Ü* r*i* Ql L.,.,.r,'.

'T1.€.
L5crcl€-r d
d
::
0rt.J Pa ii
heor 9

Feminism and Demo cracy

t'

,:\-.
./\ fcrr,iirist rnirht dis¡rosc briskly of tl-rc suLrjcct of this cl'rapter. For
ft:nriui.srs,.icrri,:crac1, has ncvcr cxistcd; worrlen have never bccn arrcl .still
arc not ¡drrritted as full antl cqual rncrnbcrs enil citizcns ir.r,rrry country
knou,r-r as;r'.lcrnr-rcracv'. A tellilrg irrlagc that recurs throlrghout the
historl, ,rf fcnrinism is of libcral socicry as a scries oI malc clu[¡s - usually,
as Virqirr.r V<¡olI points otttin l"i¡rcc Guincas, clistinguishccl lrv thcir orvr.r
costumcs rnd uniforrtrs - that crnbr:rcc parliantcrrt, thc court.s, polirical
partics, thc rnilitarv ar.rd ¡rolice, trnivcrsitics, rvork¡:,lrccs, traclc ur.liorrs,
public (priv;rtc) schools, exclusivc clubs ,rncl popul,rr lcisirr,: cltrbs, from
,rll ,rí ri,hich w()nrcn rrc cxcluclcrl or ro rvlricll tlrcv lrc nrcrc,ruxili¡rics.
I;cntinists s'iil find rronfirrriitiorr ol'thcir vicrv in ¡c¡dcnric cliscussions r>f
,,lt:rnocr,rcv s,irich wiil usuallv takc it íor r¡r';rnt,-'c1 th¡t fcrninisnl antl thc
su t¡ctr¡rc t,l rlrc rclati.rnship bctilccn tlrc sc,':cs lrc irrclcv:utt ln:rttcrs. Ill

ccn tLl ()r tllorc s an mt L¡ C t r()lr u

\.votnclt arc t]()w rln rtl r.l¡ o ltt cll §(] t;It
el)1r n rlilT) ils corno ut tO (:O11[l'¡ tc to c!

P rilCtrCC lli c(:tl()n I res rilrr¡ll th;rt is crucirl t() un

ult rcal ,:hl:',r ctcr () r¡cr¡tic socictics. It
t gn o rc.s thc cxistcncc \\¡ I loll5,
ü,)

C
o
\r¡ i.-
ó
*. üv
 I;I:-]VI I N I Str,I AT.I I) DI]I\,I OCI.(ACY 2tt
st¡ci;r I racLiccs tllilt qivc tl.rcrn cxprcss;on, that contradict thc morc or
o wonren lectlon ls orl
lib xrqu nl cn t that social incq to political cquality
'l'htrs, it t() rc thc problcms rhar havc ;rriscn fronr thc attcm tto
urrivcrs¡lizc I rINCI CS wonlcn w
sxnlc tilrlc ltt:llntatnlrl lvtslon rlvatc í1 ltrca fc
lc t-s ls soa vtslon wcctl
\v()nrcn Iibc ri.srs o[ democracy arc contcnt ro avoid
'ln
qircstions, tlrcir r:rdic:rl crirics, along with advocatcs of participatory
rlcnrocrecy, nright bavc becn expectccl to confront therl enthusia.sricllly.
I-lorvevcr, ¡lthouuh tlrc1, l-r;rvc paicl a good dcal of artcnrion ro rhc clas:;
ritrLlct(¡rc of lil¡crel dcr¡tocracics anci thc rvay in rvhich class irrc<¡trality
r¡uclcrcr¡ts {onnal political ccluality, they havc rarcl cxar-¡rincd the
cancc of .scxuirl incquality ancl tlie order ibcr
sta.t c ()r ¿ rnt atl o ll \fritcrs or.r cle r-nocracy,
'".¡hcthcr crs or cntlcs c status quo, y fail to cr,lnsidcr,
r

for cxan-r¡.,1c, rvhcthcr thcir iliscussions of freedorn or conscnt h¿rve any

.rclcvancc to \\¡omcn. Thcy irnplicitly arguc as if individuals'and'citizens' x .lt t .:-
arc nlcn
It is frcquently ovcrlooked how reccnrly dcnrocraric or univcrsal
su ffragc r.vas cstablishcd. Political scicntists have remaincd remarkab
sil cnt about the for lll was a
ú c() t]tr lru()us ()rgill'lr calllpargo r rs to
ain conscquc!rccs crncrl t. '§lor-ncn's
u'qnd ls

f' position i1s votcrs also appears to cause some

clifficulty for rvrircrs r>n
dctrocracy. l-ittlc cor.nmcllt is cxcitcd, for ex;ir.nplc, by Scl-rurnpetcr's
o;plicit st¡tenrcnt, in his cxtrt:rncly influcntial rcvisic'¡nist tcxt, that thc
c>;,::lusir¡n of rvonlen froi¡ tl.rc frenchisc does not invalidate ir polirv's
claim t<¡ bc ,r 'rlcnrocracy'. In Ilarbcr'.s f:rscinating accor¡11t of clirect
denrocracy in a Srviss L-ilrrton, ned on in 1971 )
is rcated very cquivocallv. Barbcr
mcnt \vas 'just and equitablc' the cost was
'

of men's citizenship. Again, in Vcrba, Nic and Kim's rcccnt cross-

i'. rlatiollai study of political participation it is notcd, in a discussion of tlre
change in I.lolland frorn compulsory to voluntarl' votin¡;, thlt 'voting
rigl-rts rvcrc universal'. Thc footnr>t'c, on the salnc page, sxys th.1t in botl-i
elcctoral systcl)rs thcrc was'a one nra,n onc vote systeln'.2 l)ici rvou-rcn
vorc? un nii:.cd histoli or-ls oI
,, dD I;crlrinistr; arc

#."
1," ji _'
 212 l'lrivl I N ISM AN I) Dt:\{OCItACy

ntíl.sculinc la bccausc 'nran' reall rncans 'human bein g', although

r.r,h ctl ln s r.st wolnen .s su ln n lt
was arl:]ucrl that'ntan' crrrng to c was a gcncrlc tcrm
tlrirt inc: lutJcd rv«rmen tlrc r¡rent rvas fin¡l y rcjcctccl. Anothcr recenr
cxan'r1'rlc of thc rvay ln lv women can lVnttCn ()ut of denrocratic
ptilitical Iifc c,rn bc for-urd in Mrrsoli.s's Viablc [)cmocr¿a,. ]FIc l¡ cr-rins
by
prc.scnring a hisrory of 'Ci tiz-cn Ilrorvn' rvho is a rnan antl rvho,
, wc learn,
in 1920 obrain ccl 'his Iatcst m,rjor t riurr.rph, tl-rc cnfranchisemcnt of
rvo¡r¡cn'.'r Thu-s thc lristory of rvomcn' s cicmocratic
st disa
fr dern oriratlc vo appears as so crcatlon * or men.
Suc cx cs lt-l I c:lntuslng I cy \v cr(. il()t sylnPt()milIla. () the
past and pre.scr.rt social .sta¡rclins of §/ornen. Ferninisnr,
liber¡lism and
clcr¡ <:lcrac that is at itical order i n rvhicll cltl ls untvc
rl caclr aclr"r ln vt u rncnrbcr communt are a contmon

and a

i Has s'ornan thc samc thc statc rvhicl-r man has? This
tq all r¡ ts ls
rc,1so lt ;rnd I ciln e t\\¡o scxcs
rc iso t1 a síllltc rccd oln ?

He rcplics ro this qucstion as follorvs

Ncvcrtl:clcss, it sccnrs thar, so long as rncn havc livcd, tl;is l-ras
bccn
diffcrcntly hcld, and thc fcrnalc scx sccnts not to havc bccn on
tlr thc rnalc scx IN c cxcrclsc o ts tlU Scntttne nt
must rl ur89!.t Ploh.lsry
our days.!

The anri-feminists and anri-democrats have never found tl.ris 'urgent

problern' difficult ro soh,e. Differcntial ri ts and status have bccn
and
are dcfended to 'natu fences sexes,
roln w
,-$-#" rs or htrsbar-rd.s ¿lncl that t r propcr
¡r{.]u nt e ll t naturc st
womell are su

lnto ln
(and tocley oftcn comcs ci resscd u¡.r in the scienti6c
ate to

ílllclcllt tlntcs
r

sa{b"e@e[,919s)2

r
i\-
*)r*:'
a
 r:E\1 I N I Sl\'l ;\N D DI:l\10C RAC.y 213
ancl its lonrlevitv appcrlrs to confirm thar it in forrns us of an
csscntial part oI tl'rc hulnan con
o the
argunlcnt LI atlon.s tn diffcrent historical cpochs and, in
thc contcxt of c devclopnrent of libcr¡l-capitalist socl(]ty, lt aPPexrs ln
a
fornr rvlrich obs curcs thc patrierchal structure t-¡f libcralisrn bcncath
the
itlcolt)ev of incliviclual frccclor¡r ancl cquality
It is usually assurncd rhat thc social contract rhcorists, and Lockc in
particular, providcd the d e6niti vc countcr to thc
patcrnal irr-rd Are one same, grounded in the
tlon sons to ers
nction l¡etrvccn n:r IL¡ or familial t ICS e
of
a.s thcir to em, an ce
lr own conscnt, lt rs Llst¡
wonlcn wtvcs r:t cntlclsm
natu ral individu¿rl frecdon.¡ and
to
.subiecrion Locke takes ir for ted
) herself
w

.z
,*_; íYIr

D1
hdn"
{ ñ
5
{

TI\,P
 ,l'1 I:lr1y\l I N ISIV ¡\ND I) ()C I{ACY
,
Ir_t\l

,21.P
sexual t.liy abour (althou{:h this is not tlic histo rl, to bc found il.r
nt ()s t ).A rvhen the social colr trílct thcorists att:rckcd

r üt*-*
triarchal the.sis <¡f a n atu rll rncqu sLl tnatlo n,
i lr cconollltc
o{u.
g'Y
clc¡r c ¡1¡l ;1¡1 ¡ r.
j hr<I ;rlr rntlc s. As
ncrs lll ccoll()fl1lc
nrovcd or¡t the
uctro

w()lltclt \\,crc rcccl out of c traclcs t controllctl ancl rvivcs bccrnlc

on ctr us l1 or su lstcncc or r:on] lvl
ccrtal a rcas uctron anv l 11g-c
lvc
lr to contlnuc to trv to fintl paicl cnrp Ioyrnent to ensure
rhe sr-rn,ival of rhcir fa¡rr i lics, t tl'rc rricl-ninctccnt h ccntu thc
thc rratural arrcl contc sccn as t e

unl to sexes pusl.res nd

con
In argues the relation bctrvcen women and
[..n, 9_.,.
more specifically, betwecn rvives and husl.¡ands, fornrs an
un jrsrifcd cxccprion to thc libcral principlcs of indivit]ual
,islrr., f..;;;,
and choice, to the principles of equality tf oppo.,rnity ih" állo.r,io.,
of oc-cupational positions by n.rcrit túrt, 1.. telicvc.s,'nor
",-,cl
g.-r*rn o,1,".
sociel and political insritutior.ls. In thc modern world, ".o.rr.n,
h.,
'¡
 l:l:M INISI\t ¡\Nl) l)l:.I1()OIiACy 215
supl)l:rnrcd [<,rcc ,rntl tlrc ¡rrinciplc oI achicvcmcnr has rcplaccd
thrt of
ascnptlc)ft - cxcrcl)t u,hcrc \\,orflcn arc concerncd. Mill writes
that the
C() II Irclati.rn is arr cx c r¡f 'thc rinritive srarc of.sl av I asti on,
s t1()t c t.rlnt lts rll onglll
t l1 |.c gcn
thc sociel srrbortlinrrtiolr of u,onl cr.l i.s'a sinqlc rclic oI iin
oltl rvorlcl of
thought srrd pra¡¡j¡c, ¡¡ plotl cd in o,crvrhing clse' (p l1(,)..Mill
'lltc .\ttb jcctir,r¡ opens
l.irh soln c (-'nt contntcnt.s rtn the di fficultv fcrrniñiSts
rcscntlllg:1n ln con vlnclng case oÍntn nren ls
ln -staln lng cu§^tollls, that nrale suprernacy is the
pr()pcr orrlcr of thinss rlcrivcs fronr cl ccp fccl I ll g.§. r¡d scntirlcn
tl.r¡n on:lll tcstcr.l bclicfs (ancl, It nlr slit be ¡Tlcn ave Iot to ¿1

losc by ln!i convl us fernini.sts rIu.st not cxpcct tl.re ir opponcnts

to' uivc up prrcrical ¡rrinciplcs in rvhic:l.l thcv havc becn born a¡rd brcd and
r,,,1.r ich arc thc l¡asis of rnrrch t¡f thc cxis
tinq orcle r of rhc worlcj, ar tl.re first
i¡rguntcrltativc ttt:rcli rvhich tl.rcy arc not c:lprblc of lor:ically rcsistinq.'
(p. l2ti) M ilt nscir'¡us of rhc i mportxncc «rf tlrc appcal to ¡1:ttU rC,
Ilc n()tcs rl ici cs no cntcrlon tnatrorl o{
w()ntc11 r()nl () cr nlts
t() c :1 lll ;l
I lt lr-l nxturc ()r r tr on He also xrgucs
no S;¡ta can tt
ve natures of rvonrcn and nren
wc ílvc ()l'l
scxcs tn all un ua
sccn 11y
ce§ ln c¡r mora cr capacltrcs wl becomc when
nlcn an wontcn can lntcract:ls tn r
\r/cvcr, csPltc M vlgorous ílttac on to custonr and
hc'ul c olt c as cíl rcft¡ I ly
c ritic iz-ctl. urc cons
to to lc life
has lt rcccn t crnlnlst cntlcs, trtls tcn pol out
that his inconsi stcnc,v undcrrnincs his defcnce of wo manhood s
and u ratlc cnt l1
r5 must stripped of their legally sancrioned despotic
Pov/ers over thcir wives Most of the I of the rna
that Mill advocatcd have no\v enacted (with exceptlon
o mar¡ raPe, to return and the inr
unwillingness to exrend his criticism to tl-re sexual division 'plications of his
of labour
rvithin the homc ¿re now fu lly revcaled Mill argues thar because.of thcir I ttrr.,11,' ,"
I ji^; ) ru,.t
ging, lack of cducation and legal and social pressures, wor¡ren do I
not have a frce choicc rvhether or not to marry: '.tyife' is the only ú4ru,ly -
-occupatron opcn ro rhcnr. But elthough h e also argucs that lvor¡cn must \ ü: o,-ro-"-
have equal opportunity with men to obtain a proper education that
will
enabIc tlrcm to support thcmselves, he assu mcs that, if rnarriage
rvere
reformccl, rrost \\,omcrr rvoulrl noi choosc indcpcndcnce.
lvlill .states thar ir is gcncrally u nderstoocl tl'rat rvl-rcn a wom¡n rnarrics \ t-.¡."¿.rai.,,-.;t",,
shc ha.s choscn her carcer, like a man rvhen l¡c choó.scs a profcssion. \When {J^ (Y- P.Ír. 'i-
I 1-','
&
!u*d i..¿Á
 )16 IrLl\1 I N lS llI Nt) l)tri\,1 ()C ItAC),
^
al \\,onla¡t l¡ccot-nes a.., ifc, 'shc nrilkc.s choicc
of the nlan¿gcnlcnr of e
houschold, ancl rhc bri nsinr: up oi a family, as rhc first -c¿ll
('xcrti()ns,. . . she reno u nces, on hcr
:rll focctrpationsl not consistenr rvith the
requircnrent of tl-r is.' (p. 1 79) Ni;ll is rcvcrtin q Ilere to ¿rscri
VCA
arrd thc bclief In l'ol-t'lcn's
ls fa back
¡nclent t tlon oi archal li
O
, as Susan
t1 owll Ir') Womcn i¡t \Y/e'st crlt icdl Tbought,s :rsscrrs rhar
u,lrcrcas rnen :1re, or can be, manv thinr¡s, wonrcn
are placccl on earth to
fLrl6l onc function orrl1,; to be¡r ant{ rcar childrc¡r. Mill
ncatly cvaclcs thc
qucstion of how, if u,omcn,s task is prcscribctl by tlrcir
scx, rhc v can bc
saitl to havc a rcal choicc of occu pation, or rvhv cqr,ral oPPorrunrry rs
re-lcvant to rvonlcn if rrerriasc it.sclf is e '
ill comparcs an
ess thc
frcc to iate thcir orvn terms :lssocla but
,w run countcr to Prrn ciples, ro supporr
vierv thar 'ivill not u conventlolt c n
su ggcsts xrrangcnlen
anTtr*üT5tnd cach to be 'absolure in th c t:xccutive
brauch of thcir own
d ePartlll c n t any chante of systcm and principlc requiring thc consent
i f both.' (p 1(r9) He also
o that di
s coulcl be ln c marrr co but he :rssumes -
notes
are
custom' (p. 120)
modificd in cases; bur it is exacrly 'ger.rcral custonr', as the
bulrvark of male clomination, th¡t hc is againsr in thc body of the
c.ssay. rvhcn hc thc husb:rnd rvill
havc thc volce ln as
IS tilnc agc ls but rvhcn do
husb¡Lnds admit that this has arrivcd?e Hc also his orvn
when he that more
adding
that wivcs 'choose'
to bc dcpendent by agrceinr to marry.
Anti-feminisr movemenrs and in the 1980s also claim that

votes men; was

lnterests

women As wlvcs
c a trncs xn so It
I
 ljlrlvl INIStlt AND I)trl!,1 OCITAC), )11
-to usc [heir Protcctlvc mcasLtre.
nrcn will n [¡e ll_-,, ú
atrlc ro Icarn
Iifc. ls polllt ts even morc cru
or s arguments about
tt ' i";
tlcvclopm cnr ,urd cduc:rtion throu
qcncrel tcrnrs of thc clcr.ation
th partici pation. Hc rvrites
\P. t)/ ) tn
of thc incliviclual 'as a rnorai, .spiritual and
social bcing' thiir occurs rrndcr f ree gove
rnmcnt, but this is a I arge clairn to 1 '-,., 1r, ¿

nlalic for thc pcrio<1ic casti ng of a vote (altho

ueh thc moral t ransfornretir>n i aJ,...t,,
of poliric'rl ilc
I tlirough cnfranchisemtnt wa.5 o.,liu. r.
e
rvolnanhood S movcnrenr). Nor did Mill himself en
tlr at this ' cvlltton \\,o lcve
from thc suffrage alonc..Hc writcs that
'citizen .shiir', and ircrc I takc
hirr.r to be nirersal suffrage,'fi lls
e, and does not com ) t.{ /-rt¿
ear the daily habirc :,ií..: ls6"
or rnlllost se fttt n.rc¡rr.s.' (p. 1Za) He gocs
ol1 th.et thc [arnily, 'justly
,v"is§ rvr:luIcl L,c thc 'rcal school f-*r ( tte
" .:*r¡¡¡t.1,
\ §t/ irtt¡cs r¡f f.cc,lr>ml.
i.s is as inrpl,rusi[>lc a.s rllc clairl:ii.,<>
lib c r:r l- clc lll()crat,c v()tl n A
ut tlrc con.s cqucr-rccs of 'lt ! t lt r- ,

w%'q b' patr irrrchal farnili, rvith tlrc rl

¿t it.s hcetl is n<r basis for cl cmocr¿rtic band
1O citiz_cns hip; but nor, ls íln
r'.qa I i tarian fanril-v. Mill i
a social a nd o at aa.t- ."...

utton s, c.s V".r;''i"

can rtrc¿1
actlve, ratlc
ct can wlvc.s :1n Cf,§, \\¡ f.n (
avc
ilvc c rtunlty I
i - /.j,-1

t() ()cratlcr cl tt 7_en lt '.:

s^ :l ol]]Cl] wl a,'::.¿:,,
t6 pttv¡¡g bcinrs, I
, lng a scnsc v-
,usricc or public spirit, that rcsp!¡ ;, i...
]yhgn rn incliv idual is con fincd to thc n arrow
c sphcre of evcry day fanrily
lifc. l Mill's iail rc to thc natural tliv isir>n of l,rbou t'
hin t lr,.,n',c,,',ea,r s that ts xrguntcnts 1, ú,

to tncn
r ttc ct á..-
/.1t J 1".._

5¡I,r1..
¿."-¿a1
¡¿
:], c /.,u

¡) +lí
'!ri-''-s-,o-\
d-i
,, ¡1.5
r.' '-

Q-^-i'

,'*-i.5i!¡.t!%
 218 r.r:MrNrstvt AND Dtll\,tocttAc).

'. \-/ politics rrc inhiLritccl fror.¡r-runnint:_ior of6ce becausc of their rcsponsibility
for child-care ,rnd a belief that oifice-holding is not a proper Jcti,rity fo.
rvi',n.lcn,''' will bc takcn nrorc scriously thon ih. feminist *rirings of cven
erl i rrcnr ph i losopher.s.
Thc prrlbl cnrs su rroundin g rvomen's citiz-enslri ip in thc libcral denrocracies
nray hrve bccn sarllv r.rcglccted, but thc failure c,f dcnrocratic thcorists ro
c<¡nfrtrr-lt thc u,onlln and rvifc qucstion runs nrucll decper still. Dcmocratic
ct un
in thc conrcxt of libcral civil ri cs the solicl foundation
u recognition tl.rat a lm Po lt Y arc socr al
vlng capacl tlcs
ü"s this status. Thc nrost scrrous contcmporary dcu-rocratic tl'rco ry
,:\/ x and its Ianguagc of frcedon.r, cquality and conscnr ar-rd of the individual, IS
that rvomcn rrc .so casil y encl incons¡-:,icuously cxcluclccl frorn rcfcrenccs
to thc'inriividual'. l'h us thc question nevcr arises rvhethcr the cxclusion
'I rcflccts social and political reali wh1, ¡[-r",'" 'r ,'ro
.:,.t|
..r. ?1(.- c<'rr-lsciousr-rcss of the n ccd to ask tl.r
l

convc §qc r ntattcr as or

ublic spl'rerc. wliich for includcs rhc
r) wo acc'. fl.rc sph cre of a n?-il iiiii c.s tl c if c
1

)- thc'na tur¡l'rcalm of rvor-ncn - is cxcluded frorn scruriny. Dcspitc thc

ccr-rtral r<>lc that conscnr plays i n thcir arguments, dcntocratic thcorists
pily no atrcnrion ro rhc structurc of sexual rclati<>ns bctwccn ntcn ¿nd
a
women and, more specifically, ro rhc pracricc of rape and thc inrcrprcrarion /h\
of c«>nscnr encl non-conscnt which dc6ne it rs a crir¡inal offcncc. The
facts abotrt ripc arc cerrtraI to thc -social realitics rvhich arc rcflcctcd in :ind
partly c()lrsriruted by our use of thc tcrn.r .indiviclual,.
Arnons Mill's criticisrn of the tlcspotic powers of nir.rctccnrh-ccn tu ry
husbands is ir h arsh rcn.rinclcr rl.rat a husband had thc legal right to rapc l.ris
rvife. Ovcr a ccntu ry latcr a husl¡and still has that t ln most
u ri.sd i S. rcc
individ wcre
SU r h us S naturc; nt lt') contract
con rms xt, rh ls assunr srill at the hcart
on marnage. consent a woman, ln a rec
marriage conráó{1o her status glves a to an
assumptlon
not s theorists would lon g ago havc bcrur.r
to ash wl.ry ir is that an r>stensibl frce ancl ual indi vidual should
to an
¡¡5!jv!!yal. They would long ar:o have n to questton
an lnstltutlon ln w hich the initial t of a rvifc rives hcr of the
t to rctract CT COI]SC nt to prov sexu scrvtccs to
 l'L\l I NISIl r\NI) l)l:\10(.1{ACy 219
u,hich sivcs l¡iru thc rI t to forcc l.rcr to subrnit. lf
d rc t c()rrsts erc t()
coutcnr Porary i- it'rP
rsteltcc
fror.n thc patria rclr:rl vcs
assLrmptiolts of thcir prcde-ccssrtrs thc'), ntust bccin
to ask rvl,¡cthcr a
pcrson can bc, at onc :urtl thc srmc tirlr c, r lrcc rlcrnr.¡cr¡tic
citiz_crr and a
u,ifc u'ho r:ivcs u¡r ,r i.ital :ts¡-rcct oI hcr frccclt.,rl and incli vidr"¡alitr,.,
tlrc
f nr to rcfrrsc conscnt :rnrl .srr, .r1(-r, to thc violetion of t lrc
rer-tlt r
intcqritv of
hcr pc rsoft
A w<.r¡¡an's right of'rcfusal of conscnt is also ¡ nratter of morc gcncral
l¡nporrance. Outs,idc of marria is a scrious criminal offence, yer the
cviclcncc indica tcs tltat m orl crs arc not
\v ()lttcll :lvc cxclll P ()ll1
rcs¡ rcl ccl rls trcs to attaUn t l)c
5 st¿ltL¡s of individual ;rn<l
crttzcn ()r t() tc ilt ut VC,
in'r u lt,r It c() v' pcrccivccl in
{,1ü
s u.s as. bc,in rvlrr>, tl.r cir pcrsonal I lvcs,

"-.ffi Y
alrv SC CIt colt.s can
11 lt as agrcclltcllt
lcto ry pcrccptloll con
wolne n
rs a lnalor rci.§()lt dif6cult for a ¡.r,on.r,rn rvho has trce n r,rpcd to
sccurc thc col-lvicti<in of her attackcr(s).
and the
^rt'\ corl rts rvilli forccd strbmi sslon
\^\ 4, re:l.son w is idcn catton
a
elst
üttZ '' a wolnan s:ly s no
ls
vc no ntcallllt
lt rs
sl
wl
ncc c'rca
that
nlcans
if
t ls \\,1 c íls rcaso a nlan to I cintcrprct
t rcjcctiorr of is advanccs as con.scnt.l{ Thus womcn fincl that
their
specclr is ¡rcrsisrcntly ancl sv.stcllar;cxlly invalidatcd. Strch
invaliclation
rvould bc ir.rconr¡.,rclrcnsib lc if the rwo scxcs actullly sharcd
ihc s:unc
st:rtr¡s as'inrlivitlr¡¡ls'. No pcrson rvith a sccr¡rc, rcc,,iyrizcd
surntli ltg a.s lln
'inclividu,rl' cr¡ul«i bc sccn :ls sornconc rvht¡ consistcntl
y s:rid thc <>ppositc
<¡f wl.rat thcv nrcant ancl rvlro, thcrcforc, corrlcl
i6¡ havc
rcirrtcrprcterl lrv orlrcrs. On thc othcr and rcir-rteprctation
ar.' r'Catl ily irornirichcnsiblc parts of a relationshi p in which
onc pcrson is
.scen a.s a natural .subordinatc and thus has an cxcccdingly
ambiguous
placc in social practices (held to be urounded in convcntion, irr
agrcclncnt ancl con.scnt.
) L-ce

Political
found atlons and social conditions of can no lo r avoid
lnlst cn ueo an person crltlque ralses some
aw ward cm ons, t questions rhat have ro be
if 'd emocracy' i.s to be morc rhan a Ín en's club wrir I ancl the
tl IS tO
assLlrnptions and practrccs go\¡crn tl're cveryday, VCS
t:,f and nrcn, includinc thcir scxual livcs, can no lcr nscr bc trcxted
'o'omen
as nrattcrs lcrr-notc fror-lr political lifc ancl rhe concerns of dcr.¡'rocratic
thcorist.s. Woltrcn''s stxtus as'intlivicll¡al.s'pcrvatlcs thc rvholc
of thcir
L" r'
 )20 I;Ilivl IN IS§t r\N I) I)tlM ()CItAC),
soci.rl life, pers()nxl :rncl prtrlitical.'l'lrc stru,r,!!l.l-q
ef c,,'crvday lifc, incl uding
tr
I
practiccs rvlrich presuppos c that
it w()nlc,n arc llirtur;rll_y
,i subicct t() rltcn _ vct wntcrs tln dcnt0cracy continue
{i
ly ir.rtcr:rct es cquirls. in
t irc'ir- c.r¡;:rcin' ¡s cn f r:rnch isccl rIcrnoc
ratlc cltrzcrls.
'l'hc
¡rrccccling xrgunrcrlt ¡ntl critici.snr is rclcvant to cliscussions of
both libcral tl el)rocrac.\, and p.rrtici
Pxtory tlclnocracy, but p:irticullrl yto
thc Lltrcr. I- ibcral tlrcorists ctlntinuc tr> clainr rhat thc
structure of social
rl rclati evant to ltl ca cqua
cl .sh i ,sot xrc no n10rc I¡I
fcnlinisrs tl.r¡n any o CT C
!
d t¡nt to t¿kc fcnt lll lst
I
ctlt.s tnto
0"i cvcu th()uqlt thcsc lrguntcn t.§ arc, sccn ln oltc
,5 an cxtcnslorl the
1

oI sc¡cict 'fhc rcsistancc to fcnrinis n1 ts

ulrrl v
usc co fcnri has, untlcr a
vlrlctv , attcllt t() art de¡nocratic o l7-atron
Jl1t() pr:rcticc.rs Tlrc nrovcntcnt is clcccn iz,cd antr- rc and
c.s r.§
ilt CII CE ro Lt consclo usncss- ralsln lcr
rotatl()n
blic
undcrstr-¡od in isol¡tion fro¡n rcaso n
;j

of liberal
of rnarriagc breachcs rhe ccntrrl
b.y [-r¡ckc, bctrvccr-l patcrnel

ronl enr ocratlc

lltcnts rcmaln ln scParatlon clvl
Pat .socr ety
state; es an atron
tron w c lsa lv lon w lts In contrast,
lnlnlst.s.§ce C e, 'natu ral' ere wonren, as private, and
i.. AS ecl a m encomPassln onllc
itical li , rhc 'natu arcn as ltlcn,
l{ to cnt rrrist conception of ' privatc'Iife,
by ir:norirrg thc ily, p.rrticip,rtory tlt'nlocr¡tic argr¡mcnts ft¡r thc
frrr.r
clcnr trc ra t iz- atio n of ccor-l omic lifc have n crllccted
a crucial climc¡rsion r-¡f
clernocraric social trar.rsformarion (and I include rny Partic'ip¿ttion
ttntl

I
¿

I
I
 Y
222 t;lr¡!1 INlSill AND I)trM()(.RACy
n,,rrliplacc. 'Ih c nraqnittrdc of thc clr¡n qes
rcquirccl can bc indicatcd try
ñ,cf:TTTIrenc.. to tltrcc fc:ttrlrcs oi rvomcr.r's
(paitl) rvorklifc. 'l'hc scxu¿rl
h;rr¡ssl¡lcnt rlf rvorkcrs i s stil I ;r u nacknorvl C
btr t lt. st c c.\ t cn t trl rvh ic thc cltt o s(] \u:l rC lorls, c()t1sctlt
,l \\'() ll I c11 .s statUS Xs III lv Ll:1 ts so i1 ro () CC(l ll Oltl
,[ñ¿ü. t() \\,tn stru
I C

il nst tl
c¡t] crs end ulrlons
rt
. al to wor lrrcc is structurcd x sexr¡a vtslon
rw Poses stl cms r ltv ancl
\- t.) urto ccrtaln occ ()lt CA
¡n lron-.su lln
killcrl errcl t ls prcc
v ilt .s joLr.s that
cnrpl rCSCll ()wn ro bc thc lcasr likc lv to participatc.
'l'hc cxlnr¡rlc of thc rvorkplacc, to gcthcr w ith thc orhcr cxanr
plcs
iscusscd in this c.ssay, should
,¡{ rllp()rtallcc t<t clcntocratic t
bc strfficicnt to shorv thc ft¡ndar¡c. ntal
V .^il :rr.rcl practicc of thc cor.lrcll
[cnrinist insirtcncc th.rt
,',P
CI c of libcrali.sm nái thc actlvc,
>- d\n'
i\\
d crTtocratlc clttT.en
llr o
rP
orncstlc
can bc
stru es of thc o rganized
q' fc lttililst nto\¡Cltt ast
years havc achicvctl a grcat dcal. An
\/ cxccptional \\¡oman can now beco nre Prirne
Mi nistcr - but that particular
aclricvc¡¡cnt lcaves untouchccl the structtr rc
of social lifc of uncxccptional
wonlcn, of u,olr-lcr-r as a social cltegory. Th
cv rcrnaln rn ln unccrtain
position as iuclividuals, rvorkcrs and citiz-ens, and
popular opinion cchoe.s
]krusscar¡'s pronounccmclrt thxt 'natr¡rc
hcrsclf has dccrcccl tlrat rvt-rr-rrcn,
should bc- at the mcrcv oI nlln's juclqcrncnt'.2I Thc crcation
of a frcc
and cr¡alitarian scxual and personal life is
the most áifñ;;i;-ñ-m;;;f
a tru cnt ocratlc soclcty prccls
lt ls not som rcmotc call
IN ns
gocs on as us womcn,
an lcs avc to put lnto
pñefieclñTñEkr tchen, thc n u rscry and thc bcdroorl;
thcy corne homc, as
J. S. Millrvrote (p. 136 )'to the person and hcarth of every
male hcad of a
fanrily, and of everyonc who looks forward to
being so.' It is a natural
biolosic¿l fact of human existence that onl wonlen
can
no warrant socla lnto
res rlvate existence and e)
separarion i.s ul groun ln thc mistaken
e argurrent from natural n ecessity to child-rearin
There
ls not in nature that prcvcnts fathers froln .shari uall IN
lr l.s:1 rcat ln o on of
and cconomic at wor agalnst rt. Womcn cannot wlll an
\
 Ir[]tl I N IS ¡!1,\ N I) I) I:,\,1()C ttACY 223
U:f l l:rcc in tlcnrocr:rtic roclucrivc lifc irncl clt if
d t() cstl r ne ascrt rask, t nor can athcrs take an
sh :1rc ln rcp rocltrctivc :1Ctlv trcs a:'...."....".".É
out f, translonllatlon tn our
\ ,t Í)|\' C() II CC tt () t]
strLlcture () ccon()lTtrc
f)\ C c l()rn -l0C yc¡rs i g() w c soc c()ntr:1ct sts pittctl
e()n vcnt;()n:llist,irqrrnrcnts ;r slrinst tirc plrriarchalists'
appc,rl t() nrlturc is
l:rr fror¡r c«rnclt¡rierl, rrnd a propcr, dcntocr¡tit: ullclcrst¡rndin g of the
rcl¿tion oi n¿tr¡rc anci conventi on is srill lacking.
Tl.rc successfr.rl conclusion
of thi.s lons battlc dcmancl.s somc radical
tvc o aP nt
ers nc\\¡ ers tl lnto
oc r.1t¡ c ractlce, ilt cludin the uestlon ln
partlcl patory ocracy, an an ro cron

NOTES
1 B. R. I3arber, Tbe D.eath of C.onmunal Liberty (princeton
University
Princeron, NJ, 1974), p. zil. The co,n,nenr on
.itir.n_roldi.., i, ,"ry
rcvealing. Thcrc is nir rcason rvhy .,vr.rnrcn shoulc{
not bc armccl
and,lrc,lg dcfcnd rhe parric'1.rs gucrrilla 6ght.rr-rnj
:,]]:.li
nave shown). However, one of the nrajor ,rg.rrr*a.,t,
suf f ragists in Britai,n and. thc USA was
of the".n,;.,
anti-
tt,"t t¡? of
womcn would fatally wcakcn rhe.state bccausc ""if;;.hlr;;i".,r
wonrcn by n"tu." *"r"
incapable of bcaririg arrns. I havc conrnrcnred
orr thcsc issues in
C. Pate.ran, 'Vomcir, Nature ancl rhe Srff.;g;,; i'r'i¡rr,-ió«ii'1irso¡,
¡tp. 564-75. Sorne r.spccrs of the pr,iirrJri ,rgrr\.íi'fro,,,
nrrurc arc tliscussetl,orhcr
below.
'
2 S. Verba, N. Nic antl J.;O. Kim, p.trticipation and political Equality
(Canlbridgc University p..rr, Cr*tr.iJg.\ - t;;
;t:,,;. ;.'""'^'''t'
3- M.,Margolis, Viabtc 'Dcmocrtry 1p.n,:Íin gor['r, Harrnon<Jsworrh,
Middlesex, 1979), p.9.
4 J.G. Fichtc, Thc'scicnca tr. A. E. Kroeger (Trtrbner,
London, I8ll9). 'Anpcndix','§J -of Rigbts,
tl p. 1f,,, i,,.,y '-"'
5 .f. Lockc, Troo T)intisr: oJ'¿";;;,,',r,r,,'r,.,¿. "-pl,"rirj.--
É. L".ri"tt 2.ti ccln,
(Cambridge Univcrsity press, Cambridge, l962),
1, s4Z, 4g; II, §g2.
 224 I,t,Nf lNtslu r\Ni) I)tlilI()CRACy
6 Iior rnr¡rlihcation oI thcsc ncccss:rrily brief comnrcnrs sce T. lJrcnn:rn
enrl (1. I):1rcrn:ur, . ., It4crc Auxili¡rics it, th" Con.,,"á,rr".rl,lr,;,
Wonrcn
1,1:l
,ll" ()riqins oi I-iL,cralisrr'1, Polirictl Studics, 27 (197r\. np. I ti3-
100: I(. ll,ulrilt,rn,_'1.'l¡c [-ilttt,tti,,,t ,,.[ \\,,,,,¡t,r,; A .\t,)lt, ,,,/'p,l,rt"i,,rclr1,
,tu.,l (.,t¡tt,tl¿s¡r¡ (.\llt.n ñ Unri.irr, Lontl,¡n, t,iZ.Sl; it.'l-1,r.,,rr.,r,r,;',
'(-.r¡rir,rlisrrr. I):itriariü1, and.f_ob.sesrcslrion
bv Sc*í,'.§1qrrs, i(:), pt Z
(1.976),
lp. 137*70: A. O¡ltlcii, ' t.touscóif-a 1Í,.,iu,ii'n 'Éoákr,
l-l¡rrnonrlsrr,orth, l\liJdlt,scx, I976), chrps. 2, 3'.
'S.
7 Pagc rciercnccs
.i". .,.1].. ,.rr- ..,..-,n. l. tviitt, ,Thc Subjcction of
Y,t1n"n.,in.J S. Nlill and H. T.rylor,.Ess,rys or¡.§c¡ Eq,,aliry, cd.
A. R<,.s.si (Chic.rro Univcrsiry p.csi, Chic.r*,í, lL, iczbi' "
rr S. okin, 'ü/omci'in \vcstern't,ri¡i¡á1ir)i'lill'r;"'J"ián
u,.,i,,".r;,y
Princcron, NJ, 19Zg).
-9IrPrc'ss,is rvorrh notinS tlir.Mill irlplicitly distinguishcs bct.¡,ecn the
.rcrions ,r¡r.l lr.'li.'[i of inrlividr¡..,1 i.,,,.1.,"nd. .rn.l"rhc
'ht¡.sb.rntls' .vcr .rvivcs, wirhi.,h" pnru., ,ri,r.n ,,,
r,.r.,u.. .i ;l,I';;;;i,X,¡"",ri
nrarriagc._l le norcs,tlr;rr marrirgc is not .l"rignJ f;;,h;"ü;;r.volent
fcrv r. rvhr-rr-r thc clcfcntlcrs ,rf 'r,.,¿ritrl ,,";"?t
n)¿ln, (.\'cn rhos.. wlro ;.;;,,''ú..,,"io. .u".y
_usc their po\\,cr plryrí."'lly ,., ;it_,r"", ,n";,
tlisrin..ri,¡r i,
::f: ^IIl"ir))pr('rr.rnr
rvlrcn cnrrcs of lcnlinisnl offer cx.rnrplc..; 'rilt offi"q'u",liii
indivi.líel";..ri;;.f,..f
.i;ood,
,"J.f
hrr.sb:rnds
.- pcr.son.rlly krrown r.o rhcnl.
:1O/'Mill, ¿rnd nranv othcr feminisrs,
-l con.scq."n." scc thc lack of a.scnsc of jr,rstice (a
.i .onf n"n.,.ni i.'a""r"rrl. iif.l'.,r'rn.',rriár'..i"r"., i,
wonrcn's cll¡racrcrs. T!rg asscrtio¡l thrt thc,lcicct is ,.,.,ur.1',...r'*o,r"n
is ccntr.tl to tllc bc'lief - iqnorcJ b1, rvritcr.s nn ¿.,ro.lr*, _';1.,,,;
wi,ri:cn ¡rc irrhcrently subvcrsivc
.LL.\tc; on tJlis qucstitrn .scc ch.rp. l. "f 1í,,liti.:.i urJ"; ,,;;i .";i,l.ij., ,.,-,1,.
t, Jj,ll:."d rr,.x,lrc qranrc(I. Tltc Su'bjcctiort of Womcn ()wL,s.r {ood tlc,,l ro
w rurilnr lronrpsorr's (mrrch nerlcctc.l) Appc.,tl
.l Ottt, H,tlJ tbc
LIunt¿tn ll¿cc, .V/o»tcn., Aga.inst pritrrsi¡r, ,i"fth, Otitcr'Half,
,l4cn, to Rctain tl¡cm in pátiticat,.ilrc and Hcncc i,, óirit an,l Domcsric,
Slav_cry*(Source Book press, New york, 1970;, originally puHi.h"d
in
1825. Thompson wes vcry u,illing,o qr.r,íán rf,;r;
vision of a coopcratir"-soii"lirt
ír,l;;;s in his
,^ ,"*i,olly drii;;;;il;;;;
l2 For en c.rrly critiq.uc scc, for cxanrple, ",.,á
M. Cáoi,r.l R. R.iJ,.Vo,r"n
u9t,nq S^tudres: Mindlcss Matrons or Scxist Scienrisnr', Sagc
llo.
t'roJ csstondl Papcrs in Contcmporary Soctology,
. - .Attirudcs I (1925); more
lcc.!nrly, lor exarnplc, J. Evans, to iúo,r.n'in Arnerican
Political Science',- Góaernment and Opposition, fSifj^ (19g0),
pp. 101-14.
^
,7 Few Womcn Hotd public Of6ce : Dcmocracy an<l
Y:.Y; Roles',
Sexual l:::'YI,Political Scicncc.euartcrl¡,,9I (1976\, po. Zgi*l! .
l4 A dct.riled discu.ssio. r,f thc ori;ü;*;"á';i;n"r"í;.-Jh;í,' polirical
thcorists hl'c rrc.rrccl *on.,c,.,', .onr"n,,' ,:;i";.;;;, ",o ,1,.
empirical cvidence on which tl.rcse commenrs ",,i are b,rscci, ."nL" found
in chap. 4. In some legal jurisdictions, for example ifr. ,*.,
,f N.*
\v

I;tlMlNISM AND DLM()()1ACY 225

South Valcs, South Australia and Victori¡ in Australia, r¡pc rvithin
ma¡riasc is norv a criminal offence. Legal rcforn., i. -Io."rr_,.Iy
rvclcomc, but the rvidcr .social problcm r"mains.
l5 On thc othcr hand, the of womcn in thc,participarory
rlcrnocraric'Ncrv [-cft.o,as "*p..i"n."
a rrajor irnpctus ro rhc révívai of thc
fcr¡inist nrovcnicnr. Thc New I..:ft p.orid"cl an arcn¡ for political
.rt'rir r¡¡, rlre tlcvckrpnre nr c)f skills, .rnti rv.rs idcologi..llr,
.,rrlil,.rri.n _
br¡t ir rcnr¡incrl rnalc supremecisr in its org.an.iz_ation air.i,'.specirlly,
its pcrs<rnal rclations: sce S. Evans,,lrlrsoli,4l pri;r;.r-:iii"""ii,
Nerv
York, t979;.
i6 Iror some commenrs on the embiguous p.lacc of rhe farnily, sce
1 ; c,' the wide r question of
. _ *"p. ñli. "á-;;";;",';;; ;i;;;. 6.
17 C. Parcnran, paricip)tion and 'Democrúi¿ Theory 1ó.,itrriag.
Univcrsity Prcss, C¡mbridqe, lgZO).
l8 A"stc;rd.v increesc in thc c,m-p1oy,.,..,"n, of nl¡rricrl womcn llas bccn onc
,rI rht'nrost srrikin¡¡ f""iu.ór of rhc post_wírr rleveloDnrcnt «rf
capirrlisrn. Horvc.,,cr, it.is worth rc-ernp-hasizing ih..f,,á.ti;nl_.t.rr¡
rvivcs llrve alrvel's bccn in thc p.ritl , ,.'-rrkfur.". ln'¡.itr;'n ;.-i.Sji
rU"r,
a quarrer of marricd wonren were cmployed (Oaklcy Ho,t.seraife,
p. 44). Morcover, dorncstic .service, until tÉe lrt. tg¡Oí,'*.,
,
occuparion for (u.sually single) women. One reason thrt lrAill is^,rr.ioi ablJto
ovcrlook thc [und;rmcnral i"mport"nce of rvi'es' (privatc) .t.,ii¿_r"r.inr¡
dutics [or tlrcir prrblic rt.tu, i, th¡t nriddlc-.1":', ;;;".r'ir]á .rrt.,",
rvorlcn to look aftcr their c[-rilclrcn; sinrilarly, uppcr_ arcl ,¡iá.]i"_cl"ss
suffrascttcs could.so pr.ison_sccure in rtJ L"ii"l"¿g" ifrlij"rnestic
.scr\'rnrs rvcrc caring 1o for thcir horncs and children (on tllis point scc
ai9:1i,,*,,1n:nd J. Norris. Ona H¿nd Ticd Bchin',t Ur i-[, n;r, ,¡
];tl¡c SlrJJr,t-gc Moacmcnt, Vir;rgo, Londtln, 1978).
.^ ^\\/o.ntcn's
19 7.. R. Eiscnstcin, Tl¡e Radic,tl Fttttrc oi't_ibarat Fcministn'(Lonsmitn,
Nerv York, l98O), pp. 207-9.
20 On scxual harassnlcnt scc, for examplc, C. A. Mackinnon, Saxual
I1ro:t^ry!."t of \Yorking Womcn (yale'University press, N"* H"r.n,
cT,1979).
2l l.-J.Roussc¡u, Emilc, tr. B. I;oxlc1, (Denr, London, lgll). p. l2g.
22 Scc, for cxamplc, the discussion by R. p. pcrchcsky, ,nípl"ju.,¡r*
l'rccdorn: llcyc»nd "A Wonl.rn's Right to Choose',,, s,grr, S1l¡
pp.661-85. ltlSO;,
 Coro i¿ TIl.-.."' s Io,"rXI^á üniuarsl ly Poe.t
-Uoe 66vJ6r ol sta¡,ubkrd", úalt{o»ia
a
lqs9
ffl i rSYfl ond hn l-tcol 9
f1e r

Feminism ancl Derno crecy

,/\ ft:rninist rriight tlis¡rosc briskly of thc sr.r[:,jccr of rhis ctrapter. For
fcrttirlists, dclrjoc:rac)/ has ncvcr existctl ; w()rllen lrayc ¡cycr lrcc¡ a¡cl still
arc r1()t ¡dr'¡rittctl as full nnd cqurl rncrn[:crs anr] citizcus irr,rrr1, country
knou,n rrs rr'.lenrt'»cracv'. A tcllinI imagc t]rat rcctu.s tllr.oughout thc
historl. ,rf fcntinisnr is of libcral .socicty :rs a scrics of rnalc clubs - usually,
:rs Virqin.r \\/<¡olf points c¡ut in 7)ir'¿'c O uiteas, clisrint:uishctl bv thcir orvn
corituilrcs:rn,.l trni[oi'n-rs - thrrt t'rnbr:r¡:c parliartrcrrt, thc cr>rrrts, ¡rolitical
partics, thc rr-rilit¡rr, and ¡rcrlice, universitics, rvorkl-rl¿ccs, tr¡<lc unior:s.
pLrblic (privetc) school.s, c.xclusivc clubs ,rncl populill lcisur,: clrrhs, fron.r
¡ll ,rí rvhicll w()n1cn,rrc cxcluc{,.rrl or lo l.hich thcr'írrc nlcrc,ruxilirric.s.
l;cnrinists t'ill find conlinriltiorr,¡l rhcir yieu-in,rc:rcicnric tlisct¡.,isior.rs «rI
,,lclilorjr;icv rviiich will usuallv t¡lie ir íor r¡r.rntec{ thrit fcrrrinisrl ancl thc
su u(:turc t,[ ¡l¡c rcIatir>rrshi¡r L¡cti¿ccu rhc scxcs ¡rc ilrclcv¡nt ¡t1tttcr.s. Ilt
tlrc sc<.r¡-rc o[.r ¡;hort cssay it is halcliy Possiblc to Jcr¡rr'lislr rl.it: lssirnl¡.rri,.rrr
.rl t,r,<, ti'lous.rntl ycrrs tl¡¡t tircrc is lr() incr>rnP.rti[rili§, l)(:1.\r,ccrl
'dcnr<'»crac),' ,rrrrltllc subjcction of rvonlcn or tllcir cxclusirrn Ir.r:rn i'ull arrtl
cqrral ¡riirticip:rtion in ¡rolitical lifc. Instc,¡cl, I shall inciic¡te tvh),fcnrinisrn
provicics denrocracy - u,hcthcr in irs c.xisti¡rg libcral quise <lr in thc iorrn
of a possiblc futurc participatory or.clf-managing dcmocr.acy .. rvith its
rnost ir.nportant challenge ancl mosr comprehensivc critiquc.
'I'hc objer:tion th¿rt rvill bc lrrouglit asainst rl¡c fc¡¡lini:,;ts is rhrir afrcr.;r
cct'ltul y or ntorc oI Ir:gal rcfornls an,.i thc ilttrt'rdrictioll r,t univr:rsll
srrilragt: worncn arc now thr: civil rnd p.rliric.rI crlrrlls of nrcu, so tll;rr
ferninis¡¡ tod,ry hes littlc or norhinc to contr.il'¡utc t() rlcnlocratic thi:orv
,rntl ¡',rrcticc. 'l"hir; ot¡icction i{:rlorcs rilr.rel¡ thr¡r is crucirrl 1() iln
undcrst,rndinu,.¡f thc r,-'rrl r:har¡ct.:r oI lib¡.:r.ai-tlr:mocr¡tic strcirrrics lr
ignorcs tlrc cxistcncc of rvicics¡-rrcac{ lnd dccpli,hclt{ c,rrlvictiirnr;, irn,.l oI
 I;l:ivllNl5i!1 /\I,{l) l)Ll\1()(lt1.A(l\' 2l i

s()cirl l)l irct.iccs tlriit qivc thcrrt cxpl'css;on, th¡t ctlr-rtrlclict tl'rc (trlore t',r
lcss) [,rrrn.rllv cr¡r.trtl civic st.ttr,t:; of r'¿t¡t'¡tett.'['hc objcction is basccl oll lhe.
libcr¡.1 arqr¡nr('nt th:1t ..;ocirl incqrrnlitic:; arc irrclcvent to political cqualitv.
'fllt,., it il,is t,, ign,,rc tirc Pro[rlcrrrs tltilt h,rvc,rrist't'l fr,rrt-r thc lrttcllli)t t()
rrnivcrs.tlizc libcrrl prirrciplcs [',r'cxtcntlirrg thcnr to \\'()nlcr1 rvhiic rrt thc
srllnc tinre nr:rittt,rining thc rlivision bctrl'ccl.l prir':rtc:rrltl ¡',olitical li[e
rvliich is ccrrtt.tl to libcr:rl tlctltttcrrc\', ¡rlil is rrlso a tlivisit',tl t.'ctn'cclr
\\,()nicn rintl rltcn. Ií iibcr;rl tireoiists of dct-ltocracv arc cotltcrlt trl ¡void
thcsc qucsri<)ns, thcir r,rciicrrl clitics,,rlonr¡ rvith aclvr.rcatcs of plrticip:rtr.rr1'
tle rno,.-rrrc\', nriglrL irevc bcctr cx¡rcctccl to cttnfrolrt tlrctll cnthtrsi:rsti'-;rlly.
i l<,rr'cvcr, ¡ltl-ro,,¡qh tllev hrtvc ¡raiti a goorl clcal c,I xttcrltioll tt> titt: cl;rss
i.;rr,.rcturc ol iihcrel dcn'toi:r¡cics er,.l tlrc rvay in',r'liicll cl¿ss irrcqtralitl'
unLi{rrcr!1,i fornl,ri i-,,rlitic,rl r:.1r.r:rlitv, tl'rcv h¡r'c r:rrcl1' c.rartlirlc.l thc
:;iqnifr,:encc oi :;cxtt:rl inc<itrelitr' ¡lt,.l titc p:rtriart:htrl or.lcr oI thc li[¡cr;ri
st¡tc [,,r,r,.lcniocr:rti,: tratrsft-rrttlrrtion oI Iilrcra]i:;m. \fritcrs otl tletl-tocr;rcy,
r,,'hctlrcr ilciendcrs or r:ritic,; of thc st¡tl.,rs,.1uo, invariably fail tc, c,rtlsiclcr,
i,rr crrurrple, u,hctllcr thcir tli:;cussions oI lrccc]orll or collscnt h¡r'c lrrly !

rclcr'¡ric.' ti, \\'()nrL't-r. 'l'hr.'i' irrrplicitlv arqtre as ift'irlclividt¡,rls' a¡rcJ 'citizcrr.s'

i

iire iltcrl.
It. is Irct¡uctrtl)'ovcrlcrokc.l ht,rv rcccntll'dclllt¡crrrtic or univclrs:rl
suffr¡gc w,r.s cst,rblishcd. i't¡litic:rl scic'ntists Ilavc rcnrainc.l rcmarka[ll1'
5il1¡¡1¡ ¡§orrt rht.'strr.rriulc for rvol-¡rrrrrltt,ocl suifr,rric (in Il.rrglrncl tllcrc w:rs a
r'i)llliltLr()r'l\ ott¡'itliz'ctl r-'xll1P;ligll [ol-l'ortt'.cir'lit ¡'cx¡' frt¡nl llitr(r to 191'l)
,ln.l thc politir,rl Irteaninr',,tttcl cottsctltlt:ticcs c,f ,'r-rlr,rtr<'hircttlcllt. §üoll1¡l11's
positior-r:rs \¡otcr-:i ,rlso ltir¡rc:rr:; to (iílusc stilrlc t'iifficulty ftlr u''ritcrs ott
r.1.,,,,,.r..r,. i-ittlc t:onrtrlcttt is cxcitctl' Ior cx,rll.rpie, bv Schul'r¡prtcr's
cr.prlicit st:rtcnlrjrii, irr itis c.rtr,:llcly ir.rllur:rlti¡l tcvisir>rrist tcxt, tlrat thc
<,I u't,r'tlct.l froi'lr t lr'-' 1:r:rlrcllisc docs trot invalicl,rtt' a ptllitl"s
"r,r:1r.,si,r,,
cl¡iu-, to trt ¿ '.lctll,rcl rtcy'. ln ilarbcr's f.rt'-'irr;rtirrg .rc\'()Llllt t''1r clircct
clenroi:raci, in ¡.tlu,iss citt'ito11, ,vonlrrnllor,,d sui'Ira¡¡c (uaincci onlf in 1971)
is trcirtc,-l vcr)'¡,'qtli\Ioc¡llv.I]:irbcr cnlpltlsiz-cs tll¿rt w()lllc11's cnltrtrncllir;c-
nlcnt \\¡Js'just ancl cqtritritllc'- [>rrt thc ccst w.l-\'l'.trticil'r¡titrrl lr-rcl
cotntt-tul-tity'. As.scrli[:li,:s qrct'uttrl'icl<11'arlcl Pilrtici[):ltiotl tlirninislrt:c1,
etornisiic indi'itlu¡lisrn glirlctl offici¡l rccogrlitic'n an<l tlrc itlc'rl t'i the
citiz-cn-solc{icr coulcl no lonscr bc jtrsti6ed.tThc rcaclcr is lcft n'orltlcrir.rg
rvhcther wonrcn shoulil ltot have s¡cr;ficcd thcir iust tlcttlrrtlcl for thc s'rlic
of n-rcr.l's citizcnship. Again, itl \r,:rL-'1, Nic ancl Kirrr's rcccrlt (:r()ss-
nxtioliai stu,lv of political participrrtion it is nc'tccl, irr a <li:;cr-¡ssiotr ol'illc
ch,.tnqc irr l{oll¡ntl froln con.i¡rulsorl' to volttntat}' votillrl. tlrrtl 'votiiit¡
rigl-,ti ,.,cr,: univcrs,rl'.'l'l-rc fttotrrot(]' olt lllc sillll(.: Pxge' s;rv^s th'rt in l'otll
cllct.,rr¡l s)'-stclils thcrc was'e t.¡tlc;tta.It atttc \'()tc systclll'.1 I)i.l t"'otl'rcrl
','otc? LJnrcct,tir-,iz.ctl lrist,.lric'll irorlics eb,>ur,.1 in <[iscussiol-ls t-,Itlcll.tu.-r¡.:t''
ircntinisl.r; at'c [tcqltctttiy toltl todrr-r" tllrrt wc 1r1!lst tlot bc.rllcrltled bl'
 21) r,trt\lrN[;tv1 ¡\NI) I)t.]l\.1()ct{Acy

ln¡sctrlint' lenrirraqc bcrcrru:;c'rnan' rc¡lly rncans,hunrar-r bcing,, although

rt,hcr.r, in 1ll(r7 in slrPporr ,,I tllc hr.st *,r.,nlc,n,s suffragc l-,ill il., Britrrin,'ir
rvris rr-llrrtcl tlrrt'nran'(rc[crrint to thc householdcr)'wi1s a gcncric
tcmr
thrrt inclutlcrl t,ontcn thc rrrgurtrcr.rt u,as Fn¡ly rcjcctccl. A,.,,,tl.lc. .ccc,.,t
t'xrinr¡rlc <,i thc u.lv iu rvhiclr \v()nrcn cln bc u.rittcn otrr of-clcr.nocr:rti,:
lrolirit.il lilr, .¡rr l¡c lotrnti in lv,l¡rg«rlis's \/i,tblc l)r,mocr,tt1,.l Ic bcgins by
l)r-cs('ltting ¡ historr'of 'Citizcn Ilrou.n', rvlto ir .,.,.,.,,., ..,,.,J ,,,,1.,.,, ...L I"r.,-,,
in I92O o[>tlincri 'llis Jatcst nr.rjor triurnpl'r, thc e nfr;rr.rchiscnrcrrt of
r
\\¡()nrcn'. "l'hus the lriston. of *,or-ncn's dcn-rt¡cratic strugglcs c1is,r¡rpcars
" anrl dcnro(--rrltic votinrt ill)i)ca15.rs rhc solc crcation - n. *;i, - of l¡cu.
Sr.rcir cx¡n-r¡'rlcs nticht bc,ulrrsing il thcv wcr('n()t \),r)tlrr()lltiltic of thc
pnst rin(l prcscnt social standins <>f rvr¡nlen" |crni¡risnr, liLre r¡lism ancl
tlt'rrroo',lc\,(tlr.rt i.s, r political orclcr ir.r ivhiclr citiz_enslrip is univcrs:rl, tl.rc
riqlrt,rf c:rch ¡clt¡lt inclir,iclu¡l n-rcrntrcr of thc cor:rn-rtrni§,) rharc r c()nrrnon
, oligin. lrernirrisrn, a gcncral critiqtrc of social rclationshi¡rs of scx¡,r,il
I clonrin¡tion and suLrordinarion and a visiorl of a scxrally cgalitarian
li[<c libcrelism ancl -cl.nro.r..r,, cmL'l-gcs onlv whcll iríclivir.lualism,
-or
-futrrrc,.
¡lic iclc;r th¡t in.liviriu,rls... 1..,1.i.,.ru.. f,-.if i,i,l .qr.l to cacl.r orhcr, has
.lcvclopctl as ir universal tllcorv of soci,,l orga,,.iz-.itio,-r. FIon,cvcr., fronl the
tirlrc, J00 \,cll-.§ r1((), s,hcr-r tlrc individtr:rlisr social conrract [hcorists.
ler.rnchccl thc hrst critical :lrtilcl( on p:rtriarchalisnr rhc prcvailiut .rpprorcli
to thc ¡.rosition oi u,onlcn cen be cxcnrplihcd bl, thc ,rc,.,is ol iricilic rvho
;rslir:

llls u'onr¡r.r tlrc sallc riglits in tllc strtc s,hich nr¿n h.rs?'fhis qucsti()n lnay.
.lp¡c.l¡' r'irli( ulr¡u.. lo nt.¡t\'. I;,)l il' rllc
^lrli. It.rr¡¡¡¡j ,,1' ,rll l.lu¡l rir:ht. i,
t-c.ts<it'¡ ln,l l't'ccrlt,rri, hos' c¿n :r clistilrction cxist [rctwccn t*,rr.icxcs ,r,hi.,lr

l)()sscss [¡olil tllc s:1nrc rc'ils()n ¡nrl l hc siultc l'rcctltrnr ?

Hc rcplies to this qucsriorl :rs [olkru,s:

Ncvcrtlitlcss, it sccnrs tl.nt, so Iong ¿s nlcn llavc livctl, tiris h;rs lrccn
di[lcrcntly, lrcitl, ancl rhc [crr¡¡lc scx sccms n()t ro hxvc bccn pleccd on a p:rr
rvith thc rnaic scx in thc cxcrr:isc of its rigllrs. Sirc, t uni¡.,lcrs,tl sailti?n(ilt
tttry¡¡ llq:c d. []rou)d, to cliscot'cr.¡,hicl¡ ¡.it,ts urlrrr, ?n.orc urgent pr.oblct.n
tl:¿n in otrr d41'5.a

The anti-fcnrinists and anri-(lclrocrats havc rlcvcr found this ,urgcnt

problcrr'difficulr ro soh,c. Ditfr:l.cntial rislits ancl srarus hxvc bccn ancl
arc clcfc'ndcd [rr.appcal ro ihc'liarural'diffcrcnccs l¡crrvccr.r rltc sexes,
fronr rvl.rich it is helcl tcl follorv ril:1r \\'omcl1 arc subordinare ro rhcir
fathcr:; or htrsbar,cl.s ¡nd rhxt their 1-,rrr¡rer
¡-lacc is irr clonrcstic lifc. Thc
:rr!lr¡l¡lcnt l:ront lt¡turc strctcltes [r,rck ilrto lnytholog], anr.l ancicut tin-rcs
§. 1:irrti rrrdlr, ottrn coines drcssccl rrp in tllc scicinriEc g,irb of socio[rioio91,)

*f-
l*l.,:'
úriJr
ii
s,r\./
r,
 IrI:l\1 IN lSl'{ I)lil\tOCRACy 2t3
^NI)
ettd i(s lonscvity irl)perlrs t() confirm tll¡t it inf<tnns us ()f an ctcrllal and
csscnr;el parr ol- rllc lluntan conr.lition. But. far fron-r bcinq timclcss, rhc
;rr{unlcnr hes spccilrc li¡rnrtrl:rtion.s in cliffcr,;nt l-risto rical c¡'rochs and, in
thc contcrt ol rhc ile vck)pnicnr oi libcr.rl-ca .pitrlist socie ry, it appcrrs irr ;r
form which ()bscurcs thc. pltriarch;rl srrLrcturc of liLrer.alisrn bcncatll t[rc
itlcolt,sv ol. i nrlivirlur] ircedoln rll(l ,:clu.llitv
It is usu:rllr';rssrr nrc(l thar thc soci.rl c()nrrrlcr thcorists, and Loclic in
pirrticular, p rovitlcd thc rlefinitivc counrcr to thc p:rtriarcl-ral thesis that
patcrnill ;rnd politicirl porvcr arc onc ¡lld tl.rc sanrc, grourldcc{ in the
neturxl suLrjcction of sons to fathcrs. Lockc ccrtainlv clrcw a sharp
distinction bcnvccr.r n¡ttrrai or. l'arniliel tics and tllc cor-lvcntion¡l rc lations
oI poliricel lifc, [¡ut althoLrgh lic ¿1rquc(l that sons, rvhcn adult. rvcre es frcc
as thcir frithcrs ;rr-rtl cc¡ual to thcrn, arrcl l-rcncc coultl or-r 6ably bc
gr',vcrncd t,itl'r thcir orvlr c()nscnt, it is ust¡¿rllv'forgottcn' cxcl udcc{
\v()llt''n (u,ivcs) {ronr tlr is arsunrcnt. Flis criticisnr of thc patriarch;rlists
cl e pcn ils rul'rt'rn tlic xs.sumprion t,f rrlrur¿rl indiviciuaI lrccrlo
nr,rrrcl cc¡uality,
btrt onl1, lr)cn count ¿rs'intli viduals'. Vorncn arc hcld to bc born tcr
subjcction. Lockc trrkcs it frr r grantccj rh¿rt a wollt¡n rvill, throuuh thc
nl;irritgC c9¡trect,,rll'lr \¡s ¿1qrcc tr> ¡rl:rcc lrcr.scll in suborr_li n¡ltiou to hcr
ilt¡sll.urrl. I Ir, .ll',r'r.c\ \\'it hth i: p,rtriarchalists thrr rvifclv strbjccrion llas.a
iround¿rtir.rn in I\Jaturc' lnd rrqucs th:rt in thc frrntily thc husbanrl's u,ill, as
tlr:rt of the 'ablcr rrntl thc strottqcr', utust llu'a1,s prcvail over'tltet of his
rvi{c in ell tlrings of rh.:i r c()nrm()n Cbnccrnn,
betu,ccn thc prcrnrisc of irrcliviriu:rl frccc{,¡nr
corollar;, of thc colrYcrltional btsis oi
\\r()mcu (u,ivcs) erc natul'rllv su nc unnoticcd. Sinrilrrrl -uY\Í
thc wontell Are
naI
or radiction and
-
paradox lic ar rhe hexrt oIc{cmocratic th_colv;rrr.1 pi.rcti_cc. Tl.rc c.rntinuing
silcncc about thc sratus of rvivc.s is ,..t.rn"n, ,o ,ir" iii""gth c¡f thc union
of a trar.rsforn.rcd patriarchalisnr rvith libcr¿rlisrn. Iror ti-,. fi.rt tin-rc ir.r
history, libcr¿il individuali.srrr prorniscrl wonrcn an cqual social standir.rg
with nrcn as rlarurally frce individuals, but ar rhc .sarnr rime sociol
ccononlic dcvcloirrircrrts crrsurc.l th¡r rlrci iulrortlination t.,I wivcs to
husb¡nds coutinu(cl [() bc sccrl es naturll,.rrr.l s,, oursi.lc thc.loln¡in o[
dcrnocraric rhct,risrs or rht. poliric;rl str.ugglc tt, deruc,crarizc lihcr.alisru.
The conviction that a n.rarricd.,on-,cn,s propcr place is in thc conjugai \,*'
homc as ¿ scr\¡ant to hcr husbrnd ,r,oih,,i to hcr chilclrcr.l is nrw so
widespread anrl r.vr:ll e.,;tablisl-r,:d rhar"nd
thi.s ¡rranlIemcnr appcars as a n:rrural
fcaturc of hun'¡rn cxistcncc ratlrcr than historicalll, and iulrur,rllv s¡rccific.
'llhc l-ristorv of thc ds'elop¡rcnr
of tlie c.rpiralist oreaniz_¿rtion tif p...1.,.-
tion is ¿rlso tlrc hisroi-y oI rhc dcvcloprncnt o[ a particula. f..r,, of thc

I
 214 r,t,MINlsM ANt) r)tit\t()CtiACy
scxrr¡l tlivisio¡r oi:l¡boul-(altlrr:,trglr this is not thc historv tt¡ lrc forrlrr.l
in
nt()st [){)()lis). Ar thc tinlc t,llcr-l the soci.rl contr.lcr thcorists:rtt;rclicd
thc_
p;ltl-i¡rch¡l rhcsis oI i lrilrurrll hicr;rrcirv oi incqtrrlitv en.l su[rortlin.lrion,
Iri'rvt,s \\'cre n()t thcir hLrs[rrrrrcl's er,1urls, tr,,t ,,r.,..,,...i thc'
'p.,.;,r;,-. thcir cc'.,-¡,ric
'dc1,c¡1,i¡11¡r. \\1i'cs, ,rs .rss.cirrr.s '.n,1 ;;r'.:;;r;;rri. ¡.,,.,.,,1.',.ti,,,.,,
,lr.rtl ,rrr intle ¡rr.rrrlr,nt s[:rtrrs. A. 1.,r,r.1r,.iic,rr nr,,..crl ()ut ()[ tlrc lr.ruselloltl,
\\'()r)rcrr u'cr.c forc..rl r)ut o{ thc tr:rclcs thcr,controllcrl
¡ntl u,ivcs bcc;rnrc
()n tllcir hLrstr,rnris lor su[.,sistcncc or e()nr]rr.tcrl 1or
_t.lr'll¡11i1¡¡11 indivitltrrl
rv.rgcs in r:crt,rin.i1rcils o1'
¡rr,.rtlr:ction.r, lv,l:urv u,orliing_cl,rss rvivcs ¿rnc{
nt()rltcrs ll¡r.c lr¡ci ro cot.ttinr.lc to rrl¡ to finrl prid a,.,..,¡r1,,.,,.,..,a,.,t
t() cnsurc
tlre srrrvivll <>1-rlrcir l.unilicr, I.rrr l.r.rllc r.,ri.l_r,inctccr,.,,l.,,,.,-,,l.,ru thc
itlc¡1,
thc naturrrl enc{ rcs¡rcctablc, rnt>tlc ,rf lifc lr,rcl colnc t() Lrc sccn as tl.ret
of thc
rni..lcllc-cless, brcaclri'inrring patcrilrrili¡s iind his totalll,rlcpcndcnr
u,ifc.
[]r, tllcrr thc.sLrbjcction cif rvivcs u,,rs conrplctc; rvirh ,..,,,'i,-,.1.1¡.,c,-l.lcnt
lcgrl
or civii st;rn.lir.rg t[rcr.hac] becn rcdr¡ccd ir., thc srrrrrls of iÍ.,"
¡,.,.,¡.,.r,y,
ninctcer-rth-ccnrrlr\r fcrninists crrphrrsizcri in thcir aarn.,¡.,r.i.r,r,-,, ^,
¡ i u tllc slrrvcs ,,i tlrc Wcst In.iic, ,rn..l Ar¡cric¡n Sotrth. .[,orl:r1,, of u,ivcs to
*..rlrcn havc
intlc¡.¡¡1¡{¡¡11 civil st¿tus rrnrj thc vorc; rlrc\,.,.",,.,1,1r".",.,t1y,
l),"r.,.:,i
'ir-rdivirlLr,rls'rs u,cll as citiz.cns antl thus rc<1uirc,.,.r rp..i.l
- ¿lttcntion in
rliscussior-rs of ricnr,rcr,rcr.. Ilt¡t.cvcr, ,rna ,ri- thc r¡ost i,r1r.r,,",r,
, scqlrcnccs of rhc insritutionrrliz;rti<,n of aa,r'_
l[ber.rl inLiiviiluallsrlr ancl rhc
r'st,tlrlislult'¡rr rrI u¡¡j11,¡s.rl sultr.r¡ie lr,rs [,ccn ro hiqhliqlrt rl," p....ri..i
('()nrri1(licLion bc..r,een.thc irrir.iel ptilitic.rl cqrrality tri Iit...l .1.,,ro..r.1,
¡n,i rhc sr¡ci,rl sLrbor-clirr¿tit,n,.,i.,n,,rr.l",.,, i,iclur.lin¡¡ rlrcir.subjcction as
rvivcs rvitlrir.r thc ¡ratriarchril srruct,.¡r-c of thc instituiion of nr;ir.r.i¡sc.
It is intiieerivc oi thc ltriturlc of tlcnrocrlric thc<¡rists 1,rn.l ¡.,«rliti.,al
' .rcrivisrs) rou,artls Icrrinisnt tlriit John Stuart l\4ill's critici.snl'ot thc
argulltcnt frorn (rvortrcn'.s) it;lturc,:ultl tllc lcssons trt [rc lcurncrl front it,
arc s() littlc known. TI-rc prcscnr rcvival of the orqanizccl fcnrinist
rrlo\¡crtlcnt has bsgu11 ro rcscLrc "[bc Subjcctiort of \io,rrn front the
ob.scr.rrin,into rvlrich fulill's conlncnrlror; h,rrc
¡rr.,s1.,".1 it, elthough it
. prc,viclc.s_ a logical cxrcnsir¡n of thc arsulncnrs of his aca.icr»ically
acccptablc ()n l.ibcrty. Tl;c .subjectioz is in.rportanr for its subst,rntivc
arsuntcltr, l¡ut also becausc thc ultintatcly conr;a(iicrory
¡rositior-r that Mill
takc.s in rhe cssav illustrares just'horv raclicll fcminist..iti.,irn., is, ancl
how
thc atternpt to univcrsalizc liberal principlcs to l¡oth scxcs pushcs bcl,oncl
rhc con6ncs of libcral-denrocraric rlicoi, ,,rd pracricc.
In -[-J¡t' Subjectiort Mill argucs that tl.re rclatior.r bcnrccrr rvr¡r¡rcn ancl
rncn! o., morc .specifically, bctwccn rvivcs ancl htrsbands, for.nts an
un j,ustifcd exccprion to thc libe ral principlcs of indiviclu¡l
riqlirs, ir.cctlonr
ancl choicc, to thc principles of cqrialitl, tf oppor,r.,,.,ity rncl
thc allocatio,.,
of oc:cuprrtional positions by nrc,r.it ttrat, hc tr.,li"ucr,'rlow govcrn orher
social and political institutior-rs. In the modcrn world,'.,r,.,rc,.,t 1.,r,
t
 i;l.l\1 INISI\1 ANt) I)t,,\1O(.tiA(.) 215
sul)l)l¡nt('(l l,,r ¡,' ,,,.1 tlrc ¡rrirrci¡rlc r¡[ rcllicvcr¡lclrt h:1s rcplilcc(l that oI
ilscril)ti()lr - c\cr'pt ri,lrcrc u'olncn:1rc concerncri. lvfill lvritcs th¡t tl¡e
con juq,rl rci.rti,,lt is .-,it cx:irn¡-:lc ol 'tltc ¡rlirnitir.c st;ite ()f slavcrv lasting on,
.. . It lr.rs n.r lr¡sr tlr.....rinr ol irs [¡rr.rr.rl origin.'(p. l.1O)'lr1,ri.l.icnci.rllr,,
thc soci.ri stiIr,,]'rlin.rrio¡ ,rf \\'onrrn is'r sinqlt r-clic t,i rrn t¡lt] rv<¡rltl of
tllotrslrt rn,l ¡r¡.¡.''1icc, cx¡rkrdc,.l i¡l e vcrvtllirrrt ,:isc' (p. lA6). lr'lill o¡rcrrs
l'l'r'.\ttl,it,1r,r,7 rr';,1'' \(,nl('P('r'tiltcn( (()ntnt(,n(\ (,n tllc tlillicultr lcrni¡lists
[.icc in prcscntirlg ¡n intcllcctu¡llv ctir¡r'incing crlsr-. I)onlination by nren is
ro()tc(l in long-st,rndinq custonrs, rrnri thc idca that ntalc sLlprclnacy is thc
pr()pr'r,rrrlcr «it tlrinr¡s rlcrivcs irr¡r'n dccp icclings arrcl scntin.lcnts rathcr
thrrn r.rtionrrlll'tcstcr,l Lrclicfs (arrcl, it nright bc ¡rltletl, ulcn htvc ¡ lot tt'l
l,rsc bv l'rr'ilrg c<rrrvincc.l).'I'htrs icnrinists lrlust not cxpcct thcir t'»p¡'rr»ncnts
to'qivc ul) prxcticill ¡rrinciplcs irr rvlrich tl'rcv h.rvc bccn I¡orn errd brcd antl
u,lrith ¡rc thc l¡¡sis of llruch o[ thc cxistins r¡rclcr oi the u'orl.l, at the first
:u-qunrcnt,rtivc rrttrrcli t'hicll ther':1rc n()t cepe[,le oI lt,rricrllv rcsistinr].'
(p. l2S) \'l ill is vcrv cor.rsciorrs olr tlrc inrportencc of thc e1.,¡.,cll to nlturc.
l"lc nr¡tes tlr,rt it Provitlcs nr.l critc'rir'rn t,¡ rliffcrc'nti¡tc rllc st¡bortiir-ratit¡n of
\\'()nr('¡r f:r'i,nl othcr l<,rnls oi tl,lninrrtion l',cc,rr¡sc :rii :-rrlcrs h,rvc .rttcnrl-rtcrl
to.l.riin,r irourrtlirrg in nirtr.n'c for thcir position. Hc;rlso ilrgucs thxt
r)()tlling:lt ¡ll c¡n bc seir{ ,rbo,.rt tlrc rcspccl;\'c n:lturcs of u,on.rcr-r lrnd nlcr-r
lr.'c,lusc u'e ll,tvt',>nlv sccn rlre scxcs iir,rrr rrncqu¡l rclationship. Arry
tiilltclt'rices in tlrcir tnor,rl ,rrrrl othcr crr¡r:lcirics u'ill bccomc linorvn rvhcu
n.lcl.l rtn.l \\¡()nrclr c1111 ilrtcrilct rrs intlcpcndcnt lnti cqual rrrtionll bcinqt.
Hou,cvcr, tl,-'s¡ritt'lvlill's vigc,rt,u:; ¡tt;icli on thc;rppcal to custon'l rrrrcl
nrlturc! hc trlLirlr;itclv i¿lls bacli ()n thc vcrv argunlcut th;1t hc Irirs cirrcfullv
criticiz.ctl. I Iis l'.riltrrc consi:;tcntlv to.rppll,his principlcs to donrcstic liic
Ir,rs l.,ccn r.lotctl bv rcccnt fcnrinist critics. l¡ut it is lcss oftcrr pointcd out
thlt his incr'¡nsistcncv r¡ndcrnrirrr-s his dc'ft'ncc c,i rvonrru'rhoocl suffri-rgc
arrrl cqr-rrrl dcr.r.rocr¿rtic citiz-cnshi¡-r. 'fl-rc ccntr¡l argLrnrcnt of Tha Subjcction
is rhat l.rusb¿r.rds must bc strippccl of thcir legally .sanctionccl clcsl.ro¡is
powcrs ovcr thcir rvives. Most of thc lcgal rcl:ornrs .rf thc nrarriegc law
that Mill lclvoc¿rtcci hivc nc,tr, l¡ecn cn¡ctcd (rr,ith tlic sigrrificant cxccptiorl
of n.rarital rapc, to rvhich I shall rcturn), rncl thc implications of his
unwillinrncss to cxtenrl his criticisnr to thc sexual clivision of labour
!,t ,..,
u'ithin thc hr:¡n.rc arc n()w fr¡llr. rcvcalcd. Mill argucs th¿t Lrccausc c.¡t thcir I ".i.j+
.i ¡.o'.¿n, 14^ '
of e.lucatiori and lcg,rl .nrJ ,o.i"l pressurcs, u,onrcu tlcr
upbrir.ruir.rg, lack I
Lr.§ r/J..
not havc a l'rcc chc'rir:c ',vl-rcther or not to nlarry: 'rvifc' is tlrc oniy
occttPatiott ()pen t() tlrenl. Btrt.tlth.,u,Jir lrc,r]so rlrgucs that w()nrcn nrLlst \ (/.itir'/r\.l r. r ,1

havc cqual opportunitl,v,,ith rlcn to obtxin a propcr ccluc¿rtion thxt will

cnable thcn.t to support thcnrsclvcs, lre ¡ssun'rcs tlrat, iI lnarriagc \\¡crc
rcformerl, ur()st \\¡orllcn u,oultl ¡lr-¡¡ choosc indepcndcncc.
lVIill stetcs tl'r¿t it is qcncrally un.lcrstood thrrt s,l-rcn a womiln,-,-,rrr.i", l

shc h¿s choscr-, ircr cerccr, likc a r.nan rvhe'n hc chooscs l profcssion. Whcr.r ,
 .1 16 ljtl\{ tNf st\l ANI) I)r:t\,1()cti^c.y
ir \\,()nl.l¡r l,ecoll.lcs l s,il-c,.slrc nr,rkcs clloicc oI thc nr¡r.urr]cr.ncnt t)f
a
hrrtrsr'lr,rltl, entl tllc l.,rirrr:ing rr¡r oi ,r lerrrilv, :rs tlrc firsr'c¿ll
t>n hcr
c\rrtir)lts,. . . slre rcn()unces,. . .,rll loccrrpatirtns]not consistcrrt u,ith thc
rct¡uircnrcnr of'this.' (p. I79) l\{ill is ro,crtl,.* l.,"r.l to :rscril¡rivc
irr[Lurcrlrs
.rnrl tlle [rclici irl rvt'rr.l.)cn's natrrr¡l prllcc arrcl ,.,..,,¡.,.rri,,,.,. Fi" i, f.rlling
back
()n thc ¡r-lcicnt rrrtlition ol-P.rtri.rr.ehrl rhcorv thet, ts Susan
lrolitical
()liin Ir¡s slrr,u,n tt'¡ \Y'otnL,n in \yt,stt,rn l),,1j¡¡r-,¡! J'h,,t,ll,t,*.lsscrrs
rllar
t,ltcrc¡s ntcn i1tc, ()r crllt Lrc, rr-r,rr-rv thinqs, w()lncn plraa,l olt cilrth to
ftrlfll onc lrunctior-l onlv; ro bc.rr ancl r.c¡r children. ".a ivlili ncetll.cv¡dc.s thc
questi()n r¡i hou,, if wonrcr.r,s.trsk is prcscr-ibccl by thcir scx, tllcr.can
bc
slicl to lrlr,c ¡ rc¡l choicc ol:occ¡l-,,¡ti<r,-.,,..,. o,1.,, cqual o¡rpor-i.,nitv
is
rclcvilnt t() \\,onlcn if nr:rrriagr. itsclf is r .c;1r«r,.'Mill .-,.,,rparcs :1n
cgllitrrriar.r rnarriegc to a Lru.sincss partncrship irr rvhicl,r thc p,rrfncrs
arc
frcc t«r llclr()ti:ltc tlrcir ovn,n tcr,rs i,f ,r.s,,ci,,tio,-,, but hc .ali'", ,.,, .",,_,.,"
vcry \.c¡k ¡rgumcnts, u.l.rich rur.r coLurrcr to Iibcrll
¡rrinciples, ro sLrpporr
llis.vicrv that cclualitv u,ill not distur[r thc cour,cr.rri,i,r,rl ,l,l,rr.rric riivision
of l¡botrr. Hc suggcsts tlirt tl-rc.n:1tur;tl xrrxngc¡t1cnt, rvor.¡]cl bc for.rvifc
anrl htrsband cach tr.r L¡c'¡[.,solrrtc in thc cxcct¡tivc l¡ranch <>f tllcir
owr_l
ticpartrncnt . . . ¡r'ry ch.anqc of s\,.tcrn ancl
Principlc. reqtrirint tlrc conscnt
ot.botlr.' (p 169) Hc :rlso susscsrs tl,.r"r tl.,c'l.lirisi,,,,, of labou.'L.,ctruc"n
' sp.()usL-s could bc,rgrcctl in tltc nt¡rri:1llc c()ntr:¡ct *
tl_r.
but hc;rssr¡rrcs thírt
wivcs rvill be s'illing ro acccpt rhc.naturrl,arrrlngcnrcnr. Vill ,r,r,"i
iir^,
dutir's-.rrc.alrcad1, tliviclcrl 'Lr), co,rscnt . . anri gc,..,"..1 ct¡stcir.u, (¡r.
170)
nrodificcl in indivicltr¡l c;rscs; [¡Lrt ir is L.\]crl], )*.,r.r"1 custor.n,, as
rhc
bulrvarli r¡f r¡alc dt¡r¡in¡titin, thrrt hc is arqrring lrsainst irr thc borlr,oI thc
css,rr'.
_Hc
lorgt'ts tlris rvlrt.n 11c rq¡.-¡r1r tll,rt tlle lrrrs[r,rrr.l ,, ill ,:.,,rcr.rll.,
havc rhc sicarcr r.oicc in tlccisions as ht.,i. usurlll,olilcr. tr4ill .¿.lrthr,
this is ()nl\. unt;l tlrc tinrc of liic rvhcn,rsc is iricler,¡nt; [rut u,hcn cio
hus[¡¡ncls ¿clnrit th¡t tlrjs h¡s arrivccl?, U" forqcts fr¡
r.vhen hc suggcsrs rhat rnorc r,,,cit1lit u,ill "ír,, bc gir.i, t,l the "rr],-r ",g,.uncnr.s
vierd of thc
p.rrtncr u,ho brings ¡lrc nrc¿n.s oI rr.,pp,rri, clisinqcnLrotrsly ac]rlins
'whicho,cr tl-ris is'rvhcn he has already th.rt wivc.s rrili ,choose,
(t, be tlcpclrtlcnr by .lrlrec;ng,.,.,.,.,.rri. ^i.u,.,.,",i

I
I
!
I
I
 I' li1!l I N ISI\L\NI) l)tr¡vr()C RACy 217
to u¡;c ¡lta;. \,()rc cfl:(rctivciv as ¡ pr()te(.tivc rncasrlrc. §flolncn rvill nr¡r trc il .,Js' "'
rlrt.ir intr:rcst* irc ruitllour
,rlrJr' t,r I.'.r¡'n .r'ir.rr outsitlr. .lt,rircstic 'i ' .
"*¡.ricnci
lifc.'l'his Poirrr is cvcn llrorc cr.uci:rl for lVIill's irgumcnts abor.rt poIitical .-,".. ,'.''
gcnt'r..rl tcnrrs ol'til,'clcr,:rtiorr oI thc intlir.irlu¡l .as a lror¡1,.¡,iriturl
strci,rl l¡rilt-'tllrrl r.rccrrrs r¡nrlcr frce g()\.cnlncnt, ltut this is a l¡iqc clairtr"n,l
to ,, ', _:
,,

'r,
rn.rlic l,rr the pcri,tlic crsrirlg of l v«rrc (;rltllorrr:h tllc nroral tr.,-,rt.rrn-,,rti,rn l .',,"'_
<ri yr<rlitic.rl lil.e thror.¡gll cnfr,rnchiscnrcnt was a ccntral thcnrc of thc at,r/,i.-.-
s'onl,ulhootl sr-rffr,rgc nlovcnrcnr). Nor clid Mill liinrsclf cnrirclv bclicvc
tlr:rt tlris'clcvrrtion'rr,«rtrld rcsult fronr thc sulfragc:rlonc. I-Ic u,ritcs tl-r:rt
'citizcnslril>', ¡ntl hcrc I rakc hir¡ to lrc rcfcrrir,q t,, u,iivcrr.il
su[fr:r¡;c,.ñlls -. ,i,. ,!.". ..,j
tlnl1' .r snrall ¡rlacc in lnr,',.lenr lifc,.rrrd .l,rc. not c()lnc nc:1r thc daily habits ; ,: . .
r¡r inrrrrrst scntin)cnrs.' (p. Fl Ilc tgcs o¡ r() arque t[¡t tfic farnill:,,justly i,: ' t,
{-t;
c()n:iritr¡tc(l ', u,oultl [¡c thc 'rcal school ol thc r.irtrrcs ,.,1 fi"c,l.,,nl . i...,,,., t.t, ,..
IIou'cvcr, rhis is rs irn¡rllr.rsi[.lc rs tllc clrrinr rbout thc c,rr-lsc<]t¡cnccs ,ri

,it its hc.rd is no brrsis lror clcrnocratic citizcnshi¡r;br,rt nor,,,,, it.,,,.--.,,i, i. i; . . ::

es¡litrui,rn l¡rniir.. Mill ¡rg.r¡cs in llis.socirl and p«rliticrrl rvritirrgs that only ",.,
'
¡r:rrticip:rtion i,r r ri'irl. r,.rrict¡,of iltsriLltions, cs¡rcci:rll,r, thc'u,orhpl,.r.il, I ?r
can provi.lc tirc ¡roliticai crluc:rtion ncccss:lr\¡ l-or lcrivc, dcnrrrcratic f .
citizcrrsiriP. \'ct lr,,rr.c¡n rvivc.; rrnri nrr¡thcrs, ruút, 1.,¡r,c,chr¡scn,r.l,.,mc,stii--
Iii-c. ll.rvi' tlrc opPtirtr:nirv tc'¡,.lcvclop tircir capacitics or lc,rrn rvll¿t it
Iltcilttr, t,r t,e ¡ rle ¡lt¡cratic citizclr ? \\/.¡rtrc. ri,ill thcrcforc cxcnrpliiy thc *1 " ,l

spirit, rhrt rcsulr

u.'lr cn¡n inrlir.'irltr¡l is con6lrctl to the n:rrr()\\'s phcrc oI cr,cr1'ria1' f:rnrily, a; ,:.i
lifc.rc lvl ill's f.riltrrr: ro quesrion thc rpp:rrr.nt lv nrltur;11 tlivision of l,ibou I
li
u'ithin tl.,c hr¡nrc lrlcAr-rs th;rt his irgunrcn ts lor rlcnrocrrtic citizenship ¿'' r r .

applv «rnly to ntcn .:., !\ .

It nright lrc objcct,-'rl tlr¡t it is r-rnreeson¡[¡lc and lnachronistic to ask of

Mill, writinr: in thc l86Os, that hc criricizc thc acccptccl ciivisi,rrr o{ labour
betu,ccn husbancl ancl rvife whcn or.rly vcrv cxccprional fcnriirists ir-r thc I -.

rrinctccnth ccnrLrr),rvcrc r.r,illing t() qucsrion thc cloctrir.rc of thc scparatc ''a.
spl'rcrr:s of thc scxr-s. But if that t>bjcction is grantccl,¡r it rlocs nor cxcusc
thc srr.l.rc criticrrl failurc b1, contcrrporary dcrnocr¿rtic thcorists ancl
crnpirical invcsriijators. Until tl.rc fcn.rinist rlrovcnlcnt bcg;rrr, ,,,e rI ., .,:..
rcccntly, to h¿tvc an intpact on acaclcn.lic srLrclics, not only has tltc rcl.rti.,it 1 ,,: . ' .

[,ctu c.'l'l tlrc sl.r'rrctrrre rrf q]1r' iri.stitrrtion t,I rñrri.igc .ulJ tlr., iun¡l.ri i .;- -, r 1,'.
cqtrality o1:citiz-cnship bccn iqnorccl, l¡ut rvonrcr.r citizcrrs havc oftcn L.ccn , ',1
cxclr-rdecl l'rc,m crnp_iric¡l invc-itig¡tions ()f poliric¿rl l¡chaviour an.1 ,rrtiru..lcs
.,' ,

or nrcrcll, rcfcrrcrl to bricflv in patriarchal, uc¡t scicntific, t-e.rnls.rr A i| '

-l'l¡t,
rc:rcling t,i subjcctiort shc,ulcl lon[ ,rro h,rvc pl,rcctl rhcsrl nr¡ttc]rls in '
thc frrrclront oI cliscussit'rns ol t]cnl,-rti-rcr,. I)cr]i:rps thc rppc:rr:rnct-,tl'
crrririrical iirrclings slrorvinq, Ior cxlnrplc, thar c,",cn wonrcu ¡crivc in local

' '-,_ .if

 218 r,r._MlNrsM AND DTiMOCRACy

politics arc inhibitcc'l fronr-runni¡-rg-[or office because of their responsibility

{or child-c¡re ¿nd a belief that oifice-holding rs nor a proper activiry for
ro'omrn,l'' will bc rirkcn morc seriou.sly than ihe f"minirt
cmincr.rt phil<lsophers.
-rirings of even
'l'he prt,blcnrs sr¡rrounilirrg
u,r-rnrcll's citizcnshi¡-r in tl.rc Iilrcral tlcr¡rt¡cracic.s
r¡¡1, h¡r,r. l-cc.n s,rrllv ncglcctctl, but thc frilurc t.,f clcnrr¡cratic tlrc«rrists
tr>
conl.r't,nr tlic l,onr¡n ¡nd ii,ife (lucsr;()n runs nrrrcli <lecpcr still. I)clnocratic
citizcrrshil.r, er,..n il intcrprctecl in thc nrininrel scnsc of uniuc.r¿l suffr¡gc
in thr. .:onrcxt oi libcral civil ri{hts, prcsupposcs thc solirl fclundation of a
prictic.ll, r-rnivo'sai rccogniri«rn that ell m.l,.,rlrcrc of tlrc polity erc soci,rl
cqu,il.s rrnrl intlcpcndcnt 'individuals', lravin* .rll tl.,c ca¡:,,rcitics inr¡rlicd by
tllis stittLts.'l'lic lltost scrious frrilurc,rf .,r,rt.,,rrp,)r¡rv dcr.r.ro..ratic thcory
¡.ncl its Ianstr,rsc oi frcedon.r, cclualirr, ,rnci conscut a,.,á of the inciividu,rl, is
thit \\'()nlcn lrr, so c,rsiiy lncl incons¡rictror.rsll, cxclurlccl fr«rnr rcfcrcnccs
to tllc'intlivirit¡.il'.'fl'rus thc qr¡cstion r-lcvcr rriscs u,hcther tl-re cxcltr.siol-l
1. lctlccts soci¿rl anrl political rcalitics. Onc rcrsor.r rvl.r1,therc
Li c,r-ui " ', is no
'ott'tt"lF" c.¡1r1,'i1¡i¡.¡11'ss of tlrc ncccl to a.sli_rhis qucstion iiili.li .l¡¡rtícrr,uic thiori.sti
' ('()n\('nt¡();r.llli sc,., tlrcii subjeet ,,,,.,,,.'. .rs crrr'orrrP.rsr;,,g ,ir"
".._"
lr"ii,i..,rt ,,r-
\ pu[rlic sphere, u,lrich for r;iclicll thcorists inclr¡c1cs th" lnc] tlic-
n,orli¡rl,rcc._'l'ltc s¡rlrcre ,¡l- ]rcrsqll.rl l¡tl rlplltcsiic Iifc "-..rn.,i1,
l

- the s¡rlrcrc tltat is :

, tl)c'lr:ttur.ll'r..rrlll oI \\'()ntcn - is cxclr-rdcrl fl.olt-r scrrLltiuy. [)cspitc thc

ccnt¡-rl rolt: tli¡t c()rlscnt plrvs in thcir;lrgrrnrc,.,ts, dc,n,,c.atic tilcori.sts i

pi1\, lr() attcrrtion to thc stntcturc irl'scxrrai rcleti<tns lrctu,cc,n l-¡¡cn anrl
w()nrcn ant{, r'r.rorc spccificallr,, to tlic practicc of rapc irnci thc intcrprcr¡tion ,'fi
ol c()nsent and non-conscnt rr,hich clc6nc it,rs,r criruinal ol{c,ice. Thc
[¡cts ¡l.,r,rrt rrlpc;1rc ccntral to thc soci¡l realitics rvhich erc rcflcctcd in ¡ncl
p.lrtlv c()nririrutcr.l [rv our usc <tf thc tcnn 'individu¡l'.
. Arn,,¡g Mill':; criticisrn of thc rlcspotic po\\,crs oi rrinctccr.rth-ccnttrry
hus[¡ends is,r harsh rcnrindcr rl.rar ¡ l.rtrsL¡ancl l-r¿d thc lcg:rl rishr to r"p" 1.,ri,
u'ilc..()vcr I ccnrL¡ry lilrcr a husb¿ncl stili hiis th:rt iight'i,., nrost'Icg,rl
jtrrisclictions.
l,il.!f: cxcluclcs- w()nror Ironl thc :;,",r',. ,rf .fr"",,,.,.1 cqii,rl
iniiividr¡¿l'L,y liit .1¡jr,rcnr('nr with rlrc ir,rtriarclr.rl cl.rirn rlrer,r.irl.,, ,u"..
subjcct to thcir Ilusb¿ncls L)), nrrture ; thc coutcnt of tlrc rn:rrri..¡i.,r.c()lttr.rct
confirr.r.ls that, totiay, this assun.rption still lics at thc hc¡irr oI tlrc
institution o[ u-rarriagc.'fhc prcsunred cc¡nscr.lr oI e ri,onr.rn, in a frce
ttr.rrri.rgr'c()lttr.ict, to Ircr sub,rrdin.ltc.st,ttus qir.cs.r r.r,luntarist ultrss tt,.rrr
clsL'n{iilllv rrs, l'ilr.tl sr.rtus ul- 'wiic'. tl' tlrc lssr.rrnption ul n.rturli sulrjcetion
tlitl nc,t still hoid, liLrcral-clcnrocr¿tic tlrcori.sts would lt¡us,rso havc bcsun
to aslr rvlry it is th¿t an ostcnsibly frcc rncl cqual inrlivicl.ial ihoutr.l nliuy,
agrcc to t:ntcr a corltract. u.hich strborc{inatcs hcr.to anothcr such
inclivicluai.'l'hcl,rvould long aro h:rvc bcgun ro qucsrion tlrc char¿ctcr of Z
rr-r irrstitutiorr in rvhicll the initial ¿lsrccnrcnr of e t,ifc dcprivcs hc-r of thc
riqht to rcrract hcr conscr-lt to proviclc scxual scrvic., t,, li"r. husbanc{, lncl
 l'1.),llN,\\'l /\NI) l)trNl()(]t^C\' 219
u'lliclr gilcs Irinr rlrt. lr'r¡;rl riuht rt¡ l.rcr.hcr ro srrl¡n.rit. If contcrnp()r¡rv
¡--FrP
r.lcrn.rcr:i1 it'tlrcorisrs irr('t() «]istrrnt.c thcnlsclvcs fronr tllc 1.,et.i"r.l.,al
,lssLilnPti()n\ of tltcir ltrctleccssrtrr tht,r, ntust ltcgirr to esk u,hctllcr a
p('r's()n c¡ll he. ilt ()n(';rntl the s;1nrc tilr.lc,:r frcc tlcrnocr.rtic citiz_clr:rnrl :r
u'i1c_ u'ho r-;ivr'. r1¡r :i vit¡l ls¡'rcct ol' hcr frcc,lr.,ln ¡ntl in,livirlurlitr.., tlrc
t'rc'r:rlol¡ to rctus¡ (-()nscnt ,rr.lti s¡r.'lto'to tlrc tiol.rtion of tlte intcgr.itv ol
ll.'t-1.,'t'.,,rr.
. A u,or.l-r;u.l's riglrt o1'rcl:usrrl oI couscllt is also rr nrattcr of nl()rc gcrlcr¿rl
ilnportancc. Outsidc ol marriagc rapc is ír scrious crinrinril o{fcr.rcc,-yct thc
er,itlcrrcc intlic:rtcs that thc rnaioritv of offcnrlcrs ¿rrc not p.,rr.:.r.,r",1.
Votttctr hrrr'«'excrrrl.lific.l thc 1.lr¡r¡ p1¡liticrrl tllcr¡rists lt.rvc
[',eir-rqs
rclirrrclcrl ,rs l.rt:liinq tlre c:r¡r:rcities t() irttirin
tlle ;tatus oi intIivitlu:rl entl
citizcn ()r t() pJrti.ipr,rtc in thc prrrcticc of cor.rscr-rt, [¡¡.rt rvorlcn h¿vc,
sirrrt¡lt:rncorrslr'. bcclr i.cr'.ciuc.i .rr lrt.irrSr rylrrl, i¡r thcir
l¡crs¡r,lal livcs,
:tlu.':rr.s c()n.scnt,,rir.l ivh<,sc cxplicit rcfr¡sll of c()nscnt..n i-r..lisrcg¡rdccl
rcintcr¡rrctcrl ,rs agrccnrcnt.'l'his contr:idictor.r.pcrccl)ti()n of wonlcn
'rtrrl
is a rn:rjor l-c:l:i()rr s,hv it is so clilficult i,rr a u,or.¡rrr-l rvho has bccn r,r¡rct1 tr.>
sccrrrc thc corrr,'it:rirrn ,rf lre r:rtt:rckcr.(s). I]_rri2!p o¡rir-rion, tltc
¡rolicc litd rhc
courts ¡rc rvillins to irlcntify cniorccrl subnrission,r,itll conscnt, and thc
rcls()n t,hr,tlris itlentiflc,rrion is p<.,ssi[rlc is tlr¡t ir is rvirlcll,b,:licvctl that ii.
:1 \\,()lltillt s:tYs'lt0'l¡cr ri,or.rls lt,t."c l-1tl rrrclrninq,,i,tc. rllc.l.e.rllr.'ntcar)s
'¡,cs. is n'irle ll lcg,rrrlc.l es pe riecrlv rc¡.s,rn:rhlc 1'r.¡r ¡ nren to ¡.. rnrcrpr(ri
!t
cxplicit rcjt'ctiorr oi lris rrilvanccs:ls c()nscnt.la'l-ht,, \\.on)cn ljnd th¡t tlrcir
specclr is pi'¡ri.¡¡¡1¡l),.,,r.1 sysrc¡raric¡liy invrli{atcci. Such irrr,¡lirl.ti.n
rvould bc inconr¡,r'rhcnsiblc if thc trvo sexcs :rctLr.rilv sh:rrctl rhc s:unc
stiltr¡s i1s'intlivitluri]s'. No pc¡51)¡1 t,ith ¡ sccr.ri!,, r-cr ,:nizc(l st¡ntl ing rrs rrn
'intlii itlLr,rl' c,rulrl l',c sccn i1s s()lrc()llc ri,ho ct¡lrsistcntiv s¡itl tlrc o¡rpositr
ol lvhrrt thcv nrr-,¡rnt untl l,ho, thcrcior.c, cotrld jrrsri6abii..ha.,c thcirl u,orcls
rcintcrprctcd bv othe rs. ()n thc othcr h;rncl, inr,:rlicl:rtic-rr.l lncl rcirrtcprctatiorr
¿rc rc¿1dilv c«rmprchensiblc plrts of a rclrtionship in lvhich onc pcrsou is ¡

sccn ils ll ltiitrlral strltorriiu¿rtc ancl thus llas arr cxcccclinuly entbiguoLls \.

placc in social ¡rr:rcticc.s (hclcl to bc) srourlclccl irr convcntion, ir; ,;.cc I
:tgrcclllcnt,tnrl ct¡lr.scnt. .\
Political thcorists s,ho takc scrir>usly thc qucstior.r t¡f thc couccptu:11
found¡tior-rs enr[ social cor-rc]itior-rs o[ .1.,.,-,Io..ri\¡ can no longcr ar,riil tlic
fcnrinist critiqtrc t'»f nr,r'ri,rgc anci pcrsonal lifc.'l'hc critiquc raiscs sorlrc
¡rvk."vard :rnrl oftcn crnL'rarrir.ssing qLrcstions, but qucstions that h;rr.c to be
f¡ccd if '.lcnr(){,-rac\/'is to bc rnorc thrln :r rncn's clu[¡ rvrit lirrgc anci tl-re
.\) petrierclrrrl srrLrcrurc o1-tltc libcral-rlcrnocratic strrtc is to bc challcrrr¡cr1.
',/ 1'hc assurrrptions rrntl pracriccs rvl.rich govcrn tlrc cverydev, pe rsonil Lives
t.f n,orr''lcr-r arrrl rrierr, irrciudinq their scxlr¡l livcs, catr,-.,., l,rng". bc trc¡rccl
xs nllrttcrs l cul()tc ironr poiitical lifc ,rncl thc concerns oI clcn.r<¡cr¡tic
thcori:;ts. Wt¡l-ltcr-r's:itrltus as'inrli,,,iclrrals'¡rcrva.lc,s thc u,lrolc of tl,rcir
 l,l0 t;t:i\rrNtsrl ANI) 1)t. lvl()cttAc\.
soci,rl lilc, l.rt'r'son:rl ,rrr<l poliric.rl.'l'lre str¡cr¡rc ()f cycrydl¡. li[c, i¡cluclilg
1'¡rr,rrri¡t{c. is c.rrstirtrtctl [¡r, [lclieis.lllcl
prrcticcs rvhith 1rr".u¡,,p.,r. alrri
\\'()llL,n ¡rc ll:rtrrr-lllv srrl,jcct t() ltic!l - r,r,t u,riters trn alcnt,tcr,rct,c.,,tti,rua
I(, .l\\(.rr rll,rr rr',ull.'n .r)(l r)r(,n ..,,, .,,,,1 ui]l lrc..lv i;,,.;,:; .,, ,.,¡,,,,1, i,,
, tlrt'ir c.r¡'r,1q i11 ,r: i'rrlr'.rnclriscrl ticnrocrltic e itiz-cns.
'l'ht'prc,errlinq.lrguntcnt
¡nti critieisnt is rclcvant to rliscussions r.ri
[rotlr lilrer'.l ,l..,nlocr:rc.r,.rnrl p:rr"tici¡r.rtorv tlcnrocr,rcr,, br¡r p¡r.ticul:lrlv r()
tllc I¡tter. Libcr¡l thcorists coutinuc to cl:rinr th,rt tLc r,r,,..,.,." of soci¿l
, rclrrti,rns ¡lrtl soci¡l incqurility is irrclcvent to political cqurliti. ':incl
rlcnrocrrrtic citizt:rrslri¡r, so tlrcv arc n() rrorc likcll, tr, [-,e irlprcrs"d by
lcnrinists bv iiirl/ ()tlrcr r¡tlic¡l critics. Adr,ot.rrcs,,I i,,r,.rici¡.,"to.i,
' rlcnrocl';lcvth¡rr lravc bccn rcluctlrnt t() tilkc lcl¡rinist-:rrgunlcnts ^i,.,,,, ,,aa,r,,,-.,,
('\'cn tl)()r¡qlt thcsc rrrgurtrcnt.s ilrc, sccl-r irr onc liglrr,;ut cxtcnsion of the
Ir;u-ticiIrrtorv clculocratic cl¿inl thlt'dcntocrecl" extcnel.s bcl,ond tltc st¿1tc
to tltc org:rniz,rtion ol st¡eietr..'l'lle r,...irr.urcc to fcnrirrisrtr is ¡.,,rr.ticul,rrly
irolricll [rccltrsc thc c()ntcrnPor,rrr.[cnrir-rist nrovcnrent hirs,r.,n.l"r,r
r';rricn ol lr[rcls, lttcnrptctl r() put partici¡rator1,clcnlocr:rtic orgeniz.¡rion
jntr, ¡rrrrctic.'.'t 'l-lr. nr()\,cnrc11t is clccc¡-rtralize rl ,rncl ant i-irit.rlrr.llic¡l ¡rntl
[.rics to (,irsrrrc tlrat its r¡crnlrcrs collcctivcli,crluc:rtc thcmsclr.cs antl t]air-r
.in.lc¡rcn.lcncc tlrrough consciousr.rcrr-..irinc, P¡rticipat()l.v .lecision-
rnrrliirrri.1n(l r-()rirtion ol t¡slis lnri olficcs.
''. Ircnrinists tlcrrv rhc lil¡crrl cllinr rliat privatc and
public lifc c.rn bc
runtlcrsto,rrl in isolrrLiorr frt,nr e¿ch otficr.. Onc r.cils()11 ior.thc ncglcct of
.f . S. i\lill's l'erninist csslr.is thrrr his cxrcnsion of lil¡cral principlcs to thc
instittrtion of ur,rn'i,rgc brc¡chcs thc ccntr:rl libcral scp¡r:1iion, cste[rlishcd
[r_r' [.oclic, [r..trvccn prrrcrrr;rl .rntl politic;rl r.ulc; or [r.tri,c.n tlre int¡.rcrsorr;rl,
c()nverlti()n;11 public s¡rhcrc,rncl rhc i,rnrilr,, thc s¡rherc <¡l.narr¡rel :rIlcction
and nrttrr,rl rcl.rtions. I)ropono-rts of ¡rartici¡rarorl, clcnrocrliy havc, ol
coursc, l¡ccu rvilling to challcngc cor-r-rrr-ronpl,r.:c conccptions of thc pr-rblic
-rincl thc privatc in thcir discussions of thc rvorkplacc, [r,.rt tliis chailcngc
iqttrrrc.s thc insishts ol [c¡rinisnl. lt is r¡rrcly ,r1rp.eci"tc.l that tl¡c fcrninists
incl perticip¡torr. dcrnocr¡ts scc thc clivision l..,"r,r,"",., pirblic :rncl privarc
vcry rliffcrcntlr,. I:ronr tltc tentinist pcrspccrivc parricip¿1ror], dcntocrltic
argulncnts renr;rin rvithin tlic ¡ratrirrc[.ral-libcrel scp¿lration of civil socicr],
anti strtc; rkrnrcstic lifc h,rs ¿rr excccdinsll,ambiuuous rclirion to this
scprlr'i1tio11 rvhiclt is a clivision rvithin public liic itsclf. Iu conrrasr,
fenrinists scc tlr¡r'ncstic lifc, thc'neturrrl'spl-rcr.c oI rr.or)rc.n,.rs pr.ivrrtc, an{-l
thus rrs <livirlcrl irorrr ¡ public.c,rl,.,-., cr.,c,r,-r-rpassir-rg l,,rtl, an.i
politicll lifc, rhc'narural' ¡rcn¡s t.,f nrcn.r,t "c.r,-,,>,-nic
Br,frriling to tal<c inr() rlecorulr thc icnrinist c()rlccprion of ,privirtc, lifc,
b1. i¡;noring rhc fanril¡,, par.riciprrtorv tlcnr,-,cr.rtiti .,,.*,,,rr",.,,, Ior thc
cleurocrltiz-lri«rn of ccr¡nonric li[e hlvc ncr]lcctccl a cruci¡l dirncnsion oI
dcnrocrrrric socirrl tr¡nsl('r.nr.1riou (.rutl I irr.:lr-rclc nt ..partit.ip,trion,tnd

I
I
I

*u-.-, I
-.-ddí.d¡&"
 i lr\1 lN ls\l ANI) l)l!\{()(lli,\(l} 221
'l-ltat¡17'r '
l)t':¡t,¡,1,t1¡< lrcrc). It is rlilficrrlr t¡ h¡tl .¡r\¡ 'tppr-cc rtigr-r 6f t[c
signif ic.rnct' ,,1 tlri' irrtcu,rrl rcl:rriorr [¡cr*'cur thc tionrcstic division of
l.rl,,,r¡r.llr,l .'ct,n,rrrie liie, ()r tho se\ual (livisi,rn <lI l¡boul in thc
u.'orIPl,rt't'. lct:-rlonc iur\,nrcnti()u,rt tlre irrrl',licltirlns oI thc tlcc¡rer
nr.lltt'rs tt,trcll.',1 o¡ in this css;r\', iu rr.ritinlls on inrlr¡strilrl rlclnocrrtct,. It is
tlrc lernirlistr,. n()l lltc.l(l\'()c:1te\,rlrt,orklrl.rc...lcrn,.cr'¡c\,.,..h,', l-,a""
irrvcsti¡i;rtcrl tlrc r,r'r-r'tl il-[crcnt position ol u,on.lcr.r rvrrrkcrs, cspccixll),
nr.1n'ic(l \\'()nrol \\.()rlicrs, {rorl tlrrrt of l¡alc entplovccs. \ü/ritcrs on
<.lcr.l.l,rcr,rcr'll¡vc r.ct tr.r tligcst tllc nor.r, largc L-,oc{y ol fcnrinist rcscrrrch on
\\¡()nrcn nntl ¡:,,riri enr¡rloyrlcnt or to írckno\\,lcdgc that unlcss it is brought
irrto thc ccrltrc «rf rcllcction, dcbrrtc,rncl ¡,oliticnl rrctiorr, \\,onrcn will
rclll:lillrrs pc¡ipl¡¡¡.1 irl ¡ ftrttlrc pilrticipatory'tlct.¡locracy'es thcy erc at
pl'r'\cnt in Iibcr.rl .lcnr,,crlcics.
lh:rvc tlr,rr.,¡r:rttcnti()n to tlrc ¡rrotrlcnr ¡-rosccl by thc rssu¡nption th¿lt
rvonren's natrlrill ¡rl,rcc is.i Prir'.rte ()nct.rs rvifc ancl nrother in the h<;ure,
for,rrgunlcr-lts ;rbout thc cducrtivc:rnc1 clcvc]t¡pnrental conscquorccs oi
politicel pirrticil)ilti()n. It rniglit L',c arguctl th¿t this problerr.r is nruch lcss
¡rrcssin{ to,.l,rv tll,rrr in lVIill's tiirtc l.¡cc:rusc ln:rny marricd wt',nrcn harc
n()\\,rntcrcll thc prrblic *'orltl ol-plicl cnrplo¡.nrc¡rt irnd so ther,, iI not
Ir<,usc*,iyes,.rirc.r,1.,,h,rr,'c tllcil ht,rizrllls t'iclcllcd ¿rnd rvill uein a politicel
c..lt¡c¡tir,¡r i1'critt:r¡'rrises arc tlcrnocr.ltiT-c(1. ln ALrstralia, [or cxarnplc, in
l97Z l'o:rcn lonrcrl -15pcr-ccnt o[ thc lll¡r¡ur iorcc;rnt{ (r3 pcr ccnt of
illcsc torne n rvt'rc ¡nrtrrictl.rt Thc :-cíilitv bchincl tlic statistics, htirvcvcr, is-_l
tli¡t §,onlcrt's stlltr¡s lrs §,orkcrs is as uncertain ancl ¿lnlbitu()r¡s as oLlr i

st.1tr¡s;rs citizcns ar.rrl both rcllcct thc nrorc lunclanicnt¡l problcn.r of our §'-
sr".1tus ;rs 'indivirlu¡ls'.
-filc
couvcntionrl bLrt inrplicit ;lssulnpti()n is that \
'u,orli' is turtlrrt¡kcn in a s'orli¡'rl,rcc, n«rt ri,itliin thc 'privatc' lronrc, ancl'"
thilt.l'\\,()rlicr'i.s r¡lrlc - s()llrc()nc rvhc, h,rs Ilis ncc,:l lor,r clc,rn pl;icc of
rcl¿x:rtir¡n. clc¿n clotl.rcs, {ror>cl an.l c.rrc oi his c['ril.lrcn providccl for hinr
[¡r,his u,ifc. \ü/l'rcn a rvifc cntcrs paicl cnrploynrcnt it is significant for hcr
I

¡'rosition ¡s'u,orlicr'tlrat no onc;1sl(s r.vho pcfornrs thcsc scrviccs for llcr. i

i,., ["ct, nrarricd \\'onrcn \\,orkers do nvo shifts, onc in thc t,fficc or
1íret()ry, thc otlrcr:1t hon1c. A lergc qucstiou ariscs hcrc rvh1, ¡1.,,.,1,.rs of I

cntcrpriscs u,ho rrre llreacly burclcr.red with trvo jobs should bc c.rgcr tr'r ,'t'
t¡kc on thc ncrv rcsponsibilitics, ls u,cll as cxcrcise tl.rc opportunitics, that r

dcrnt¡cretiz-ation rvould brin g.

'I'hc rclrrtivc ir.nportancc of thc nvo conrponcnts of thc u'ifc's cloul¡lc
c1a1,, r,.,.1 s() thc cvlluation of rvor-ncn's strtus as rvorlicrs, is rcflcctcd, as
['.iscnstcin rlotes, in the popular Llsc o['thc ternl "working, rnot]rcr" rvl-rich
sirnult¿ncousl1, asscrts ."vomcn's first lcsponsibility to mothcr['rood and
hcr scc<>n.1ary statlrs as u,orlicr.'l') Ag:riu, thc qucstion.has to bc:Lsked
horv u,orlicrs of :;cc.rndary st¿rtus could, u,ithout sonle vcrv largc clrangcs
-bcirrr¡ nrrrdc, takc thcir ¡rlacc as cqu;rl participants in ¿r clcn.rocratizcd
 lll ljti\l INlsrl i\NI) I)t:!r()(.nAcy
rr,,r'li¡rl¡¡1.. 'l'lrc rrr.rgnitu<lc ol rlr., clr.ruqcs
re<¡uirct,
t)llül lcl(,t'r.ltt'r' trr ¡l¡¡¡(, f(.¡t(1.cs 9l- ¡.¡ntclt,s (paid)
rvr.
It.tr.rssnrcn( r¡l \r,onr,..lt rr,,,¡.[i1,¡.1 is stiil .r
l.rrqc,lv u¡1,1.:klrow
l,L¡l it lt'r',.,rls llrr' r-,r{r,rrt t,r rylricll tlr,.
lrr,,lrl.,rr of sr,_ru:rl ¡.cl.rt,
.rrtl iir¡nrrn's st,ltus rs.ilr(.li\.i(lr¡irls,is il.o:r ¡r¡.1¡[1]¡¡11 ()l tl]c
\!)li('rr,.rrl Scr',,nti. \\,()nlclr still lr¡rc
to u,ir¡ the rtri,gtl. ¡girinsI tliscrin,
l.r' r'lnI-l,,r,e r'\ ¡n(l uni()n\ l¡e torr tllcl c.rn
p.rrtici¡-rrrtc .. .qu.ir. Iji,rrt,
It.ls, t. l,t. r-(.\.qnizr.(l tll.rt tlr,..rr.or.kPj,rce
ir'rr,.r.t,,,..,1 l.r ,r scxr,r,tl i'¡'r.i;i,,.
olr lrrboLrr u,hich poscs srill furthcr-..nn.,p1..*
p:rrticip.rti,rn. Wor-ltcn trc scgrcg:1tc,l
pr"frl.r'; i,r'.i.rii,r.,ra
i,lt,r ccrtein occupiltion¡l catcgorics
('u'onror's t,,rk'),rncl tlrcr. ¡r..1,,,.,."rtr:rtct]
irr ,r,.,,r_r,,¡l",lr,;.r.,,.r,"..1 I.,*,_
skillcri .rnrl Ir¡*,-sr;rtt¡s jobs. f , ;, p,..;r.,1.
,,,.r.k",lr.il; ;;.i,' j,,1.,., tl,"t
e.rpi'ic:rl rcscrr.clr h.s slr,,rvr.r r. bc,¡11.. Ie¡rit
'l'irc cx;rrn¡rle,of thc likclr,,,., f"r,i.ii_1..
ri.,orlip.lecc, t,,q.rher rriil,¡ rl.¡.6thJr
rlis. trssctl in rlris essa_r., slr«rt¡i..t t.," c:xaur¡ries
rufñ.;"r1r
-pi..ti..,
ro sh()\\, rhc iunrl¡nrcntal
inr¡rort.ince t<i tlelnt¡o."tic tllcorr,..n,l
l-c¡ririst irsistcrcc tl,r¡¡ ps¡51.¡¡1¡l .r,r.i
ol tlre ..,r,",.,.,p.r..1,
¡r,,litilal lifc a..l ;,r;";,.iir: :;,.,n".,.¿.
N,'itlr,'r rlre ...¡,rr.rl o¡ryr¡¡-q¡¡¡¡i1, ,,l lil..,r..llisr¡
r.l()1.th(..rr.tirt,,
¡:lrtir.ip.rtrrrr.
(l('nr()(r',rri..irizenrhi¡.,,t,r11ille
I)c()l)lc c,ln [,t,.rclli.,v.,.l rvitll,.,r¡t r.,rtliell
clr,rnllcs irr ¡rer.,¡¡1.1] ,,.,.1 ,1,r,,.,r',rti. lit"-
i:i_," strurglc.s of thc orseniz_cd
lcrninisr nroverlrcnr,,f rlrc l,rst I5O vcrrs l;"r"
t'xct'Pti,,rr,rl \\ (,r)t.ut ..ln n()\\. l)c(.()nlc Irri¡nt. *r..,'i:.",. .,r,
":ii:;'"_ [.rr¡t'itr,.ti'¡r.,,r;.l',t.,.
Minirtcr
acllicvc:lrcl-rt lcrvcs r.rntoLrchccl tllc r,.u.,u,,.l
trl social Iifc of uncr.c.,lrti,rnal
w()r¡cn, of u,orlcrr,rs a social ciltcg()rv. Thev
rcntail_, i,., a,_,¡ a,na"a,"in
¡rosition :r.s indir,iclr.rlls,
rr,orkcrs .,,.1 .itir_.n.,,r,r.1 po¡.,r,1,rr..,pi,.,;.lr,r'..1.,n.,
Ilor¡s.sc:ru's l)r-()lrourlccr)rclrt tl)irt ,nr1tr¡rc
hcrscll-ha. r'l"ara"j tlr,rt n,rr»cn,
. ' . shttr,¡ld bc .rt thc mcrcl'of nran's
iu,lccnrc,rt,.l, l.lr.,.l,.*ri,r,.¡ ol f,...
.rnd cgalitari¡n scxtral anrl pcrsonrrl l;i.;r'rhc "
difficult ro achigl,c 1rf
nrosr
¡ll thc ch:rngcs ncccss.lrv i,r l.L¡il.l a trtrly.l",r-,,r.r",i..r.r.;",r"f.".;r"f,
bccatrsc it is not sonrctliinq runrotc l'.o,,,
lifc tú¡t' c¡,r bc
"u"ry.Jay
ap¡rlaudccl in a[¡stracr rloga,i, rvhilc lifc, an.] thc.strbjcction of rvon.rcr.r,
(o(\ ()r¡ ,rs usrr.rl. I)crrloer.rtie itlc,rls_.rrrtl
politics l,.rr. t., lr. prt i,rto
pr¡ctic(,in thc kitchcn, rhr nLrrs.:r,r, lncl rhc [rc,].,,onr;th"y.,r,r.,I.
l\4ill wrotc (p. 136) 'to.thc
ñ.,r,",.,
.J. S. ¡r.i-ro,., rrncl l.rcarth of .,".ri, ,rrl., 1.,"..1 of .
¡n.l t,[ rve r) onc who lirolis ft>rrvarcl to bcir.rg .-, It i,
l1t1'tr, n.,ur"l
trrolo{rc.rl l:rct of hurlan cxistcncc that only womcn "
c¿n bear chililrcn, but
that fact sivcs r.lo \varrant rvhatsocvcr fo. il.'r" scp¿lration
oI social lifc into
trvo..scxu;illy defincd sphcrcs of private (fern.rle) exisrcncc
ancl (rnalc)
public ¿ctiviry. 'I'his scpamtion is ultirn¿rt.ly g.,,rnr.l.d in
rllc nlistakclr
cxtcnsion of the argtrnrcnI froru n¡tur.rl ,r"..rr;i1, t,l
is nothing in narurc thar
chilt.j-r..ari,.,f. ll,.r.
¡rrcvcnts fathcrs f,..,n., sl.,aring.qr"ttv i,r ü,-insirrs
up the;r childrcn, alth..,Lrg11 rherc is.r grc:1r.l"rl i,,,'il.,e ,r,.j",.,;..-t;on,rf
socill .,,,¿ crtr¡11¡¡11i¡ Iiic rli,rt r..,,.k. .rg¡inst it. §/ornc,,t c.,.,,.,,,t
u.i¡l :rn
 IrlrlVINISñl ,\Nt) I)lli\{()CRA(ly
223
c(lir.ll l)l;1cc irr rlcru,rcr.,rric [rrotlucrivc lifc entl citizcnship
if thcv arc
rlcr:lrctl to hc rlcstilrccl l<.,r ¡ one ascr;bc(l trsli, br-rt
uor can f.rlr.r, t"k".,.,
cqu.ll sh,it'c irr rtpr,rtluctivc:ictivitics rvithor¡t il trtnsf()rrn;1tior.l
('()nc('i)ti()ll ,r1-'u.orli'.rnrl ol:tllc structtrrc r¡l
in our
'l'llc l..rrrlt.irrint.tl ccr.¡nolltic li[c.
.j0C \,c:lr.s irlt(),i.llcn tlre s()c;¡l c()ntr.rct thr()rists
\'()n\1'ltti()ll.tlisl ,rr,¡rrntcnts:rqriinst tltc Pi(re(l
lt,rtri,rreh.rlists,,r¡r¡rcrrl {() ¡riiturc is
1.tr- irrt¡nr r'.¡11¡]1¡1i¡11, .rrrtl l.¡.rr1r¡¡,rr-, rlenlr¡cr.riti.
,,,,,l.lrrt¡ntling of thc
re lrrtion of n,rrurc lrrcl corrvcnrion i., still
l,rcking. Thc succcssful .,r,r.lu.ri,rn
ol'this lons b¡rtlc ricrnrnds sornc rrrtlic:rl ...,rii..ptu.lizatir.rn
,n f.r.áui.l".
corn¡'rr'.'hcrrsivc.tllerrrv of a pro¡rcrl1, clcrrrricratic p.".ti...
R"..,_rt fcruinist
ttrc()r'crle.rl rvrrrk offcr-s ne\\. pcr.spcctivcs:rnti insighrs
into tl_rc ¡_rroblcnr of
tlc¡ltocrrrtic tltcorv e,.',.i ¡rr,rctic", i¡clutli¡rr: tlrc clrrcstiq¡
sI in.liuidualisnt
:rrrcl participet..r, ,lc,-r.,,ri,'.r(-),, rrlrl
concc¡.rtio,-r ..,f :p,rtiri."t,
"¡rpr'lrp.i.tel
lilc.rl tr hes [rccn l-r¡rrl to iil.,,rsinc",.rr,-lr"'t.,..1",-,,,.,.."ti. forrn of social li[c
rnight looli likc [or r.nuch.<.,f thc p;rst (:cnrlrr\,. Malc-rlonrin.i".l
pt.,liti..l
[)lrrties, sccts arrtl tht,ir thc,¡rcririien.s I.,.,," .tt.,.,-.,¡.,tcd to [_,trry'tltc «rlcl
'trtr>pi,rn'p<-,liticel nr()\'cnrcnrs rvhich
irrc ¡r,rrt of thc historl,of tl..,c strusglc
f.r rlcrl,rcracr' ¡nrl *,.rlcr.r.,s c,re,cif¡rrti.., encl rvhi.-h :,;'.,;.i i;; p."_
figLrrarirc i,rins ,,f political ,r.*rrir.iilr,, *,r,1 .[.hc
I¿.,sson to bc
lc¡r'rctl fr.rn the is th¡t rr,ricrl.cr¡tic,thco11. ".tiuit1,.
-¡.xr.st p,.c,,,. iir., i.; n,r,
rrt thc srur¡c. tirnc [cnlinist rncrciv scrvcs t(),n^intain "n.'í
a 1r,.,.],r,.,.,c,.,t:rl ft¡rm of
dor¡rin¡tion ¡ncl so nl.rkcs a nr()ckcr),.rt thc iclerrls antl r.¡l¡.¡c.s
th:rt
\lL'tll()Lt,lLv i. l¡cl.l trr c¡1§,,,¡r'.

NOTITS
1 Il. R. IJ¡r'ber, Tba D.c¿th of C.ot_nntrtrt,tl I_ibcrt1, (princcton Univcrsity
Princcton, N.[, l9Z1), p. Zil. Thc commcnt on ciriz_cn_soldicrs is
very
rcve¡lins. 'l'hcrc is ni, .c.n<,,., wh\, 1v()nlcn should not úcl .r,rr..[
citiz.cns an.l lrclp tle [end tht pttrit: ..rs uucrrilla 6;i.rr'.;;'.;j
.r,,,i".
lt.lt'c sllorvll). Hou.evcr, ont. of thr, rrrrrjor r.gu,,iant, oI thc ¡¡rti_
suffr:rgists in llritain a.d thc USA w.as ,t.,"t rlri ;.ri;r;;r.l,lr;;ri"nr
ul
won)crl r",rtuid fatalll, 1yq'l1[gn thc.st¿1tc bccausc w()nlcn lry nat
aa,.uara
i_ncapablc of bcarirrg rnns. I havc cornnrcnrccl on
tlísc issucs in
C. I):itcman, '§florr.rcrr, Narurc and rhc Suffrirtc,, tttrirr, ió(l
p¡t. 564-75. Sornc iilSO;,
.rspccrs .,i thc p:rtiiarchel .,1g.,,.,\"',.,i f.,rn_,
,orhcr
n,lturc rrc discutse.l Lrcl,rri._
2 S. Vcrb¿. N. Nic,rn.l J.-,O. Kin, p,,Lrt.icip¡Íion tuttl politic¿l Equali4, .1
(Camlrridgc Univcr.sirv Prcss, C.rnrbridge, 197g), 8.
§,
I- M. ,Mareolis, Vi,tb!t, _l)t.ntocrtq, (lrcngiiin fo,rí.r,p.I{arrnonclsworrl_r,
IVlidcllcscx, 1979), p. ().
4 J.G. Irir:htc, lhc Scicnca
.of Rights, tr. A. E. Krocgcr (Trtrbncr,
Lt'ntlotr' l!;s9r' '1)ppcndix',-§3.1l p. 43'¡ (rny cr,pl.rasirj '-'-'
" J. [-rrcke, l-¡Lo Trc¿ttiscl r.,J' Gor-irilütcnt,
5 É.
(Cambridgc Ur-rivcrsitv pres.s, Cambriduc, 1967), "a. l, Lasicrt48;2ntl ccln,
II, §82.
s4Z,
 :s!

224 ¡,rrrJ IN¡sN r\Nl) I)tr\,r()ctt^CY

6 Iror ¡nrl¡lifie.rtior-r «,1 1l-rcsc nccc.sslriil, bricl conrmcnts.\cc
T. Brcr_rnan
,rnri ( l. I)iltcnr.ur, . .. lvlcrc Auxiliirrics i,, tl.,c
C,,,rr,rr,r"r"".f ,f.l ": Vor.r.rcr.r
.rnrl rhi'()r.irlins ,rl.[.il¡er.rlisr¡', [>,tliric.,tl St,,,lir,:s',2)
ii;r;;, pp. lS3_
lC0: it. Il.mrilton,.'[,'ltc Lil,t,t.,tti,,t¡ ¡,[ \\,,,¡.,tt,,,, Á ¡,,,',1.r',',,¡']r,,tri,rrcltI
'[
.ttt.tl ( ,tl)t!.th.rr (.\llcn ñ Unrr.i¡r. ,,n,1,,n, ,lzii,"il'.,'11.,,.,,,r.,¡,,;',
'( .r¡ir.rlirrrr. I,.rr.r r.irilrr .rrrrl f
\t,qrt,q,rri,,,, i,. S.ri,
.Jo[¡ iii,,,, f r.l), ¡¡ ]
{ l,'}-r,r. 1.,1,. t;l 7):. ,\. ( l.rkl,.)1. '.'ll,,urt,;,.i¡'r:,' (i,.;;I,,i',, Il,r.lis,
I I.lt ¡lr, )n(l\\\'{)rl lr,.
\lirl,il.,s.,r, l,)7(,i, (.ll.ll)s. ), J.
7 i¡r r]rt,tc\r .lr.(,r,,.¡ ..S. l\1ill,.,flrc Su[rjt.etiorr
['.rir'r.L,tLr-L.r](1.\
Wonrcn', ilr..i S. Mill antl Il. l,avl,x, "i)¡,,utity, oI
o,, .r.,r
.E.s-s,9,-s ,a.
A._l{.rxsi (Chic.rqo LIni'crsiry p.".ri, Ci,i."i.í
.
S S. Okin, Womcti it¡ tü/astcrn'political Tlr,,,nil,'t
f i_, tiz'01,.'',"

:il Prcss, I,rir.lcctorr, N.f , l929). iñrir."iá" Univcr.sity

i.{i\,-, (, Ir is sor.rir n,¡tinS
Lirar J\lill irrrplieirl¡,tlistirrqtrislrt's [)t.r\\.ccn rlrc
.lt (itrrrs .r¡rtl l...lie l'i ,rl intli'itlr¡.rl i,rr',r1,,.ri.,.1, ,r
'lrrrslr.rnrls'()\'(,r.'\\.ivcs'rr.itlrin tlrc stnrctrrrc l-;l,.: ;,,;.r ,,;r.",,, ,,_
,
i:i,.;

t,I tllc instittrti.rn,;1.

ur.rrr-i.rge .,1 Ic uott.s,th,rt nr.rr.r.i.rgc is not <.1csign.\i
fo,.-,tr.'ü"n.r,olcr.rt
lc*, t. *.,h«rl.r rllc .lcf e ,.icr.s ..,i nr¡r.it¡l ,1.,r.1.1, p.r;,rt, Lr¡.,i t,,,1
nt.ilt, cvcn tlrose rr,h.r.usc tltt,ir. po\\,cr
'1.1,.i. irrr¡,,,¡.1.1¡,¡ ¡rl.,yrí..'llr, ,,.l lii-,."., "r.l.y
,n";r.
tlisrineri,,n is srill ii",¡". .riir. ,,,:", i.,,,'k".1 ,,,,1.1,
ll* 1.'...
lle rl r'r'itir.s ol [r,nlilrisnl ollr.r-csrn)|lcs,,l
iri,{ivi.li,.i .g.,.,.i ,'lr,¡sh¡ntls
Pcrs,n.rlll lirr,,u rr to tlrc¡».
l0 l\,1 ill. rrntl n.l:rr.rv otlrcr icr.ninisrs,
scc rhc lacli of ,r scnsc of jr,rsticc (a
c()nsc(lr-rcncc oi- conFncnlcnr r()',l,.,,rr.lr,i. li[c)
as tfr" ,,,-r1;,rl_ r]cfcct ir.r
u,onren's chrr¿rctcr.s. Tllc as.scrtir-»r th;1r lllc.l.Í.., ir,.,.,,u,]1
1",,,,r,,rn_,",,,
. is c(ntr,ll to 111.. [rc,licl - il¡t,re.l lrr.rvr.irers,,,,,l.,r,r.jr.*.,. _,i;r,
w()nror ar-c ini-rcrcrrtlr suL.,r,i.r.sivc o[ ,rr.l"r. .,,,,-[ iirr..., ,,r,ti-r.,
st.tt(ji ()n this qtrcsf ion .\ce (.hJ¡). l. ¡rolitic;il "
II I.t.nt'erl no¡.[r¡ griinte(I. fl¡t.\til,jcctirtt t,l \Vo¡¡¡¡.]r/ ()\\,(,\ J gorrtl tl..., r.,
\\,'illi.r¡rr 'l'lr.lll[.rs.n's (rnuclr ricu]ee rc.l) A¡,¡,,r.,¡ .j '
ó,ir' it.','4
IJum¡tt 11,¡cc, \I/or¡¡c,tt., Ag,_tinst ilrc pr_itr,r'rirr, ,i t]r, ótirc, ,ir)r,
H,rtl,
Alctt, t<¡ Rct¿in tltct.t in pi,l¡t;cdt, dn¿l l lcncc ¡n i¡u¡t antl
Domcstic,
S/a-z-cry-(Source Book I)rcss, Ncw york, l9Z0), orir:inatt1,
ll{r5. 'l'll,rulPs()ll wr\ vcr.¡. s.illirrg Io r¡¡..r,i.rn ,ii"r" i,r,',,,..s fufrti.n.a in
\ Ist()n ()l .l co()p(.rJtrvc-soe i.rlist .rrrtl sc.ru.rlly
in lris
.- cr¡,rJit.rri.r¡ f¡turc.
l2 I:.r.rrr c.rril.cr.itiq.trc st.,. for cx.rrrrplc, M. Cí.,i-.,,,r.i n.-Á.i,i,,»y",,,.,.r
ard..Voting Studlc.s: !lindlcss Ni"lr,1o,.,. or Scxist Scicntiirn,,
Sagc
l.'y,!;1;ion¡l Papcrs in Contt,tt¡por,try .S,,tiolog¡,, t
, .
rcü.cnrly, 1()r cxílruplc, J. [,r..rns, ,Attitt¡.lcs iilZ!;, ,.,,nr.
rtr \úorncn in ADrerican
Pc¡litical Scicncc', Gár,crnmcnt ,tn¿l Opp"ri,i")r,-" tí(f (
l9sO),
, pp.l0l-11.
.r l, M. M: Lce,'Wl-ry.Fcu, §7oi.ncn Ftolcl public Officc: f)cn.rocr;rcy and
Scxu¡l Rolcs', politicaL (,r¿),
e,tnitiri;
Scic.nce g-t
lp.'j#_¡r+.
l-1 A dcr.iilctl cliscussion .,I thc p,ria.'i,,xi.:il iii,r,i,,.,. í,'r '*lri.l, politic.il
thcori.sts havc trcatcd ,"urrr",,', conscnt, and rcfercnccs
ernpiricai cviclcr-rce or-r wl,rich rhcse cornrncnts are l¡:rsccl,
to thc
can l¡c louncj
in chap. 4. In some Icr:al jurisdic:tions, for .r"nrpru itr. ,i.,.,
.t X.",

r-\-,
 lrllMlNISM ANI) I)l1MO(lltACY 225
S,rtrth Wll..s, St>uth At¡stralia ¿nd Vicroria in Austr.rlia, rapc rvithin
merrirgc is norv a crinrirrel offt-ncc. Legal rcfornr is cxtremcly
wclc()lnc, but the rvidcr soci,rl ¡rroblem .cni.-,in..
l5 ()n thc orhcr lrrnrl, thc cxpcricrrcc r.¡f *,or.rrcr.l in thc ,¡r:rrticipltorl,
rlcnlocr¡tic' lricrv Lcft u,ai :r nr,rj,rr inrpcrus r() rhc riuival ',rf thc
lenlinist nr()\-cn1cnt. Thc Ncrv I_r.ft pr,rvidcrl an ,rrcr.r,r for politicll
¡ctiolr, thc tlcvclopnrrrrt r',1 skills, .rnrj ivls itlcol<.lgic¡llr. csalit,rri¿n _
[rut ir rcrl¡incrl nr¡lc sLr¡r¡c¡11x¡i.¡ in its org.rniz.ation aird, cspccially,
it.s pcrsonal rcl¡tions: scc S. f:.ver-rs, Irt,rsntt,rl politics 1Kn,r¡ri. Nciv
York, 1.179).
16 Iror sonrc conulcrlrs on thc anrbiguous placc of thc family, scc
drap l; ()n rhc r.vidcr qucstion of public and priv,rtc, scc chap. 6.
17 C. Patcnran, Paricipation antl Dcmocr¿tii Tbcory (Carit,ri.lr;,,
Univcrsitl, I)rcss, Cambridgc, 1 970).
llJ A stc:rrlv incrcrse ir-r thc cr-npkr)¡rncut of rnarriccl wonlcn has bccrr onc
of tlrc'nrost srrilii,r,r f."iu..1, of thc post-wrr cicvclopn-rcr.rt of
c;rpitelisrn. I-lr>rvcvcr, it.is worth rc-emphásiz_ins th:lt (s,orliing-class)
n,ives he'n'c rls,avs bccr.r in thc ¡rrid tuorliforcc. In ilrit¡iir in lg5l'aboui
¿ quartür rlf rnrrrriecl womcn rvcrc cnrploycd (Oaklcy, Llousczuifc,
p.-1-t).J\4orcovcr, clorncstic scrvicc, unril thc latc l930s, ru,r, a,.,.,ri,,,.
occu¡rrrtion for (usuallv sinslc) worlen. Onc rcrson th¿t Mill is ablc to
rrvcr-lorrk tlle lu¡ltl.rnrent.rl inrprrrt.rncc of rvivcs'(priv.rtc) cliilJ-rc¡rirrrl
rlutics [or thcir public sratu; is th:rt r.nicldlc-cl,rls nr«rtlrcr.s had othc,r
w()nrcn t,r look aftcr thcir chilclrcn; sin.ril:rrly, uppcr- an,l rnirltlle -cl:rss
sr-rl-fr¡getrcs could. qo to pr.ison
_sccurc in thc' knoivlcclqc tll.rt «.lon-lcstic
scrv¡nts u,crc caring for thcir horncs anrl childrcn (<-rr.r this p()int scc
-t'icd
J. l.icldin*ton ancl J. Norris, ()nc, ll,ttd llcl¡bttl t/s; -t'hc Rist,of
tl¡t' Wo¡nt,¡t's SuJfrtuc lÍott'tttcnt, Vir¡go, London, I97ti).
19 7..1\. Iiiscr-rstcin, "ll¡c Il¿dic¡l Fttturt, of Libcrtl f:cministt¡ (l,ongnrrrn,
Ncrv Yorli, i980), pp. 207-8.
20 On scxr¡al herassnrcnt scc, [.,r cx.rnlpl.., C. A. Mackinnon, Scxu¿l
f{arassmcnt of Workbry Womcn (Yalc Univcrsiry Prcss, Ncrv Havcn,
cT,1e7e).
2l J.-J.ltc'russcau, [irni.Lc, rr. I]. Foxlcl, (Dcnt, Lor.rdor.r, l91l), p. 32g.
22 S_cc, for cxan'rplc,. thc discussion by R. P. Pctchcsky, 'l{cpiocluctivc
Frccdoln: Ilcy,ond "A Vr:lrna¡'.s Rigltt to Cl'roosc"', Slgzs,51+¡ lf lSO;,
pp. 661-S5.