Pattern.

Pattern in English (countable noun)

1. It is a repeated or regular way in which something happens or is done.

2. An arrangement of lines or shapes, especially a design in which the same shape is repeated at regular intervals over a surface.
3. A diagram or shape that you can use as a guide when you are making something such as a model or piece of clothing.

Synonyms: order, plan, system, method

Examples:

1. All three attacks followed the same pattern.

2. A golden robe embroidered with red and purple thread stitched into a pattern of flames.
3. Cutting out a pattern for trousers.

Pattern in Mathematics

Pattern

 It is a group of number, shapes or objects that follow a rule while repeating or changing.
 To extend your pattern you can use a table or a pattern of rule that relates the term number to the pattern rule.

Example: the pattern 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,… can be shown in the table like this:

Term Number Number in Pattern

1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

A pattern rule to get any number in the pattern is multiply 2 by the term number.

10th term = 2 x 10

= 20

TAGALOG/FILIPINO

Pattern depinisyon sa Inglis na hingo sa Filipino

Pattern

1. Ito ay isang paulit-ulit o regular na paraan kung saan ang isang bagay ay maaring mangyari o nangyari na.
2. Isang kaayusan ng mga linya o mga hugis lalo na ang isang desinyo kung saan ang aprehong hugis ay paulit-ulit sa regular na
pagitan sa isang ibabaw.
3. Isang dayagram o hugis na maari mong gamitin bilang gabay kapag gumagawa ka ng isang bagay tulad ng modelo o piraso ng
damit.

Kasingkahuluhan: hanay, plano, systema, pamamaraan

Halimbawa:

1. Ang tatlong pag-atake ay sumunod sa parehong pattern.

2. Isang gintong balabal na may burda na pula at lilang ay niyari sa isang pattern ng apoy.
3. Pagputol ng pattern para sa isang pantalon.

Pattern sa Matematika

Pattern

 Ito ay isang pangkat ng mga numero, hugis o mga bagay na sumusunod sa isang panuntunan habang paulit-ulit o nagbabago.
 Upang mapalawak ang iyong pattern maari mong gamitin ang isang talahanayan o isang pattern ng mga tuntunin na kaugnay
ang termino ng numero sa tuntunin ng pattern.

Halimbawa: ang pattern ng: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,… ay maaaring ipakita sa talahanayan tulad nito:
 Termino ng Numero sa Pattern
Numero
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Ang isang panuntunan sa pattern upang makuha ang anumang numero ay ‘emumultiply’ sa 2 sa termino ng numero

Ika 10 (sampung) termino= 2 x 10

=20

BINISAYA/CEBUANO

Ang kahulugan sa ‘SUMBANAN’ (PATTERN) sa ingles nga gihubad sa Binisaya

Sumbanan sa Ingles

1. Kini gisubli sa regular nga paagi diin adunay us aka butang ang mahitabo o nahitabo na.
2. Usa ka kahikayan sa mga linya o sa mga hulma, mga dagway, ilabi na sa usa ka ‘desayn’ nga sa mao usab nga porma mao
ang balik-balik nga regular sa mga lat-ang sa ibabaw sa usa ka nawong.
3. Usa ka dayagram o porma nga mahimo nimong gamiton isip us aka giya kon ikaw naghimo og butang sama sa us aka modelo
or piraso sa sinina.

Pulong: ‘order’, plano, sistema, pamaagi

Pananglitan:

1. Ang tanan nga tulo ka pag atake misunod sa sama nga sumbanan.
2. Usa ka murag bulawan na bisti nga gibordahan sa pula ug pupura nga tanod nga gitahi sumbanan sa gadilaab na kalayo.
3. Pagputol sa sumbanan sa karsones/pantalon.

Sumbanan sa Matematika

Sumbanan

 Kini us aka grupo sa mga numero, mga porma o mga butang nga nagsunod sa usa ka lagda (rule) samtang nagbalik-balik o
naga usab-usab.
 Aron ipaabot ang imong sumabanan mahimo kang mugamit ug us aka ‘table or talahanayan’ o us aka sumbanan nga lagda
nga nag-soy sa numero sa termino sa lagda (rule) sa sumabanan.

Pananglitan: ang sumbanan ng 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,…mahimong ipakita sa us aka ‘table o talahanayan’ sama niini:

Termino sa Numero sa Pattern

Numero
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

Ang lagda sa sumbanan sa pagkuha sabisan unsa nga gihagdanon sa mga sumbanan mao ang ‘pagmultiply’ ug 2 sa termino sa
mga numero.

Ika 10 (pulo) na Termino=2 x 10

=20
Time Happenings Mathematicians
Involved
1650 B.C. Ahmes or Ahmose or A'h-mose was an ancient Egyptian scribe who was given the task of copying Ahmes or
a set of mathematical procedures. His copy is called the 'Rhind Papyrus' after an Englishman who Ahmose or A'h-
found and preserved the papyrus in the 1800's. mose
624 to 546 Thales of Miletus was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor. Thales attempted Thales of
B.C. to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in Miletus
this respect. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height
of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive
reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has
been hailed as the first true mathematician and is the first known individual to whom a mathematical
discovery has been attributed.
570 to 495 Pythagorus of Samos was a Greek philosopher, mathematician, born on the island of Samos, and Pythagorus of
B.C. founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Some have questioned whether he Samos
contributed much to mathematics and natural philosophy. Many of the accomplishments credited to
Pythagoras may actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues and successors. He is
known to most for his name being attached to the 'Pythagorean theorem' --- which was actually
known to other cultures, such as China, independently. It is probably appropriate that it be called the
'Pythagorean theorem' rather than 'Pythagorus's theorem'. The earliest known mention of
Pythagoras's name in connection with the theorem occurred five centuries after his death, in the
writings of Cicero and Plutarch.
500 B.C Hippasus was a Pythagorean who showed that there were irrational numbers --- namely the square Hippasus
root of 2 --- the length of the diagonal of the unit square. Hence he showed that the rationals are not
sufficient to describe all line lengths. It is said that his fellow Pythagoreans were not very pleased
about this and held it against him --- either by drowning or banishment. They couldn't handle the
truth! --- to use a Jack Nicholson line from one of his movies.
490 to 430 Zeno of Elea was a Greek philosopher known for his paradoxes. Zeno of Elea
B.C.
470 to 410 Hippocrates of Chios was a Greek mathematician (geometer) and astronomer. The 'reductio ad Hippocrates of
B.C. absurdum' argument (or proof by contradiction) has been traced to him. The major accomplishment Chios
of Hippocrates is that he was the first to write a systematically organized geometry textbook, called
'Stoicheia Elements', that is, basic theorems, or building blocks of mathematical theory. In the
century after Hippocrates, at least four other mathematicians wrote their own 'Elements', steadily
improving terminology and logical structure. In this way Hippocrates' pioneering work laid the
foundation for Euclid's 'Elements' (ca. 325 BC) that was to remain the standard geometry textbook
for many centuries. Only a single, and famous, fragment of Hippocrates' 'Elements' is existent,
embedded in the work of Simplicius.
428 to 348 Plato was a Greek philosopher who founded an'academy' in Athens. Above the gate of his academy: Plato
B.C. "No one ignorant of geometry can enter here." (That sounds exclusionary for a teacher. The quote
probably should have read "can leave here".) "Plato is important in the history of mathematics largely
for his role as inspirer and director of others, and perhaps to him is due the sharp distinction in
ancient Greece between arithmetic (in the sense of the theory of numbers) and logistic (the technique
of computation)."
408 to 355 Eudoxus of Cnidus was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, scholar and student of Plato. Eudoxus Eudoxus of
B.C. is considered by some to be the greatest of classical Greek mathematicians, and in all antiquity, Cnidus
second only to Archimedes. He rigorously developed Antiphon's method of exhaustion, a precursor
to the integral calculus which was also used in a masterly way by Archimedes in the following
century. In applying the method, Eudoxus proved such mathematical statements as: areas of circles
are to one another as the squares of their radii, volumes of spheres are to one another as the cubes
of their radii, the volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume of a prism with the same base and
altitude, and the volume of a cone is one-third that of the corresponding cylinder.
380 to 320 Menaechmus was a Greek mathematician and geometer who revealed facts about conic Menaechmus
B.C. sections (ellipse, parabola, hyperbola --- derived from cones).
370 to 300 B.C Aristaeus the Elder was a Greek mathematician who worked on conic sections. He was a Aristaeus the
contemporary of Euclid, though probably older. Pappus (see below) gave Aristaeus great credit for Elder
a work entitled 'Five Books concerning Solid Loci' which was used by Pappus but has been lost.
Aristeus may have also authored the book 'Concerning the Comparison of Five Regular Solids'. This
book has also been lost. We know of it through a reference by the Greek mathematician Hypsicles.
360 to 290 BC Autolycus of Pitan was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. Autolycus' surviving Autolycus of
works include a book on spheres entitled 'On the Moving Sphere' and another 'On Risings and Pitan
Settings' of celestial bodies. His book on spheres gives indications of what theorems were well
known in his day.
325 to 265 Euclid is known for his book 'Elements of Geometry', which deduced many mathematical principles Euclid
B.C. from a small set of 'axioms'. For 2,000 years that book had no peer as an introduction to and
reference work on geometry. Euclid knew of and presented what is now called the 'Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic': Every whole number can be written as a product of prime numbers. The
'Elements' also showed that the number of primes is infinite and included a proof of the 'Pythagorean
theorem'.
287 to 212 Archimedes was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. He showed Archimedes
B.C. many surprising geometric relationships, such as: For a sphere inside a minimal containing cylinder,
the surface area of the sphere is the same as that of the cylinder. He also made scientific discoveries
concerning centers-of-gravity and floating bodies. He approximated the value of pi via inscribed and
circumscribed regular polygons about a circle. He devised war engines to repel Romans who
besieged Syracuse, Greece. The Romans eventually took the city and sent soldiers to get
Archimedes, to meet with the Roman governor. Archimedes, who often drew figures in the sand, told
the soldiers "Don't disturb my circles!" (probably in Greek, eh?). When he ("the Sand Reckoner")
tried to stop the soldiers, they killed him, perhaps thinking that he was attacking (or insulting) them.
(This is one of the many interesting tales of the deaths of mathematicians. See Hippasus above.)
276 to 195 Eratosthenes of Cyrene Greek mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer, and music theorist. Eratosthenes
B.C. He invented a system of latitude and longitude. He was the first person to calculate the circumference
of the earth (apparently believed the earth was a sphere, not flat). He also proposed a simple
algorithm for finding prime numbers. This algorithm is known in mathematics as the 'Sieve of
Eratosthenes'. The sieve of Eratosthenes is one of a number of prime number sieves.
262 to 192 Apollonius of Perga was a Greek geometer and Apollonius of
B.C. astronomer known for his writings on conics. Perga
190 to 120 Hypsicles was a Greek mathematician and astronomer known for authoring 'On Ascensions' and Hypsicles
B.C. Book XIV of Euclid's Elements. The book continues Euclid's comparison of regular solids inscribed
in spheres.
190 to 120 B.C Hipparchus of Nicaea was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered Hipparchus
the founder of trigonometry but is most famous for his incidental discovery of precession of the
equinoxes. He is known to have compiled the first trigonometric table --- a table of values of the
trigonometric chord of angles. (This chord is sometimes written as 'crd'.)
160 to 100 Theodosius of Bithynia was a Greek astronomer and mathematician who wrote the 'Sphaerics', a Theodosius of
B.C. book on the geometry of the sphere. Two other works by Theodosius have survived: 'On Habitations', Bithynia
describing the appearances of the heavens at different climes, and 'On Days and Nights', a study of
the apparent motion of the Sun.
10 to 70 A.D. Heron_of_Alexandria was a Greek mathematician and engineer. Heron described a method of Heron_of_Alex
iteratively computing the square root. Today, though, his name is most closely associated with andria
Heron's Formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths. The imaginary number, or
imaginary unit, is also noted to have been first observed by Hero (or Heron) while calculating the
volume of a pyramidal frustum.
83 to 161 A.D. Claudius Ptolemy was a Greco-Roman writer of Alexandria, known as a mathematician, astronomer, Claudius
geographer, and astrologer. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote Ptolemy
in Greek, and held Roman citizenship. He believed in an Earth-centered universe and provided a
means of (roughly) predicting the motions of heavenly bodies based on circles as their paths --- or
'epicycles', where an epicycle is a circle whose center follows a circular path. Ptolemy presented a
useful tool for astronomical calculations in his 'Handy Tables', which tabulated all the data needed
to compute the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets, the rising and setting of the stars, and
eclipses of the Sun and Moon.
210 to 290 A.D. Diophantus sometimes called "the father of algebra", was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician Diophantus
and the author of a series of books called Arithmetica, many of which are now lost. These texts
deal with solving algebraic equations.
290 to 350 A.D. Pappus of Alexandria was one of the last greatGreek mathematicians of Antiquity, known for his Pappus of
Synagoge orCollection (c. 340), and for Pappus's Theorem in projectivegeometry. Alexandria
300 to 360 A.D. Serenus of Antinouplis (ca. 300 to 360 A.D.) was a Greek mathematician who came from Antinouplis, Serenus of
a city in Egypt founded by Hadrian. He wrote two works entitled 'On the Section of a Cylinder' and Antinouplis
'On the Section of a Cone'. In the preface of 'On the Section of a Cylinder', Serenus states that his
motivation for writing this work was that "many persons who were students of geometry were under
the erroneous that the oblique section of a cylinder was different from the oblique section of a cone
known as an ellipse, whereas it is of course the same curve." The work consists of 33 propositions.
335 to 405 A.D. Theon_of_Alexandria (ca. 335 to 405 A.D.) was a Greco-Egyptian scholar and mathematician who Theon_of_Alex
lived in Alexandria, Egypt. He edited and arranged Euclid's Elements and wrote commentaries on andria
works by Euclid and Ptolemy. His daughter Hypatia also won fame as a mathematician, but she was
murdered by a Christian mob.
Here we enter the Dark Ages of Europe, when many Christians suspected mathematics to be the
work of the devil. For the next 1,100 years or so, mathematical works are preserved and advanced
elsewhere, notably in the Middle East and India. Some of the ancient Alexandrian texts (that were
not burned by the Romans ca. 48 B.C. - -- or Christians ca. 392 A.D. --- or Muslims ca. 640 A.D.)
are translated into Arabic, and, much later, back into Greek and Latin.
475 to 550? Aryabhata was an Indian astronomer and mathematician. He worked on the approximation for pi, Aryabhata
A.D. equations, and series. He found that 'the sum of cubes is the square of the sum' : 1 + 2^3 + 3^3 + ...
+ n^3 = ( 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )^2 . (It blows my mind that this is true for all positive integers n.) Also,
he found that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is 62832/20000 = 3.1416,
which is accurate to five significant figures.
598 to 665 A.D. Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He wrote out a set of rules to compute Brahmagupta
with the number zero. It took a while for people to recognize that having the number zero is quite
helpful in many ways --- if only as a place holder in representations of large numbers.
780 to Al-Khwarizmi (Al-Khowarizmi, Mohammed ibn Musa) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer Al-Khwarizmi
850 A.D. and geographer during the Abbasid Empire, a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. He wrote (Al-Khowarizmi,
a book 'Kitab wa al jabr wa al muqabalah' (The Book of Shifting and Balancing) which described six Mohammed ibn
types of quadratic equation and solved them in a methodical manner. His works introduced the Musa
decimal positional number system to the Western world. The words 'al jabr' are the source of the
English word 'algebra'. A very influential person.
858 to 929 A.D. Albtegnius al-Battani was an Arab Muslim astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician. He Albtegnius al-
introduced a number of trigonometric relations, and he authored a book of astronomical tables that Battani
was frequently quoted by many medieval astronomers, including Copernicus. One of his best-known
achievements was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and
24 seconds.
870 A.D Habash al-Hasib (Ahmed ibn Abdallah al-Mervazi) was a Persian astronomer, geographer, and Habash al-
mathematician. He flourished in Baghdad and died in Samarra, Iraq. In 830, using the notion of Hasib (Ahmed
"shadow" --- equivalent to our tangent in trigonometry --- he compiled a table of such shadows which ibn Abdallah al-
seems to be the earliest of its kind. He also introduced the cotangent, and produced the first tables Mervazi)
for it. He provided estimates of the circumference and diameter of the earth, moon, and sun --- and
the min-max distances between the earth and the moon and the distance between the earth and the
sun.
940 to 998 A.D. Abul al-Wafa was a Persian mathematician and astronomer who worked in Baghdad. He made Abul al-Wafa
important innovations in spherical trigonometry, and his work on arithmetics for businessmen
contains the first instance of using negative numbers in a medieval Islamic text. He is also credited
with compiling the tables of sines and tangents at 15' intervals. He also introduced the sec and cosec
functions. He established several trigonometric identities such as sin(a ± b) in their modern form,
where the Ancient Greek mathematicians had expressed the equivalent identities in terms of chords.
He also discovered the law of sines for spherical triangles: sin A/sin a = sin B/sin b = sin C/sin c
where A, B, C are the sides and a, b, c are the opposing angles.
1048 to 1131 Omar Khayyam was a Persian philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote Omar Khayyam
A.D. treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, and Islamic theology. He provided an
algebraic method of solving certain cubic equations, while others, such as Menaechmus, provided
geometric methods.
1114? to 1187 Gherardo of Cremona was an Italian-born translator of scientific books from Arabic into Latin. He Gherardo of
worked in Toledo, Spain and obtained the Arabic books in the libraries at Toledo. Some of the books Cremona
had been originally written in Greek and were unavailable in Greek or Latin in Europe at the time.
Gerard of Cremona is the most important translator among the Toledo School
of Translators who invigorated medieval Europe in the twelfth century by transmitting medieval
Arabic and ancient Greek knowledge in astronomy, medicine and other sciences, by making the
knowledge available in the Latin language. One of Gerard's most famous translations is of Ptolemy's
Almagest from Arabic texts found in Toledo.
1170 to 1250 Leonardo of Pisa (Leonardo Fibonacci) was an Italian mathematician. Fibonacci is best known to Leonardo of
A.D. the modern world or the spreading of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe, primarily through Pisa (Leonardo
his composition in 1202 of 'Liber Abaci' (Book of Calculation), and for a number sequence named Fibonacci
the Fibonacci numbers after him, which he did not discover but used as an example in the 'Liber
Abaci'.
1320-1325? to Nicole Oresme (was a French theologian. He wrote influential works on economics, mathematics, Nicole Oresme
1382 physics, astrology and astronomy, philosophy, and theology. He was Bishop of Lisieux, a translator,
and a counselor of King Charles V of France. He is known for developing the first proof of the
divergence of the harmonic series --- 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... Several centuries later, the Bernoulli
brothers did not know of his proof and came up with their own.
1393 to 1449 Ulugh Begh (Mirza Mohammad Taraghay bin Shahrukh) ofSamarkand (currently in Uzbekistan) was Ulugh Begh
a Timurid (Middle East) ruler as well as an astronomer, mathematician and sultan. Ulugh Beg was
notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical
geometry. He built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429. It was
considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time
and the largest in Central Asia. He wrote accurate trigonometric tables of sine and tangent values
correct to at least eight decimal places.
1396 to 1486 George of Trebizond was a Greek philosopher and scholar, who migrated to Italy and became one George of
of the pioneers of the Renaissance. His numerous works consisted of translations from Greek into Trebizond
Latin and original essays in Greek. He wrote a commentary on Ptolemy's Almagest.
1401 to 1464 Nicolaus Cusanus (was a German philosopher, theologian, jurist, and astronomer. Most of Nicholas Nicolaus
of Cusa's mathematical ideas can be found in his essays, 'De Docta Ignorantia' (Of Learned Cusanus
Ignorance), 'De Visione Dei' (On the Vision of God) and 'On Conjectures'. He also wrote on squaring
the circle in his mathematical treatises. His astronomical views evince complete independence of
traditional doctrines. The earth is a star like other stars, is not the centre of the universe, is not at
rest, nor are its poles fixed. The celestial bodies are not strictly spherical, nor are their orbits circular.
 Had Copernicus been aware of these assertions, he would probably have been encouraged by them
to publish his own monumental work.
1404 to 1472 Leone Battista Alberti an Italian architect and artist, raised the ideas of vanishing point (a term coined Leone Battista
A.D. later) and perspective in his treatise, 'Della Pittura' ('On Painting'). It is claimed that that treatise Alberti
contained the first scientific study of perspective.
1423 to 1461 Georg von Peurbach (also Purbach, Peurbach, Purbachius, his real surname is unknown) was an Georg von
Austrian astronomer, mathematician, and instrument maker. Peurbach has been called the father of Peurbach
mathematical and observational astronomy in the West. He began to work up Ptolemy's Almagest
and Alhazen's 'On the Configuration of the World'. He replaced Ptolemy's chords with the sines from
Arabic mathematics, and calculated tables of sines for every minute of arc for a radius of 600,000
units. This was the first transition from the duodecimal to the decimal system. Perubach taught in
Vienna. His most famous pupil was Johann Müller of Königsberg, later known as Regiomontanus.
Upon the death of Peurbach, Regiomontanus finished several of the works started by Purbach
1436 to 1476 Johann Muller of Konigsberg (later known as Regiomontanus) (1436 to 1476) was a German Johann
mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, translator, instrument maker and Catholic bishop. His work Muller of
on arithmetic and algebra, 'Algorithmus Demonstratus', was among the first containing symbolic Konigsberg
algebra. In 'Epytoma in almagesti Ptolemei', he critiqued the translation of Almagest by George of
Trebizond, pointing out inaccuracies. Later Nicolaus Copernicus would refer to this book as an
influence on his own work. He founded the world's first scientific printing press and in 1472 he
published the first printed astronomical textbook, the 'Theoricae novae Planetarum' of his teacher
Georg von Peurbach. A prolific author, Regiomontanus was internationally famous in his lifetime.
Despite having completed only a quarter of what he had intended to write, he left a substantial body
of work.
1451 to 1506 Christopher_Columbus (1451 to 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Christopher_Co
Republic of Genoa, in today's northwestern Italy. His dates are placed here mainly to compare with lumbus
the dates of mathematicians listed here, thus giving some sense of the state of mathematics and
astronomy at the time of Columbus's voyages. Columbus learned Latin, as well as Portuguese and
Castilian, and read widely about astronomy, geography, and history, including the works of Claudius
Ptolemy.
1465 to 1526 Scipione del Ferro was an Italian mathematician who provided an algebraic solution to cubic Scipione del
equations of the form x^3 + c x = d (the 'depressed cubic equation'). Ferro
1471 to 1528 Albrecht Durer was a German painter, engraver, printmaker, mathematician, and theorist from Albrecht Durer
Nuremberg. His high-quality woodcuts (nowadays often called Meisterstiche or "master prints")
established his reputation and influence across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has
been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance ever since. Dürer's
work on geometry is called the 'Four Books on Measurement' ('Underweysung der Messung mit dem
Zirckel und Richtscheyt' or 'Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler'). The first book
focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and
epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's work on conics of 1522. The
second book moves onto the construction of regular polygons. The third book applies these
principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. The fourth book completes the
progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of
polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular
solids, as well as several of his own invention. In all these, Dürer shows the objects as nets. Finally,
Dürer discusses the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through
linear perspective. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante)
the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in
a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero
della Francesca. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and
the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Although Dürer made
no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual
representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these
geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book an assortment of mechanisms for
drawing in perspective from models and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that are
often reproduced in discussions of perspective.
1473 to 1543) Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer and mathematician who provided much evidence that Nicolas
a sun-centered universe explained many phenomena that were not explained well by an earth- Copernicus
centered universe. His theory was made public in his book 'De Revolutionibus Orbim Coelestium'
('On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs'), which is often credited as being the beginning of the
so-called 'Scientific Revolution'. Some claim that the book was not published until he was near death
because he knew it could be dangerously controversial --- as Galileo was to find out. (It seems it
took Newton to raise mathematics out of the Dark Ages.)
1480 to 1521) Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer. Magellan's expedition of 1519-1522 became the
first expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean, and the first to cross the Pacific.
His expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth, although Magellan himself did not
complete the entire voyage, being killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines. His dates are
placed here mainly to compare with the dates of mathematicians listed here, thus giving some sense
of the state of mathematics and astronomy at the time of Magellan's voyages. Magellan no doubt
used astronomical (navigation) information from Ptolomy or Copernicus or Arabian astronomers-
 and-cartographers, either directly from translations of their works or indirectly via 'commentaries' or
re-working of those works.
1487 to 1567 Michael Stifel was a German monk and mathematician. He was an Augustinian who became an Michael Stifel
early supporter of Martin Luther. Stifel was later appointed professor of mathematics at Jena
University. Stifel's most important work, 'Arithmetica integra' (1544), contained important innovations
in mathematical notation. It has the first use of multiplication by juxtaposition (with no symbol
between the terms) in Europe. He is the first to use the term "exponent". The book contains a table
of integers and powers of 2 that some have considered to be an early version of a logarithmic table.
Further topics dealt with in the 'Arithmetica integra' are negative numbers (which Stifel calls 'numeri
absurdi') and sequences.
1494 to 1575 Francesco Maurolico (1494 to 1575) was a Greek mathematician and astronomer of Sicily. The proof Francesco
by 'mathematical induction' had been used implicitly for centuries by Greek, Indian, and Arab Maurolico
mathematicians, but Maurolico first stated it formally. Basically:
If S is a statement about integers:
Show that S is true for n=1.
Show that if S is true for n=k, then it is also true for n=k+1.
Then one can declare that S is true for all positive integers.
Throughout his lifetime, Maurolico made contributions to the fields of geometry, optics, conics,
mechanics, music, and astronomy. He edited the works of classical authors including Archimedes,
Apollonius, Autolycus, Theodosius and Serenus. He also composed his own unique treatises on
mathematics
1500 to 1557 Niccolo Tartaglia was an Italian mathematician, engineer (designing fortifications), a surveyor, and Niccolo
a bookkeeper from the then Republic of Venice. He provided an algebraic solution to cubic equations Tartaglia
of the form x^3 + b x^2 = d. Tartaglia is also known for having given an expression (Tartaglia's
formula) for the volume of a tetrahedron (including any irregular tetrahedra). This is a generalization
of Heron's formula for the area of a triangle
1501 to 1576 Gerolamo Cardano was an Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler. Gerolamo
He wrote more than 200 works on medicine, mathematics, physics, philosophy, religion, and music. Cardano
His gambling led him to formulate elementary rules in probability, making him one of the founders of
the field. He was a teacher of Lodovico Ferrari (see below).
1502 to 1578 Pedro Nunes was a Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer, and professor. Nunes, considered Pedro Nunes
to be one of the greatest mathematicians of his time, is best known for his contributions in the
technical field of navigation, which was crucial to the Portuguese period of discoveries. He was the
first to understand why a ship maintaining a steady course would not travel along a great circle, the
shortest path between two points on Earth, but would instead follow a spiral course, called a
loxodrome. The later invention of logarithms allowed Leibniz to establish algebraic equations for the
loxodrome. In his 'Treaty defending the sea chart', Nunes argued that a nautical chart should have
its parallels and meridians shown as straight lines. Yet he was unsure how to solve the problems
that this caused: a situation that lasted until Mercator developed the projection bearing his name.
The Mercator Projection is the system which is still used. Nunes also solved the problem of finding
the day with the shortest twilight duration, for any given position, and its duration. This problem per
se is not greatly important, yet it shows the geometric genius of Nunes as it was a problem which
was independently tackled by Johann and Jakob Bernoulli more than a century later with less
success. They could find a solution to the problem of the shortest day, but failed to determine its
duration, possibly because they got lost in the details of differential calculus which, at that time, had
only recently been developed. The achievement also shows that Nunes was a pioneer in solving
maxima and minima problems, which became a common requirement only in the next century using
differential calculus.
1508 to 1555 Gemma Frisius was a physician, mathematician, cartographer, philosopher, and instrument maker. Gemma Frisius
He created important globes, improved the mathematical instruments of his day and applied
mathematics in new ways to surveying and navigation. In 1533, he described for the first time the
method of triangulation still used today in surveying. Twenty years later, he was the first to describe
how an accurate clock could be used to determine longitude. His students included Gerardus
Mercator (who became his collaborator), Johannes Stadius, John Dee, Andreas Vesalius and
Rembert Dodoens.
1508 to 1555 Gemma Frisius was a physician, mathematician, cartographer, philosopher, and instrument maker. Gemma Frisius
He created important globes, improved the mathematical instruments of his day and applied
mathematics in new ways to surveying and navigation. In 1533, he described for the first time the
method of triangulation still used today in surveying. Twenty years later, he was the first to describe
how an accurate clock could be used to determine longitude. His students included Gerardus
Mercator (who became his collaborator), Johannes Stadius, John Dee, Andreas Vesalius and
Rembert Dodoens
1514 to 1576 Georg Joachim Rhaeticus was a mathematician, cartographer, navigational-instrument maker, Georg Joachim
medical practitioner, and teacher from the Austrian area. He is perhaps best known for his Rhaeticus
trigonometric tables and as Nicolaus Copernicus's sole pupil. He facilitated the publication of
Copernicus's 'De revolutionibus orbium coelestium' ('On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres').
Rheticus produced the first publication of six-function trigonometric tables (although the word
trigonometry was not yet coined). A student, Valentin Otto, oversaw the hand computation of
approximately 100,000 ratios to at least ten decimal places. When completed in 1596, the volume,
 'Opus palatinum de triangulus', filled nearly 1,500 pages. Its tables were accurate enough to be used
in astronomical computation into the early twentieth century.
1515 to 1572 Peter_Ramus (or Pierre de la Ramée) was an influential French humanist, logician, and educational Peter_Ramus
reformer. A Protestant convert, he was killed during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. He was
also known as a mathematician, a student of Johannes Sturm. He had students of his own. He
corresponded with John Dee on mathematics, and at one point recommended to Elizabeth I that she
appoint Dee to a university chair. His emphasis on technological applications and engineering
mathematics was coupled to an appeal to nationalism (France was well behind Italy, and needed to
catch up with Germany).
1522 to 1565 Lodovico Ferrari was an Italian mathematician. Ferrari aided Cardano on his solutions for quadratic Lodovico
equations and cubic equations, and was mainly responsible for the solution of quartic equations that Ferrari
Cardano published. (Ferrari died of white arsenic poisoning, allegedly murdered by his greedy sister.
Another interesting death.)
1527 to 1598 Abraham Ortelius was a Flemish cartographer and geographer, generally recognized as the creator Abraham
of the first modern atlas, the 'Theatrum Orbis Terrarum' ('Theatre of the World'). He is also believed Ortelius
to be the first person to imagine that the continents were joined together before drifting to their
present positions.
1530? to 1573 Rafael Bombelli was an Italian mathematician. Born in Bologna, he is a central figure in the Rafael
understanding of imaginary numbers (a name used later). Bombelli had the foresight to see that Bombelli
imaginary numbers were crucial and necessary to solving quartic and cubic equations. Bombelli
explained arithmetic with complex numbers (a name used later). He was careful to point out that real
parts add to real parts, and imaginary parts add to imaginary parts. Bombelli felt that none of the
works on algebra by the leading mathematicians of his day provided a careful and thorough
exposition of the subject. Instead of another convoluted treatise that only mathematicians could
comprehend, Rafael decided to write a book on algebra that could be understood by anyone. His
text would be self-contained and easily read by those without higher education. The book that he
wrote in 1572, was entitled 'L'Algebra'. Another contribution: Bombelli used a method related to
continued fractions to calculate square roots.
1535 to 1577? Cornelius Gemma was a physician, astronomer and astrologer, and the oldest son of cartographer Cornelius
and instrument-maker Gemma Frisius (see above). As an astronomer, Gemma is significant for his Gemma was
observations of a lunar eclipse in 1569 and of the 1572 supernova appearing in Cassiopeia. His
predictions for 1561 provided detailed information on every lunar phase, and most planetary aspects
and phases of fixed stars in relation to the sun, with a thoroughness that surpassed the predictions
of his contemporaries. In his medical writings, in 1552, he published the first illustration of a human
tapeworm. He remained committed to astrologic medicine, however, and believed that astral
conjunctions generated disease. Gemma died around 1578 in an epidemic of the plague, to which a
third of the population at Leuven also succumbed. He was only in his mid-forties
1538 to 1612 Clavius was a German Jesuit mathematician and astronomer who modified the proposal of the Clavius
modern Gregorian calendar after the death of its primary author, Luigi Lilio. His math works included
a 'Commentary on Euclid' (1574), 'Geometrica Practica' (1604), and 'Algebra' (1608). His
mathematical works (in 5 volumes) are available online.
1540 to 1603 Francois Viete (Latin: Franciscus Vieta) was a French mathematician whose work in algebraic Francois Viete
equations was an important step towards modern algebra, due to its innovative use of letters as
parameters in equations. He is also known for discovering the first infinite product in the history of
mathematics --- a product which was is equal to pi.
1540 to 1610 Ludolf van Ceulen was a German-Dutch mathematician who taught fencing and mathematics. Ludolf van
Ludolph spent a major part of his life calculating the numerical value of the mathematical constant Ceulen
pi, using essentially the same methods as those employed by Archimedes some seventeen hundred
years earlier. He published a 20-decimal value in 1596, later expanding this to 35 decimals.
1546 to 1601 Tycho Brahe was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and Tycho Brahe
planetary observations. Tycho was well known in his lifetime as an astronomer and alchemist. He
refuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial realm. His precise measurements indicated
that "new stars," (stellae novae, now known as supernovae) lacked the parallax expected in sub-
lunar phenomena, and were therefore not "atmospheric" tailless comets as previously believed, but
were above the atmosphere and moon. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were
also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought. But he did not believe the earth could orbit
the sun, because he could not detect any parallax effect in observing the stars. He was the last of
the major naked eye astronomers, working without telescopes for his observations.
1550 to 1617 John Napier was a Scottish landowner, mathematician, physicist, and astronomer. He used John Napie
logarithms (exponents) to reduce multiplication and division to addition and subtraction. The
process of multiplying two numbers:
1. Look up their logarithms in a logarithm table.
2. Add the two logarithms.
3. Look up the anti-logarithm of that logarithm in an anti-logarithm table