it with the filename TEXTFLOW.
a Add a text frame across the top of the first page for a large heading.
b Add a text frame in each column on both pages (four in all).
c In a word processor, create two new documents of around 100 words each.
They could be favourite poems, short stories you have written, book reviews,
or reviews of TV programs or films. Save them with the filenames TEXT1 and
TEXT2.
d In your DTP document, type a main heading in the top text frame and format
the text.
e Import the text from your TEXT1 document into the left-hand text frame on
page 1.
f Connect it to the left-hand text frame on page 2. Set the text size so that the
text fills both frames.
g Repeat the process for the TEXT2 document using the right-hand text frames.
with the filename APPLECENTRE.
The Apple Macintosh Professionals

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A division of Australia's leading Apple Macintosh Computer Co.

66 Clarence Street
Cnr. Erskine & Clarence Streets, Sydney 367 8585
Figure 9.4 The AppleCentre advertisement.

Function
9.2 Design elements
Publications are built using the basic elements of design: text, graphics and
colour. The use of these elements determines whether a publication looks good
and is effective in conveying its message.
Text collecting
Desktop publishing programs give users a high degree of control over the
formatting of text. Users can usually choose from a wide variety of fonts. A font displaying
is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and
stroke weight. A font can be described using a number of characteristics (see
Figure 9.5):
• The baseline is an imaginary line on which the characters sit.
• The font height (or type size) is a measure of the physical size of the type-
face. It is measured in points, where one point is equal to 0.351 mm or 1/72
of an inch.
• The x-height is the height of the lower case letters.
• The cap height is the height of the upper case letters.
• An ascender is the part of a letter that extends above the x-height.
• A descender is the part of a letter that extends below the x-height.
• Leading is the spacing between lines of text.
ascender
cap
height
Desktop
baseline descender
x-height
font
height
leading
serifs
Figure 9.5 Parts of a font.

m
Typefaces can be divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif. Serif
typefaces, such as Times Roman, have little tails (serifs) at the ends of their
characters. Sans serif typefaces, such as Helvetica or Arial, have smooth
characters with no tails (see Figure 9.6). (Sans is French for ‘without’.) Desktop
publishing programs often come with a selection of serif and sans serif typefaces
suited to particular tasks. However, frequent changes of typefaces in a
publication cause visual ‘clutter’ and distract the reader from the meaning of the
words. A good design can be achieved using just one or two typefaces, with
variations in the type style and type size. A difference in type style (such as
italics or bold) helps to attract the reader’s attention, while a difference in type
size helps to indicate the relative importance of information.
The selection of a typeface is critical to good design. There are a number of
principles for selecting typefaces for body text and headings.

Times Roman in 8 point
Helvetica in 8 point


Helvetica in 18 point Figure 9.6 Serif and sans serif
typefaces.
Body text
Body text refers to the text that makes up the main part of the writing, other
than the headings.
• Serif typefaces are recommended for body text because they are considered
easier to read in large slabs. The serifs help the eye jump from character to
character.
• Capitals should not be used for body text. Lower case makes it easier for the
eye to gather groups of letters and words. This improves comprehension and
reduces fatigue. The use of upper and lower case also indicates the beginning
of new sentences.
• Body text is usually written in plain (normal) text with a type size of be-
tween 10 and 12 points, depending on the typeface and audience. Italics can
be used for body text but some italics are hard to read.
• Widows and orphans should be avoided. A widow is the first word or line of
a paragraph that is left at the bottom of a page or column. An orphan is the
last word or line of a paragraph that appears at the top of a page or column.
Widows and orphans often occur with changes to a font, frame size or page
setup.
Headings
• Headings can be written in either a serif or a sans serif typeface. Since
headings are usually short and in a large point size, there is little difference in
readability. The choice depends on the style of the layout and the nature of
Functio
the publication. If you need to change the letter spacing, sans serif typefaces
are preferred.
• If a sans serif typeface is used for the body text, a serif typeface for headings
provides a good contrast. Using a second serif typeface for headings can cause
a clash of styles.
• Headings can be in capitals or upper and lower case. Capitals are more
difficult to read but give a heading more authority and distinction. Capitals
are best used for simple, straightforward headings while upper and lower case
are best for long, complex headings.

Function
Columns
A column is a vertical area reserved
for text. Magazines and newspapers
often contain two or more columns of
text on the one page (see Figure 9.7).
You create column text within a text
frame by specifying the number of
columns and the spacing between
each column.
• For maximum readability, columns
should contain between 30 and 60
characters per line. A general rule
for column widths is to multiply
the width of the lower case alpha-
bet by 1.5.
• A minimum of 0.5 centimetres is
recommended between columns,
otherwise the page looks crowded.
• Column breaks can be inserted to
move text into a new column.
Figure 9.7 A layout using columns.
Formatting text
In addition to offering a choice of fonts, desktop publishing programs allow
users to control other aspects of text formatting, including alignment, line
spacing, indenting, hyphenation and character spacing. These all affect the
appearance and effectiveness of a publication.
Alignment is the way text lines up. Because text is entered into frames in
DTP programs, you can specify both the horizontal alignment and the vertical
alignment.
• There are four types of horizontal alignment: aligned left, aligned right,
justified and centred (see Figure 5.12 on page 147). Alignment should be
consistent throughout a publication. Left alignment is generally considered
the best choice for body text. Centring is generally used for only small
amounts of text, such as the text used in an invitation. Justified text gives a
neat appearance and is often used in long documents that require continuous
reading, such as textbooks, novels, newspapers and magazines.
• There are three types of vertical alignment: top, centre and bottom. Top
alignment aligns the first line of text with the top of the frame. Centred
alignment centres the text in the middle of the frame. Bottom alignment
aligns the last line of text with the bottom of the frame.
Line spacing, or leading (pronounced ‘ledding’), refers to the spacing
between lines of text. Increasing the line spacing of body text improves
readability. Decreasing the line spacing means that more text will fit on a page.
The default (automatic) line spacing in most desktop publishing programs is set
at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the text size. For example, a type size
of 10 points would have 12 points (120% of 10) between the lines. The
advantage of using automatic leading is that the line spacing changes
automatically if the point size is changed. Sans serif typefaces require more
leading to improve their appearance, as they do not have a serif.

Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. There are four
different types of indents: left/right indent, first line indent, hanging indent and
negative indent. (see Figure 5.14 on page 149). A first line indent is generally
used to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph. This makes a document
easier to read. Paragraphs below headings, however, should not be indented. It is
good design to use the same size indent throughout a document.
Hyphenation is the use of a hyphen to break a word at the end of a line. It is
used to improve word spacing and the appearance of a document, but it does
reduce readability. Hyphenation is commonly used in publications with narrow
columns, such as newspapers, as it removes the gaps or ‘rivers of white’ caused
by justified text. Most desktop publishing programs allow hyphenation to be
done automatically or manually.
Character spacing is the spacing between individual letters. There are two
types of character spacing: tracking and kerning.
• Tracking is an overall adjustment of the spacing between all letters. It is
generally applied to whole paragraphs. Tracking is most effectively used in
headings. Small amounts of tracking can also be used to reduce the amount
of white space in justified text or avoid bad word breaks.
• Kerning is an adjustment of the spacing between certain letter pairs to
improve their appearance. Kerning is necessary because the standard spacing
appears to be incorrect for certain letter pairs, such as AW (see Figure 9.8). In
this example, the shapes of the letters means that there appears to be too
much space between them. Kerning moves the A and W closer together to
give letter spacing that is visually even. The amount of adjustment required
depends on the font and the specific letter pairs. Kerning is only required for
headings with a type size greater than 14 point, as the optical effect is not
apparent in smaller point sizes. Negative kerning can be used to move letters
further apart if there appears to be insufficient space between them.
AWAIT Times 48 point

with normal
spacing
AWAIT Times 48 point

with kerning
Figure 9.8 Examples of standard letter spacing with no kerning (top) and the
same word with kerning applied to the A, W and A (bottom).
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Condensing and expanding are forms of horizontal scaling. Condensing

squeezes the letters together, making them narrower. Expanding spreads them
out, making them wider. This form of scaling is often specified as a percentage of
the normal width. Percentages greater than 100 expand the text, while
percentages less than 100 condense it. Condensing and expanding are usually
only used on headings. For example, condensing can be used to make a heading
fit a particular area without having to change the font. The amount of scaling
should be kept small to maintain legibility.

Function
Graphics collecting
Graphics improve a publication by explaining an idea, supporting a message or
promoting a theme. A graphic could be a piece of clip art, a photograph, an processing
illustration or a chart.
• Clip art can be used for a range of purposes. Clip art icons (symbols) are
often used to highlight sections of a publication.
• Photographs can be used to display products or show real life situations.
• Illustrations can include technical diagrams and drawings, cartoons and more
artistic freehand drawings. They can be used to convey information or simply
add visual appeal.
• Charts are used to illustrate a trend or make a relationship clear at a glance.
The methods of sizing and cropping graphics in a desktop publishing pro-
gram are similar to those in a drawing program. However, all DTP programs
have slightly different tools and techniques. Resizing a graphic makes it smaller
or bigger. To resize a picture, you generally select the graphic and drag the
handles inward to make it smaller or outward to make it bigger. You may first
need to select a special resizing tool. It is usually possible for the user to hold
down a key to resize in proportion. Cropping hides or deletes parts of a picture
you do not want to see. To crop a graphic, you generally select the graphic frame
and drag a handle inwards to hide part of the graphic. You may first need to
select a special cropping tool.
The size, number and placement of graphics can support or weaken the
intended message. If too many graphics are used, they lose their impact. The size
of a graphic should reflect its importance to the message. The arrangement of
graphics on the page needs to be consistent and lead the eye towards the content
(see Figure 9.9). It is also possible to use a graphic as a background image behind
everything else on the page. To be successful, the graphic must be manipulated so
it is very faint and does not obscure the text. For example, the word ‘DRAFT’
could be printed in the background of a publication. This is called a watermark.
Alternatively, a photograph or illustration can be used as a background.
Figure 9.9 In the example on the left, the graphic leads the eye away from the text. In the example on
the right, the graphic leads the eye towards the text.
Colour collecting
Colour has the ability to make a publication more effective. It contributes to the
style and ‘feel’ of the publication. It is not only the range of colours that must be displaying
considered but also the tone. Colour draws attention to the content and makes
graphics come to life. The style of the publication is affected by the relationships
between colours. For example, slight variations of the same colour or related
colours can be used to unify the publication. Contrasting colours, such as red
and yellow, are used to attract the reader’s attention.

Colour can also be used to aid navigation and assist meaning. For example,
different sections of a publication can be indicated by different coloured panels.
Colour should not be overused as it will lose its effect. A colour scheme is
easy to change and can be tested with a potential audience. Some desktop
publishing programs provide templates in different colour schemes for different
purposes.
ITITFact
Fact
When a full-colour publication is printed, a colour separation method is
used. This method uses just four basic colours: cyan (blue), magenta (red),
yellow and black. The whole range of colours and tones are produced
using combinations of these four ‘process colours’. This colour model is
known as CMYK.
In addition to the use of colour, white space can be an important design

element. White space is the space on a page that is left blank. Correctly used, it
improves readability by adding proportion to a page and reducing clutter. It
places other elements in perspective (see Figure 9.10). White space should have
a clearly defined shape so that the reader recognises it as a graphical element.
Many designers believe that white space should be restricted to one or two areas
on a page.
Affordable Elegance
Features Magnificent views from a large

residence on 2 hectares. The
residence includes 4 bedrooms
with ensuite, 2 baths, dishwasher,
2-car garage, air conditioning,
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formal dining room, and fireplace.

Friendly neighbourhood. $600,000.
Address 23 Woodlands Drive
Byron Bay, NSW 2481
Inspect by appointment
Contact Mr Henry Teale, Phone (02) 674 9987
Figure 9.10 This advertisement uses white space as a design feature.

Function
Exercise 9.2
1 List some of the characteristics used to describe a font.
2 Why should body text be written with a serif typeface?
3 What typefaces can be used for headings?
4 How can you calculate the optimum column width?
5 What is the preferred horizontal alignment for long documents?
6 Why would you change the leading of text?
7 Why is first line indenting used?
8 When is kerning required?
9 Why are graphics used in a publication?
10 How is the style of the publication affected by the relationships between colours.
11 What is white space and how can it be used?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.10 using a DTP program. Save it
with the filename ADVERTISEMENT.
2 Create a dinner menu similar to Figure 9.11 using a DTP program. Save it with the
filename MENU.
Entrees
Avocado with seafood $12.00
Prawn cutlets with crab $15.00
Soufflé Oysters $12.00
Scallops en brochette $13.00
Mediterranean Salad $8.00
Main Course
Crumbed noisettes of lamb $16.00
Beef in red wine $17.00
Fish fillets with artichokes $18.00
Pumpkin tortellini with walnut and citrus sauce $15.00
Roasted turkey with pine nut stuffing $19.00
Tarragon chicken in filo pastry $18.00
Figure 9.11 A well-designed menu.
3 Create an advertisement for a desktop publishing program using a DTP program.

Save it with the filename SCHOOLDTP.
a Design a page layout that includes a text frame for a heading (12 cm × 2 cm),
a text frame for the body text (7 cm × 7 cm) and a picture frame for a graphic
(4 cm × 7 cm).

b Type in the heading ‘School DTP’.
c Format the heading by specifying the typeface, type style and type size.
d Type in the following body text: ‘The presentation of school projects often
involves more than a simple word processor document. Typically arranged
around one or two columns, the text wraps around a number of graphics and
charts. Banner headings are popular, as are illustrations downloaded from the
Internet. Students need to know how to import a wide variety of graphic and
text formats, wrap text around irregular objects, produce well-designed
documents quickly, and use the program’s proofing tools.’
e Import an appropriate clip art picture into the picture frame.
4 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.12 using a DTP program. Save it with
the filename RENT.
RENT TODAY
Professional Computer
Rentals provide the best
rental service in Australia
• IBM & Compatible Systems
• Macintosh Systems
• Laser Printers
• Peripherals
• Notebooks Call for full range of services
• Long or Short Term Rentals
439 2596
Professional Computer Rentals
48 Hotham Parade, Atarmon 439 2596
Figure 9.12 A computer rentals advertisement.
5 Using a DTP program, create a document containing three text frames: 3 cm × 8 cm,
5 cm × 8 cm, and 7 cm × 8 cm. Save it with the filename FORMAT.
a Type the following text into one of the text frames.
‘When beginning any design, ideas roughed out on paper help to visualise
and formulate your objectives while taking into account the design
parameters of the publication. Even professional designers still take to pen
and pencil before committing their ideas to the computer screen. Look at the
overall shapes you are making with the text, graphics and white space.’
b Copy the text into each of the other two text frames.
Functio
c Hyphenate the text in each of the text frames using the same hyphenation
zone.
d Condense the text in one of the text frames and expand it in another.
e Use different line spacing in each of the text frames.
f Use different vertical alignment in each of the text frames (top, centre and
bottom).

Function
9.3 Page layout
Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. The page layout is
fundamental to the communication of information and ideas in any publication.
A well-designed publication will send a message effectively and efficiently.
Design principles displaying

A basic knowledge of reading patterns is required to understand the principles
of page layout. When reading, we start at the top left corner of the page and
work our way across and down until we reach the bottom right corner. It follows
that the top left corner is the primary optical area. It is where our eyes will
initially focus. The eyes then move across and down the page. This movement is
referred to as reading gravity. A design that forces the reader against reading
gravity will hinder communication.
Good design first captures and promotes reading gravity. Design elements
such as headings and graphics can enhance or disturb the reader’s rhythm. The
designer must ensure that these elements work together to encourage reading
rhythm and comprehension. Good design positions the major headings near the
top left corner where the eye initially focuses. The layouts in Figure 9.13 follow
good design principles. The eye naturally focuses on the headline in the primary
optical area. The text is positioned so that the reader follows reading gravity. The
page layouts in Figure 9.14 are badly designed. The headline is not located in
the primary optical area and the reader is forced to read against reading gravity.
Heading
Heading
Heading
Figure 9.13 Well-designed page layouts.
Heading
Heading Heading
Figure 9.14 Poorly designed page layouts.
In addition to promoting reading gravity, there are three basic guidelines to

making a well-designed publication:
• Simplicity: Including too many design elements distracts the reader from the
intended message. Reducing the number of design elements, using plenty of
white space and aligning elements will make publications simple and
effective.

• Consistency: Fonts, formatting, colours, layout and style should be consistent
throughout a publication. Readability is improved if all similar kinds of
information look the same.
• Contrast: Contrast means creating an obvious difference between elements
on a page. It draws the reader to a special feature, such as bold type or
graphic. Contrast should not be overused otherwise it becomes distracting.
ITITFact
Fact
Symmetrical page layouts are often used for formal invitations,
advertisements and business forms. They give a publication order and
present a conservative image.
displaying Page layout tools

Desktop publishing programs include a variety of tools to make it easier to
produce publications. Some of the common tools are described below.
Layout options
Publications are printed in either portrait or landscape orientation. Portrait is
the vertical (tall) orientation of a page. Landscape is the horizontal (wide)
orientation of a page. In addition to the orientation, layouts options include:
• Paper size: Most publications, such as newsletters and brochures, are printed
on A4 (210 mm × 297 mm) paper. Different paper sizes are used to create
booklets, posters, banners and business cards.
• Special folds: The paper can be folded left to right or top to bottom to create
greeting cards, pamphlets, brochures and book publications (see Figure 9.15).
Some DTP programs include features that automatically create layouts to
suit the selected folding option.
1 2 1
book fold tent card

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Figure 9.15 Book and tent folds.
When a publication is going to be bound, it is necessary to consider the

gutter. The gutter is the margin between the text and the spine of the book.
Larger books require a wider gutter.
Rulers and guides

Desktop publishing programs allow the user a high degree of precision in
positioning objects on a page by using rulers, guides, ‘snap-to’ features and frame
nudging.

Function
Figure 9.16 Rulers and layout guides.
The document window in a DTP program generally has a horizontal ruler at

the top and a vertical ruler on the left-hand side (see Figure 9.16). You choose
different units of measurements for a ruler, such as inches, centimetres or picas.
(A pica equals 12 points or one-sixth of an inch.) Most programs allow you to
reset or move the ruler so it is easier to measure and position objects on the
page. The position and size of a frame are often shown in a measurements box
when a frame is selected. Precise changes to the position and size of the frame
can be made by entering new values in the measurements box.
Layout guides are non-printing vertical and horizontal lines that are used to
position objects on a page with a great degree of precision. In addition, many
desktop publishing programs have a background grid that can be used as a basis
for alignment—this grid can be set at different widths. When you want to line
several objects up, you first add a guide and drag it to the desired position. You
then drag the text or picture frame to align with the guide.
To make this easier, many desktop publishing programs have a ‘Snap to
Guides’ or ‘Snap to Grid’ command for this purpose. With this feature selected,
frames automatically ‘snap’ to align exactly with the nearest guide or grid line.
Frame nudging allows you to move a frame up, down or sideways one pixel
at a time, generally using the arrow keys on the keyboard.
Templates and master pages

A template is a special kind of ‘blueprint’ document that can be copied and
adapted for repeated use. A desktop publishing template is a ready-made
document that includes the desired layout, type formats and other design
elements. You can create a new document based on a template, then replace the
sample text and pictures with your own words and illustrations. Some desktop
publishing programs come with templates for many different purposes, such as
certificates, brochures and newsletters. You can use these templates as they are,
or modify them to suit your own requirements. Templates save you having to
design a publication from scratch each time.
Master pages are another feature that can be used to ensure consistency in
multiple page publications. A master page is like a ‘bottom layer’ that sits
underneath the text and graphics you create on a page. It can contain those
design elements you want to appear on every page, such as headers, footers,
borders and graphics. Putting these items on the master page means that they
will appear on each page of the publication in the same position. Often it is
possible to set up multiple master pages and apply them to different pages of a
document. For example, the normal text pages in this book are based on one
master page, while the first page of each chapter and the chapter review sections
are based on different master pages.

Exercise 9.3
1 What is page layout?
2 Describe a page layout that is well designed.
3 List three basic guidelines to making well-designed publications.
4 What are special folds layouts used to create?
5 What is a gutter?
6 What are layout guides?
7 List the tools that can be used to position frames.
8 Describe the ‘snap-to’ feature.
9 How do you use a desktop publishing template?
10 What is a master page?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
with the filename EAGLE.
Eagle Connections
A branch of Oak Tree Pty Ltd
Specialists in Computer Cabling
• UTP Cable • Telephone Cable • Repeatera
• Coaxial Cable • STP Cable • Data Connectors
• Fibre Optic Cable • Test Equipment • Printer Sharing
Accessories for all
L U S LAN Applications 824 5623
P
3 Boyle Street, North Rocks 2151
Figure 9.17 An advertisement for Eagle Connections.
rs
2 Create an advertisement similar to
Figure 9.18 using a DTP program ATI n t e
and save it with the filename ATI.
Pr i
HP
KYOCERA
Functio
IBM/LEXMARK
DATAPRODUCTS
Cost-effective printers
for every application
907 9848
ALL STATES
Advanced Technologies International
4 Wanganella Street BALGOWLAH 2093
Figure 9.18 An advertisement for ATI printers.

Function
3 Create a business card similar to Figure 9.19 using a DTP program and save it with
the filename JEWEL.
Janelle's Jewellers
31 Roma Rd
St Ives
NSW 2075
Fax 488 9998

Phone 488 9999
Figure 9.19 A business card.
4 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.20 using a DTP program and
save it with the filename HOUSE.
Home For Sale
Magnificent new Features an extremely

large living area, huge
home is classic billiard room, 5 very
Australian Federation spacious bedrooms,
main bedroom with
ensuite/robes, study,
$750,000 two bathrooms, two-car
Let's talk! Ask for Gary Prince. garage, bay windows,
Home shown by appointment. fireplace, skylights and
Phone 832 1669 more.
Figure 9.20 An advertisement for a house.
5 Design a two-page brochure that describes the dangers of illegal drugs. The
layout should contain headings, text in columns, graphics and drawn objects.
Save the publication with a filename of DRUGS.

9.4 Printing a publication
Printing a publication is the final stage in desktop publishing. The quality of a
printout is called the resolution and is measured in dots per inch (dpi). The
higher the dpi, the smaller the dots and the sharper the text and graphics. When
comparing resolution it is important to note that 600 dpi is four times the
resolution of 300 dpi. That is because a square grid 600 dots wide and 600 dots
long results in 360 000 dots per square inch as opposed to 90 000 dots per
square inch for a resolution of 300 dpi.
Resolution is dependent on the printer. Dot matrix printers offer the lowest
resolutions—between 60 dpi and 180 dpi. Inkjet printers offer higher quality at
600 dpi or greater. Many colour inkjet printers include special hardware or
software to improve the quality of images resulting in near photographic quality.
Inkjet printers are not suitable for large volume printing, however, because they
are slow and the ink cost is high. Laser printers generally offer resolutions
between 600 and 1200 dpi, and colour laser printers are available. Laser printers
are used for high-volume printing because they are fast and the cost per copy is
low.
ITITFact
Fact
The first commercial printing press was developed by Gutenberg in 1440.
It was adapted from a machine used to crush grapes. The Gutenberg
printing press created a page of text by combining characters moulded
separately on small blocks.
displaying Draft copy

A draft copy is used to check the layout and proofread the text. Many printers
offer several choices for print quality: low, normal and high, or draft and final.
Some laser printers only print at the highest resolution. At low resolution, fewer
dots are used to form the text or graphics, so printing is faster. At high resolution
there are more dots per inch, so the printing takes longer but the results are
better. Choosing ‘low’ or ‘draft’ prints the publication at the lowest resolution
and fastest speed. It reduces costs by using less ink to print each page. A draft
copy can also be printed without the graphics if the user only wants to check
the text.
displaying Final copy

When all the checking is completed, a final copy is printed. The final copy is
printed at the printer’s highest resolution. Commercial printing services are
Functio
available that specialise in high-quality printing using offset printing presses and
high-resolution printers. They can print at resolutions greater than 2400 dpi. A
device called a typesetter or imagesetter is used to create images of the pages on
special photographic paper or film. These images are transferred to metal plates
that are used by the printing press.
The typesetters and imagesetters used by commercial printing services work
with Postscript files. Postscript is a page description language that uses special
commands to describe how text and images will be printed on the page. A
Postscript file is used only for printing and cannot be opened or changed. Most
desktop publishing programs save publications in Postscript format. Commercial

Function
printers are used for jobs that involve high-quality output, unusual paper sizes
or large print runs. When a publication is sent for commercial printing it is
advisable to check a proof. A proof is a high-quality copy of the publication as it
will appear when printed. This is the last chance to fix any errors, check that
colours are reproducing correctly, and fix any other problems. Proofs are
important because they allow you to:
• check the design elements and layout
• make last-minute corrections to fix any errors (although this can be very
expensive)
• check that the colours are reproducing correctly
• fix any technical problems that may have occurred with the files.
Additional design elements collecting

Additional design elements such as drop caps, text effects, callouts, text wrap,
borders, lines, headers and footers are included in many publications. Their use
depends on the type of publication.
Drop caps
A drop cap is an enlarged initial letter
that extends above or below the
baseline in the first line of body text
(see Figure 9.21). They are used to
announce the beginning of a chapter
or section and are an elegant way of
enlivening the text. Drop caps are
created using a special command or
by individually formatting the initial
letter. Drop caps can be any size but
usually occupy about three lines of
body text. Like most design elements,
they should be used sparingly.
Figure 9.21 Some of the drop cap options in Microsoft Publisher.
Text effects
Most desktop publishing programs allow text to be treated as a graphic. This
means the text can be manipulated in a variety of ways to add attractive effects.
These include slanting the text, rotating it through a specified number of
degrees, or wrapping it along an arc (see Figure 9.22). It is often used for
headings and banners and to make signs. Text effects are not suitable for all
types of publications and should not be over-used.
Figure 9.22 Some text effects.

Borders and callouts
Borders and lines are used to im-
prove the appearance of a publi-
cation. Borders are inserted to
highlight a particular piece of
text. Borders can be created in
different colours, line thicknesses
and styles (see Figure 9.23).
Customised borders are created
by using a piece of clip art or
scanned photograph. Graphic
objects do not usually need a
border as the graphic already
stands out. However, borders can
be effectively used around charts
Figure 9.23 Some border styles. and to separate two graphics.
The term callout has two meanings, used in different contexts:

• It refers to a short piece of text quoted from the main article and reproduced
in large type to catch the reader’s attention. Often these callouts are boxed
or separated from the main text by lines.
• It can also refer to a label that describes an area of a picture. These labels are
often connected to the area they describe by a callout line. Some desktop
publishing programs have a special command to automatically create this
kind of callout. In other programs a callout is created by drawing a text
frame, positioning it and typing the text for the label. The callout line is
created using the straight line tool.
Text wrap
An effective way to combine words and pictures is to wrap the text around the
objects as shown in Figure 9.24. When wrapping text, the picture object must
be brought to the front of the text object. You then select the picture object and
choose a ‘Text Wrap’ command. The DTP program maintains a non-printing
boundary between the picture and the text. The text wrap boundary can be
resized, cropped and adjusted to control the amount of white space between the
text and the picture.
Desktop Publishing
Desktop publishing is the use of The advent of the computer
Functio
specialised software to and of more sophisticated

combine text and software has now totally
graphics to create a revolutionised the
document. In the past, publishing process,
publishing involved the giving everyone
time-consuming process of the means to
manually cutting and pasting create professional-
articles or graphics. looking publications.
Figure 9.24 An example of text wrap.

Function
Headers and footers
A header prints the same text at the top of each page, and a footer prints the
same text at the bottom of the page. Headers and footers usually contain such
information as the page number, the title of a document or chapter, and the date
and author. Headers and footers can contain borders or lines to separate them
from body text. They are often created on a master page.
Exercise 9.4
1 How is the resolution of a printout measured?
2 Compare the printing capacity of laser printers, inkjet printers and dot matrix
printers.
3 Explain the difference between low- and high-resolution printing.
4 What is Postscript?
5 Why is it important to see a proof when a job is sent to a commercial printer?
6 Where are drop caps used in a publication?
7 Describe some of the text effects available in most DTP programs.
8 How do you create callouts?
9 How do you wrap text around an object?
10 List some of the information typically contained in headers and footers.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Use a DTP program to create the text effects similar to those shown in Figure
9.22. Save the publication with the filename WORD ART.
2 Use a DTP program to wrap some text around a graphic as shown in Figure 9.24.
Save the publication with the filename TEXT WRAP.
3 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.25. Save the
publication with the filename INVITATION.
Wanganui Senior High School

requests the pleasure of your company
for the Year 12 Formal Ball
at Berry Hill Reception Centre, 21 Poots Road, Manly
on Saturday 2 December 2000 at 7.30 p.m.
RSVP 12 November 2000 COST $35 per person

DRESS Black tie includes dinner
Figure 9.25 An invitation.

4 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement for an art show similar to that
shown in Figure 9.26. Save the publication with the filename ART.
Australian Art
In support of Animal Welfare,
Stanley Winery will host a
complimentary art show and
sale.
Friday 28 July 2000
from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m.
at 25 Lock St, Sydney
featuring entertainment,
food and beverages.
Exhibition and Sale

Figure 9.26 An advertisement for an art show.
Jennifer Taylor
5 Use a DTP program to create
94 Flora Street your own résumé using the
Sutherland, NSW 2232 design in Figure 9.27. Save the
542 67898
publication with the filename
RESUME.
PERSONAL
Age: 17 years
Family: Janet Taylor, mother
Customer Service Adviser ANZ
John Taylor, father
Primary School Teacher
Interests: Aerobics, computing, music, reading
EDUCATION
School Certificate: Thomas Mitchel High School (1999)
High School Certificate: Graduating this year
Extra-curricular activities: Student council, debating team,
netball team
SKILLS
Functio
Computers: Confident and competent user of computer

application software
Communication: Good oral and written communication skills
EMPLOYMENT
Sales assistant McDonalds (1998–1999)
Sales assistant David Jones (2000)
Figure 9.27 A résumé.

Chapter review
PART A 6 Body text should always be written:
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best A from right to left
answers the question or completes the B in a serif typeface
statement. C in upper case
1 To define an object in a desktop pub- D with a type size of 10 point
lishing document you create a: 7 Layout guides are:
A frame A a ready-made design of a document
B border B a design that can be used as a basis
C box for other pages
D rectangle C non-printing vertical and horizontal
lines used to position objects
2 How would a small section of a publi-
cation be viewed? D used to provide special effects not
available with ordinary text
A actual size view
B full page view 8 An enlarged initial letter that extends
C zoom in above or below the baseline in the first
D zoom out line of body text is called:
A a drop cap
3 In DTP the term ‘leading’ means: B a callout
A automatic changing of type styles C a header
B automatic changing of margins D indentation
C correcting the spacing between
letters 9 The quality of a printout is called the:
D the spacing between lines of text A draft copy
B Postscript file
4 Improving the appearance of text by
C dpi
reducing the spacing between certain
letter pairs is called: D resolution
A condensing 10 A label that describes an area of a pic-
B kerning ture is called a:
C leading A drop cap
D line spacing B sign
C symbol
5 The difference between the words
‘publishing’ and ‘program’ in ‘Desktop D callout
publishing program’ is in the:
A stroke weight
B font
C type style
D typeface

Chapter review
PART B 14 A bottom layer that sits underneath
For each of the following statements, the text and graphics you place on a
select from the list of terms the one that page.
most closely fits the statement. Write the 15 A page description language that des-
letter corresponding to your choice. cribes how text and images will be
printed on a page.
Statements
16 The vertical orientation of a page.
1 A space or box that holds text or a
graphic. List of terms
2 The arrangement of text and graphics a draft copy i white space
on a page. b desktop publishing j widow
3 The use of specialised software to c final copy k master page
combine text and graphics to create a d frame l Postscript
document. e gutter m watermark
4 The first word or line of a paragraph f kerning n portrait
that is left at the bottom of a page or g page layout o layout guide
column. h ‘snap-to’ p ascender
5 The blank space on a page. PART C
6 Adjusting the spacing between certain Write at least one paragraph on each of
letter pairs to improve the appearance the following questions.
of the text.
1 What factors must be analysed before
7 A margin between the text and the using a DTP program?
spine of a book.
2 Describe the design principles for using
8 A feature that aligns a frame to the text, graphics and colour.
nearest guide or mark on a ruler.
3 Explain the difference between a
9 Used to check a layout or proofread gutter and a margin.
text.
4 Briefly explain the use of the following
10 A high-quality copy of the publication features of DTP programs:
as it will appear when printed. a layout guides
11 Part of a letter that extends above the b different view options.
x-height. 5 Compare and contrast the use of
12 A background image behind every- templates and master pages.
thing else on a page. 6 Describe three design elements other
13 A non-printing vertical or horizontal than text, graphics and colour.
line used to position objects on a page.

chapter
MULTIMEDIA
10
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the essential characteristics of a
multimedia system
• plan a multimedia presentation using a
storyboard
• create a multimedia presentation using
good design principles
• display text, images, audio and animated
Overview
information This chapter will develop your knowledge and
• describe the compression of data skills in relation to multimedia. It examines the
characteristics and information processes
• distinguish between path-based and cell- involved in a multimedia system. You will
based animation
learn how to combine different types of media
• identify the standard file formats used for to create a multimedia product. The basic
multimedia. design principles of multimedia are presented
throughout the chapter.
All seven information processes are involved in the development of
multimedia. Many of the tasks involve a combination of processes. The
development of a multimedia product emphasises the following information
processes:
• Collecting: Data is gathered in text, audio, video and graphic formats. (See
sections 10.1 and 10.3.)
• Organising: Data in various formats is combined to create a multimedia
product. Tools such as storyboards are used to organise the data. (See
section 10.1.)
• Processing: Multimedia authoring packages and presentation software are
used to create the products. (See sections 10.1, 10.2 and 10.4.)
10.1 Basic features

Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, animation,
audio and video. Multimedia presentations include at least three of these media
types. Multimedia products have become increasingly popular because the
addition of audio, video and animation makes them quite different to a standard
printed page as a way of delivering information. Multimedia has the potential to
provide a ‘richer’ experience than other information media. It can combine the
best of television, film, graphics, animation, books, magazines and radio. The way
the different media types are combined and presented is called a multimedia
production.
A key feature of multimedia is interactivity. Interactivity means that the user
is able to choose the sequence and content of information. A multimedia
product is often judged on its degree of interactivity. Interactive multimedia
accepts input from a mouse, touch screen or keyboard and performs some
action as a result of that input.
The Internet is an example of an interactive environment. The expressions
‘surfing the Net’ and ‘browsing’ refer to the experience of jumping from one
Web page to another using hypertext. Hypertext is text that includes an
embedded link to another piece of text, an image or another Web page. Clicking
on the hypertext causes the computer to ‘jump’ to the link destination.
Hypertext is also used to navigate through multimedia products. It may link to
audio, graphic, animation or video files, or to another screen of information.
(Chapter 11 examines the World Wide Web in detail.)
The development of multimedia has been made possible by recent advances
Functio
in information technology. Because audio and video files are much bigger than
text and graphics files, creating multimedia requires powerful hardware and
software. A multimedia system requires a fast processor, a large amount of
primary storage, a high-resolution screen, high-quality sound, and the latest in
removable storage media. For example, a high-quality digital video movie
requires 5 Gb of storage and demands a DVD disc and multi-gigabyte hard
drive. Improvements in communication speed and capacity on the Internet have
meant that it is also becoming a multimedia delivery system.

Function
Creating a multimedia product
Multimedia products are usually designed by a group of people who each have
expertise in a particular field. Each person or team works on a different part of
the project. There are people who are responsible for the system design, the
content and each of the media types, as well as those with information
technology skills. Multimedia has developed into a major industry. Multimedia
products are used extensively in education, training, entertainment and
information dissemination.
• Education and training: Multimedia provides teachers with new ways of
presenting information and teaching skills. There is an increasing range of
multimedia products available, including presentation software, encyclo-
pedias and simulations (see Figure 10.1).
• Entertainment: Multimedia products designed for leisure activities include
computer games, virtual reality and interactive television.
• Information dissemination: Multimedia products can be used to provide
information from a database at an information kiosk. A touch screen allows
people to select information about an organisation or service.
Figure 10.1 Microsoft’s Encarta was the first widely available multimedia encyclopedia.
Design collecting
A multimedia product needs to be carefully designed. All aspects of the product
are planned before production gets started. The key stages are listed below.
• Clarify the purpose: What is the reason for producing the multimedia
product? Is it to educate or entertain people or to sell a product?
• Identify the audience: What are the age, skill level and background of the
intended audience?
Multimedia 257
• Accumulate ideas: Analyse different multimedia products for ideas. What
works and what doesn’t work?
• Gather data: Determine the text, audio, video and graphics that will form the
content of the multimedia product. Validate this information to ensure its
accuracy.
organising Planning
A script and a storyboard are two tools used to plan a multimedia product. A
script is a printout of all the text, graphics, animation, audio and video used in
the production. It outlines the interactivity in the project. A script gives
directions for the construction of the multimedia product. It is a textual method
of representing ideas and actions.
A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image. It is a visual method of representing ideas and actions. It is based
on the traditional storyboard used by cartoonists to show the sequence of
actions in a cartoon. Storyboards are drawn on paper and are frequently edited.
Multimedia storyboards define each screen and the specific media types used.
They consist of navigation paths, information and graphics. They are popular
because they are simple to construct, easy to read and can be modified at every
stage.
There are four basic storyboard layouts (see Figure 10.2):
• linear—a simple sequential path that is set up quickly
• hierarchical—a sequential path in a top-down design (starting at the
beginning and moving down through the multimedia product)
linear
hierarchical
non-linear
Functio
combination
Figure 10.2 Storyboard layouts.

Function
• non-linear—no particular structure (moves between different layouts in any
direction)
• combination—a blending of the above layouts.
File compression
Multimedia products are characterised by large file sizes. This is the result of
storing&
retrieving
combining large graphics, animation, audio and video files. A process called file
compression reduces the number of bits required to represent information. It
allows the user to store more data and makes data transfer faster. Compressed
data must be decompressed in order to extract the original information. There
are a number of standard compressed formats for different media, such as JPEG
for graphics and MPEG for video.
The amount a file is compressed is measured by the compression ratio. The
compression ratio compares how much smaller the compressed file is to the
uncompressed file. If a compressed file is half the size of the uncompressed file,
the compression ratio is 2 to 1 (2:1). That is, two units of data in the original file
equals one unit of data in the compressed file. A higher compression ratio
indicates greater compression of data. For example, a compression ratio of 3:1
would create a smaller file than a compression ratio of 2:1. (A compression ratio
of 1:1 would mean that a file would not be compressed at all.)
Compression is either lossy or lossless. In lossy compression, some data is
actually removed from the file. The resulting file is smaller in size but the
quality is reduced. However, audio and video files can be compressed with quite
high compression ratios without any noticeable change to the human ear or eye.
For example, an MPEG file can provide a compression ratio up to 200:1.
In lossless compression, no data is deleted, which means the file can
recovered in its original state. This type of compression works by replacing
repeated data with something that takes up less room. For example, in this book
the word ‘and’ appears many times. If each ‘and’ was replaced with a plus
symbol (+), only one-third of the space would be needed for that word. Lossless
compression is used mainly on text files such as word processing, spreadsheets
and database files. Each file of a given type can have a different compression
ratio depending on the contents of the file. A text file usually has a compression
ratio of 3:1.
Multimedia authoring software organising

A multimedia product is created by firstly developing each of the media types.
Separate groups of people may specialise in each media type—audio, graphics,
animation and digital video. They each create their part of the project using
separate software applications and the files are then imported into a multimedia
authoring program.
Authoring software is used to combine text, graphics, animation, audio and
video into a multimedia product. The software allows the user to bring together
the separate media types and to combine them in a way that is interactive. It
assigns relationships and actions to the different media elements using a
scripting language. Most authoring software packages share similar features and
are capable of creating similar multimedia products, but their approaches can
differ. Three popular authoring programs are Macromedia Director, Asymetrix
ToolBook Assistant and Macromedia Authorware.
• Director: Multimedia products are developed like a movie. The software
treats each file as a ‘cast member’ of a production. These files will appear at a
Multimedia 259
particular time, in a particular position, and for a specified length of time. A
‘cast window’ is used to store different media types and a ‘store window’ is
used to synchronise the different elements.
• ToolBook Assistant: Multimedia products are built using a book metaphor.
The product is called a ‘book’ and each screen is a ‘page’. It uses OpenScript
as a programming language (see Figure 10.3).
• Authorware: Multimedia products are developed using a flow chart. The flow
chart consists of icons that represents a specific programming task such as a
selection.
Figure 10.3 An overview of ToolBook II Assistant.
There are also a number of simplified software packages that can be used for
multimedia. Programs such as HyperCard allow text, graphics, animation, audio
and video to be combined without requiring any programming experience.
HyperCard organises information into a collection of on-screen ‘cards’ called a
‘stack’. Interactivity can be added in the form of buttons and actions.
Exercise 10.1
1 What is multimedia?
2 Describe interactivity in a multimedia product.
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3 List the type of people typically involved in the creation of a multimedia product.
4 Describe the contents of a script.
5 Why are storyboards popular?
6 What is file compression?
7 Why is lossy compression used for most audio and video files?
8 What is the purpose of multimedia authoring software?
9 Describe three popular multimedia authoring programs.

Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Work in groups to complete the following tasks.
Sydney is applying to host the next Commonwealth Games and has decided to
create a multimedia product. The product is to outline the physical features of the
city and the facilities available for the Games. It would include interviews with
sporting personalities.
1 List the media types that could be used in the production. Give an example of
each type.
2 Create a storyboard for the production.
3 If possible, create a brief production using an authoring program. You may want
to divide your group and each prepare one element of the presentation.
10.2 Presentation software

Presentation software is used to make a professional presentation to a group of
people. It improves the communication of information. A presentation consists
of a series of slides. A slide is an individual screen or page of the presentation.
Each slide may contain text, graphics, animation, audio and video. These
elements are treated as objects, similar to objects in drawing and desktop
publishing programs. A presentation is a group of objects positioned on one or
more slides. Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance and Aldus Persuasion are
examples of presentation software.
Presentation software often allows you to create several different types of
documents for use in a presentation, including the on-screen slides, audience
handouts, overhead transparencies and speaker’s notes.
• On-screen slides are slides displayed on a monitor or projected onto a screen.
The timing of the presentation is controlled either automatically or manually.
The automatic option requires the user to set the timings for each slide so
that the slides advance by themselves. The manual option involves manually
advancing the slides by clicking the mouse button or a remote control device.
• Audience handouts can be created containing the contents of two or more
slides on a page. Handouts can be given to people who attend the presentation.
• Overhead transparencies are slides printed on transparent film for use with
an overhead projector. They can be in black and white or colour, and in
portrait or landscape orientation.
• Speaker’s notes are notes the speaker may need to refer to when discussing
the slides.
Slides displaying
New presentations are created from a template or blank presentation. A tem-
plate is a master document that can be copied and modified for repeated use.
Templates in presentation programs are professionally designed for specific
purposes and they allow the user to create a presentation very quickly. Tem-
plates can be previewed and modified if required. There are content templates
and presentation design templates. A content template helps the user with
content and gives suggestions about the organisation of different kinds of
information. A presentation design template creates a presentation without
Multimedia 261
Figure 10.4 Some of the presentation design templates available in Microsoft PowerPoint.
worrying about the design elements (see Figure 10.4). Each template has its
own colour scheme and fonts that work with the overall design of the
presentation. A colour scheme is a set of balanced colours for the text, back-
ground and drawn objects. It ensures the colours will result in a professional-
looking presentation.
A blank presentation is created without a template. The user has control
over the look and structure of the presentation. A blank presentation requires
the user to design each slide by choosing from a range of layouts. A layout speci-
fies the position of text and picture frames. A frame is a space or box that holds
an object. Text frames contain text objects such as the slide title, bulleted lists,
columns and tables. Picture frames contain graphic objects such as clip art and
charts. The content of each object is independent of its frame and is easily
formatted.
Viewing a presentation
Presentation software typically allows several different views of a presentation.
Each view provides an alternative way of looking at the presentation. Some
common views are listed below.
• Slide view shows a single slide and
allows the user to insert text, graphics,
sound and artwork.
• Outline view shows the slide titles and
main text. It is used to plan, organise
or edit a presentation.
• Slide sorter view shows a thumbnail
(miniature picture) of each slide
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including the text and graphics. It

shows how the presentation flows and
is used to arrange the order of slides
(see Figure 10.5).
• Notes page view is used to create
speaker’s notes for the presenter.
• Slide show displays all the slides of the
presentation in sequence. The timing
of the presentation is controlled either
Figure 10.5 A presentation in slide sorter view.
automatically or manually.

Function
Inserting objects
Objects are the building blocks of a presentation. There are different types of
objects, and the behaviour of an object depends on its type.
Most slides contain text. Text is
often imported into a presentation
from a word processor. This allows
the user to take advantage of the
word processor’s superior editing and
formatting tools. Text can be im-
ported or typed into a text frame in
slide view. A better method is to enter
and edit in outline view. Outline view
shows all the text on each slide (see
Figure 10.6). It is also used to check
the logical flow of the presentation by
showing only the slide title.
After the data is entered, it needs
to be formatted. There are many dif- Figure 10.6 A presentation in outline view, showing the text.
ferent ways of formatting text, such
as using a variety of fonts, changing the alignment and using a spelling checker.
Presentation software often contains professionally created designs that can be
applied to a presentation. These design templates contain colour schemes,
custom formatting and styled fonts to give a presentation a particular appearance.
They are an excellent way of creating a consistent presentation.
Most presentations contain graphics. There are three different ways of
inserting a graphic into presentation.
• The user can select from a range of clip art and images. Clip art is grouped
into topics such as people, animals and entertainment. It is also possible for
the presentation software to suggest a piece of clip art based on key concepts.
• The user can import pictures and scanned photographs. When a picture
frame is selected, the user can crop, resize, distort or recolour the graphic.
• The user can draw a picture using the software’s drawing tools.
Animation effects can be applied to text, graphics, sounds, movies and other
objects. They are used to highlight important points and add interest to a
presentation. For example, you can have text that appears letter-by-letter or
objects that ‘fly in’ from the left. It is possible to change the order and timing of
animations. In addition to animations,
presentations can contain transitions. A
transition is a special effect used to go from
one slide to the next. For example, one slide
might slowly dissolve as the next slide
comes into view. In general, two or three
transitions in a presentation will maximise
their impact on the audience.
Sound and video can be inserted into a
presentation. Some presentation software
comes with a range of pre-recorded sounds,
such as applause and gunshots. In addition
to these sounds there may be clip galleries
of sounds and movies (see Figure 10.7).
These objects are categorised in a similar Figure 10.7 Some of the categories and items available in
way to clip art. It is best to avoid using loud the Microsoft Clip Gallery.
Multimedia 263
noises that distract the speaker and the slide’s message. Presentation software
also allows the user to import sounds and videos in a variety of formats. How-
ever, special hardware and software may be needed to play and edit particular
sounds and videos.
Editing objects
Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single
object. Editing is much easier if associated objects are grouped. Objects on a
slide can be edited in different ways:
• Positioning: Objects are dragged into position using the grids, layout guides
and rulers. The ‘snap-to’ feature aligns a frame to a grid. The ‘nudge’ feature
allows the frame to be moved one pixel at a time.
• Resizing: Objects are made smaller or bigger using the handles. The mouse is
placed over the handle and dragged until the object is the desired size.
• Alignment: Frames are aligned by their left, right, top or bottom edges, or by
their centres. Objects can be spaced equal distances from each other.
• Distorting: Objects can be rotated a certain number of degrees or flipped
horizontally or vertically.
• Overlapping: Objects can be stacked on top of each other. The order of the
stack is changed using the ‘Bring to Front’ or ‘Send to Back’ commands.
Exercise 10.2
1 What is presentation software?
2 List the document types that can be created with presentation software.
3 How is the timing of a presentation controlled?
4 Describe a template in a presentation program.
5 Explain the difference between a content template and a presentation design
template.
6 List the five common ways of viewing a presentation.
7 How can text be formatted in presentation software?
8 Describe three ways of inserting a graphic into a presentation.
9 Why is animation used in a presentation?
10 Outline the five ways of editing an object on a slide.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Functio

An information technology company wants to develop a promotional multimedia
presentation to attract new investors. The presentation must include its products,
history, staff and future directions.
1 Create an imaginary company and write a storyboard for the presentation.
2 Describe the design features of the presentation.
3 Develop a brief multimedia presentation using presentation software.
4 Create handouts and show the presentation to the class.

Function
10.3 Types of media
A multimedia product is a combination of text, graphics, animation, audio and
video. This section examines animation, audio and video in more detail, as text
and graphics have been extensively examined in previous chapters.
Animation organising
Animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a series of graphics or
frames presented in rapid succession. Sometimes animations can present displaying
information more effectively than text or a static graphic. For example, an
animation that shows the movement of blood through the body or the eruption
of a volcano would be more effective than a still image. In multimedia presen-
tations, animations can direct the user to an area of the screen or an interesting
feature. They are usually started either automatically when a slide is viewed, or
by the user clicking a button. When creating an animation the user needs to
consider the size of the graphic and the speed of the movement. The speed is
frequently set at 30 frames per second or 9000 (30 × 60 × 5) frames for a five-
minute animation. This creates the illusion of smooth movement. However,
drawing 9000 frames of graphics is a huge task. A computer with animation
software makes this task much easier. Animation is created using cell-based and
path-based animation.
ITITFact
Fact
The word ‘animation’ comes from the Latin word ‘animatus’ and means to
give life.
Cell-based animation
Cell-based animation involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells.
Each frame is stored separately and is loaded into a graphics page in primary
memory. It is the traditional method of animation. The animation works by
displaying the first frame from a graphics page while creating the second frame
in another graphics page. The second frame is slightly different to the first frame,
depending on the items to be animated. The second frame is then displayed and
the third frame created in the graphics page of the first frame. Animation occurs
by alternating the display of graphics pages. This method of animation requires a
very powerful computer to achieve 30 frames per second. For example, a high-
resolution colour graphic containing 500 000 pixels would require calculations
for 15 million (500 000 × 30) pixels in one second. For this reason, path-based
animation is preferred.
Path-based animation
Path-based animation involves displaying the movement of objects on a fixed
background in a particular sequence or path. Only the pixels of the moving
object are changed; those making up the background stay the same. This saves
memory and processing time. Animation is achieved by drawing the object,
wiping it, and then drawing the object in a new position (see Figure 10.8). This
process is made easier because animation software can generate the intermediate
frames between two objects. This is called tweening (short for ‘in-betweening’).
It is a key process in computer animation.
Multimedia 265
Figure 10.8 An animation of a diving penguin.
Morphing and warping are animation techniques that create special effects.
Morphing is the smooth change between two different images. It involves
transforming the shape, size, dimension and colour of one image so it appears to
merge into another image. For example, you could morph your own image into
that of a movie star. Warping involves transforming or distorting a portion of an
image. It divides the image into objects that can be manipulated. For example, a
person’s sad face could be given a smile with the remainder of their face staying
the same.
organising Audio and video

Sound has become an essential part of most software. It is used to explain
concepts, reinforce selections and add special effects. Sound travels through the
storing&
retrieving air in waves with a particular volume and pitch. A sound wave is analog data.
Analog data is represented by continuous variable quantities as opposed to
digital data that is represented in the form of digits or numbers. Because
computers are digital devices, sound must be digitised before it can be
manipulated by a computer.
In relation to multimedia, audio refers to sound that has been digitised. It is
created using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); this process is reversed by a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The ADC and DAC are built into the
computer’s motherboard or are added using a sound card. The method used by
the ADC to digitise a sound wave is called sampling (see Figure 10.9). Sampling
has three important characteristics called the sampling rate, sampling size and
whether the sound is mono or stereo.
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• The sampling rate is the number of times a sample (slice) is taken from the
sound wave. During a sample, the amplitude of the wave (volume) is
measured and converted to a number. The higher the sampling rate, the
better the sound. The sampling rate is expressed in kilohertz (kHz), which is
thousands of cycles per second. Two common sampling rates are 44.1 kHz
(44 100 samples per second) and 22.05 kHz (22 050 samples per second).
• The sample size (or bit resolution) is the number of bits per sample. The
most common sampling sizes are 8-bit sound and 16-bit sound. Better
quality sound is recorded using 16-bits but for voices 8-bit sound is usually
sufficient.

Function
• Mono uses one channel and stereo uses two channels (left and right) of
sound. Stereo sound is regarded as better quality.
A file size (in bits) is calculated by multiplying the sampling rate (in kHz),
the sample size (in bits), the time (in seconds) and the number of channels.
For example, the size of an audio file
that uses a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz with Digital audio system
a 16-bit sample size and lasts for one
minute in stereo would be: Audio input
file size = 44 100 × 16 × 60 × 2 bits
= 10 584 000 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) +3
+2
= 10.09 Mb (1 Mb = 1 048 576 bytes) +1
Sampling
Sounds are produced using speakers. 0
–1
They are connected to the computer via a –2
–3
sound card and work with particular soft-
ware. There is a range of software to record A/D 0 +2 +3 +2 –1 –3 –2 0
and play audio. Operating systems often conversion 100 110 111 110 011 001 010 100
include accessories such as a media player,
sound recorder and CD player (see Figure
10.10). These tools allow the user to edit a Disk
sound file in different ways such as:
• deleting part of the sound file
• changing the speed of the sound file
Reproduced
• playing a sound file in reverse signal
• adding an echo
+3
• changing the quality of the sound file +2
D/A +1
• recording a sound into a sound file conversion 0
–1
• overlaying (mixing) sound files –2
–3
• inserting sound into another document.
Audio output
Figure 10.9 The conversion of sound from waves (analog) to

digitised form and back again in a digital audio system.
Video displays photographic images at

speeds ranging from 15 to 60 frames per
second (FPS). The number of frames per
second and the video window size affect
the file size. Video is often expensive to
produce and results in very large files. For
example, if a screen image is 0.5 Mb in size,
then 60 seconds of video at 30 frames per
second would require 900 (0.5 × 60 × 30)
Mb of storage. For this reason, video files
are usually compressed. The most popular
compressed video formats are MPEG and
QuickTime.
Figure 10.10 An audio CD player.
Multimedia 267
There is an important difference between video and animation. Video takes
continuous motion and breaks it up into frames, while animation starts with in-
dependent frames and puts them together to create the illusion of movement.
Video is imported into a multimedia product or created. A video camera can
be used to create a video clip in analog or digital form. Analog signals need to be
converted into digital using a video capture card. This card compresses the video
clip using a compress–decompress (CODEC) algorithm before storing the
information digitally. Video compression algorithms use the fact that there are
usually only small changes from one frame to the next. They encode the starting
frame and a sequence of differences between frames. Digital video production
software is then used to edit the video into a multimedia product. Editing may
involve adding text, audio and graphics to the video clip.
ITITFact
Fact
Shockwave is a technology developed by Macromedia to enable Web
pages to contain multimedia objects. It supports audio and video and is
available for both Windows and Macintosh environments.
Exercise 10.3
1 How is the movement of a graphic achieved in animation?
2 Describe the basic principles of cell-based and path-based methods for producing
animation.
3 Explain the difference between analog and digital data.
4 List three important characteristics of sampling.
5 What is the sampling rate?
6 Calculate the size of an audio file that uses a sample rate of 22.05 with 16-bit
sound and lasts for two minutes in stereo.
7 What factors affect the size of a video file?
8 Explain the major difference between animation and video.
9 What is the purpose of digital video production software?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A video store is planning an interactive multimedia display of the latest movie
Functio
releases. The display must include information about each movie, animation, sound
and video clips.
1 Write a storyboard for the multimedia display.
2 Describe the design features of the production.
3 If possible, develop a brief multimedia display.

Function
10.4 Multimedia design
Creating effective multimedia products involves more than simply knowing how
to use the authoring software. Good design is critical to the success of a
multimedia product.
Design principles displaying

The design of each screen should be based on three basic design principles:
• Consistency: The layout, format and style should be
the same throughout the multimedia product unless
different media types demand a change. Readability
is improved when similar items are grouped.
Grouping is achieved by spacing, use of colour for
the text, and changing the backgrounds or borders.
• Navigation: Users need to understand the structure
of the multimedia product and be able to find the
information they want easily. The time taken to
respond to a user’s action is important. People be-
come frustrated if they have to wait more than a few
seconds for the next screen or video clip to load.
• Simplicity: Don’t overuse design elements as this
will create visual clutter and confuse the user. The
overuse of colour, sound and animations can be
distracting.
Media
When a team of people are developing a multimedia product they need to displaying
communicate with each other to ensure consistency, simplicity and ease of
navigation. There are a number of design considerations for each type of
medium.
Text
A basic concern with text is how much to present. It is recommended that each
screen should relate to only one task or piece of information. The screen should
not be overloaded with text. The designer needs to decide what information is
necessary. Text needs to be formatted to be effective. The following are some
generally accepted design principles for text:
• Body text: Avoid using too many fonts. Sans serif typefaces can be clearer
than serif typefaces when viewed on screen. The type size may need to be
larger than that used for printed materials. Additional leading can improve
readability. Care should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic.
Long lines of text are difficult to read.
• Headings: Use either serif or sans serif typefaces. Different size headings
reflect their importance.
• Layout: Promote ‘reading gravity’. Elements in the top right and bottom left
corner of the screen have less importance. Readers’ eyes are most likely to
focus on the top left corner.
• Formatting: Follow appropriate conventions for column width, alignment,
line spacing, character spacing, indentation, hyphenation and kerning.
Multimedia 269
Colour
Colour contributes to the style and theme of a multimedia product. Colour
draws attention to the text and makes a graphic come to life. Some colours
should not be used together as they contrast badly and reduce readability. For
example, blue or green text on a red background is very difficult to read. Too
many different colours can be distracting and reduce readability. A colour
scheme should be used to ensure consistency and a professional-looking
multimedia product.
ITITFact
Fact
The word ‘virtual’ is used to refer to things that exist on a computer system
or network rather than in the physical world. Examples include virtual
storage, virtual sound, virtual space, virtual office and virtual reality.
Virtual reality creates a simulated environment that the user experiences
and explores by interacting with a computer.
Graphics and animation

Graphics and animations are used to create interest and provide information.
However, they also place extra demands on the multimedia system, so need to
be used carefully. They can support or weaken a multimedia product. Some
design principles are listed below.
• The position and size of a graphic or animation should be based on its
relative importance and should balance the other design elements.
• Use graphics and animations sparingly, otherwise they lose their impact. For
example, an animation could be used to introduce a new section within the
multimedia product.
• Adjust the graphics and animations to suit the most common screen
resolutions. The resolution of a graphic is dependent on the screen and the
number of colours that can be displayed.
• Make sure the intention of the graphic is easily understood. For example, a
graphic might guide the user to another section of a multimedia product.
• The title of a graphic is often placed above the graphic with a caption below.
• Icons are small symbols that are associated with an object, function or action.
Icons should be easily recognisable and be positioned in a defined area of the
screen.
• The information in charts must be accurate.
Functio
Audio and video

The principles listed above also apply to audio and video. An occasional burst of
sound as a special effect will focus the audience on the message. However, the
frequent use of sound effects can draw attention away from the main
information. Audio and video can be excellent media for explaining concepts
but they also place extra demands on the multimedia system.
A decision on the use of sounds and video is often made in terms of pro-
viding exciting additional elements and ensuring the multimedia product will
function effectively. Audio and video files are usually very large and this factor
must be taken into account before including them in the multimedia product.

Function
File formats organising
There are many different file formats used for multimedia. These formats are
constantly changing and new versions are being developed. Some common
formats are described below.
storing &
retrieving
• WAV (pronounced ‘wave’) is a file format that stores either 8-bit or 16-bit
sound. It was developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM and is built into
Windows. One disadvantage with the WAV format is that it produces large
file sizes. For example, a 10-minute WAV sound file will require more than
100 Mb.
• RealAudio is a de facto standard for exchanging sound files over the Internet.
It was developed by RealNetworks and supports FM-stereo quality sound. A
RealAudio player is required to hear a RealAudio sound file included in a
Web page. Recent versions of Web browsers such as Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator include a RealAudio player (see Figure 10.11).
• MIDI (which stands for Musical Instru-
ment Digital Interface and is pro-
nounced ‘middy’) is a standard way of
connecting computers and electronic
musical instruments. A musician uses a
MIDI instrument to play music and
the computer to store and edit the
music. MIDI allows 16 instruments to
be played simultaneously via the MIDI
interface. The sound is recorded in a
file format called the MIDI sequence.
A MIDI file contains note information
and not details of a sound wave. A
synthesiser is used to create and play
the sound. MIDI files require less
storage space but the quality of the
sound is dependent on the synthesiser.
Figure 10.11 RealPlayer plays both RealAudio and

RealVideo files.
• MPEG (which stands for Motion Picture Expert Group and is pronounced
‘em-peg’) is a family of formats that have become a standard for compressed
video. MPEG files achieve a high compression ratio by using lossy com-
pression and only storing the changes from one frame to another. MPEG-1
standard provides a video resolution of 353 × 240 at 30 FPS. It is similar to
the quality of conventional VCR videos. MPEG-2 standard offers resolutions
up to 1280 × 720 and 60 FPS. It is sufficient for all major TV standards and is
used on DVDs.
• MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) is an audio compression technology that is part
of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. It compresses CD-quality sound using a
compression ratio of 11:1. MP3 has made it possible to download quality
audio from the Internet (see Figure 10.12). For example, a four-minute song
that would normally require 44 Mb of space can be compressed using MP3
to only 4 Mb. MP3 compresses a file by removing the high and low fre-
quencies that are out of our hearing range.
Multimedia 271
• QuickTime is a video and anima-
tion format developed by Apple
Computer. It is built into the
Macintosh operating system and
is used by many Macintosh appli-
cations. Apple has provided a
QuickTime version for Windows.
• Animated GIF (Graphic Inter-
change Format) is a type of GIF
image that can be animated.
Animated GIF does not give the
same level of control as other
animation formats but is sup-
ported by all Web browsers.
Figure 10.12 A Web site for MP3.
Exercise 10.4
1 Why is navigation an important design principle?
2 What is a basic consideration when using text in a multimedia product?
3 Why is colour used as a design element?
4 Describe some of the factors that affect the use of graphics and animations.
5 How is a decision made on the use of sounds and video?
6 What is the main disadvantage with WAV sound files?
7 Explain the difference between a MIDI file and a sound file.
8 What is MPEG-2?
9 Why is MP3 an important file format?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The local shopping centre is planning an information kiosk for its customers. The
kiosk must include the name and location of every shop, the types of products sold
Functio
and advertisements.
1 Write a storyboard for the information kiosk.
2 Describe the design principles that will be used as a basis for the kiosk.
3 If possible, develop a brief multimedia product for the information kiosk.

Chapter review
PART A 6 The number of bits per sample is called
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best the:
answers the question or completes the A sample size
statement. B sample rate
C sample measure
1 A storyboard layout that uses a top-
down design is called: D sample bit
A linear 7 Displaying the movement of objects
B hierarchical onto a fixed background is called:
C non-linear A cell-based animation
D combination B path-based animation
C warping
2 Data compression that allows the
original file to be recovered is called: D morphing
A lossy compression 8 Analog signals can be converted into
B original compression digital using:
C lossless compression A a video camera
D recovery compression B digital video production software
C a sound card
3 Which of the following is not a key
characteristic of multimedia? D a video capture card
A use of the latest technology 9 Which of the following is not a basic
B interactivity design principle for multimedia?
C different media types A special effects
D the Internet B consistency
C ease of navigation
4 Presentation software is a tool that
does not provide: D simplicity
A on-screen presentations on a 10 A sound file can be stored in the
monitor or projected onto a screen. following format:
B audience handouts of two or more A QuickTime
slides. B MPEG
C one view of a presentation. C JPEG
D overhead transparencies in portrait D WAV
or landscape orientation.
5 Presentation design templates often
contain a:
A transition
B colour scheme
C style
D format
Multimedia 273
Chapter review
PART B 15 A miniature picture of each slide in-
For each of the following statements, cluding text and graphics.
select from the list of terms the one that 16 A unit for measuring the speed of dis-
most closely fits the statement. Write the playing images.
List of terms
Statements a authoring software
1 A family of formats for compressed b cell-based animation
video that have become a standard. c file compression
2 A series of frames each representing a d interactivity
different action or screen image. e morphing
3 Reduces the number of bits required to f MPEG
represent information. g sampling
h slide
4 It is used to combine text, graphics, ani-
i storyboard
mation, audio and video into a multi-
media product. j WAV
k path-based animation
5 An individual screen or page of the
l FPS
presentation.
m thumbnail
6 Involves displaying the movement of n warping
objects onto a fixed background in a
o RealAudio
particular sequence.
p transition
7 An effect in which one image blends
smoothly into another. PART C
8 The method used by the ADC to digit- Write at least one paragraph on each of
ise a sound wave. the following questions.
9 A feature that allows the user to choose 1 Describe some of the characteristics of
the sequence and content of infor- a multimedia product.
mation. 2 Explain the difference between lossy
10 A format that stores either 8-bit or 16- and lossless compression.
bit sound. 3 How are slides created using presenta-
11 A special effect used to go from one tion software?
slide to the next. 4 Briefly explain the following terms:
12 Involves drawing and displaying a animation
individual frames or cells. b sampling rate.
13 A de facto standard for exchanging 5 What is the difference between morph-
sound files over the Internet. ing an image and warping an image?
14 Involves transforming or distorting a 6 Describe the three basic design prin-
portion of an image. ciples for an effective multimedia
product.

chapter
THE INTERNET
11
Outcomes
able to:
• describe the basic features of the Internet
• view Web pages that include text, images,
animation and video
• interpret Internet addresses
• use an Internet search engine to find data
• send and receive email and attachments Overview
• send email to multiple recipients, including This chapter will help you to become a
carbon copies (CC) confident user of the Internet. It examines the
• create a Web page. basic features of the Internet and the major
information processes involved in their use.
You will learn about Web browsers, Internet
addresses and electronic mail. The final
section describes Internet publishing and the
process of creating a Web page.
The Internet is a computer network, hence its major function is the transfer of
data and information. However, the use of the Internet may involve all seven
of the information processes. There is a particular emphasis on four
information processes:
• Collecting: The Internet can be used to gather information and data. Search
engines can be used to find the required information. (See section 11.1.)
• Storing and retrieving: The Internet can be used as a store for data and
information. (See section 11.2.)
• Transmitting and receiving: Data can be transferred by sending and receiv-
ing email, contributing to newsgroups, chatting and downloading files.
• Displaying: Web browsing software is used to display Web pages from the
Internet. Web authoring software is used to create and maintain Web
pages. (See section 11.4.)
11.1 Basic features

The Internet (also referred to as ‘the Net’) is the world’s biggest computer
network. It links millions of computers all around the world. These computers
are in homes, schools, universities, government departments and businesses. The
Internet was established in the early 1970s when the United States Department
of Defence was worried about military attacks from other countries. It did not
want the country’s defence network to be dependent on one main computer. At
first the network was established between government departments and
university sectors. However, people soon realised the potential of a computer
network that everybody could use. The 1990s has seen a huge increase in the
use of the Internet by businesses, educational institutions and individuals.
The main uses of the Internet today include:
• communication, using electronic mail (email), Internet chat and video-
conferencing
• accessing information from Web sites, databases and newsgroups
• downloading software
• conducting business and transferring funds
• playing interactive multimedia games, listening to music and watching videos.
Functio
Connecting to the Internet

For most users, establishing a connection to the Internet requires a computer, a
modem, a telephone line, an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
and appropriate software, such as a Web browser and an email program. A
modem is a device that enables the transmission of data from one computer to
another. It may be internal (located inside the system unit) or external
(connected as a peripheral device). An ISP is an organisation that provides
access to the Internet for a fee. There are hundreds of ISPs in Australia, each
offering a particular level of service and support for a specified charge.

Function
ITITFact
Fact
The ‘Information Superhighway’ is a popular name for the Internet and
other related computer networks. It was first used in 1993 by US Vice
President Al Gore in a speech outlining plans to build a high-speed
national data communications network.
All computers connected to the

Internet communicate with each other
using a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern the transmission of data
between computer devices. The protocol
used on the Internet is called TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol). It is a common language for data
transmission and error detection across the
Internet. It works by breaking information
into smaller packets of data. Each data
packet contains the information and the
address of the receiving computer. The
TCP standards inform the receiving
computer what is inside the data packet
and the IP standard tells the computer
where and how to send the packet.
The World Wide Web collecting

One of the most popular features of the Internet is the World Wide Web
(WWW or Web). It provides a user-friendly interface to the Internet and quick
access to documents. The Web began to gain mass popularity in 1993. Today a
vast range of information, software, advice and business is located on the Web.
The Web is an Internet network that allows people at one computer to
collect information stored on another computer. People connect to other
computers to look at Web sites. A Web site is a group of documents that present
information on a particular topic. Each document is called a Web page. Web
pages are stored on powerful computers called servers. Each server may store
thousands of Web pages from different Web sites. To view a particular Web page,
your computer connects to the server and finds the appropriate Web site. You
view a Web page using software called a Web browser. (Web browsers are
discussed in more detail in section 11.2.)
The Web is like a house with millions of rooms each containing pieces of
information. Each room may have many doors to other rooms. The ‘rooms’ are
Web pages and the ‘doors’ are hyperlinks (see Figure 11.1). A hyperlink is a
piece of text or graphic that contains an embedded link to another piece of text,
an image or another Web page. Clicking on the hyperlink causes the computer
to ‘jump’ to the link destination. The expressions ‘surfing the Net’ or ‘browsing’
refer to the experience of jumping from one page to another using hyperlinks. A
hyperlink can take the user to another part of the same Web page, to another
page within the Web site, or to a page in another Web site, possibly in a different
country.
The Internet 277

The button and the
underlined text are both
hyperlinks to the same
location
Figure 11.1 A Web page showing hyperlinks.
transmitting Usenet and newsgroups

& receiving Usenet (users’ network) is a collection of discussion groups in which people
with common interests can exchange information. It works like an electronic
noticeboard. People can read messages and join in discussions by sending, or
‘posting’, messages. Each discussion group is referred to as a newsgroup. There
are thousands of newsgroups on an enormous range of topics. Newsgroups are
read each day by people from all over the world and provide a large diversity of
opinion and knowledge. Each newsgroup is classified into one of eight major
categories:
• computers (comp)
• social issues (soc)
• science (sci)
• recreation (rec)
• discussion (talk)
• miscellaneous (misc)
• newsgroups (news)
• alternative (alt).
These letters appear at the start of a newsgroup’s name and indicate its major
category. The rest of the name defines the specific topic of the newsgroup. For
example:
comp.sys.mac.misc
is a newsgroup that deals with miscellaneous issues about the Macintosh com-
puter system.
Functio
There are rules regarding appropriate behaviour in newsgroups. Some of the

rules are:
• Enter a newsgroup for several days and read the messages before you make a
posting. (This is known as ‘lurking’.) Determine what is appropriate for that
particular newsgroup.
• Post inoffensive messages. Be aware of cultural differences.
• Do not post messages that infringe copyright.
• Do not send the same message to various newsgroups (‘spamming’).

Function
Internet Relay Chat transmitting
Chatting on the Internet is divided into three main groups: text, graphical and & receiving
voice. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is the most common text-based system. It
provides a real-time conversation with one person or with hundreds of people.
People meet for a chat in chat rooms (or on chat channels) which are located on
computers called IRC servers. A chat room is a virtual room where people can
talk in groups or privately, usually on a particular topic (see Figure 11.2). Most
chat rooms are open to everyone and you can contribute to ongoing discussions
by typing a few lines. Graphical and voice chat software requires more
computer power but is increasing in popularity.
People have made friends and have even met future husbands and wives
through chat sessions. However, people can also make up different personalities
and pretend to be anything they want to be. There are dangers for users,
particularly children, in being exploited. In general, you should never reveal
your address or phone number in a chat session. In addition, there are rules
regarding appropriate behaviour in chats:
• Respect the privacy of people in chat rooms. Do not enter private channels.
• Do not write long messages. Long messages are best sent using electronic
mail.
• Do not use offensive language. If you have a disagreement with someone, just
ignore them.
• Be friendly to other people, particularly newcomers.
Figure 11.2 Some messages from a chat room that specialises in the Web.
Downloading files transmitting

Web pages are made up of files, which may include text, graphics, animation, & receiving
video and sound. There can also be software files connected to Web pages via
hyperlinks. As well as viewing a Web page, it is possible to copy the associated
files from the Web server to your own computer. This is called downloading.
The text from a Web page is downloaded using the browser’s ‘Save As’
command. It can be saved as an HTML file (using formatting codes that are
interpreted by a Web browser) or as raw text. Graphics can be saved separately.
Many files are downloaded in a compressed format. Data compression compacts
The Internet 279

the file so that it takes up less room. Two common compressed formats are zip
and hqx. These files require the user to decompress or expand them using a
compression program such as WinZip or StuffIt.
Just because it is easy to do, using downloaded files from the Internet is not
necessarily legal. Information published on the Internet is protected by
copyright, just like information published in a book. This applies to all types of
data, not just text. Copyright places legal limits on what you can do with the
data. (See Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion of copyright.) If you use informa-
tion from a Web page in your own written work, it must be correctly cited along
with the other references you have used.
Exercise 11.1
1 List the tools required to connect to the Internet.
2 Describe the protocol used on the Internet.
3 Where are Web pages stored?
4 Explain the term ‘surfing the Net’.
5 Describe four rules regarding appropriate behaviour in a newsgroup.
6 Why are there dangers in chatting on the Internet?
7 What is data compression? List two common compressed formats.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Investigate the Internet resources at school and the community by answering the
following questions.
a How many computers at school have Internet access? Where are they located?
b Are there any restrictions on student access to the Internet?
c Does any censorship or blocking software restrict student access to the
Internet? What is the name of this software?
d Does the local library offer Internet access? What are the arrangements for
access?
e Do you know the location of any Internet cafes? What are the arrangements
for access?
2 In a study of university students, it was found that a significant proportion of
university dropouts were using the Internet for four or more hours a day,
including late at night. Is this excessive use of the Internet a problem? Why? How
would you help a friend if they were spending too much time on the Internet?
Functio
11.2 Web browsers

A Web browser is a software program stored on a computer that allows it to
find, read and display Web pages. Early versions of browsers were only capable
of accessing text files. Today’s Web browsers use a graphical user interface.
Popular browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Online
service providers such as America Online (AOL) and CompuServe provide a
browser free of charge as part of their subscription package. Web browsers

Function
display Web pages, link to other Web pages and download information to your
computer.
A Web browser will display a Web page if the address (or location) is entered
directly into the browser. It will receive graphics files that are embedded in the
Web page. Web pages that have graphic files or multimedia files take longer to
download, as they are larger in size. Browsers have the ability to store the
addresses of selected Web pages. These stored addresses are called bookmarks or
favourites and save time accessing frequently used Web pages. Web browsers
also have a range of commands or buttons that make them easier to use. Some
of the basic commands are listed in Table 11.1.
Command or button Use

Back Displays the previous Web page
Forward Displays the next Web page
Refresh Reloads the current Web page from the server
Home Returns to the home page
Stop Interrupts the download of a Web page
Print Prints all or a portion of the current Web page
Search Displays Web search tools
Table 11.1 Some common Web browser tools.
Internet addresses storing &

IP addresses retrieving
Each computer connected to the Internet has a unique address called an IP
address (Internet Protocol address). Most IP addresses use four bytes (32 bits)
grouped in four 8-bit segments separated by a full stop (period). For example,
the IP address for Microsoft is 205.188.200.58. A new generation of IP addresses
uses 16 bytes (128 bits) grouped in eight 16-bit segments separated by a full
stop. IP addresses are difficult for people to understand, so another addressing
system is used based on domain names.
Domain names
A domain name is the address of a specific computer on the Internet. Domain
names are translated into IP addresses. Because they are based on English, they
are easier for people to remember than IP addresses. Domain names can look
complicated but they are easier to understand when they are broken down into
parts. Each part is separated by a full stop and is called a domain. For example,
www.hi.com.au is a domain name in which:
• ‘www’ stands for World Wide Web
• ‘hi’ stands for Heinemann Interactive and is the name of the specific
computer
• ‘com’ is the organisational domain
• ‘au’ is the geographical domain.
Organisational domains include ‘edu’ for education, ‘mil’ for military, ‘gov’
for government, ‘com’ for commercial, ‘net’ for network and ‘org’ for non-profit
organisation.
The Internet 281

The geographical domain indicates the country in which the server is located.
Geographical domains include ‘au’ for Australia, ‘uk’ for United Kingdom, ‘fr’
for France and ‘ca’ for Canada. The USA is the only country without a geo-
graphical domain, although some US sites have adopted ‘us’ as the geographical
domain.
Uniform Resource Locator

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator, pronounced ‘you–are–ell’) is the address of
a file or resource on the Web. It is usually in lower case in a single unbroken line
with no spaces, such as http://www.hi.com.au/infoprocess (see Figure 11.3).
URLs must be complete and exact, otherwise the file or resource will not be
found. There are three parts to a URL: the protocol, the domain name and the
file path.
• Protocol: This indicates a particular type of resource on the Web. For most
Web pages, the protocol will be http:// (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). It
allows access to Web pages based on hypertext. Another type of protocol is
ftp:// (File Transfer Protocol). It allows files to be transferred between
computers on the Internet.
• Domain name: This is the address of the specific computer where the
resource is located, such as hi.com.au. The domain name is interchangeable
with the IP address.
• File path: This is the full path to the file to be retrieved. It may be a simple
file name or a directory path, such as /infoprocess. The domain name and
the file path are separated by a forward slash (/).
Functio
Figure 11.3 The URL directs the Web browser to the server on which the Web page is stored.
storing&
retrieving
Searching the Web
Searching the Internet to find information can be like looking for a needle in a
haystack. There is a mass information in different locations. Knowing the URL
of a Web page is one way to find the information you are looking for. However,
in most cases you will need to carry out a search before you will know which
Web pages are relevant. The Internet offers a range of tools to find information
such as search engines.
Function
ITITFact
Fact
‘Brochureware’ refers to Web sites that offer very little information and no
interactivity. These Web sites are created by organisations simply to have a
presence on the Web. They are of very limited value to the organisation or
to the public.
Search engines
A search engine is a database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using
keywords. The index is built by regularly scanning the Web for new sites and
accepting submissions from Web page authors. A search engine is accessed using
a Web browser. There are dozens of search engines available on the Web,
including Yahoo!, AltaVista, Excite and Magellan. Search engines have different
methods of building their indexes and will often obtain different results from
the same search. Some search engines provide directories of Web sites organised
into categories such as technology, entertainment, or sport (see Figure 11.4).
Good search engines are easy to use and provide precise results.
Figure 11.4 The Yahoo! search engine provides a directory of Web sites organised into
categories. These can be searched by keyword.
Search engines require the user to enter one or more keywords related to
their topic of interest. In addition, most search engines allow users to search for
specific items such as graphics. When the user enters a keyword and clicks the
‘Search’ button, the search engine scans its index and lists the Web sites that
contain that keyword. The listing is usually in order of relevance and is in the
form of hyperlinks. This allows the user to access the listed Web pages by simply
clicking on them.
Selecting a keyword is crucial to the success of a search. In general, it is best
to include synonyms where appropriate (such as ‘illness’ and ‘disease’) and to
use keywords that are very specific. This will avoid being overloaded with
information. Search engines generally allow the user to combine keywords in
various ways, as shown in Table 11.2.
The Internet 283
Operator Result Example
Phrase Two or more words are specified and the “Apple Computing”
search engine looks for an exact match
And Searches for documents that contain both apple AND computer
keywords in any order
Or Searches for documents that contain at apple OR macintosh
least one keyword in any order
Not Searches for documents that do not contain apple NOT fruit
the keyword
Table 11.2 Examples of combining keywords.
Different search engines use different methods to index Web sites, handle
keywords and display results. For example, some search engines match keywords
in the Web page title, while others use the body of the text. It is advisable to get
experience using more than one search engine to become familiar with their
capabilities.
There are good reasons to use the Internet to find information: it is
constantly updated, it can be faster to access compared to other methods of
publishing, and it can be more convenient. However, just because something is
on the Internet doesn’t mean it is correct or up-to-date. You should always try to
verify information from the Internet and use well-known sources wherever
possible.
Exercise 11.2
1 List the tasks performed by a Web browser.
2 What is the purpose of a bookmark or favourite?
3 List seven basic commands found in most Web browsers.
4 Why do people use domain names instead of IP addresses?
5 Describe the file path of a URL.
6 What is a search engine?
7 Outline four ways keywords can be combined in searches.
8 List some good reasons to use the Internet to find information.
9 ‘People who “surf the Net” often get lost and do not use their time efficiently.’
Functio
Do you agree with this statement? Why? What steps can you take to ensure you
are proficient in using the Internet?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Start up a Web browser and answer these questions.
a What is the name of the home page?
b How do you stop a Web page from loading?
c How is a Web page restored after loading has been interrupted?
d Where are popular Web sites stored?
e How do you go back to sites you have visited during the session?
Function
2 Compare three different Web sites by answering the questions below for each
one. Three possible sites to compare are:
http://www.ibm.com
http://microsoft.com
http://www.apple.com
a What is the purpose of the Web site?
b How easy is it to move around the Web site?
c How current are the Web sites?
d Which is the best Web site? Why?
3 Find information on your favourite topic using more than one search engine.
Some search engine URLs are:
http://www.altavista.com
http//www.excite.com
http//www.yahoo!.com
http//www.hotbot.com
http//www.dogpile.com
a How many Web sites were found?
b Narrow the search by combining keywords.
c Save 10 relevant Web sites as Bookmarks or Favourites.
d Organise the saved Bookmarks or Favourites into appropriate folders.
e Check that the Bookmarks or Favourites work.
4 Find an interesting Web site.
a Download the following data and save it using word processing software and
the filename WEBSITE.
i a Web page and its URL
ii a block of text on the Web page
iii a graphic on the Web page
b Correctly cite the Internet source at the beginning of the document.
11.3 Electronic mail

Electronic mail (email) allows people to communicate by sending and receiving
electronic messages using a computer. Email was one of the earliest uses of the
Internet and has been around for about 40 years. In many business situations
email messages have replaced memos and traditional handwritten letters (which
are referred to by Internet users as ‘snail mail’). Email has the following advan-
tages over other methods of sending messages:
• Speed: Email is fast. A message can be sent around the world in less than a
minute.
• Multiple receivers: The same message can be sent to more than one user
without having to copy the message.
• Cost: Email is relatively cheap compared to postal charges. The only cost is
the cost of the call to the user’s Internet Service Provider.
• Convenience: An email message can be sent at any time of the night or day.
The recipient does not have to be at their computer to receive the message.
• Storage and reuse: Email messages can be saved for future reference or
inserted into other documents.
The Internet 285
• File transfer: Virtually any kind of computer file can be attached to an email
message. Files can be sent within organisations or around the world.
Email systems work on computer networks of all sizes, from LANs (local
area networks) to the Internet. They require email software to send, receive and
manage email messages. Most modern Web browsers include an email com-
ponent and there are also separate email applications, such as Microsoft Out-
look, Netscape Mail and Eudora. In addition to email software the user needs an
account with an ISP. The ISP provides the user with a unique email address.
Web-based email is a recent development that avoids the need for specialised
email software. The user subscribes to a Web-based email service and is then
able to send and receive email by visiting a particular Web site using a Web
browser. Services such as hotmail.com. and yahoo.com provide free Web-based
email addresses. The cost is paid for by advertisers who place advertisements on
the Web site.
transmitting Email addresses

& receiving An email message can be sent to anyone who has an email address. Email
addresses are unique and consists of two parts separated by the @ (‘at’) symbol
in the form:
name@domain name
The first part is the name of the account. It is often a person’s username and
is chosen when the user opens an account with an ISP. The second part is the
domain name. It is the location of the person’s account on the Internet. The
domain name identifies the specific computer or server where the email
messages are stored. For example, the address
John.Smith@redeye.net.au
consists of the following parts:
• John.Smith is the username. If a user applies for a name that is already in use,
it may be adapted by adding some more letters or numbers.
• redeye.net.au is the domain name. Redeye is the ISP, ‘net’ means it is a net-
work (Internet) organisation and ‘au’ is for Australia.
transmitting Email messages

& receiving When an email message is sent to someone it is stored in a ‘mailbox’ on their
ISP’s email server. It stays on the server until the person checks their email.
Email messages are often short and informal, and may be typed very quickly. In
informal messages, users often use inventive spellings, such as ‘thanx’ and ‘enuff’
and write all in lower case. The user does not have to be online to compose an
email message. Messages can be written offline and sent when the user logs onto
a LAN or to the Internet. This saves money if the ISP charges by the hour. In
Functio
addition to the sender’s email address, an email message contains five main parts
(see Figure 11.5):
• email address (To:)—the address of the person receiving the message (the
recipient)
• subject—the topic of the message or a brief description
• carbon copy (Cc:)—sends the same message to people other than the main
recipient (optional)
• blind carbon copy (Bcc:)—sends a copy to other people without revealing
who else got the message (optional)

Function
Figure 11.5 An email message with an attachment.
• main body—the body of the message typed using the email software or
imported from a word processor.
Bandwidth refers to the information-carrying capacity of the cables and wires
that connect the computers together. There is a limit to the amount of
information that can be carried. For that reason, it is advisable to check with the
recipient before sending large files, such as those containing video clips. Keep
bandwidth in mind when sending messages and try to be concise and clear.
Large files can be compressed before sending to save time and bandwidth. When
a person receives a compressed file they must decompress it using the
appropriate software.
After an email is read it can be deleted or stored in an appropriate folder on
the hard disk for later reference. You can reply to an email message simply by
clicking on the ‘Reply’ button. A new message window is opened with the
address of the original sender automatically inserted. The previous message can
be retained to remind the person of their original message. This is called
quoting. The prefix ‘Re:’ may be added to the original subject line to identify
the ‘thread’ of the message. Forwarding a message involves sending a message
you received to someone else.
ITITFact
Fact
An ‘e-bomb’ is a large and useless electronic mail message that is sent to
other users and creates havoc with their hard drives. E-bombs are some-
times sent with good intentions, such as advertising.
Creating email
Email software provides a number of features to help users create their email.
An address book is used to store email addresses. This saves having to remember
each person’s address and type it into an email message. A mailing list is a group
of people who want to receive the same messages. It may be people working on
the same project or a group of people with the same interests. Mailing lists are
created by entering the email address of each person in the list and giving the
list a name. A signature is several lines that are automatically appended to all
The Internet 287

outgoing email messages. It may include contact details, the person’s occupation,
a Web site URL or a graphic.
The widespread use of email has resulted in some informal rules to improve
their readability and clarity. These rules are often referred to as ‘netiquette’ and
include the following:
• Keep messages short (less than a screen) and to the point.
• Avoid using email for trivia and gossip.
• Avoid using all capital letters—it is considered shouting.
• Make the subject line as meaningful as possible.
• Add blank lines between paragraphs.
In addition, some people make use of informal devices such as ‘emotions’ and
acronyms.
• ‘Emotions’ are little icons that show feelings, such as :) for smiling.
• Common acronyms include IRL for ‘in real life’ and BTW for ‘by the way’.
Attachments
Attachments are computer files sent with the email message. They can be any
kind of file, including text, video, audio, graphics or programs. Clearly the
receiver of the email must have an application that can read or convert the file.
When sending an attachment it is important to include a brief explanation in
the main body of the email message. The explanation should state that there is
an attachment and give its filename and format.
All email programs need to encode file attachments into characters, since the
Internet TCP/IP does not allow transmission of binary code. Many email
programs use Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME). It is an Internet
protocol that is able to negotiate many different operating systems and types of
software. It has been a major step forward in the ability to exchange files other
than text files.
Exercise 11.3
1 What is electronic mail?
2 List some of the advantages of using email.
3 What is the first part of an email address?
4 What happens to the email after it has been sent?
5 Explain the difference between carbon copy and blind carbon copy.
6 What is quoting?
Functio
7 How are feelings shown in an email message?

8 Why is it important to include a brief explanation in the main body of an email
when sending attachments?
9 Employees have been dismissed for making comments about their bosses in email
messages. The courts have ruled that organisations have the right to access their
employees’ email on their computer networks. Is this an invasion of privacy? Who
should have access to email at work? Why?

Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a brief email message include an emoticon or acronym.
a Send the email message to a friend and a carbon copy to the teacher.
b Check that your partner received the email message.
c Send a reply to your partner by quoting.
d Forward the message to another person in your class.
2 Create an email message that contains an attachment such as a simple text
document. The email should contain a brief explanation of the attachment.
a Send the email message to a friend and a carbon copy to the teacher.
b Check that your friend received the email message and was able to open the
attachment.
3 Create an email questionnaire on a research topic.
a Choose a topic such as the number people in your family.
b Design a simple questionnaire with only one or two questions.
c Create a mailing list and send the email questionnaire.
d Collate the results. (A spreadsheet is useful tool to collate and chart the results.)
e Distribute the results of the survey to people on the mailing list and thank
them for their participation.
11.4 Internet publishing

The Internet has allowed millions of people around the world to become
authors and publishers. Although Internet publishing can make use of email,
newsgroups or electronic magazines (e-zines), most people equate Internet
publishing with Web publishing. There are a number of advantages in Web
publishing:
• Web pages can be read by all computers connected to the Internet, which
means there is a huge potential audience worldwide.
• Information on the Web page can be quickly updated and revised.
• Feedback can be obtained immediately from the Web site.
• Professional-looking Web pages are relatively easy to create.
Web pages displaying

Before creating a Web page it is advisable to critically examine other Web pages.
Analyse their purpose, page layout, text, multimedia material and links, and the
accuracy of the information. There are five main stages in creating a Web page:
planning, designing, implementing, publishing, and testing and evaluating.
Planning
The first task in creating a Web page is to establish a clear purpose and identify
an audience. This will influence the page layout, language level and content of
the Web page. The audience might be other students at your school, the school
community or students in other schools.
The next task is to determine how you are going to attract the audience. This
could involve compelling content, graphics or multimedia material. The page
needs to get the users’ attention and make them want to come back again.
The Internet 289

When planning a Web page there are certain conventions that will save time
and result in a professional-looking product. Some of these are listed below.
• The Web page should be less than one A4 page in length, or two to three
scrolled screens. Many Web pages are the size of the average computer
screen.
• The main elements of the Web page should be located on the first screen or
home page. This often includes a brief introduction and a hypertext table of
contents.
• There should be consistent navigation throughout all Web pages that make
up the site. Every page should be linked to the home page (see Figure 11.6).
• Use a style that is consistent and appropriate for the purpose of the Web
page. Avoid using too many fonts and styles.
• A user should be able to find the information they want within three mouse
clicks. If users cannot find information quickly and easily they will go to
another site. Do not overcrowd a page.
• Web pages should load in less than eight seconds otherwise users will
become impatient. Avoid the overuse of graphics and other elements that
will slow down the loading of a Web page. Reusing graphics on a number of
pages will be faster than using different graphics on each page.
Figure 11.6 The home page of PC User magazine’s Web site. Note the clear,
uncluttered layout and the defined areas for navigation links.
Functio
Designing
People read Web pages in the same way as they read other published
documents—starting at the top left corner of the page and working their way
across and down the page. Web pages need to be designed to assist this reading
gravity. There are six important elements in the design of a Web page: text,
colour, multimedia, navigation and layout.
• Text should be clear and legible and in one or two typefaces only. Care
should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic. Underlining should
only be used for hyperlinks. Long lines of text are difficult to read. Using a
Function
border down the left-hand side of the page is a common technique for
shortening the line length.
• Colour should be used carefully. Using many different colours can be dis-
tracting and reduce readability. Dark text on a light background or vice versa
usually works well. Avoid using colours that have specific meanings. For
example, ‘unused’ hyperlinks are usually shown in blue and ‘used’ hyperlinks
in purple.
• Graphics create visual interest but are slow to load. When using graphics,
consider the size of the graphic, whether the icons are instantly recognisable
and whether the graphic easily fits on the screen. Two common graphic
formats are JPEG and GIF. (See pages 221 and 225 for a discussion of
graphic file formats.)
• Multimedia should not be an essential part of a Web page as some users
might not have the right software or hardware to view it. If you want to
include a Web page with multimedia, have it accessed from a standard Web
page on which you advise users of the software required. It is important to
advise users about the size of any sound or video files on your site.
• Navigation is an essential component of any Web page—people need to
understand where they are and where they can go. Colouring different areas
of the page, using visual symbols (icons and arrows), inserting clear page
headers and creating simple hyperlinks improves navigation.
• Layout should provide a user-friendly interface with all the above elements
working together. Other features to consider are bulleted lists, columns,
tables, scroll bars, alignment, line spacing, and horizontal and vertical lines.
Implementing
Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML is a
set of special instructions (called tags) that indicate how parts of a document
will be displayed. Hyperlinks are special tags that can be attached to text or
graphics to create a link to another Web page. Hypertext links are often shown
in blue and are usually underlined. All hyperlinks refer to a particular Internet
address (URL).
A range of software can be used to create a file in HTML format, including
many word processors, desktop publishing programs and multimedia authoring
programs. Software developed for the specific purpose of creating Web pages is
called Web authoring software. Common Web authoring packages include
Microsoft FrontPage, Netscape Navigator Gold, Adobe GoLive and Claris Home
Page. These programs allow the user to create Web pages without having to
understand HTML code. Web authoring programs allow the user to import text,
graphics, tables, audio and video from other programs. A Web page is built from
these elements.
Publishing
Web pages are normally published and stored on a server. A server stores
thousands of Web pages from different Web sites. People visit a Web site by
connecting to the server. Large organisations have their own Web servers.
Smaller organisations and individuals pay to have their Web site ‘hosted’ by an
ISP. ISPs charge a fee that is dependent on the total file size of the Web site,
including graphics, sound and video. The larger the Web site, the larger the
hosting fee. Many ISPs include a small amount of space on their Web server as
part of their service to subscribers who open an Internet account with them.
The Internet 291
Once a Web page has been created, it needs to be transferred to a server so
that it becomes part of the Internet. The process is called uploading. Files are
uploaded to the server using FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
After the Web site has been published, it needs to be advertised so people are
aware of its existence. There are two main methods of advertising Web pages:
via search engines and newsgroups.
Search engines require the author of the Web page to write a short
description and identify relevant categories. This is known as ‘registering’ the
Web page with the search engine. There are online services that can help you
register the Web page with a number of search engines simultaneously.
Newsgroups can also be good places to advertise Web sites. Messages are
posted to relevant newsgroups summarising the content of the Web pages.
Testing and evaluating

Web pages are tested throughout their development using a Web browser. All
the elements can be examined offline with the exception of hyperlinks. The
Web pages are checked to get an overview and to ensure that all the elements
are working together. It is useful to check the Web pages using different
computer platforms (e.g. Windows and Macintosh) and using different types of
Web browsers to make sure the result will be acceptable to all users. There are
also online validation services that will check Web pages (see Figure 11.7). A
final test is completed online to ensure the hyperlinks are working. If a
hyperlink is incorrect, the visitor will receive a message that tells them the page
they are looking for does not exist.
Functio
Figure 11.7 An online validation service.
Web sites are evaluated to determine whether they are satisfying their
original purpose. An independent person should complete the evaluation to
ensure it is unbiased. Web pages are evaluated for efficiency and effectiveness.
• Efficiency can be measured in the time taken to load the page, the ease of
navigation and whether the cost was justified.
• Effectiveness is measured in terms of the quality of presentation, the
accuracy of information and whether it is clearly understood.
Function
Web pages need to be maintained regularly to keep them up-to-date. The
maintenance can often take up more time than the original design. The content
is checked for accuracy and the hyperlinks examined to see if they are still
appropriate. The revision date is often entered onto the Web pages so that
people are aware of the last update.
ITITFact
Fact
A ‘flame war’ is when a long-standing debate on the Internet becomes
abusive without any form of mediation.
Exercise 11.4
1 List the advantages of publishing on the Internet.
2 How do Web sites attract an audience?
3 Describe the elements of good design for:
a text b colour.
4 Outline four ways of improving a Web site’s navigation.
5 What are some of the advantages of using Web authoring software?
6 How do you advertise a Web page?
7 Why is a final test of a Web site completed online?
8 How are Web sites evaluated?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1 Create a personal Web page about yourself. Do not include contact information
such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using your name.
Follow the stages outlined below.
a Plan the page layout, content and features.
b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and
navigation.
c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software.
d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list
relevant categories.
e Test the Web page using a Web browser.
2 Create a Web page about a person you admire. Do not include contact infor-
mation such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using their
name. Follow the stages outlined below.
a Plan the page layout, content and features.
b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and
navigation.
c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software.
d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list
relevant categories.
e Test the Web page using a Web browser.
The Internet 293

Chapter review
PART A 6 Search engines require the user to
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best enter a:
answers the question or completes the A keyword
statement. B URL
C phrase
1 The world’s biggest computer network
is the: D domain name
A World Wide Web 7 Communicating by sending and receiv-
B LAN ing electronic messages using a com-
C Ethernet puter is called:
D Internet A chatting
B email
2 A discussion group on a particular topic
C a newsgroup
is called a:
D a Web site
A Usenet
B chat room 8 A group of people who may want to
C newsgroup receive the same messages is a:
D ISP A quoting
B carbon copy
3 Connecting to the Internet does not
C address book
require:
D mailing list
A an ISP
B a modem 9 Which of the following is not a conven-
C a browser tion when planning a Web page?
D email A Multimedia is an essential part of
every Web page.
4 HTML stands for: B The main elements of a Web page
A Hypertag Markup Language are on the home page.
B Hypertag Markbook Language C Use a style that is consistent and
C Hypertext Markup Language appropriate for the purpose of the
D Hypertext Markbook Language Web page.
5 Which of the following is not part of a D A Web page should be less than one
URL? A4 page in length.
A IP address 10 A Web site is advertised using:
B protocol A a Web browser
C domain name B Web authoring software
D file path C a search engine
D email

Chapter review
PART B 15 The Internet protocol used to exchange
For each of the following statements, files other than text files.
select from the list of terms the one that 16 Informal rules about appropriate
most closely fits the statement. Write the behaviour on the Internet.
List of terms
Statements
a attachments
1 An organisation that provides access to b bandwidth
the Internet for a fee.
c domain name
2 A protocol used on the Internet. d IRC
3 A group of documents that present e ISP
information on a particular topic. f search engine
4 It provides a real-time conversation g TCP/IP
with one person or with hundreds of h Web browser
people. i Web authoring software
5 A software program stored on a com- j Web site
puter that allows access to the Web. k mailing list
6 The address of a specific computer on l URL
the Internet. m MIME
7 A database of indexed Web sites that n netiquette
can be searched using keywords. o Usenet
8 Computer files sent with the email mes- p email
sage such as text, video, sound, pictures PART C
and programs.
9 The information-carrying capacity of the following questions.
the cables and wires that connect com-
puters together. 1 When was the Internet first estab-
lished? When did it become popular?
10 Imports text, graphics, tables, audio Why?
and video from other programs to
create a Web page. 2 Describe the World Wide Web. What is
a hyperlink?
11 A collection of discussion groups in
which people with common interests 3 Describe the three parts of a URL.
can exchange information. 4 Briefly explain the following terms:
12 The address of a file or resource on the a Internet address
Web. b email.
13 It allows people to communicate by 5 Outline some of the rules for appropri-
sending and receiving electronic ate behaviour in newsgroups, chat
messages using a computer. sessions and email messages.
14 A group of people who want to receive 6 Describe the five main stages in
the same message. creating a Web page.
The Internet 295

Appendix: ASCII and EBCDIC codes
ASCII
Character Description Decimal Hexadecimal ASCII code
NUL Null 0 0 0000000
SOH Start of heading 1 1 0000001
STX Start of text 2 2 0000010
ETX End of text 3 3 0000011
EOT End of transmission 4 4 0000100
ENQ Enquiry 5 5 0000101
ACK Acknowledge 6 6 0000110
BEL Bell 7 7 0000111
BS Backspace 8 8 0001000
HT Horizontal tab 9 9 0001001
LF Line feed 10 A 0001010
VT Vertical tab 11 B 0001011
FF Form feed 12 C 0001100
CR Carriage return 13 D 0001101
SO Shift out 14 E 0001110
SI Shift in 15 F 0001111
DLE Data link escape 16 10 0010000
DC1 Device control 1 17 11 0010001
NAK Negative acknowledge 21 15 0010101
SYN Synchronous idle 22 16 0010110
ETB End of trans block 23 17 0010111
CAN Cancel 24 18 0011000
EM End of medium 25 19 0011001
SUB Substitute 26 1A 0011010
ESC Escape 27 1B 0011011
FS File separator 28 1C 0011100
GS Group separator 29 1D 0011101
RS Record separator 30 1E 0011110
Functio
US Unit separator 31 1F 0011111

Space 32 20 0100000
! Exclamation mark 33 21 0100001
" Double quote 34 22 0100010
# Hash 35 23 0100011
$ Dollar 36 24 0100100
% Percent 37 25 0100101
& Ampersand 38 26 0100110
296 Appendix
Function
' Quote 39 27 0100111
( Open parenthesis 40 28 0101000
) Close parenthesis 41 29 0101001
* Asterisk 42 2A 0101010
+ Plus 43 2B 0101011
, Comma 44 2C 0101100
- Minus 45 2D 0101101
. Full stop 46 2E 0101110
/ Oblique stroke 47 2F 0101111
0 48 30 0110000
1 49 31 0110001
2 50 32 0110010
3 51 33 0110011
4 52 34 0110100
5 53 35 0110101
6 54 36 0110110
7 55 37 0110111
8 56 38 0110000
9 57 39 0111001
: Colon 58 3A 0111010
; Semicolon 59 3B 0111011
< Less than 60 3C 0111100
= Equals 61 3D 0111101
> Greater than 62 3E 0111110
? Question mark 63 3F 0111111
@ Commercial at 64 40 1000000
A 65 41 1000001
B 66 42 1000010
C 67 43 1000011
D 68 44 1000100
E 69 45 1000101
F 70 46 1000110
G 71 47 1000111
H 72 48 1001000
I 73 49 1001001
J 74 4A 1001010
K 75 4B 1001011
L 76 4C 1001100
M 77 4D 1001101
N 78 4E 1001110
O 79 4F 1001111
P 80 50 1010000
Q 81 51 1010001
R 82 52 1010010
S 83 53 1010011
Appendix 297
T 84 54 1010100
U 85 55 1010101
V 86 56 1010110
W 87 57 1010111
X 88 58 1011000
Y 89 59 1011001
Z 90 5A 1011010
[ Open square bracket 91 5B 1011011
\ Backslash 92 5C 1011100
] Close square bracket 93 5D 1011101
^ Caret 94 5E 1011110
_ Underscore 95 5F 1011111
` Back quote 96 60 1100000
a 97 61 1100001
b 98 62 1100010
c 99 63 1100011
d 100 64 1100100
e 101 65 1100101
f 102 66 1100110
g 103 67 1100111
h 104 68 1101000
i 105 69 1101001
j 106 6A 1101010
k 107 6B 1101011
l 108 6C 1101100
m 109 6D 1101101
n 110 6E 1101110
o 111 6F 1101111
p 112 70 1110000
q 113 71 1110001
r 114 72 1110010
s 115 73 1110011
t 116 74 1110100
u 117 75 1110101
v 118 76 1110110
w 119 77 1110111
x 120 78 1111000
Functio
y 121 79 1111001
z 122 7A 1111010
{ Open curly bracket 123 7B 1111011
| Vertical bar 124 7C 1111100
} Close curly bracket 125 7D 1111101
~ Tilde 126 7E 1111110
DEL Delete 127 7F 1111111
298 Appendix
Function
EBCDIC
Character Decimal Hexadecimal EBCDIC code
blank 64 40 01000000
. 75 4B 01001011
< 76 4C 01001100
( 77 4D 01001101
+ 78 4E 01001110
| 79 4F 01001111
& 80 50 01010000
! 90 5A 01011010
$ 91 5B 01011011
* 92 5C 01011100
) 93 5D 01011101
; 94 5E 01011110
- 96 60 01011111
/ 97 61 01100000
, 107 6B 01101011
% 108 6C 01101100
_ 109 6D 01101101
> 110 6E 01101110
? 111 6F 01101111
` 121 79 01111001
: 122 7A 01111010
# 123 7B 01111011
@ 124 7C 01111100
' 125 7D 01111101
= 126 7E 01111110
" 127 7F 01111111
a 129 81 10000001
b 130 82 10000010
c 131 83 10000011
d 132 84 10000100
e 133 85 10000101
f 134 86 10000110
g 135 87 10000111
h 136 88 10001000
i 137 89 10001001
j 145 91 10010001
k 146 92 10010010
l 147 93 10010011
m 148 94 10010100
Appendix 299
n 149 95 10010101
o 150 96 10010110
p 151 97 10010111
q 152 98 10011000
r 153 99 10011001
~ 161 A1 10100001
s 162 A2 10100010
t 163 A3 10100011
u 164 A4 10100100
v 165 A5 10100101
w 166 A6 10100110
x 167 A7 10100111
y 168 A8 10101000
z 169 A9 10101001
{ 192 C0 11000000
A 193 C1 11000001
B 194 C2 11000010
C 195 C3 11000011
D 196 C4 11000100
E 197 C5 11000101
F 198 C6 11000110
G 199 C7 11000111
H 200 C8 11001000
I 201 C9 11001001
} 208 D0 11001001
J 209 D1 11001010
K 210 D2 11001011
L 211 D3 11001100
M 212 D4 11001101
N 213 D5 11001110
O 214 D6 11001111
P 215 D7 11010000
Q 216 D8 11010001
R 217 D9 11010010
\ 224 E0 11100000
Functio
S 226 E2 11100010
T 227 E3 11100011
U 228 E4 11100100
V 229 E5 11100101
W 230 E6 11100110
X 231 E7 11100111
300 Appendix
Function
Y 232 E8 11101000
Z 233 E9 11101001
0 240 F0 11110000
1 241 F1 11110001
2 242 F2 11110010
3 243 F3 11110011
4 244 F4 11110100
5 245 F5 11110101
6 246 F6 11110110
7 247 F7 11110111
8 248 F8 11111000
9 249 F9 11111001
Appendix 301
Glossary
absolute referencing Copying a formula in a bit-mapping The relationship between the image
spreadsheet where the contents of the formula and the bits in memory.
in the source cell do not change. The cell bit-mapped graphic A graphic that treats each
references are indicated by a $ sign (e.g $B$5). pixel (dot) on the screen individually and
aliasing A staircase pattern created when a bit- represents this by bits in memory.
mapped graphic is enlarged. bits per second (bps) A unit of measurement for
alignment The process of positioning the text in the speed of data transfer.
vertical alignments. block A section of text such as a word, phrase,
analysing The information process that involves sentence or paragraph.
the interpretation of data, transforming it into booting The start-up process of a computer in
information. which it first reads instructions from ROM and
analysis report A report containing details of the loads the operating system.
new system with recommendations for design, bullet A symbol used at the beginning of an item
implementation and maintenance. in a list.
animation The movement of a graphic as in a bus A pathway of wires and connectors that
cartoon. provides the link between input, storage, process
application software A computer program used and output devices.
for a specific task. byte The basic unit of measurement for storage.
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Part of the CPU that It represents a single character, such as a letter, a
carries out all the arithmetical and logical number, a punctuation mark or a space.
calculations.
ascending order Data arranged from smallest to cache A temporary storage area used to store
largest (0–9) or from first to last (A–Z). frequently requested data and instructions.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information callout A label that describes an area of a picture
Interchange) A code that changes letters, or a short piece of text quoted from the main
numbers and symbols into a binary code. article.
asynchronous transmission Serial transfer that CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) A
sends one byte at a time with special start and 12 centimetre wide compact disc that is capable
stop bits. of storing 650 Mb.
attachment A file sent with the email message. cell The intersection of a row and column in a
spreadsheet.
audio Sound that has been digitised.
cell reference The position of the cell in the
authoring software Software used to combine spreadsheet.
text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a
multimedia product. cell-based animation Animation that involves
drawing and displaying individual frames or cells.
backup A copy of data or software for the central processing unit (CPU) A set of electrical
purpose of safety. circuits responsible for controlling and
barcode reader An input device that enters processing data within the computer.
product identification at a point of sale terminal. centralised processing A type of processing
Functio
baud rate A measure of the maximum number of controlled by a central computer.

data symbols or electrical signals that can be sent character The smallest unit of data that people
per second over the communication link. can handle. It is a single letter, number,
binary system A number system to the base two. punctuation mark or special symbol that can be
biometric device A device that uses personal displayed on the screen.
characteristics such as fingerprints, hand size, character spacing The spacing between
signature, eye and voice to gain access to the individual letters.
information system. character user interface (CUI) Communication
bit (binary digit) The smallest unit of data stored with the computer, using only characters on the
in a computer. screen rather than icons and windows.
302 Glossary
Function
chart A graphical representation of numerical CPU utilisation The amount of time the CPU is
data. Types of charts typically include: bar working.
(histogram), column (stacked bar), line crop A graphic tool that removes or hides
(continuous) and pie (sector). unwanted parts of a graphic.
circular reference A formula in a spreadsheet cursor A marker on the screen indicated by a
that refers to itself, either directly or indirectly. flashing vertical bar where the next information
clip art Prepared pictures that are grouped into will appear.
topics and can be copied into an application. custom software Application software written by
clipboard A temporary storage area for data to programmers using the exact specifications for
allow easy transfer between documents and the new system.
applications. cut and paste The actions required to move a
clock speed The number of electrical pulses per block of text or graphic to another place in a
second. Clock speed indicates the speed of the document or to another document.
CPU and is measured in hertz (Hz).
data The raw material entered into the
collecting The information process that involves information system.
deciding what to collect, locating it and
data compression The compacting of a file so
collecting it.
that it takes up less room.
column A series of cells in a spreadsheet that run data encryption A method used to prevent data
vertically down the screen. It also refers to a from being intercept during transmission.
vertical area reserved for text.
data flow diagrams (DFD) A graphical method
communications software Software that manages of representing a system using a number of
the transfer of data, files and commands processes together with inputs, outputs and
between computers. storage.
compact disc (CD) A storage medium in which data integrity The quality of the data.
data is read and written using laser technology.
data security A series of safeguards to protect
compression A method that reduces the number data.
of bits required to represent information. data type The kind of data such as image, audio,
compression ratio The amount a file is video, text or numbers.
compressed. data validation The checking the accuracy of the
computer An electronic device that can process data before it is processed into information.
data according to a stored sequence of database An organised collection of data that
instructions. may be accessed by a database management
computer graphic A graphic created, displayed or system.
stored using a computer. database management system (DBMS) A
computer operator A person who performs tasks software package that builds, maintain and
on computer equipment such as monitoring provides access to a database.
performance, starting up, running jobs and descending order Data arranged from largest to
backing up. smallest (9–0) or from last to first (Z–A).
context diagram A graphical method of desktop publishing (DTP) The use of specialised
representing a system using a single process software to combine text and graphics to create
together with inputs and outputs (external a publication.
entities). digital Data represented in the form of digits or
control Coordinates the operations of the input, numbers.
processing, output and storage. digital camera An input device that captures and
control unit Part of the CPU directs and stores images in digital form rather than on film.
coordinates the entire computer system. digital video camera An input device that
copy and paste The actions required to copy a captures video in a compressed digital format.
block of text or graphic to another place in a digitising The process of generating digits or
document or to another document. numbers.
copyright The right to use, copy or control the direct access A method of retrieving data that
work of authors and artists, including software allows data to be found directly, without
developers. accessing all the previous data.
Glossary 303
direct conversion The immediate change to the facsimile (fax) A device used to send and receive
new system. data in the form of documents over a telephone
disk drive A device on which a magnetic disk is line.
mounted. feasibility study A short report that analyses
displaying The information process that involves potential solutions and makes a
the output from an information system to meet recommendation.
a purpose. fetch-execute cycle A cycle of events on a single
distorting A graphic tool to alter the appearance instruction carried out by the CPU to process
and balance of a graphic. data.
field A specific category of data.
distributed processing A type of processing
consisting of workstations connected to share field name The name of the field in a database.
data and resources at a local site. field size The number of characters in each field
documentation A written description to explain in a database.
the development and operation of an file A collection of information stored on a
information system. computer system and given a name. A file in a
database is made up of records, fields and
domain name The address of a specific computer
characters.
on the Internet.
filter A tool to limit the records viewed in a
dot matrix printer A printer that prints characters
database.
or images by using dots.
firewall A method used on the Internet or any
downloading The action of receiving a file from network to check all incoming data for the
another computer. purpose of verification and authentication.
drag and drop An easy way to move or copy a firmware The software that is stored in ROM.
block of text a short distance.
flash memory A non-volatile memory device that
drop cap An enlarged initial letter that extends retains its data when the power is removed.
above or below the baseline in the first line of
flat file database A database that organises data
body text.
into a single table.
DVD (digital versatile disk) A compact disc floppy disk A magnetic disk made of flexible
format that can store large amounts of data. plastic and covered with magnetic material used
dynamic RAM (DRAM) Memory chip that must to store data.
be constantly refreshed. font A set of characters in one typeface with a
particular type size, type style and stroke weight.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code) A code used on large IBM footer Text repeated at the bottom of each page.
computers that changes letters, numbers and form In a database to view, enter and change data
symbols into an 8-bit binary code. in a table. In often displays a single record.
editing The process of changing or deleting data. format The process that prepares a disk to accept
electronic mail Communication service that data by organising it into tracks and sectors.
allows the sending and receiving electronic Format also refers to changing the appearance of
messages using a computer. a document.
formula An instruction to perform a calculation
environment Everything that influences or is
in a spreadsheet.
influenced by an information system and its
purpose. frame A single drawing in animation or a space or
box that holds text or a graphic.
Functio
erasable programmable ROM (EPROM) Silicon

chips that can be erased and reprogrammed by full duplex mode The transmission of data in
the manufacturers. both directions at the same time.
ergonomics The relationship between people and function A predefined set of operations in a
their work environment. spreadsheet to perform simple or complex
calculations.
evaluation Determines whether the system is
working as expected or if changes are required. Gantt chart A chart to determine if the project is
expansion slot An opening where a circuit board on schedule.
can be inserted into motherboard to extend the grammar checker A tool used to examine the
capabilities of the computer. basic aspects of grammar.
304 Glossary
Function
graphic A picture such as a drawing, painting or information technology The hardware and
photograph. software used by an information system.
graphical user interface (GUI) Communicating inkjet printer A printer that produces characters
with the computer using a mouse and clicking by spraying very fine drops of ink onto the
on icons and menus. paper.
graphics tablet An input device that consists of a input The entering of data into the computer for
special electronic pad and a pen called a stylus. processing into information.
gutter The amount of extra space added to the integrated circuit A silicon chip containing
margin for binding in a document. transistors that store and process information.
Internet A global collection of computer
hacker A person who gains illegal access to
networks that speak the same language and are
hooked together to share information..
half duplex mode The transmission of data in
both directions but not at the same time. Internet relay chat (IRC) A service that allows
you to have online typed 'conversations' with
hard copy Paper containing data and information. one or more other Internet users in 'real time'.
hard disk A magnetic disk made of metal or glass Internet service provider (ISP) An organisation
and covered with magnetic material used to that provides access to the Internet for a fee.
store data.
hardware The physical equipment involved in joystick A pointing device consisting of a small
processing information, such as a computer, base unit with a rod that can be tilted in all
network tools and data storage devices. directions to move the pointer on the screen.
header Text repeated at the top of each page. kerning The process of reducing the spacing
hexadecimal A number system to the base between certain pairs of characters.
sixteen. key A field in a database that is used to sort and
human-centred system A system that makes retrieve information.
participants work as effective and satisfying as keyboard An input device consisting of series of
possible. keys.
hypertext Highlighted text or graphics that 'links'
to other pages or places. Used in multimedia and label Text entered into a cell of a spreadsheet to
on the Web. provide some explanation of the spreadsheet.
hypertext markup language (HTML) A set of landscape The horizontal orientation of a page.
special instructions (called tags) that indicate laser printer A printer that uses a rotating disk to
how parts of a document will be displayed. reflect laser beams onto the paper.
hyphenation The process of breaking words at layout guide Non-printing vertical and horizontal
certain points and inserting a hyphen. lines in a desktop publishing program that are
used to position text and other objects on a
image Data in the form of a picture such as page.
drawing, painting or photograph.
light pen A pointing device consisting of a small
indenting Movement of text a certain distance rod that looks like a pen.
from a margin.
line spacing The spacing between lines of text.
information Data that has been ordered and
given some meaning by people. liquid crystal display (LCD) The most common
type of technology used in flat screens.
information processes The steps taken to change
data into information: collecting, organising, local area network (LAN) A network that
analysing, storing/retrieving, processing, connects computers (or terminals) within a
transmitting/receiving and displaying. building or group of buildings on one site.
information processing The creation of logical operator A series of characters or a symbol
information by processing data using information used to combine simple queries.
technology. lossless compression A type of compression that
information system A set of information works by replacing repeated data with
processes requiring participants, something that takes up less room.
data/information and information technology. It lossy compression A type of compression that
performs the seven information processes. removes a number of data bytes from the file.
Glossary 305
machine-centred system A system designed to netiquette The way people communicate with
simplify what the computer must do at the each other on the Internet.
expense of participants. network licence A licence that allows people to
macro A series of commands stored in a file that use a program on a network.
can be executed by pressing a few keys. network When a number of computers (or
magnetic disk A circular piece of metal or plastic terminals) and their peripheral devices are
whose surface has been coated with a thin layer connected over a distance.
of magnetic material. It is used to store data. newsgroup A discussion group where people can
magnetic tape A very long, thin strip of plastic, read messages and join in discussions by sending
coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. It or posting messages.
is used to store data. non-volatile memory Memory that does not lose
mail merge A tool that combines a letter written its contents when the power to the computer is
on a word processor with data from another turned off.
document. number Data consisting of predefined characters
mainframe A powerful central computer for a usually numbers whose meaning and format is
large number of users. specified.
maintenance The modification of the system by operating system The software that supervises
making minor improvements. and controls the hardware. It is the link between
margin The distance between the edge of the the hardware and the application software.
paper and the text. optical character recognition (OCR) Software
master page A layout showing the relative size that uses a light source to read and recognise
and position of design elements in desktop text.
publishing. organising The information process that involves
memory Part of the computer that holds data and the modification of data by arranging,
programs before and after it has been processed representing and formatting data.
by the CPU. output The presentation or display of information
microcomputer See personal computer. to a person, or data to another computer.
microphone An input device that captures sound. output device Hardware used for displaying. It
includes screens, printers, speakers and plotters.
microprocessor A CPU contained on one
integrated circuit. page layout The arrangement of text and graphics
midrange A central computer that performs the on a page.
processing for a number of users working at a paging A common method used by operating
terminal. systems to perform virtual memory.
minicomputer See midrange computer. parallel conversion Conversion to a new system
model A representation of some aspect of the involving the old and new system both working
real world and a simulation is the use of that together at the same time.
model. parallel port A type of port that transmits eight
modem A device that enables the transmission of bits (one byte) at a time using a cable along
data from one computer to another. eight parallel lines.
parallel processing A type of processing where
monitor A screen that can display text and
instructions are processed simultaneous using
graphics.
multiple processors or CPUs.
morphing Animation technique that involves the
Functio
parallel transmission The transmission of data

smooth change between two different images.
more than one bit at a time simultaneously using
motherboard A flat printed circuit board inside separate lines.
the computer that is covered with electrical parity bit An additional bit attached to the binary
components. code for each transmitted character whose
mouse A small hand-held input device that is purpose is to check the accuracy of the received
moved over a flat surface to control the character.
movement of a pointer. participant A person who carries out the
multimedia The presentation of information information processes within the information
using text, graphics, animation, audio and video. system.
306 Glossary
Function
password A secret word or number that are query language (QL) A specialised language
typed on the keyboard to gain access to the designed to allow users to access information
system. from the database.
path-based animation Animation that involves Qwerty The most common keyboard layout for
displaying the movement of objects onto a fixed personal computers.
background in a particular sequence or path.
personal computer A single-user computer that RAM (random access memory) Memory where
sits on a desktop. data and instructions are held temporarily. It is
volatile memory.
peripheral device An input or output device that
connects to the CPU. random access A method of accessing data allows
data to be found directly without accessing all
phased conversion Conversion to a new system
the previous data.
involving the gradual implementation of the new
system. range A group of cells in a single row or column
of a spreadsheet or in several adjacent rows and
pilot conversion Conversion to a new system
columns.
involving trialing the new system with a small
portion of the organisation. record A collection of facts about one specific
entry in a database.
pixel The smallest part of the screen that can be
controlled by the computer. register A temporary storage area for small
plotter An output device used to produce high- amounts of data or instructions needed for
quality drawings. processing.
pointing device An input device that controls an relational operator A series of characters or a
on-screen symbol called a pointer. symbol indicating the relationship between two
expressions.
pointing stick A pointing device shaped like a
pencil eraser. relative referencing Copying a formula where the
cell references change so that they relate to the
port A socket used to connect peripheral devices.
destination.
portrait The vertical orientation of a page.
removable cartridge A hard disk encased in a
Postscript A page description language that uses metal or plastic cartridge that are removed like a
special commands to describe how an image will floppy disk. It is used to store data.
be printed on the page.
report A tool in a database to organise and
presentation software Software used to make a present data to be printed.
professional presentation to a group of people.
requirement report A statement about the needs
primary source Data that is collected first hand.
of a new system.
privacy The ability of an individual to control
resizing Making a graphic smaller or bigger.
personal data.
resolution A measurement of the detail of an
process Changes data to produce information by
image produced on a screen or output to a
following a series of instructions.
printer.
processing The information process that involves
the manipulation of data and information. response time The amount of time taken for the
computer to respond to a command.
programmable ROM (PROM) Silicon chips that
allow data and instructions to be entered only ROM (read only memory) Memory that holds
once and cannot be reprogrammed. data and instructions that are fixed at the time
of production and cannot be changed by the user
project management software A tool to
or the computer.
efficiently plan, manage and communicate
information in a large project. row A series of cells in a spreadsheet that run
horizontally across the screen.
project plan A plan that organises a project by
specifying who, what, how and when. sample size The number of bits per sample.
protocol A set of rules that govern the sampling The method used to digitise a sound
transmission of data between computer devices. wave.
public domain software Software that has no sampling rate The number of times a sample
copyright and can be freely distributed. (slice) is taken from the sound wave.
query A search of a database for records that sans serif typeface A typeface with characters
meet a certain condition. going straight up and down.
Glossary 307
scanner An input device that converts an image storing and retrieving The information process
or text into digital data that can be processed by that involves saving data and information for
the computer. later use (storing data) and obtaining data and
screen A display surface that provides immediate information that has been previously saved
feedback about what the computer is doing. (retrieving data).
scrolling A method of moving within a storyboard A series of frames each representing a
document. different action or screen image.
search engine A database of indexed Web sites stroke weight A measure of the thickness of the
that allow a keyword search. lines used to construct the characters.
searching The process of retrieving data and style A text elements that are defined in a
information. document.
secondary source Data that is collected or supercomputer The fastest, most powerful and
created by someone else. expensive type of computer.
sector A section of a track that can store data. survey Collecting sample characteristics,
attitudes, behaviours and opinions.
sequential access A method of accessing data that
starts at the beginning of the tape and reads all synchronous transmission Serial transfer where
of the data until the required item is found. data is sent at the same rate.
serial port A type of port that transmits data one system A group of elements that work together
bit at a time using only one communication line. to achieve a purpose.
serial transmission The transmission of data one system development cycle A traditional method
bit at a time through a single line. for developing a new information system.
serif typeface A typeface with little tails (serifs) system flow chart A graphical method of
at the ends of their characters. representing both the flow of data and the logic
shareware Software that can be copied and of a system.
distributed but people must be honest and pay system software Software that manages and
for the shareware they use. controls the hardware so that the application
simplex mode The transmission of data in one software can perform the required task.
direction only, from the sender to the receiver. system unit The collection of hardware
site licence A licence that permits an organisation components that includes a central processing
to make copies (limited) of the software for use unit, memory and associated electronics.
on the same site. table Rows and columns of cells in a document
software The detailed instructions (computer that are filled with text and graphics. A table in
programs) used to direct the hardware to a database is the organisation of data into
perform a particular task. columns (fields) and rows (records).
software package Application software bought to technical support staff People who assist
cover most requirements. participants of a system.
software piracy The illegal copying of software. template A document created for repeated use.
sorting The process of arranging data in a terminal A device used to send data to a
particular order. computer system or receive data from a
sound card A devices that transforms the sounds processor.
from a microphone into audio. test data A range of values to see if the solution
deals with unexpected data.
Functio
spell checker A tool used to check the spelling of

words and suggests the correct spelling. text Data in the form of letters, numbers and
spreadsheet A rectangular grid made up of rows other characters whose meaning and format is
and columns to organise and store data that not specified.
requires some type of calculation. thesaurus A tool used to provides synonyms and
static RAM (SRAM) Memory that does not have antonyms to improve writing.
to be updated or refreshed. top-down design A large complicated problem is
storage Receiving and retaining data over a divided into a series of smaller, easier to solve
period of time. problems.
308 Glossary
Function
touch screen An input device where data entered virtual memory A technique used by the
by detecting the touch of a finger. operating system to increase the amount of
touchpad An input device consisting of a flat memory.
rectangular surface that senses the movement of voice recognition A technique that converts voice
a finger. signals into digital data.
track A band formed by concentric circles on a voice synthesis The artificial production of
disk. human speech.
trackball A pointing device that is similar to a volatile memory Memory that loses its contents
mouse except that the ball is on top of the when the power to the computer is turned off.
device instead of the bottom.
warping Animation technique that involves
training specialist A person who teaches transforming or distorting a portion of the
participants how to operate their system. image.
transmitting and receiving The information watermark A lightly shaded object behind
process that involves the transfer of data and everything else on a page.
information from within and between
Web browser A software program stored on your
computer that allows access to the Web.
tweening The process of taking two images of an
Web page A single document on a web site
animation and producing intermediate images so
usually in HTML format.
that the animation is smoother.
Web site A linked collection of Web pages by the
type size A measure of the physical size of a same organisation or person.
typeface.
'what if' prediction The process of making
type style Describes the general shape of the changes to the data and observing their effects.
typeface.
white space Blank space on a page.
typeface The design of a set of characters.
wide area network (WAN) A network that
uploading The action of transferring a file from connects computers (or terminals) over
the user's computer to another computer. hundreds or thousands of kilometres.
URL (uniform resource locator) The address of a wildcard A character that represents one or more
file or resource on the Web. unknown characters.
Usenet A collection of discussion groups where word processor A software application that
people with common interests can exchange allows characters to be entered and documents
information. to be created.
user See participant. word size The number of bits processed by the
CPU at one time.
value A number stored in a spreadsheet on which wordwrap The automatic movement of words to
calculations are carried out. the next line when a line is full.
vector graphic A graphic made up of objects World Wide Web (WWW or Web) Part of the
such as a straight line, a curve or shape. Each Internet and the most user-friendly way to access
object is defined by its characteristics such as the Net.
position, line width and pattern. WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) A
video Data that combines pictures and sounds document that is displayed on the screen, as it
displayed over time. would be printed.
Glossary 309
Acknowledgments
The author and publisher would like to thank the following for granting
permission to reproduce the copyright material in this book:
Canon Australia, pp. 41 (top right), 81 (bottom); Malcolm Cross, pp. 42, 49, 57
(top), 58, 63, 66, 72, 73, 105, 108; Epson, p. 40 (both); Randy Glasbergen, pp. 3,
116 (top), 122, 147; Great Southern Stock, p. 131; IBM, p. 9; Susannah
Jamieson, p. 21;
Logitech, p. 38; Andrew Meredith Photography, p. 53; Moore Music, p. 41
(bottom); Olympus Optical Company, p. 41 (top left); Mark Parisi, pp. 61, 81
(top), 91, 169, 191, 220, 230, 269, 277; PhotoDisc, pp. 11, 13 (both), 16 (top),
39, 43, 45, 67, 109, 116, 127; The Age, pp. 4, 82; Bill Thomas, pp. 5, 97.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The author and
publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they own
copyright to material in this book.
Functio
310 Acknowledgments
Function
Index
accuracy, data 31–2, 46, 76 concepts 70–1 modifying 168–9

acknowledgment of sources software 75 operators 173–4
77 compression 75 query 173
analysing 97–8 computer reports 177–8
data 14, 52–5, 53–4 crime 30 searching 172–3
analysis report 98 graphics 210 software 49–50
animation 263, 265–6, 270 operators 109 sorting 172
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) computers structure 163
64 defined 8–9 tables and forms 165
ASCII 27–8, 48, 296–8 mainframe 9 database management system
asynchronous transmissions midrange 9 (DBMS) 60, 162, 172
70 personal (PC) 9 desktop publishing 49,
audio, data 19, 44, 48, 68, supercomputer 9 230–1
263, condensing 238 colour 239–40
266–8, 270 context diagrams 101 creating content 231
control unit 8, 63 design
backing up 122 conversion 107–8 elements 235–40,
backup, data 55 direct 107 249–52
bad sector 56 parallel 107 principles 243–4
bar charts 203–4 phased 107–8 draft copy 248
barcode readers 43 pilot 108 final copy 248–9
baud rate 71 copyright 32–4, 46 graphics 239
beta test 105 CPU utilisation 65 page layout 231–2, 243–5
bias, data 46, 69 crime, computer 30 options 244
binary cursor 136 rules and guides 244–5
digits (bits) 48 cyclical redundancy check tools 244–5
system 26 (CRC) 56 planning and design 231
bit-mapping 48, 212, publication viewing and
219–21 DAT cartridges 58 printing 232
bits per second 71 data templates and master
borders 156, 199, 250 accuracy 31–2, 46, 76 pages 245
bullets 150 bias 46, 69 text 232, 235–8
bus 71 collection 91–3 digital
business and Internet 77 compression 279–80 cameras 40, 41, 212
byte 25 defined 10 communication 3
encryption 75 data 25–6, 48
cache 66 entry 44 video cameras 40, 41, 212
callouts 250 and information systems digitising 48
cameras 19–20 trends 24–5
digital 40, 41, 212 integrity 168 directories 59
digital video 40, 41 manually collected 45 disk
video 40 ownership 68–9 cache 66
CD-R disks 58 privacy 54 controller 56
CD-ROM disks 58 security 30–1, 61, 76 drive 56
CD-RW disks 58 storing and retrieving displaying of information 16
cells 185, 190–1, 194, 197–9 55–61 distributed processing 67
central processing unit (CPU) test 105 documents
15, 52, 62–4, 71 transmitting and receiving creating 136
centralised processing 67 70–7 editing text 139–42
character unauthorised analysis 53, formatting text 145–50,
spacing 84, 146–7, 238 61 154–5
text 139, 146–7 validation 32 printing 137
charts 53, 84, 202–5, 211 data flow diagrams (DFDs) saving and retrieving 136
check digit 32 68 documentation 68, 105
clip art 156, 211 data dictionaries 164 user 105
clipboard 140 databases domain names 281–2
collecting data 13, 38–46 creating 164–5 dot pitch 79
column charts 204 defined 162 downloading files 279–80
columns 155, 197, 237 flat file 162 draw
communication keys 164–5 objects 232
Index 311
software 48–9, 213 (GUI) 44, 115 internal bus 71
drawing graphics Internet 44–5, 50, 76–7, 85
elements 223 anti-aliasing 220 addresses 281–2
in word processors 156 bit-mapped 48, 212, banking 25
drop caps 249 219–21 browser 60
DVD disks 59 capturing 212 connecting 276–7
dynamic RAM (DRAM) 65 computer 210 publishing 289–93
cropping 216, 239 shopping 25
EBCDIC 27–8, 48, 299–301 distorting 217, 224 Internet relay chat (IRC) 279
editing text 139–42 inserting 211–12, 263 interviews 45
EIDE 56 multimedia 263, 270 IP addresses 281
8 mm cartridges 58 positioning 215 ISP 276
electronic commerce 25 programs 212–14
email 75, 285–8 resizing 216, 239 journal 123
addresses 286 tablet 39 joystick 39
attachments 288 tools 213–14
creating 287–8 vector 213, 223–5 kerning 238
messages 286–7 group information systems keyboards 41–2, 114
software 286 128, 131
embedded objects 140 leading 237
environment 7, 115 hackers 30 libraries 60
erasable programmable ROM half duplex mode 70 licence
(PROM) 67 hard copy 50, 80 network 33
ergonomics 46, 113–14 hard disk 56 site 33
ethical issues 46, 50, 53–4, hardware line
61, 68–9, 76, 84–5, analysing 52 charts 205
113–17, 123 collection devices 38–43, spacing 84, 148, 237
expanding 238 48 linked objects 140
expansion defined 8–9 liquid crystal display (LCD)
bus 71 output devices 79–83 80
card 71 processing 62–8 list checks 32
slot 71 storing and retrieving literature (printed text) 45
55–9 local area networks (LANs)
fax technical specifications 3, 74, 75
machines 75 105 logical operators 174
modems 74 transmitting and receiving logo 210
feasibility study 96–7 71–5
fetch-execute cycle 64 headers 154–5, 251 macros 199
file headings 236 magnetic
compression 259 hexadecimal system 27 disks 55–6
formats 60, 271–2 hyperlink 277 tape 57–8
management 122 hypermedia 50 mail 75
management software 59 hypertext 256 merge 84, 178
menu 140 hypertext Markup Language margins 154
path 282 (HTML) 50 master pages 245
file allocation table (FAT) 56 hyphenation 153, 238 memory
flash memory 59 flash 59
folders 59 images, data 19, 44, 46, 68 main 65–7
fonts 145–6, 199, 235 incorrect analysis of data 54 virtual 57
footers 154–5, 251 indenting 149, 238 microfiche 60
forms 45 information 10, 20–1 microphones 41
formatting 59, 83–4 management software microprocessor 63
characters 145–7 93–4 modelling 52–3
document 154–5 systems 6, 68, 77, 90–1, modems 73–4, 276
Functio
paragraphs 147–50 106–8, monitor 79

spreadsheet 197–9 109–10, 113–17, 122, morphing 266
text 145–50, 237–8 124, 128 motherboard 63
frame 232, 262 technology 3, 104–5, mouse 38, 114
nudging 245 114–15 multimedia
freeware 33 input colour 270
full duplex mode 70 data 8 design 257–8, 269
furniture 114 devices 38 editing objects 264
pen 39 file formats 271–2
Gantt charts 94 integrated circuits 3 inserting objects 263–4
graphical user interface interactivity 256 planning 258–9
312 Index
Function
production 256, 257–60 preliminary investigation shareware 33
software 49, 259–60, 91–3 simplex mode 70
261–4 presentation software 261–4 simulations 52–3
text 263, 269 printers 80–2 site licence 33
privacy 46, 54, 77 skills and information systems
netiquette 76 problem solving 122–3 116
network licence 33 processing slide presentation 261–2
networks data 8, 15, 52, 62–9 social issues 46, 50, 53–4,
defined 74 speed 64 61, 68–9, 76, 84–5,
local area (LANs) 3, 74, types of 67, 68 113–17, 123
75 processor 15, 52 software
wide area (WANs) 74, 75 programmable ROM analysing 52–3
newsgroups 278 (PROM) 67 application 10, 48–50, 83,
non-computer tools project 104
analysis 53 management 122 communications 75
collection 45 management software 94 custom 105
data display 84 plan 93–4 database 49–50
organisation 50 protocol 75, 282 desktop publishing 49
processing 68 public domain software 33 ergonomic 114–15
storing and retrieving 60 Public Switched Telephone file management 59
transmitting and receiving Network (PSTN) 74–5 graphics 212–14
75–6 hardware interface 59
numbering lists 150 QIC tapes 58 information management
numbers, data 20, 44, 68, 93–4
198 radio 76 multimedia 49, 259–60,
RAM (random access 261–4
operating systems 43–4 memory) 65 operating systems 43–4
optical character recognition random access 56 packages 104
(OCR) 42–3 range checks 32 paint and draw 49
optical raster scan 79 piracy 33
disks 58–9 receiving data 15, 70–7 presentation 261–4
recognition devices 42–3 refreshing 79 processing 68
organisational charts 97 register 64 project management 94
organising data 14, 48–50 relational operators 173 public domain 33
output removable cartridges 57 shareware 33
data 9 reporting 83, 177–8 spreadsheet 49, 53
devices 9, 79–84 reports system 10, 124
format, database 178 transmitting and receiving
page written 123–4 75
breaks 154 requirement report 93 word processing 49, 135
layout 231–2, 243–5 resolution 79, 211, 248 sorting 52
setup options 154–5 response time 65 sound card 41
paging 57 retrieving data 14, 55–62 spacing 84, 146–7, 148
paint software 48–9 ROM (read only memory) speakers 82
paper-based storage systems 66–7 spell checker 141
60 ROM BIOS 67 spreadsheets 49, 53
parallel rows 197 absolute referencing 192
port 72 calculation area 187
processing 67 sampling 48 cell 185, 197–9
transfer 70 sans serif typeface 145, references 190–1
parity bit 70 235–6 charts 202–5
participants 10–11 scanners 39–40, 212 circular reference 190
passwords 60 screens 79–80, 114 copy and moving 187
pen input 39 scrolling 136 creating 186
personal information systems SCSI 56 formulas 190–4
124 SDRAM 65 data
picture objects 232 search engines 283–4 editing 186–7
pie charts 205 searching, data 52, 53 entering 186
pipelining 64 sectors 59 defined 184
piracy, software 33 security, data 30–1, 61, 76 fill down, fill right 187
pixel 79, 211 serial formatting 197–9
plotters 82–3 port 72 functions 192
pointing devices 38–9 transfer 70 input area 187
port 72 serif typeface 145, 235–6 instruction area 187
Postscript 248 shading 156, 199 layout 187
Index 313
mixed cell reference 194 top-down design 100
names 190 touch screen 39
operators 191 touchpad 38
output area 187 track ball 38
parameter 187 tracking 238
relative referencing 192 tracks 59
rows and columns 197 training specialists 108
search and replace 187 transmitting data 15, 70–7
structure 184–7 type
templates 194 checks (data validation)
static RAM (SRAM) 66 32
storage size and style 145, 235–6
data 8, 14, 52, 55–62 typeface 145, 235–6
secondary 55
storyboard 84, 258 Ultra DMA 56
stroke weight 145 unauthorised analysis of data
styles, word processing 53–4, 61
152–3 URL (Uniform Resource
surveys 45 Locator) 282
symbol 210 Usenet 278
synchronous transmission 70
system validation, data 32
design 103–5 vector graphics 213, 223–5
development cycle 91, video
123 cameras 40, 212
flow chart 68, 103, 104 data 19, 44, 68, 263–4,
266–8, 270
tables virtual memory 57
database 165 view 232
ergonomic 84 voice recognition 41
word processing 155 volatile data 55
tabs 148–9
technical support staff 108 warping 266
telecommuting 117 Web
telephone 75 browser 212, 277, 280–1
television 76 page 277, 289–93
templates publishing 289
desktop publishing 245 searching 282–4
multimedia 261 ‘what-if’ predictions 53
spreadsheet 194 white space 240
terminals 74 wide area networks (WANs)
text 74, 75
alignment 147–8, 198–9, wildcard characters 174
237 word
Autocorrect 141 processing 49, 135–56
block 139 size 65
body 236 wordwrap 136
character 139, 146–7 work
copy and paste 140 environment 113–17
correcting 139 and information systems
cut and paste 139–40 77, 113
data 20, 44, 48, 68 workstations 74
drag and drop 140 World Wide Web (WWW)
deleting 139 277
Functio
editing 139–42 WORM disks 58

effects 249 writing data 55
find and replace 140–1 WYSIWYG 136
flow 232
formatting 145–50, 237–8
inserting 139
line spacing 148
moving 139–40
objects 232
wrap 250
thesaurus 142
314 Index

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Heinemann Information Processes and Technology:

Heinemann Information Processes and Technology: Preliminary Course

You can visit the Heinemann World Wide Web site at

Part 1 Information processes and technology 1

Chapter 2 Tools for information processes 37

Chapter 3 Planning, design and implementation 89

Chapter 4 Personal and group systems and projects 121

Organisation of the text

Preliminary Course Outcomes Chapter(s)

P1.1 Describes the nature of information

P1.2 Classifies the functions and operations of

P2.1 Identifies the information processes within

P2.2 Recognises the interdependence between

P3.1 Identifies social and ethical issues 1, 2, 3, 4

P4.1 Describes the historical development of

P5.1 Selects and ethically uses computer based

P6.1 Analyses and describes an identified need 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

P6.2 Generates ideas, considers alternatives and

develops solutions for a defined need 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

P7.1 Recognises and applies management and

P7.2 Uses technology to support group work 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

Chapter 1 Introduction to information skills and systems

Impact of information technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 3

purchasing materials, stock inventory,

4 Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 5

1.2 Information systems in context

6 Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 7

Figure 1.4 The basic functions of a computer.

8 Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 9

Data and information

10 Information processes and technology

Operators look after the information technology resources. In addition to par-

Introduction to information skills and systems 11

1.3 Information processes

12 Information processes and technology

Figure 1.8 Surveys are a primary source of data.

Introduction to information skills and systems 13

Storing and retrieving

14 Information processes and technology

Figure 1.9 A PC with input and output devices.

Transmitting and receiving

Introduction to information skills and systems 15

Case study Woolworths

Woolworths supermarket is a large uses the universal product code so that

central computer. Each checkout con-

16 Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 17

information and participants.

18 Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 19

Table 1.1 Examples of different

Number 41, 3.456, $10, 89%

Image Diagrams, photographs, charts

Audio Music, voice recording

Video Film clips

Figure 1.13 Web pages often combine different data types.

20 Information processes and technology

Case study Big V Video

Introduction to information skills and systems 21