Physico-Chemical Properties of Teff [Eragrostis tef

(ZUCC.) Trotter] Grains and Their Utilization in Bread

and Biscuits Making.

BY
Mariam Idreis Osman Mohammed

B.SC. Agric. (Honours) (2004)

Faculty of Agriculture
University of Khartoum

Dissertation submitted to the University of Khartoum in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in
Food Science and Technology

Supervisor,
Prof. Abdelmoneim Ibrahim Mustafa.

Department of Food Science and Technology

Faculty of Agriculture
University of Khartoum

September 2007
To my father who has inculcated in me the love of learning and
who gave me maximum and endless help and support;

To my mother who taught me the rudiment of the alphabet, who

surrounded me with her love and tenderness;

To my brothers and sisters who blessed me to achieve this work;

And to my dear friends

With my respect and love I forward this work

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Great thanks and gratitude to Allah…..

I wish to acknowledge the generosity of all those people who placed their
valuable time and knowledge at my disposal. My thanks are especially due to
professor Abdelmoneim Ibrahim Mustafa for his patience in putting me in the
right way. To Food Science and Technology Department, soil and
Environmental Sciences. Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Khartoum, instructors and colleagues for their helpful comments. To Ministry
of Science and Technology Central laboratory, Unit of Biochemistry To Food
Research Center and Industrial Research and Consultancy Center Staff for their
advice and support in several practical stages. To khaleeg National Flours Mills
Laboratories staff for their permission to complete the research analytical
studies.
To my father who has inculcated in me the love of learning and who
gave me maximum and endless help and support;

To my mother who taught me the rudiment of the alphabet, who

surrounded me with her love and tenderness;

To my brothers and sisters who blessed me to achieve this work;

And to my dear friends

With my respect and love I forward this work

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Great thanks and gratitude to Allah…..

I wish to acknowledge the generosity of all those people who placed their
valuable time and knowledge at my disposal. My thanks are especially due to
professor Abdelmoneim Ibrahim Mustafa for his patience in putting me in the
right way. To Food Science and Technology Department , soil and Environmental
Sciences. Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, instructors
and colleagues for their helpful comments . To Ministry of Science and
Technology Central laboratory, Unit of Biochemistry To Food Research Center
and Industrial Research and Consultancy Center Staff for their advice and support
in several practical stages . To khaleeg National Flours Mills Laboratories staff for
their permission to complete the research analytical studies.

II
 LIST OF CONTENTS
Pag
e
DEDICATION I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTs II
LIST OF CONTENTS III
LIST OF TABLE VI
LIST OF FIGURES VIII
LIST OF PLATE IX
LIST OF Appendices XI
ABSTRACT XII
ARABIC ABSTRACT XIV
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER TWO: LIETERATURE REVIEW 3
2.1 General information 3
2.2 Consumption, usage, importance and production of teff grain 4
2.3 Nutritional value of teff grain 4
2.4 Teff composition 5
2.4.1 Moisture content 5
2.4.2 Ash content 5
2.4.2.1 Minerals 6
2.4.2.1.1 Iron 6
2.4.2.1.2 Phosphorus 7
2.4.2.1.3 Calcium and magnesium 7
2.4.2.1.4 Zinc, copper and manganese 7
2.4.2.1.5 Sodium and potassium 8
2.4.2.1.6 Minerals bioavailability 9
2.4.3 Protein content 9
2.4.3.1 Gluten quality and quantity 10
2.4.3.2 Amino acids composition (protein quality) 11
2.4.4 Lipid content 12
2.4.5 Carbohydrates 13
2.4.5.1 Starch 13
2.4.5.2 Alpha-amylase activity 13
2.4.6 Crude fiber content 14
2.5 Physical criteria of teff seeds quality assessment 15
2.5.1 Test weight 15
2.5.2 Kernel weight 15
2.6 Nutritional inhibitor 16
2.6.1 Polyphenols 16
2.6.2 Phytic acid 17
2.6.3 Tannins 17
2.7 Types of wheat flour 18

III
 2.7.1 All-purpose flour 18
2.7.2 Bread flour 18
2.7.3 Pastry flour (cookie ,cracker)or biscuits flour 18
2.8 Bread 19
2.8.1 Bread ingredients 19
2.8.1.1 flour 20
2.8.1.1.1 Composite flour and bread 20

2.8.1.2 yeast 20
2.8.1.3 Salt 21
2.8.1.4 Water 21

2.8.1.5 Fat 21
2.8.1.6 Sugar 22
2.8.1.7 Ascorbic acid 22
23
2.8.2 Bread making
23
2.8.2.1 Straight-dough method
23
2.8.2.1.1 The mixing process
24
2.8.2.1.2 Dough development
24
2.8.2.1.3 Dough fermentation
24
2.8.2.1.4 Dividing (scaling)
25
2.8.2.1.5 Rounding, molding
2.8.2.1.6 Proofing 26
2.8.2.1.7 Baking technology 26

Cooling 27
2.8.2.1.8
2.8.3 Types of bread 27
2.8.3.1 Dietary bread (high fiber bread) 27

2.8.3.2 Whole meal bread 28

Bread fortified with micronutrients 28

2.8.3.3

2.9 Biscuits 28
2.9.1. Biscuits ingredients 29

2.9.1.1 Flour 29

IV
 2.9.1.2 Sugar and syrup 29

2.9.1.3 Shortening 29
2.9.1.4 Milk powder 29
29
2.9.1.5 Sodium bicarbonate or ammonium bicarbonate
2.9.1.6 Salt 29
30
2.9.1.7 L-cysteine
30
2.9.2 Method of biscuits making
30
2.9.2.1 The single stage methods
30
2.9.2.2 The continuous method
2.9.2.3 Mixing 30
30
2.9.2.4 The creaming method
31
2.9.2.5 The multi-stage method

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 31

3.1 Materials 31
3.2 Methods 31
3.2.1 Preparation of teff and wheat flours 31
3.2.1.1 Teff flour 31
3.2.1.2 Blends of teff and wheat flours 31
3.2.2 Analytical methods 31
3.2.2.1 Moisture determination 31
3.2.2.2 Ash determination 33
3.2.2.3 Crude fiber determination 33
3.2.2.4 Crude protein determination 34
3.2.2.5 Measurement of acid-stable amino acids 34
3.2.2.6 Fat content 35
3.2.2.7 Total carbohydrate 35
3.2.2.8 Total energy (calorific value) 35
3.2.2.9 Determination of mineral content 35
3.2.2.9.1 Potassium and sodium contents 36
3.2.2.9.2 Phosphorous content 36
3.2.2.10 HCl-extractability of mineral (in vitro availability) 37

3.2.2.11 Determination of same anti-nutritional factor of Teff grains 37

3.2.2.11.1 Total polyphenols content 37
3.2.2.11.2 Determination of phytic acid content 38

V
 LIST OF TABLES
Table (1) Chemical composition (%), energy (K.Cal/100g) test weight
(Kg/hectoliter) and kernel weight (g/1000kernel) of teff grains. 47

Table (2) Total and extractable minerals in teff flour.

51
Table (3) Teff flour Amino acids (AA) composition.
53
Table (4) Chemical composition (%) of all-purpose wheat flour with teff flour. 54
Table (5) Chemical composition (%) of special wheat with teff flours.
57
Table (6) Farinograph results of bread flour with different ratio with teff flour. 59
Table (7) Farinograph results of biscuits flour with different ratio with teff flour.
62
Table (8) Gluten content (%) and gluten index (%)of teff flour and all -purpose
wheat flour blends. 64

Table (9) Gluten content (%) and gluten index (%) of teff flour and special wheat
flour blends. 67

Table (10) Falling Number of bread and biscuits flours with teff flour.
71
Table (11) Volume ,weight and specific volume of bread samples
Containing teff flour with wheat flour. 73

Table (12) Thickness, diameter and spread ratio of biscuits samples contain teff flour
with wheat flour. 77

Table (13) Sensory evaluation of loaf bread made from all-purpoes wheat flour with
teff flour. 82

Table (14) Sensory evaluation of biscuits made from special wheat flour with teff 85
flour.

VI
 LIST OF FIGUERS
Fig. (1) Effect of adding teff flour to bread flour on it is Gluten index.
66
Fig. (2) Effect of adding teff flour to biscuits flour on it is Gluten index.
69
Effect of adding teff flour to bread flour (all -purpoes wheat flour) on their
Fig. (3) specific volume cm3/g. 78

Fig. (4) Effect of adding teff flour to biscuits flour on their spread ratio.
80

VII
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate (1) Teff grains [Eragrostis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter] local cultivar. 32

Loaf bread made from teff flour with all-purpose wheat flour. 74
Plate (2)

Plate (4) Biscuits made from teff flour with special wheat flour. 75

VIII
 LIST OF APPENDXIS

Amino acid content of teff grains (g/16N) compared with other cerals and 103
Appendix (1)
the FAO/WHO (1973) pattern.
Appendix (2) Sensory evaluation of bread samples (Hedonic scale) 104

Appendix (3) Sensory evaluation of biscuits sample (Hedonic scale) 105

106
Appendix (4) Amino acids profil of teff flour

Appendix (5) Prolin content of teff flour. 107

108
Appendix (6) Farinogram of dough prepared from all-purpose wheat flour.

Appendix (7) Farinogram of dough prepared from 5% of teff flour with 95% all-purpose 108
wheat flour.

Appendix (8) Farinogram of dough prepared from 10% teff flour with 90% all-purpose 109
wheat flour

Appendix (9) Farinogram of dough prepared from 15% teff flour with 85% 109
all-purpose wheat flour.

Appendix (10) Farinogram of dough prepared from 20% teff flour with 80%all-purpose 110
wheat flour.

Appendix (11) Farinogram of dough prepared from special wheat flour. 111

Appendix (12) Farinogram of dough prepared from 25% teff flour with 75% special wheat 112
flour.

Appendix (13) 112

Farinogram of dough prepared from 50% teff flour with 50% special wheat
flour.

Appendix (14) Farinogram of dough prepared from 75% teff flour with 25% special wheat 112
flour.

IX
 Abstract
Teff grains [Eragrostis teff (ZUCC.)Trotter.], and two types of Australian
wheat flours (all purpose and special flours) were used in this study.
Proximate analysis, hectoliter weight and thousand kernels weight were
carried out for teff grains. Minerals content, bioavailability of total minerals,
amino acids profile and lysine content, and anti-nutritional factors were
investigated for teff grains. All these parameters were carried to evaluate the
nutritional value of these grains. The results showed that the thousand
kernels weight of teff grains were (0.43 g/1000kernel) and hectoliter weight
was (84.9Kg/hectoliter). The protein content of teff grains flour was
10.03%, crude fiber 3.65%, ash content 2.57% and fat content 4.56% (as dry
matter),but the moisture content of teff flour was 8.67%. It is observed that
teff grains flour has (333.6 mg polyphenols/100g), (536.12 mg phytic
acid/100g) and (0.6 mg tannin/100g). The results of total minerals and their
availability showed that teff grains flour is a good source of the minerals
(1813 mg P /100g) and availability 24.159% ,(0.768 mg Cu /100g) and
availability 73.997%, (229.917mg Mg/100g) and availability 34.59% and
(44.319 mg Fe/100g) with availability 2.89% .While the result of amino
acids showed that the Lysine content of teff grains flour was (5.6 g/100g
protein), Histidine (6.4g/100 g protein), Leucine (18.3 g/100 g protein) and
thus teff flour is a good source of amino acids Valine (16.6 g/100 g protein),
specially lysine (most limited amino acid in cereals). The chemical analysis
of prepared flour blends(5,10,15 and 20%teff flour in bread flour and
25,50,75,100% teff flour in biscuits flour) and the control(all-purpose and
special flours),showed significant decrease (P≤0.05)in their moisture
content and their protein content, while the protein content of bread flour
blends showed no significant difference (P≤0.05) among the samples.The

X
results of the flour blends, 5,10,15and 20% teff flour in bread flour and
25,50,75and 100% teff flour in biscuits flour)showed significant increase
(P≤0.05)in their ash content . The results of farinograph showed that the
water absorption of bread flours and their blends were increased, but the
(5.3min.), except development time of the doughs gave the same values
20% teff flour which gave the lowest value. The results of farinograph
showed that the water absorption and development time of biscuits flours
and their blends were decreased ; except 75% of teff flour gave the highest
The results of gluten quality .development time (17.0 min) values on their
and quantity of biscuits and bread flours and their blendes, showed
significant deterioration (P≤0.05). Five percent teff flour bread showed
significant increase (P≤0.05) in specific loaf volume while 25% teff flour
biscuits showed significant decrease (P≤0.05) in spread ratio. Five percent
teff flour bread gained the highest score of over all acceptance by panelists,
whereas 25and 50% teff flour biscuits gained the highest score of over all
acceptance by the panelists.

XI
 ‫ﻤﻠﺨﺹ ﺍﻻﻁﺭﻭﺤﺔ‬

‫ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﻤﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﺓ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘـﻑ )ﻁـﺎﻑ( ﻭ ﻨـﻭﻋﻴﻥ ﻤـﻥ ﺩﻗﻴـﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻤـﺢ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺴﺘﺭﺍﻟﻲ)ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﻟﻜل ﺍﻷﻏﺭﺍﺽ ﻭﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺼﻭﺹ( ‪.‬‬

‫ﻟﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺫﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟ ﹼﺘﻑ ﺘﻡ ﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺃﻟﻑ ﺤ ‪‬ﺒﺔ ‪ ٫‬ﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻋﻲ‬
‫ﺒﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻜﺘﻭﻟﻴﺘﺭ ﻭﺘﻡ ﺇﺠﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺭﻴﺒﻲ ‪ ٫‬ﺃﻴﻀﺎ ﺘﻡ ﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫـﺎ ﻤـﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺡ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺘﻡ ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻷﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻤﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺨﺎﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺒﺴﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺠﻭﺩ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻭﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫﺎ ﻤﻥ ﻤﻀﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺫﻴﺔ ) ﺤﻤﺽ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻴﺘﻙ‪،‬ﺘﺎﻨﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺒﻭﻟﻲ ﻓﻴﻨﻭل(‪ .‬ﻭﻟﻘﺩ ﺃﻅﻬـﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘـﺎﺌﺞ ﺃﻥ ﺤﺒـﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘـﻑ ﻟﻬـﺎ ﺍﻟـﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﻨـﻭﻋﻲ‬
‫)‪84.9‬ﻜﺠﻡ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘـﻭﻟﻴﺘﺭ( ﻭ)‪ 0.43‬ﺠـﻡ‪1000/‬ﺤﺒـﺔ(‪.‬ﻭﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫـﺎ ﻤـﻥ ﺍﻟﺒـﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ‬
‫ـﺕ‬
‫ـﺎﺩ ‪ %2.5‬ﻭﺍﻟﺯﻴـ‬
‫ـﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻤـ‬ ‫ـﺎﻑ ‪%3.65‬ﻭﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫـ‬
‫ـﺎ ﻤـ‬ ‫ـﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﻟﻴـ‬
‫‪،%10.03‬ﺨـ‬
‫‪%4.56‬ﻭﻤﺤﺘﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺭﻁﻭﺒﺔ ‪ .%8.67‬ﻭﻟﻘﺩ ﻟﻭﺤﻅ ﺃﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ )ﺍﻟﺘﻑ( ﻴﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻨﻴﻨﺎﺕ)‪ 0.6‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ( ‚ ﺤﻤـﺽ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻴﺘـﻙ) ‪ 536.12‬ﻤﻠﺠـﻡ ‪100/‬ﺠـﻡ( ﻭ‬
‫)‪ 333.6‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ( ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻭﻟﻲ ﻓﻴﻨﻭل ‪.‬ﻭﻟﻘﺩ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺃﻥ ﺤﺒـﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘـﻑ‬
‫ﻤﺼﺩﺭ ﺠﻴﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ‪1813‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻭﺴﻔﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘـﺎﺡ‬
‫ﻤﻨﻪ ‪ ‚%24.159‬ﻨﺤﺎﺱ)‪ 0.768‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ( ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺡ ﻤﻨﻪ ‪ %73.99‬ﻭﻤﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺒﻤﻘﺩﺍﺭ)‪229.917‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ( ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺡ ﻤﻨﻪ ‪ %34.56‬ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ)‪ 44.319‬ﻤﻠﺠﻡ‬
‫‪100/‬ﺠﻡ( ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺎﺡ ﻤﻨﻪ ‪ %2.89‬ﻴﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﺍﻗﻼﻫﺎ ﻭﺠﻭﺩﺍ ﻭ ﺃﻜﺜﺭﻫﺎ ﺇﺘﺎﺤﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﻘـﺩ‬
‫ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺇﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟ ﹼﺘﻑ ﻤﺼﺩﺭ ﺠﻴﺩ ﻟﻸﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻤﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺤﻅ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻴﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ )‪ 5.6‬ﺠﻡ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ( ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻼﻴﺴﻴﻥ )ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺽ ﺍﻷﻤﻴﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﻼل(‪،‬ﺍﻟﻬﺴﺘﻴﺩﻴﻥ )‪6.4‬ﺠﻡ‪100 /‬ﺠﻡ ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ(‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻟﻴﻥ )‪ 16.7‬ﺠـﻡ‪ 100/‬ﺠـﻡ‬
‫ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ( ﻭﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻭﺴﻴﻥ )‪ 18.3‬ﺠﻡ‪100/‬ﺠﻡ ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ(‪.‬‬

‫ﻟﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺍﺜﺭ ﺃﻀﺎﻓﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻟﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﺒـﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ‪،‬ﺘﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺌﻲ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻬﺯﺓ ﻤﻥ )‪15 ،10 ،5‬ﻭ‪ % 20‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴـﻕ‬

‫‪XII‬‬
‫ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ( ﻭﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻬﺯﺓ ﻤـﻥ )‪ 75,50,25‬ﻭ ‪% 100‬ﻤـﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ( ﻭﻟﻘﺩ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺭﻴﺒﻲ ﻟﻬﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﻀ ﹰﺎ ﻤﻠﺤﻭﻅﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻨﺴﺏ ﺍﻟﺭﻁﻭﺒﺔ‪ ،‬ﻨﺴﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻥ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ ﻟﻡ ﺘﺘﺄﺜﺭ ﺒﺎﺍﻀﺎﻓﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ‬
‫ﺤﺒﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻨﻲ ﻭﻟﻘﺩ ﺃﺒﺩﺕ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺯﻴـﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻤﻠﺤﻭﻅﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻨﺴﺏ ﺍﻟﺭﻤﺎﺩ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺩ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﻗﻴﻡ ﺭﻗـﻡ ﺍﻟـﺴﻘﻭﻁ ﻟﻌﻴﻨـﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴـﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒـﺯ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻋﺎ ﻤﻠﺤﻭﻅ ‪ .‬ﺃﻤﺎ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺭﻴﻨﻭﻏﺭﺍﻑ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ ﺃﻅﻬـﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻋﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺘﺹ ﻟﻠﻌﺠﻴﻥ ﺃﻤﺎ ﺯﻤﻥ ﺘﻁﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺠﻴﻥ ﺃﻋﻁﻰ ﻨﻔـﺱ ﺍﻟﻘـﻴﻡ‬
‫‪5.3‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋﺩﺍ ‪15‬ﻭ‪ %20‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻓﻠﻘﺩ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﺍﻗل ﻗﻴﻤﺔ‪ .‬ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺭﻴﻨﻭﻏﺭﺍﻑ‬
‫ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﻀﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻤـﺘﺹ ﻭ ﺯﻤـﻥ ﺘﻁـﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺠﻴﻥ ‪،‬ﻤﺎﻋﺩﺍ ‪ %75‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻋﻁﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤـﺔ ﻤـﻥ ﺯﻤـﻥ ﺘﻁـﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺠﻴﻥ)‪17.0‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ (‪ .‬ﻭﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﺠﻭﺩﺓ ﻭﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺯ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺍﻨﺨﻔﺎﻀ‪‬ﺎ ﻤﻠﻭﺤﻅﹰﺎ ﻜﻤﺎ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ‪ %5‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻋﺎ ﻤﻠﻭﺤﻅﹰﺎ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﻗﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﺭﻏﻴﻑ ﺃﻤﺎ ‪ %25‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﺃﺒﺩﺕ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻋ‪‬ﺎ ﻤﻠﻭﺤﻅﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻨﺴﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺩ ﺍﻋﻁﺕ ‪%5‬ﻤﻥ ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻑ ﻟﻠﺨﺒﺯ ‪ 25 ،‬ﻭ ‪ %50‬ﺩﻗﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺘـﻑ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺒﺴﻜﻭﻴﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﻗﺒﻭل ﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﻴﻥ‪.‬‬

‫‪XIII‬‬
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Teff [Eragrostis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter] is a cereal grains , it is staple food
crop of Ethiopia . Teff originated and has diversified in Ethiopia . In a few
developing countries,certain crops are especially produced and consumed,
which are not known or totally neglected by the developed countries.
Excellent example is Teff [Eragrostis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter] . Teff produced
in Ethiopia and India consistitue about 50% and 3% seed production,
respectively .

Teff is almost always produced as whole-grain flour ; it is difficult to

separate the bran and germ because of the relatively small size of the grain .
Also uncooked Teff grain can be added to most kinds of baked goods, such
as bread and cookies, or substituted for part of seeds nuts or small grains .
In Ethiopian Teff grain is ground into flour, fermented and made into Enjera
a sour-dough type flat bread ,other cereal grains such as wheat, corn , pearl
millet , sorghum , or mixture of these can be used for making Enjera.
However teff alone is preferred .The nutritional value of teff grain is to the
traditional cereals,e.g. (sorghum ,corn) . Teff is considered to have an
excellent balance of essential amino acids composition , lysine level higher
than wheat or barley and slightly less than rice or oat . Teff contains very
little gluten .Teff is also higher in several minerals , particularly iron and
phosphorus , in the United States teff grain is being marketed as a health
food product or used as late planted emergency forage for livestock
(Mengesha et al., 1965 and Lovis, 2003) .

1
The objectives of this study were to:
1. Study physical properties and chemical composition of Teff grains .
2. Study the effect of addition of teff grains flour on the rheological
properties of wheat flour .
3. Evaluate the quality of bread and bisctuites made with different ratios of
teff flour with wheat flour .

2
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General information :

Teff [Eragrostis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter]. Eragrostis is a member of the
tribe Eragrosteae, sub-family Eragrostoidae , of the poaceae (Gramineae).
There are approximately 300 species in the genus Eragraostis consisting of
both annuals and perennials which are found over a wide geographic range.
Taxonomy of teff has been clarified by numerical taxonomy techniques,
cytology and biochemistry including leaf flavanoids and seed protein
electro-phoretic patterns (Jones et al., 1978 ; Costanza et al., 1979 ; Bekele
and Lester, 1981) .

Its common names include teff, love grass, annual bunch grass and
warm season annual bunch grass. The word teff is thought to originate from
Amharic word "teffa", meaning "Lost" and so named because of teff small-
size . It is the smallest grain in the world and often is lost in harvesting
threshing process because of its size (Anon, 1887) . It is believed that teff
grains have originated in Ethiopia between 3000 and 1000 B.C. and remains
an important staple food in that country . Teff , which is cheap to price and
grows rapidly, is also vital to Ethiopian farmers who use it as a source of
nutrient-rich fodder for strengthening livestock .The straw of the teff plant is
soft and fast drying, making it perfect for many different applications,
including a dobe building materials and household clay pots (Ketema, 1983,
1993and Lovis, 2003). The teff grain can range in color from ivory to dark
reddish- brown purple . The embryo is half or more the length of the fruit
(Winton, and Winton, 1939) .The seeds of teff range from 1.0 to1.7mm long
and are 0.6–1.0 mm diameter (Ketema, 1997).

3
Teff is best suited for cultivation in a warm climate,with temperatures
ranging from 10 to 27oC and altitudes of (1,000 – 2,100m) . However, it can
survive harsh environments, such as drought conditions or water-logged soil.
2.2 Importance and production of teff grain :
In the United States, consumers are slowly familiarizing themselves
with this unique grain, which is nutritious enough to be sold in health food
stores and exotic enough to be marketed in ethnic food stores (Lovis, 2003).
In addition to it's flavor profile and nutrient content, teff flour is also
used in a variety of products including soups, stews, gravies , puddings , stir-
fries and casseroles, as a thickening agent (Wood, 1997). Ethiopian teff is
used in mixtures with soybean,chickpea and other grains and is becoming
popular as baby food because of its high mineral content (Piccinin, 2002) .

Teff seed is mainly used for making different kinds of Enjera

(pancake-like flat bread) , porridge and feed. It is also used for making a
local alcoholic drink (Taddesse, 1969) . Burt-Davy (1916) introduced teff to
California, Malawi, Zaire, India, Serilanka and Australia. In Montana, teff
seed yield ranged from 0.2 to 1.5 t/ha, while in Ethiopia improved varieties
of teff give a grain yield of 1700 – 2200 kg/ha on farmers fields (ketema,
1993) .

2.3 Nutritional value of teff grain :

Although similar to wheat in food value , teff has a higher vitamin
and mineral content. When wheat is processed, the germ (the embryo of the
berry, which contains a high concentration of vitamins) is removed from the
endosperm . The endosperm is then milled into flour. In contrast, teff is
almost always produced as whole-grain flour. When it is milled, it is
difficult to separate the bran and germ because of the relatively small size of
the grain . Because there is a greater portion of germ in milled flour , the
nutrient content of teff flour is also higher (Piccinin, 2002 and Lovis, 2003) .

4
2.4 Teff chemical composition:
The chemical composition of teff is similar to that of millet, in
general, teff has an excellent balance of essential amino acid and is a good
source of calcium, phosphorus and iron (Jansen et al., 1962 ; Piccinin, 2002
and Lovis, 2003) . Piccinin (2002) and Lovis (2003) showed that the teff
grain has a good source of vitamin when compared with wheat flour, brown
rice, sorghum and white rice flour .

2.4.1 Moisture content:

Moisture content is one of the most important factors affecting the

quality of cereals grains, since the amount of dry matter of grains is
inversely related to the moisture content (moisture contents has direct
economic importance) . Ciferri and Baldrati (1939) showed that the moisture
content of teff flour range 8.84 – 10.36% , while Lovis, (2003) mentioned
that moisture content of teff grain is 11% , wheat flour is 13.36% .Badi et.al.
(1978) found that, the moisture content of Sudanese wheat flour harvested in
1975 ranges between 10% and 11% .

2.4.2 Ash content:

Zeleny (1971) reported that ash content is directly related to amount

of bran in the cereal grains . Ash content also indicates milling performance
by indirectly revealing the amount of bran contamination in flour . Some
specialised products requiring particularly white flour call for low ash
content while other products , such as whole wheat flour, have high ash
content . Badi et.al.(1978) showed that ash content of Sudanese wheat
cultivars whole-meal flour range between 1.38 and 1.84% , while
D'appolonia and Young (1978) found that ash content of wheat flour (whole
meal) is 1.85% . Ciferri and Baldrati (1939) found that ash content of teff
flour ranged between 2.4 and 2.94% as dry matter .

5
2.4.2.1 Minerals:

Minerals are present in foods at low but variable concentrations and

in multiple chemical forms . The role of minerals in food is to provide a
reliable source of essential nutrients in a balanced and bio-available form .

In cases where concentration and/or bio-availabilities in food supply

are low, fortification has been popular (Miller, 1996). There is a significant
body of evidence that minerals by themselves and in proper balance to one
another have important biochemical and nutritional functions . In teff seed
the distribution of ash content and mineral elements is higher in the per carp
than in the endosperm (Mulugeta, 1979).

2.4.2.1.1 Iron:

Iron is necessary for red blood cells formation and required for
oxygen transport throughout the body. According to Besrat et.al. (1980) , the
iron content of 35 samples of acid washed white and red teff (also known as
brown teff) grain was 3.6 to 7.8 mg/100g on dry matter bases (DM.).
Piccinin (2002) reported that non-teff consumers have a lower level of
hemoglobin and hookworm anaemia develops in non-teff eaters if they are
infested with hookworm .On the other hand, since teff eaters have higher
levels of hemoglobin in their blood, they do not suffer from hookworm
anaemia even when infested .

Lovis (2003) reported that , teff grain contains (5.8 mg Iron/100g)

while wheat flour contains (4.41 mg Iron/100g) . Melak (1966) reported
values (19.6 and 11.5mg Iron/100g) for two teff cultivars , while values
(4.00 mg Iron/100g) and (7.85 mg Iron/100g) for two wheat cultivars .
According to FAO (1986) values of Iron content of teff seed ranged between
(20.9 and 75.5 mg/100g) , sorghum (5.0 to 15.6 mg/100g) and millet (39.0
mg/100g) .

6
2.4.2.1.2 Phosphorus:
Phosphorus works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones
and teeth . It enhances the use of other nutrients and play a key role in cell
membrane integrity and intercellular communication. Phosphorus is critical
for proper energy processes in the body . Melak (1966) reported values (440
and 460 mg Phsophorus/100g) for two teff cultivars, while (510mg
Phsophorus/100g and 400 mg Phsophorus /100g) for two wheat cultivars.
Lovis (2003) showed that Phosphorus content of teff grain was 378 mg/100g
while wheat flour (97 mg Phsophorus/ 100g).

2.4.2.1.3 Calcium and magnesium :

Calcium is essential for developing and maintaining healthy bones

and teeth, assists in blood clotting, muscle contraction, nerve transmission
and oxygen transport . Optimal intakes reduce the risk of osteoporosis
Magnesium activates over 100 enzymes and helps nerves and muscle
functions . Lovis(2003) reported that teff grain contains 159 mg
Calcium/100g and 170 mg/100g for Magnesium , while wheat flour contains
(15 mg Calcium/100g)and (25 mg Magnesium/100g) . Melak(1966) reported
values of (180 mg Magnesium /100g) for two teff cultivars .

2.4.2.1.4 Zinc, copper and manganese:

Zinc is essential part of more than 200 enzymes included in the
digestion, metabolism , reproduction and wound healing . It plays critical
role in immune response and is an important antioxidant . Melak,(1966)
reported that for two teff cultivars contain (6.7 and 6.8 mg Zinc/100g) while
wheat (spring,winter) contains (6– 3.95 mg Zinc/100g) . Lovis(2003)
reported that teff grain contains (2 mg Zinc/100g) but wheat flour contains
(0.85 mg Zinc/100g).

7
 Copper is essential to normal red blood cells formation and
connective tissue formation. It acts as a catalyst to store and release iron to
help haemoglobin formation . Lovis (2003) reported that teff grain contains
(0.7 mg Copper/100g)while wheat flour contains (0.182 mg Copper/100g)
Melak (1966) reported values (52 mg Copper/100g and 64mg Copper/100g)
for two teff cultivars while (55 mg Copper /100g) for two wheat cultivars.

Manganese is a key component of enzymes systems, support brain

function and is required for blood sugar regulation. Melak,(1966) reported
values (2.12 mg Manganese/100g) and (3.00 mg Manganese/100g) for two
teff cultivars while (1.2 mg Manganese/100g and 3.6 mg Manganese/100g)
for two wheat cultivars. Lovis (2003) reported that Manganese content of
teff grain was (6.4 mg/100g) and for wheat flour was (0.792 mg/100g) .

2.4.2.1.5 Sodium and Potassium:

Sodium and Potassium are essential nutrients ; their deficiency is rare,
excessive intake of Sodium may lead to hypertension . Potassium regulates
heart beat , maintains fluid balance and helps muscles contraction . Lovis
(2003) reported values of Sodium of teff grain as (471 mg/100g), wheat
flour (2mg/100g) and values of (401 mg potassium /100g) for teff grain
while wheat flour of (100 mg Potassium/100g). Melak,(1966) reported
values (360 mg Potassium/100g and 200 mg Potassium/100g) for two teff
cultivars, while values (330 and 440 mg Potassium/100g) for two wheat
cultivars, also according to the same authors’ values were (22.00 mg
Sodium/100g) and (21.22 mg Sodium/100g) for two teff cultivars,while
values (16.85mg Sodium/100g) and (39.20 mg Sodium/100g) for two wheat
cultivars.

8
2.4.2.1.6 Minerals bioavailability:

Bioavailability may be defined as the proportion of a nutrient in

ingested food that is available for utilization in metabolic processes . In case
of mineral nutrients, bioavailability is determined primarily by the efficiency
of absorption from the intestinal lumen into the blood. In some cases
however absorbed nutrients may be in a form that can not be utilized.
Bioavailabilities of minerals vary from less than 1% for some forms of iron
to greater than 90% for sodium and potassium . The reason for this are
varied and complex, since many factors interact to determine the ultimate
bioavailability of a nutrient (Miller, 1996) .

Owing to the presence of anti-nutritional factors like phytic acid and

polyphenols (Chauhan et.al. 1986),which complex with divalent cations the
bioavailability of minerals from pearl millet for human system is poor
(Mahajan and Chauhan, 1987) .

2.4.3 Protein content:

The protein content of cereals is of great significance because 24% of

total protein in the average diet is derived from this source . Protein content
is a key specification for wheat and flour purchasers since it is related to
many processing properties, such as water absorption and gluten strength.
Protein content can also be related to finished product attributes, such as
texture and appearance . Low protein content is desired for crisp or tender
products, such as snacke and cookies. High protein content is desired for
products with chewy texture, such as pan bread (AACC, 2000). Badi et.al.
(1978) reported that protein content of Sudanese wheat cultivars ranged
between 11– 14% . Also Ahmed (1995) found that the protein content of
four Sudanese wheat cultivars , Nesser, Elneilain, Condor and Debeire, are
12.26, 10.93, 8.21 and 8.32 respectively .

9
 Mulugeta (1979) showed that the protein concentration in the teff
grain varied significantly between cultivars , ranging from 8.8 to 15%.
Zeleny (1971) reported that the end use of flour is related to it's protein
content , so Macaroni products protein content is 13.2% or more , for bread
protein content ranges between 12 and 14%, while for biscuits it ranges
between 8.5 and 10.5% and for cake ranges between 9.0 and 9.5% . The
respective protein fractions found in wheat are also applicable to other
cereals and generally known as albumins, globulins, prolamins and glutelins
(FAO, 1999) . Lovis (2003) mentioned that the protein content of wheat
flour is 11.98% , teff grain is 9.6% and brown rice is 7.23% of protein
content .The fractional composition of the protein in teff indicated that
glutelins and albumins were the major protein storage components and their
order of fractional importance was glutelins 44.55%, albumins 36.6%,
prolamin 11.8% and globulins 6.7% (Mulugeta, 1978) .

2.4.3.1 Gluten quality and quantity:

Gluten is elastic, rubbery protein present in wheat, rye, barely and

lesser degree in oat .It binds the dough in food such as bread and other baked
goods. It contributes to spongy consistency . Rice and maize doesn’t contain
gluten . Piccinin (2002) and Lovis (2003) mentioned that teff flour is nearly
gluten-free and is gaining popularity in the whole food and health food
industry in the U.S. as an alternative grain for person with gluten sensitivity.
Teff may also have applications for person with caeliac disease . Pomeranz
(1971) found that the strong dough with an extensive gluten net work is
suitable for bread-making while Gaines(1990) stated that weak dough
without an extensive gluten net work is best for cakes so gluten is designated
as strong or weak, and wheat from which they come as hard and soft wheat .
Perten (1995) revealed that gluten index is an important test for gluten
quality. Usually there is a positive relationship between gluten quality and

10
gluten index percentage (the percentage of wet gluten remaining on the sieve
after centrifugation) , but there is a negative correlation with the gliadin
quality . So gluten index is a main test for gluten quality .Tolman et.al.
(1998) reported that the ratio between elasticity and extensibility
(gliadin/glutenlin) plays a crucial role in the handing properties of the dough
and the quality of the final products .

2.4.3.2 Amino acids composition (protein quality):

An adequate supply of dietary protein is required for survival, growth

and development, reproduction , lactation and maintaining health throughout
life. The amino acids released during the digestion of food protein are
essential for the synthesis of tissue protein which comprise approximately
16% of human body.

Food and tissue protein contain 20 amino acids of nutritional

importance . Nine of these (Histidine, Isoleucie, Leucine, Lysine,Methionine
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan and Valine) cannot be synthesized by
the body ; they are therefore essential nutrients that must be from the diet .
The other (Alanine, Arginine, Aspartic, Asparagines , Cystine , Glutamic,
Glutamine Glycine, Proline, Serine and Tyrosine) are also ordinarily
obtained from the diet but the body can synthesize them .They are therefore
called not essential nutrients.The amount of protein needed to meet the
requirements for indispensable amino acid differs with source of protein in
diet (Harper and Yoshimura, 1993) . Harper and Hegsted (1974) reported
that proteins of most cereal grains have unbalanced amino acid patterns.
They are dis-proportionately low in lysine. Such proteins are sometimes
referred to as incomplete proteins , this is misnomer. Although they are used
inefficiently, they do contain all amino acids. In fact, requirements for
indispensable (essential) amino acids are readily met with such proteins, if

11
the amount consumed is sufficiently in excess of the amount of high quality
protein needed (Krebas, 1972) .

Teff grain is considered to have an excellent amino acid composition

including all eight essential amino acids for humans and has lysine levels
higher than wheat or barley, millet and sorghum but slightly lower than rice
(Jansen et al. 1969 and Piccinin , 2002) .

Jansen,et. al. (1969) showed that the Lysine content (limited amino acid of
cereal) of teff seed was higher than Wheat, Sorghum, Maize and Pearl
millet. Alemayehu (1990) mentioned that the essential amino acids Histidine
and Methione in teff flour were higher than whole eggs, for eggs were (2.1
g/16g N)for histidine and (3.8 g/16gN) for Methionen . Amino acids content
of teff grain (g/16N) compared with other cereals and the FAO/WHO(1973)
pattern were reported by Jansen et.al.(1962) and Alemayehu (1990) is
shown in Appendix (1). Shoup et.al. (1970) mentioned that , the best balance
of amino acids was found in the germ protein .

2.4.4 Lipid content:

The germ represent the main store of lipids also lipids can be found in
bran fractions, with little endosperm (Southgate, 1993). The germ and
aleurone layers are the lipid rich fractions of the grain, with the germ
contributing to about 80% of total oil (Rooney and Serna, 1991). Lovis
(2003) found that total lipid in wheat flour is about 1.66% , while teff grain
2% . Ciferri and Baldrati (1939) mentioned that teff flour contains (2.0 -
3.47%) fatty matter. Wheat contains (2 - 3%) lipids (FAO, 1999) . Ahmed
(1995) reported that fat content of Sudanese cultivars, Nasser, Elneelain,
Condor and Debeire as 1.19%, 2.35%, 2.14% and 3.36% respectively .

12
2.4.5 Carbohydrates:

In general carbohydrates component is about 75% of the content of

cereals. The cereal major groups of carbohydrates are sugar, starches and
cellulose and related materials (Hulse et al., 1980) . Lovis (2003) reported
that the content of carbohydrates in wheat flour is 72.3% and teff grain is
73% .

2.4.5.1 Starch:

The principal carbohydrates of all cereals is starch, the amount of

starch contained in a cereal grain varies but is generally between 60 -75% of
weight of the grain . Thus much of the food that humans consume is in the
form of starch an excellent source of energy (Hoseny, 1986) . Cereal
starches are similar in composition, having 74 – 79 amylopectin, 25 – 30
amylose and 1% lipids (Hoseny et. al. 1971) . Whistler and Smart (1953)
reported , (22 – 26%) for sorghum and 17% for millet amylose . In corn,
varieties with amylose contents ranging from 0 to 75% are known (Zuber,
1965) for wheat, no wide variations in the amylose-amylopectin (i.e. units of
starch) ratio have been found values ranging from 17 to 27% amylose have
been reported (Deathereage et al. 1955).

The grain teff starch is formed of compound granules comprising

many polygonal (2 – 6 µm in diameter) simple granules . The crude
composition is similar to that of normal native cereal starches the amylose
content ranges from 24.9 – 31.7% . Gelatinization temperature range was
68.0 – 74.0 – 80.0oC , typical of tropical cereal starch and resembling the
temperature rang of rice starch (Bultosa et. al. 2002) .

2.4.5.1.1 Alpha -amylase activity:

The enzymes principally concerned in panery fermentation are

those that act upon carbohydrate , alpha-amylase and beta-amylase work

13
together in the flour and are called diastases . The enzyme affects dough
properties such as gassing power and consistency that may result in
excessive liquefaction and dextrinization producing bread with wet sticky
crumb (Marchylo et al. 1976) .

Greenaway(1969) reported that, high alpha-amylase activity on the

other hand makes thin graves and small loaf volume.The baker can rectify
insufficient alpha-amylase activity in flour by adding a little malt flour,
malt extract or fungal alpha-amylase in dough making ,(Jones and Omos
1967) and Perten (1996) . A Comparison of Sudanese wheat cultivar with
European and American wheat alpha-amylase activity was carried out by
Badi et. al.(1978) .They observed that the falling number value of
Sudanese’s varieties was abnormally high , indicating the low alpha-
amylase activity in the cultivars. Perten (1996) stated that falling numbers
values below 150 seconds (high amylase activity sprout damaged wheat),
is likely to produce sticky bread–crumb, while 200 to 300 seconds (optimal
amylase activity) produces bread with good crumb,and above 300 seconds
(low amylase activity, sound wheat) the bread crumb is likely to dry and
the loaf volume is reduced .

2.4.6 Crude fiber content:

Dietary fiber is mainly composed of plant cell wall polysaccharides

such as cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectic substance but it also includes
lignin and other minor components (Trowell et. al. 1976) . Basically, it
covers the polysaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by the endogenous
secretions of the human digestive tract (Asp et. al. 1990 and Quemener et.
al. 1994). Insoluble dietary fiber has been linked to protection against colon
cancer and other bowel disorders, such as constipation (Marrllett and Cheug,
1997). Selvendran (1984) concluded that the highest concentration of fiber
in food is in the outer bran layers of the grains. Fiber percentage in whole

14
meal wheat flour ranges between 1.8 – 2.% and flour 72% extraction rate
between 0.1 – 0.3% (Egan et.al. 1981). Four Sudanese wheat cultivars
harvested in 1991/92, Nasser, Elneelian, Condor and Debeire, have the
following fiber content 2.04%, 1.75%, 2.34% and 2.07% respectively
(Ahmed, 1995). Lovis (2003) showed that teff grain has 3% total dietary
fiber. Teff grain has a higher fiber content, this is particularly important in
dealing with diabetes and assisting in blood sugar control (piccinin, 2002).

2.5 Physical criteria of teff seeds quality assessment:

2.5.1 Test weight:
Test weight measures the density of grain in kg per hectoliter. William
et.al.(1986)reported that higher correlation occur between hectoliter weight
(test weight) and flour yield. This is because hectoliter weight is related to
grain density, rather than weight, and the denser kernels tend to contain
more endosperm (flour) . A teff seed is smallest cereals grain in world and
the embryo is half or more the length of fruit (Anon,1887and Winton, and
Winton, 1939) .Generally immature wheat or wheat affected by drought or
diseases is of low density and invariably gives low yields of flour.

2.5.2 Kernel weight:

Kernel weight, usually expressed in terms of weight per1,000

kernels, is a function of kernel size and kernel density. This test depends at
the same time on the compactness of structure of the grain and its chemical
composition including its moisture content . Ahmed (1995) stated that the
thousand kernels weight of Sudanese wheat cultivars ranged between (28
and 44 g) . However Mohammed(2000) reported that the thousand kernels
weight of four Sudanese wheat cultivars Debaira, Elneelain, Condor and
Sasaraib ranged between (32 and 38 g) . The thousand kernels weight of

15
teff grains is averaging 0.3 – 0.4 grams (Lovis, 2003).Pear millet kernels
weight is about 8.9 g/1000 kernel (Hoseney et. al. 1982).

2.6 Nutritional inhibitor :

As with other food stuffs , certain nutritional inhibitors are

associated with teff grains. Anti-nutritional factors classified broadly, as
those naturally present in the grains . These factors modify the nutritional
value of the individual grains . The following is a brief account of some of
the anti-nutrients associated with teff, sorghum and millet grains .

2.6.1 Polyphenols :

Polyphenols constitute one of the most common and widespread

groups of substances in plant . Polyphenols in plants are not directly
involved in any metabolic process and are therefore considered secondary
metabolites . Some polyphenolic compounds have a role as defense
chemicals, protecting the plant from predatory attacks of herbivores,
pathogenic fungi and parasitic weeds . Polyphenols in the grains also
prevent grain losses from premature germination and damage due to mould
and protect seedling from insect attack (Bennick,2002) . Polyphenols
traditionally have been considered anti-nutrient by nutritionists, because of
the adverse effect of tannins, one type of polyphenols, on protein
digestibility . However, recent interest in food phenolics has increased
greatly, owing to their antioxidant capacity (free radical scavenging and
metal chelating activities) and their possible beneficial implications in
human health (Bravo,1998) . Polyphenolic content in cereals is usually less
than 1% of dry matter except for some sorghum cultivars which can have
as much as 10% (Bravo, 1998) . Elhage et. al. (2002) gave values of (304
and 444 mg/100g) total pohyphenols for pearl millet .

16
2.6.2 Phytic acid :
Phytic acid is commonly called myo-inositol hexaphosphoric acid or
scientifically, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexakiss (dihydrogen phosphate) myo-inositol
(IUPAC-IUB, 1968 phytate represents a complex class of naturally
occurring phosphorus compounds that can significantly influence the
functional and nutritional properties of foods .

Phytic acid has strong binding capacity readily forming complexes with
mono and multivalent cations (K+, Ca+ and mg+2); it is a form of storage of
cations as well as phosphorus in many seeds (Cosgrove, 1966). In cereal
grains, it is distributed on both the bran and the germ, expect for corn in the
germ . The amount of phytic varies from . 5 – 6% in cereal, legumes and
oilseeds and accounts for 60 – 90% of their total phosphorus content (Fox
and Toa, 1989) . Elhage et. al. (2002) investigated two Sudanese cultivars
of pearl millet and reported values of ( 943 and 1076 mg/100g) phytic acid .

2.6.3 Tannins :

Tannins constitute a complex group of naturally occurring polymers,

and a rigorous chemical definition is difficult (Bennick, 2002). The term was
originally used to describe vegetable components that are responsible for
converting animal hides into leather in the process of tanning by forming
stable complexes with skin collagen .Thus, tannins are considered to be
polyphenolic metaboliters of plant with a molecular weight larger than 500
and with the ability to precipitate gelatin and other proteins from solution
(Mehansho et.al. 1987a). Sid Ahmed (2003) reported that the tannin content
of wheat,maize and sorghum bran was (1.86,1.132 and 2.66mg
Catechin/100g) respectively .

17
2.7 Types of wheat flour :

Wheat flours range in protein (gluten) and carbohydrate (starch) from

soft to hard, within certain limits .Various types of flour may be
interchanged in different recipes by altering the proportions of non-flour
constituents of mixture (Bennion,1980).

2.7.1 All-purpose flour :

This type of flour is called all-purpose flour because it is intended for

most baking needs for general household use . It is either made from a blend
of hard wheat flours or sometimes from a blend of hard and soft wheat
flours. Blends are often determined by the flours available and the cooking
style of the area , (Bilheux et.al. 1989) . Also it is known as family
flour,plain,white or general-purpose flour. it has “a middle of the road”
protein and starch content makes it sutiable for either bread or cakes and
pastries .

2.7.2 Bread flour :

This type depends on gluten quantity and quality.The strong wheat gives
loaf of higher volume (specific volume).The quality of wheat is determined
by gluten index , color and sedimentation test . Also the rheological
characteristics (elasticity and extensibility) can be a measure for this type
(Kent,1974) .

2.7.3 Pastry flour (cookie ,cracker)or biscuits flour :

This flour has gluten content slightly higher than cake flour but lower than
all-purpose flour .It is well suited for fine, light –textured pastries. Biscuits
flour is milled from weak wheat with low protein content .The extensibility
is more desired property than resistance in biscuits flour (Kent,1974) .

18
2.8 The bread :

The most popular yeast-leavened product by far is bread which is

original in Egypt about 35000 BC (Joswellman, 2003). The amount of bread
consumed in the world is truly staggering.Also staggering is the wide array
of sizes, shapes, textures and tastes that bread comes in .For example, tin-
shaped and cottage loves, there are flat pitta bread from the middle east
puffed-up purins from India, black rye bread from Poland, corn bread from
America and many other varieties .

Bread has had the traditional role as staple food in the diet of man for
thousands years. It is natural, then, that bread should play a major role and
considered as a logical vehicle for the nutritional improvement of the diet of
man. Even today around the world it is one of two principle foods providing
nutrients to man . Over 50% of the world's countries receive more than one-
half of their total caloric intakes from bread (Barrett, 1975). Also bread is
called "staff of life" because it has good nutritional value. Beside protein it
contains plenty of starch and is a good source of dietary fiber, calcium and
some of B-vitamins . Whole-bread is made from flour which is milled from
whole-grain, while white-bead is made from wheat which has more than
30% of its bran and germ removed .

2.8.1 Bread ingredients :

The minimum formula for bread is flour, yeast, salt and water. If any
one of three ingredients is missing, the product is not bread. Other
ingredients that are often found in the formula are fat , sugar, milk or milk
solids , oxidants, various enzyme preparations (including malted grain),
surfactants and additives to protect against molds . Each of the components
in the formula performs a function in producing the loaf of bread .

19
2.8.1.1 Flour :
The flour, of course, is the major structural component . It is responsible
for forming viscoelastic dough that retains gas. In considering bread-baking
flour, we think of hard wheat with relatively high protein content . However,
in various parts of the world, breads made from both soft and durum wheat
can be found . NCFM (2003) considered flour milled from American hard
red winter and spring wheat and Australian prime hard with 12.5% protein
content and 62.65% water absorption are suitable for bread making . Gluten
quantity and quality are important characteristics for baking potential of
wheat flour (Roels et. al. 1993). Dough’s made from strong flours will
exhibit superior stability when proofed and tend to be less affected by rough
treatment from the final roofed to the oven (Pyler, 1973).

2.8.1.1.1 Composite flour and bread :

One aspect of bread in international consideration is producing bread

from composite flour . Considerable works has been done in different
countries in the development and application of formula and techniques for
producing bread from wheat flour which has been extended by substitution
with other flour from indigenous sources (Barrett,1975). Dendy(1992)
concluded that the composite flour prepared from wheat flour and non wheat
flour including cereals, root-tuber, legumes raw material and fiber sources is
important for both nutrition and economic aspects .

2.8.1.2 Yeast :
It is one of the fundamental ingredients . The major role of yeast is to
convert fermentable carbohydrate into carbon dioxide and ethanol.The
amount of bakers yeast to be added for dough rising is oftenly, determined
by experienced bakers . Carbon dioxide is responsible for the rising, while
the alcohol produced by the yeast participates in the aroma of the baked

20
product (Matz, 1968). In addition to its gas-producing effect, the yeast has a
very marked effect on the rheological properties of dough .

2.8.1.3 Salt :
It is generally used at levels of about 1.75– 2.25% based on flour weight.
Salt has great importance in dough making ; it appears to have two major
functions .First is taste ; bread made with no salt is quite flat and tasteless .
The second is to affect the doughs rheological properties . Salt makes dough
stronger.

2.8.1.4 Water :

It is the last fundamental ingredient, which is a plasticizer and solvent,

without water, dough has no viscous-flow properties,and many of the
reactions that take place during fermentation cannot occur because there is
no solvent . The amount of water used for doughs is commonly determined
subjectively by experienced baker . Also, it can be determined, more
accurately, with the aid of special devices such as Simon water absorption
meter, farinograph, or mixograph (Roles et.al. 1993). However, the amount
of water for dough making depends on the type of the flour and the type of
bread being produced .

2.8.1.5 Fat :

It represents one of the minor ingredients of bread making. In bread

that is to be stored for any period of time after baking , shortening is an
essential ingredient . Functionally it plays a significant role in improving
dough handling properties and final bread quality characteristics (Pomeranze
and chungo,1978). The shortening is made up of three basic components,
namely, (a) the emulsifier, which is normally a monoglyceride, (b) the hard

21
fats or flakes, and (c) the base fat of either animal or vegetable origin (Pyler,
1973).
2.8.1.6 Sugar :
Sugar is added to the formula for two reasons . It is a source of
fermentable carbohydrates for the yeast and it provides a sweet taste to the
bread.

2.8.1.7 Ascorbic acid :

It is an oxidant , others such as calcium peroxide, potassium bromate,
azodicar-bonamide , at levels of parts per million . At present, L-ascorbic
acid and azodicarbonamide are probably the most-used flour improvers in
the world .

Ascorbic acid in quantities from 10 to 50 mg/kg is added to flour to

improve the machinability of dough and the texture of the bread . It is the
most often applied processing aid in the group of oxidative flour improvers .
With L-ascorbic acid , the phenomenon of over treatment which is observed
at excessively high levels of flour improver is less pronounced than with
bromate . However, the action of L-ascorbic acid is restricted to the mixing
phase ; the resilience of the dough is already fully present at the end of
mixing (Sluimer, 2005) .

L-ascorbic acid (chemical name is vitamin C) also differs from other

flour improvers in that it is not an oxidant , it is a reducing agent . Before it
can function as an oxidant, it first must be oxidized into dehydro L-ascorbic
acid by oxygen from the air during mixing . Oxidants are found in flour, but
the quantity is often small, as the mill is, in principle, not informed of the
type of application the flour will be used in (Sluimer,2005) . Lovis (2003)
reported that teff grain has (88mg/100g) ascorbic acid but wheat flour ,white
rice flour and sorghum do not contain of ascorbic acid .

22
2.8.2 Bread making :

First, the processing of bread can be divided into three basic operations:
mixing or dough formation, fermentation and baking . The four basic
methods of mixing used in bread making are :
1. The straight-dough process.
2. Sponge and dough method.
3. Liquid ferment process.
4. Continuous liquid process.

2.8.2.1 Straight-dough method :

In such method, all the formula ingredients are mixed into

developed dough that is allowed to ferment . The advantages of this
process including the reduction of time and fermentation losses . Some
bakers believe that the straight-dough process promotes better flavor
development in the final product .

2.8.2.1.1 The mixing process :

The aim of the mixing process is to ; (a) prepare a homogenous
dough where all ingredients to be distributed among the mixture of the
flour and water (b) to bring about the physical development of the gluten
into uniform structure.
In the mixing process the temperature of the dough mass rises
because of friction forces during the mixing and due to hydration heat as a
result of combination of flour and ingredient water (Pyler, 1973) .This
significant rising of temperature should be removed and the dough
temperature should be adjusted to the optimum temperature (25.5 – 27oC),
this can be obtained by water or more advanced by mechanical
refrigeration to mixer bowl . The amount of ice flake, the chilled water or

23
the remigration given to the mixer bowl must be well adjusted to reach the
desired temperature exactly (Volentyne, 1959 and Eckstedt, 1949) .

2.8.2.1.2 Dough development :

Dough development is a relatively undefined term . Among other
things it addresses a number of complex changes in bread ingredients that
are set in motion when ingredients first become mixed.Initially,the gluten is
formed when the flour and water are mixed together .The two proteins in the
flour, glutenin and gliadin , cross link to form gluten . The gas retaining
capacity of the dough increases by promoting the mechanical development
of its gluten through vigorous kneading , stretching and folding action when
the dough is mixed for longer periods of time , it became more resistant to
extension the dough then is said to be developed .

2.8.2.1.3 Dough fermentation :

Yeast is a versatile organism; it can produce fermentation under

either aerobic or anaerobic conditions . Yeast needs about 45 minutes in a
favorable environment to attain full adoption. The primary function of
yeast added to bread dough is the fermentation of sugars to evolve carbon
dioxide that leaven or raise the dough and ethyl alcohol. In addition, bakers
yeast helps bring about essential changes in the flour protein (gluten)
structure known as maturing or ripening of the bread (Joes and omose,
1967) . Also, it produces a complex mixture of chemical compound that
contribute to the flavor of the bread fermentation dependant upon the
action of three enzymes contained in the yeast, namely, maltase, invertase
and zymase (Jones and omos, 1967).

2.8.2.1.4 Dividing (scaling) :

Dividing is the first step in make-up process . The objectives of this
step are to obtain equal weights of divided dough pieces ; this can be done

24
in volumetric basis , either manually , as in the small bakeries, or
mechanically as in large-scale bakeries . The dividing rate, with modern
divider units up to twenty-five strokes per minute , but the optimum speed
of dividers is within the range of 12 to 16 strokes per minute (Pyler,1973).

2.8.2.1.5 Rounding, molding :

The function of rounding is to apply to the dough piece a thick skin

that will retain the newly produced gas and acid in the expansion of the
dough piece . The rounding can be done manually like in the small
bakeries or by the molding machines as in the large-scale bakeries . After
the dough is divided into individual loaf-sized pieces, and rounded the
dough piece (dough balls) then need a relaxation period for two minutes or
up to 20 minutes in special cabinets.The temperature required for this stage
is within the range of 27oC to 29oC and relative humidity 75 percent is
generally found to be the most suitable,this step is known as intermediate
proof, (Kamman,1970) . The dough is then ready for molding. The
molding operation is essentially sheeting followed by curling , rolling and
application of pressure, this operation can be done manually as in small
bakeshops or, more commonly by passing the dough piece through a
molder with three sets of rolls . It is good practice to add small amounts of
oil to the surface of rolls during a production run to prevent hardening of
dough residues and to remove dough accumulations with plastic scraper
(Kamman, 1970) . After being molded, the loaf is panned, with the final
lap down in the bottom of the pan, prior to panning the molded dough
pieces non-uniform to be checked and the off-weight dough to be
eliminated and remolded again in an accurate weight .The recommended
pan temperature for panning is 32oC (Pyler, 1973) .

25
2.8.2.1.6 Proofing :

The dough pieces deposited on the pan in a practically degassed state

and exhibits a bulky gluten structure . If they are carried into the oven
immediately would result in small volume, dense grain and coarse texture to
achieve satisfactory loaf, the dough must be allowed to relax for sometime
to become aerated again and acquire mellow-ness and extensibility.
Temperature, relative humidity and time represent the three basic control
factors in the final proof operation . Temperature range is (30 – 35oC),
relative humidity of 85%. Because the dough now has only limited viscous-
flow properties, it fills the pan by expansion proofing usually take about (55
– 65 min.) ; the dough increases greatly in volume .

2.8.2.1.7 Baking technology :

The function of baking process is to change the unpalatable dough
into expedient bread . This process is the most important step in the bread
making operation, so it must occur in proper manner and under controlled
condition . When the dough is placed in the oven the crumb temperature
increases producing thin and readily expandable surface film, carbon dioxide
begins to be released from the dough solution consequently cause
progressive increase in volume which is called the oven-rise (Hlynka, 1969).
The second observable effect produced by the heat is the sudden one-third
expansion of the loaf volume so-called oven spring caused by the gas
pressure. Flavor mainly developed in the crust and penetrates into the crumb
where it is retained by absorption (Baker and Mize,1939). Carmelization and
formation of melanoiding by Millard reaction cause the brewing of the crust
during the oven stage (Johnson and Miller, 1961) .

Most of the heat that is absorbed by the dough comes through the
baking pan, therefore, the rate at which the dough temperature increases
depends upon the heat transfer from the air and the baking surface to the

26
baking pan . Dough does not conduct heat as well as the metal pan;
therefore, a well-defined temperature gradient forms from the outside to the
center of the loaf during baking .

2.8.2.1.8 Cooling :

The bread is subjugated to a rapid cooling immediately after it leaves

the oven . The temperature of the crust is about 200oC while in the center of
the crumb about 100oC when it leaves the oven. The whole loaf is cooled to
about 35oC before slicing and wrapping to avoid loaf damaging .

2.8.3 Types of bread :

Yeast bread and flat bread are the two basic types of bread. The other
types are :
2.8.3.1 Dietary bread (high fiber bread) :
This bread has both higher fiber content and fewer calories per unit
than normal bread. The high fiber content is achieved by addition of various
supplements, such as, cracked or kibbled wheat, wheat bran hulls of filed
peas, or powdered cellulose . Type of cellulose used in USA.called solka
floc, is delignified alpha-cellulose obtained from wood, usage levels are (5–
10%) . Its use in bread is not currently permitted in the U.K. (Kent, 1982) .
2.8.3.2 Whole meal bread :
A short fermentation system is generally used for whole meal bread,
for example the dough might be allowed to ferment for 1 hour before
knocking back, with 30 min., to scaling and molding, at an appropriate yeast
level and temperature (Kent, 1982).

2.8.3.3 Bread fortified with micronutrients :

A major contribution to nutrition in the U.S. was made by the bread

enrichment programmed . During the 1930's public health authorities were

27
greatly concerned by the alarming incidence of nutritional efficiency
diseases such as pellagra and beriberi ; iron-deficiency anaemia was
widespread, as was riboflavin-deficiency first recognized in 1938
(Sebrell,1966) .The food and nutrition board of the National Academy of
Science (NAS/NRC) suggested in 1974 the cereal-grain products should be
fortified with six vitamins and four minerals in view of the many changes in
consumption patterns,food technology and marketing and the new
recommendation also included vitamin A , pyridoxine (B6), folic acid
calcium ,magnesium and zinc . Bread fortified with the full vitamin and
mineral supplement , it's stability during baking and storage was excellent.
No off-flavor was noticed by trained taste panelists in bread stored for five
days at room temperature or for four weeks at freezer temperature (Emodi
and Sialpi, 1980) .

2.9 The biscuits :

Cookies are products made from soft wheat that are characterized by a
formula high in sugar and shortening (substituted by fat) and relatively low
in the water. Similar products made in Europe and the United Kingdom are
called "biscuits”. The American biscuits actually chemically leavened bread
or a bun is unique to the United States. It has become quite popular,
particularly in fat-food establishment (Hoseney, 1986).

2.9.1 Biscuits ingredients :

The basic ingredients of biscuits are:
2.9.1.1 Flour :

For biscuits making soft wheat with high extensibility and low elasticity and
(9 – 9.5%) protein content is used generally (NCFM,2003), the water is
added as a toughener (Matz, 1968) . Biscuits not only vary in looks and taste
but also in the type of flour needed to produce a desirable product .

28
2.9.1.2 Sugar and syrup :
Sweetener is an important component for cookie formula; it affects
the flour, texture and appearance. It is either added as granulated or powder
to cookie mixture (Matz, 1968) .
2.9.1.3 Shortening :
Fat such as butter, shortening and oil is an essential ingredient in
baking, (Philips, 2003) .
2.9.1.4 Milk powder :
The dried milk is more preferred because of convenience of use and
their strong stability . We added milk for color improvement, water
absorbing and spread control properties and flavor .
2.9.1.5 Sodium bicarbonate or ammonium bicarbonate :
The most common used sources of carbon dioxide are sodium and
ammonium bicarbonates . When heated, ammonium bicarbonate breaks up
to give three gases, as known below.
NH4HCO3 NH3 + CO2 + H20
The most popular leavening agent by far is sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda) . It is popularity is based upon a number of advantages it offers :
1.The commercial product is of high purity.
2.Low cost. 3. It is nontoxic. 4.Easy to handle.
2.9.1.6 Salt :
It is used in a little amount about 1% and it affects the texture and taste .
2.9.1.7 L-cysteine :
It is a reducing agent, the three most important reasons to include a reducing
agent in the recipe is reduction of mixing time , decrease in dough resilience,
and the use of activated dough development . Around 1970, the use of L-
cysteine, in combination with an oxidant was very popular in activated (or
chemical) dough development (Sluimer, 2005) .

29
2.9.2 Method of biscuits making :
2.9.2.1 The single stage method :
In this method all the ingredients are added in one stage but the mixing
speed and time may differ . The single stage method has the advantage of
giving greater mixing tolerance for most cookie doughs.

2.9.2.2 The continuous method :

There is no variation in speed or distinct separation into phases in mixing

operation . Continuous equipment is used for true batters (Matz, 1968) .

2.9.2.3 Mixing :
The mixing method is classified into, creaming or multi stage method .
2.9.2.4 The creaming method :
The creaming mixing process has benefit effect in fat-coating that delays
soubilization or, hydration of sugars and flour, and the incorporation of
small air bubbles which assists in leavening and establishing the structure of
the finished cookie .
2.9.2.5 The multi-stage method :
It is done in many stages using different ingredients during the mixing
process . It requires initiating with the shortening and sometimes the syrup,
then adding sugar followed by addition of other ingredients . The mixing
process continues at low or medium speed until all the components became a
homogenous mixture and the mixture takes up air inform of bubbles .

30
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials:
Teff seeds (Eragrastis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter) were purchased from local
market in Kassala. They were originally obtained from Ethiopia . Wheat
flours (all purpose and special wheat flours) were obtained from Sayga
mills. Baking materials were obtained from the local market . All chemicals
used were of analytical grade .

3.2 Methods:
3.2.1 Preparation of teff and wheat flours :
3.2.1.1 Teff flour :
The purchased teff seeds were carefully cleaned and freed from any foreign
materials [plate (1)] . They were then ground into fine flour(0.4 mm)by
micro Hammer mill C.480, and kept in clean container for chemical
analysis, rheological and baking tests .
3.2.1.2 Blends of teff and wheat flours :
The teff flour was added to bread flour (all-purpose wheat flour) as
percentages 5% , 10% , 15% and 20% for chemical analysis , rheological
and baking tests . Also teff flour was added to biscuits flour (special wheat
flour)as percentages 25% , 50% , 75% and 100% for chemical analysis ,
rheological and baking tests .
3.2.2 Analytical methods :
3.2.2.1 Moisture determination :
The moisture content (MC) of each sample was estimated in conformity
with the standard official methods of analysis (AOAC, 1984) .

31
Plate(1): Teff grains [Eragrostis tef (ZUCC.) Trotter] local
cultivar.

32
The moisture percent was calculated as shown below :

W1 – W 2
M.C.%= X 100
W1
Where :
W1= Original weight of sample
W2= Weight of sample after drying

3.2.2.2.Ash determination :
Total ash of sample was determinated according to the standard
official methods of analysis (AOAC, 1984). The ash content was calculated
using the formula:

W2 X 100
Total ash (%) = X 100
W1 X (100-M)
Where:
W1= Original weight of sample
W2= Weight of sample after drying
M = Moisture content of sample
3.2.2.3 Crude fiber determination :
Crude fiber (CF) of each sample was assessed according to the
method descried by (AOAC , 1984). Two grams sample (defatted) were
digested in a 200 ml boiling (0.255 N) H2SO4 under reflux, for 30 minutes,
then filtered under succion using a linen piece as a filter. The obtained
residue was washed with hot distilled water to remove any trace of acid. A
second alkali digestion for the residue was done using 200 ml boiling
(0.23N) NaOH for 30 minutes then similarly filtered as above. The residue
was successively washed with hot acid and hot distilled water, dried at
105oC overnight and weighed the dried residue was incinerated in a muffle
furnace set at 550oC for 3 hours and then re-weight after cooling in a
desiccators’.

33
Calculation: W1 - W2 X100
CF (%) = X 100
S (100 - M)
Where:
W1= Weight of sample before ignition
W2= Weight of sample after ignition
S = Original weight of sample
3.2.2.4 Crude protein determination:
Total nitrogen of the samples was estimated using the kjeldahl
procedure as described by the official methods of analysis (AOAC, 1984).
The crude protein content (C.P.) was calculated by multiplying the percent
nitrogen by the conversion factor (N% x 6.25).
Calculation:
(A – B) x N x 14 x 100 x 6.25
CP (%) =
1000 x S
Where:
A= ml of HCl sample
B= ml of HCl blank
N= Normality of HCl
14= Nitrogen equivalent weight
S= Original weight of sample
1000= number of milligrams in one gram
6.25= Protein conversion factor
3.2.2.5 Measurement of acid-stable amino acids:
The amino acid content was determined according to the official
methods of analysis (AACC, 2000). 500 mg of pulverized sample was
hydrolyzed with 5ml ( 6 N HCl) in an evacuated sealed tube for 24 hours at
110oC, after oxidation (H2O2/HCOOH , 24 h, chilled) and without previous
oxidation, the pH was adjusted to 2.2 with NaOH and filled to 100 ml with
buffer pH 2.2, 2 ml were then filtrated (membrane filter) . The liberated
amino acids were separated by LKB Biochrom 4150 (Alpha)Automatic
Amino Acid Analyzer based on Ion-exchange Chromatography. 1/Tyrosine,
histidine and tryptophane (oxidized sample). 2/Cysteine, methione and
tryptophane (hydrolyzed sample without pervious oxidation) . Prolin is
detected from a separate detector channel at 440 nm, all the others were

34
detected at 570 nm, then calculated as µg of amino acid per mg of protein,
(http://www.piercentent.com/proteomics/).
3.2.2.6 Fat content :
Fat was estimated in conformity with the official methods of analysis
(AOAC, 1984). The fat content was calculated as a percentage:

W1 - W2
Fat content (%) = X 100
S
Where:
W1= Weight of empty receiver
W2= Weight of receiver + oil
S = Weight of sample which taken
3.2.2.7 Total carbohydrates:
Total carbohydrates were calculated by difference . the sum of
moisture content, Crude protein, Crude fiber, Crude fat was substracted from
(100%) to obtain the total carbohydrates by diference (Pearson ,1976) .
3.2.3 Total energy (calorific value) :
Energy was calculated as described by Sukkar (1985) using the Atwater
factors 1 g of carbohydrates (c.) provides (4 k calories) , 1 g of protein (p.)
provides (4 k calories) and 1 g fat (f.)provides (9 k calories).
C. (g) x 4: Kcal of carbohydrate.
P. (g) x 4: Kcal of protein
F. (g) x 9: Kcal of fat
3.2.2.9 Determination of minerals content:
Minerals of sample were extracted according to (Pearson's method,
1981). The sample was burned in a muffle furnace at 550oC, then the sample
was placed in a sand bath for 10 minutes after addition of 10 ml of 5 N HCL,
then the solution was carefully filtered in a 100 ml volumetric flask and
finally distilled water was added to make up to mark . The extracts were
store in bottles for further analysis. Minerals, Fe, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn and Cu
were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA 6800).

35
 3.2.2.9.1 Potassium and sodium contents :
Potassium and sodium contents of extracted sample were determined
according to AOAC (1984) using flame photometer (corning 400). One
milliliter of the extract was taken and diluted in a 50 ml conical flask with
distilled water. The standard solutions of the KCl and NaCl were prepared
by dissolving 2.54 , 3.33 g of KCl and NaCl, respectively. Ten ml of this
solution were taken and diluted with 1000 ml distilled water to give a 10
ppm concentration. The flame photometer was adjusted to zero using
distilled water as a blank and to 100 using standard solution.
Calculation:
K or Na = F.R. x D.F. x 100
(mg/100g) 103 x S x 10
Where:
F.R.= Flame photometer reading
D.F.= Dilution factor
S = Sample weight
3.2.2.9.2 Phosphorous content :
The determination of phosphorous content was carried according to the
method of Chapman and Pratt (1982). Two milliliters of the extract were
pippetted into a 50 ml volumetric flask. Ten milliliters of ammonium
molybdate-ammonium vanadate reagent [(22.5 g of WH4)6 MO7O24 4 H2O
in 400 ml distilled water + 1.25 g ammonium vanadate in 300 ml boiling
water + 250 ml conc. HNO3, then diluted to 1 liter] were added . The content
of the flask were mixed and diluted to volume. The density of the color was
read after 30 minutes at 470 nm using a spectrophotometer (corning, 259). A
standard curve of different KH2PO4 concentration was plotted to calculate
the ion phosphorous concentration .
Calculation :

Phosphorous Reading curve X ash dilution X 1000

content(mg/100g)= 103 x oven dry weight of sample

36
3.2.2.10 HCl-extractability of mineral (in vitro availability) :
Minerals in the samples were extracted by the method described by kumar
and Chauhan (1993). One gram of the sample was shaken with 10 ml of
(0.03 M) HCl for 3 h at 37oC and then filtered. The clear extract obtained
was oven dried at 100oC and then acid-digested. The amount of the
extractable minerals was determined by the methods described above.
Thereafter, the extractable mineral was determined as a percentage of the
individual minerals.
Calculation :

Minerals extractability (%) = Mineral extraction with 0.03N HCl

X 100
Total minerals

3.2.2.11 Determination of some anti-nutritional factors of Teff grains :

3.2.2.11.1 Total polyphenols content :
Polyphenols present in sample were determined using the Prussian Blue
Assay, as described by Price and Butler,(1977) . Ground sample (60 mg)
was extracted with 3 ml absolute methanol in a test tube, by constant
shaking for one minute and then poured into a filter paper. The tube was
quickly rinsed with an additional 3 ml of methanol and the contents poured
at once into the filter paper. The filtrate was diluted to 50 ml with distilled
water, mixed with 3 ml (0.1 M) FeCl3 in (0.1 N) HCl for 3 minutes,
followed by the time addition of 3 ml (0.008M) K3Fe(CN)6 . The absorption
was read after 210 minutes at 720 nm on a spectrophotometer (corning,
259). In all cases, tannic acid was used as a reference standard.
Calculation:
Polyphenols (mg/100g) = C x 56
x100
Where: 60

C = concentration corresponding to optical density.

60=weight of sample(g.)

37
3.2.2 .11.2 Determination of phytic acid content :
Quantitative estimation of phytates for the sample was carried out using
modified method of Wheeler and Ferrel (1971).One gram of finely ground
sample (60 mesh) was weighed into a 100 ml conical flask, extracted with
50 ml 3% TCA solution (w/v), containing 10%(w/v) sodium sulphate, by
shaking for an hour. The slurry obtained was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15
minutes. Ten milliliter aliquot of the supernatant were transferred into 50 ml
boiling tubes, then 4 ml of FeCl3 (2 mg Fe+3/ml 3% TCA solution)
centrifuged at 300 rpm for 15 minutes and the clear supernatant was
carefully decanted . The precipitate was then washed twice by dispersing
well into 25 ml 3% TCA heated in a boiling water bath (10 minutes) and
centrifuged. Washing was repeated once with water. The precipitate was
cautiously dispersed in a few ml distilled water enriched with 3 ml 1.5 N
NaOH with mixing the volume was made approximately 30ml with distilled
water and heated in the water bath for 30 minutes. The contents of tube were
filtered hot (quantitatively) through filter paper (Whatman No. 1) and the
filtrate was discarded. The precipitate from paper was dissolved in 40 ml hot
3.2 N HNO3 into a 100 ml volumetric flask, then the paper was washed with
several portions of distilled water. The contents of the flask were cooled to
500m temperature (28 – 32oC) and diluted to volume with distilled water.
Five milliliter were transferred to anther 100 ml volumetric flask and diluted
to approximately 70 ml with distilled water, then 20 ml of 1.5 M KSN
(potassium thiocyanate) were add, to complete the volume up to mark. The
intensity of the color was immediately assessed (with one minute) using
spectrophotometer (corning, 259) at 480nm . A standard curve of different
Fe(NO3)3 concentrations was plotted to calculate the ferric ion

38
concentration. The phytate phosphorous from the ferric ion concentration
assuming 4:6 irons : phosphorous molar ratio.
Calculation:

AxCx20x10x50
phytic acid (mg/100g) = 6/4 1000 x s x100

Where:
A = optical density
C = concentration corresponding to optical density
S = Weight of sample

3.2.2.11.3 Determination of tannins content :

Tannins of the sample were determined according to modified Vanillin-
HCl methanol method as described by Price ,et. al. (1978) about 0.2 g of the
ground sample was placed in a 100 ml conical flask. Ten milliliter of 1%
HCl in methanol (v/v) were added, shaken for 20 min. and centrifuged at
2500 rpm for 5 min. one milliliter of the supernatant was pippetted into a
test tube and 5 ml of vanillin-HCl reagent were added. The optical density
was read using spectro-photometer (corning, 259) at 500 nm after 20
mintues incubation at 30oC . A standard curve was prepared expressing the
results as catechin equivalents, i.e. amount of catechin (mg/ml) which gives
a color intensity equivalent to that given by tannins after correcting for
blank.
Calculation: C x 10 x 100
C.E. (%) =
200
Where:

C.E.= Tannin concentration was expressed as catechin

equivalent.
C = Concentration corresponding to the optical density.
10 = Volume of extract in ml.
200= Sample weight in mg.

39
3.2.4 Rheological properties of dough :
3.2.4.1 Farinograph of dough :
The rheological properties of dough prepared from wheat flour (control)
and the blends were determined by using Brabender Farinograph method
(Brabender OHG, Kulture, 51-55, d-47055, Duisburg, Germany) according
to the AACC (1986) .

3.2.4.1.1 The titration curve :

Brabender farinograph was operated as described in AACC (1986) . The
titration curve was used for the assessment of the water absorption for each
flour sample . A sample of 300 g was weighed and transferred into a cleaned
mixer . The farinograph was switched on 63 rpm for one minute, then the
distilled water was added from a special burette until 500 units consistency
is reached, the correct water absorption can be calculated from the deviation
where 20 units deviation correspond to 0.5% water, if the consistency is
higher than 500 F.U. more water is needed and (vice-versa) when the
consistency is constant, the instrument was switched off and the water drawn
from the burette indicates water absorption of the flour in percentage .

3.2.4.1.2 The standard curve :

The measuring mixer was thoroughly cleaned. A sample of 300 g was
weighed, then introduced into the mixer, farinograph was switch on such as
above. The water quantity, which is determined by the titration curve, was
fed at once. When an appreciable drop on the curve was noticed, the
instrument was run for further 12 minutes,then shutoff .
The significant reading taken from farinograph are :(a)Water absorption the
ability of the flour to absorb water and prescribes the quantity of
water, which has to be added to the flour during the production.

40
(b)Dough developing time: The time from the beginning of addition of
water to the point on the curve immediately before the first signs of
indication of weakening .
(c)Stability: The difference in time to the nearest minute between the points
in the top of the cure. First intercepts the 500-FU(arrival) line and the
point at which the curve leaves the 500-Fu line(departure).
(e)Degree of softening : The softening after (12 min.),from dough
development point.(FU)
3.2.4.2 Determination of falling number :
The falling number was determined according to AACC (2000), 7.00±0.05
grams of flour sample were weighed into dry (F.N.) tube and 25ml of
distilled water was added at 22oC ± 2oC with pipette .A rubber stopper was
inserted and the tube was shaken in an up right position 20 – 30 times up and
down until the contents were well mixed the slurry that was coating the
upper part of the tube was scraped down by using a viscometer-stirrer, then
the viscometer-stirrer and tube were placed into water bath within (30–
60sec.) , after mixing the apparatus started immediately . At the end of the
test the time was recorded in seconds . The tube was removed then the stirrer
and tube were cleaned using cold water and a brush . The time taken by
stirrer to the fall from the tope to the bottom of the falling number tube in
seconds is called (F.N.) .

3.2.4.3 Gluten quantitiy and quality :

Gluten quantitiy and quality were determined according to AACC
(2000) . A ten grams sample of flour was weighed and placed into the
glutomatic washing chamber on top of polyester screen ,then the sample of
flour was mixed and washed with 2% salt solution for 5 minutes. Then the
wet gluten was removed from the washing placed in the centrifuge holder
and centrifuged to stop automatically.The passed gluten through the sieve

41
was weighed.The residue retained in side the screen and the through was
weighed then dried in a Glutrok 2020 heater to give (dry gluten).The dry
gluten was then weighed .
Calculations:
Wet gluten %=Weight of wet gluten X 100 ⁄ wt. of the sample(10 g.)
Dry gluten % =Weight of dry gluten X 100⁄ wt. of the sample(10g.)

Weight of wet gluten in side the sieve (g) X 100

Gluten index =
Total wet gluten (g)

3.2.5 Baking test :

3.2.5.1 Bread samples Preparation :

The bread samples were prepared according to Badi et. al. (1978),modified
by (Department of Grain Technology in Food Research Center
sudan).Control sample (all-purpose wheat flour),teff flour was prepared by
adding teff flour in ratios of 0%,5%,10%,15%and 20%(w/w)each to bread
flour. Bread formula : Bread Flour 250 g
Yeast 2.5 g
Salt 3.0 g
Fat 5.0 g
Sugar 3%
Ascorbic acid 88 ppm
Water 170 ml
Salt, yeast, fat and ascorbic acid were added separately to flour and mixed
for 2 minutes into Hobert Mixer Model N50G. 170ml of water was added
gradually to mixture and mixed for 5 minutes . The dough was left to stand
for 15 minutes with nylon sheet covering, after which it was cut into(120 g)
pieces and left to stand for another 15 minutes . The dough was then placed
on small pans and transferred into an incubator for 45 minutes at 30oC and
85% relative humidity (second fermentation) . The pans were then put in the
Simon Rotary Test Baking oven at 450oF for 20 minutes.

42
3.2.5.2 Biscuits sample preparation :
The biscuits sample were prepared according to the modified method
reported by AlKhalifa (1998) . Control sample (special wheat flour),teff
flour was prepared by added teff flour in ratio of 0%,25%,50%,75%and
100% (w/w)each,to biscuits flour .Biscuit formulation is shown below :

Biscuits Flour 100 g

Sugar powder 30 g
Shortening 20 g
Skim milk powder 2 g
Sodium chloride 1 g
Sodium bicarbonate 0.3 g
Ammonium 1.5 g
bicarbonate
Glucose 2 g
Water 25 ml
L-cystein 0.015 g

3.2.5.2.1 Procedure :
Two hundred grams of flour were weighed, sugar powder, shortening
(substituted by fat), skim milk powder and glucose were creamed in Hobart
N-50 mixer with a wire beater for 8 min. salt, ammonium bicarbonate,
sodium bicarbonate and L-cysteine were dissolved separately in part of the
required water and added to the cream. Mixing was done for 3 min. till
homogenous cream was formed. Finally, flour sieved twice was added and
mixed for 1 min. The dough was sheeted to a thickness of 4 mm with the
help of two rulers placed at two sides of the dough . The sheeted dough was
cut into round shape using 4.985 mm diameter cutter(according to Awad,
2003). The cut dough was transferred to an aluminum tray. The biscuits
were baked in electric oven maintained at 200oC for (11 min.) . The baked
biscuits were cool for about (20min.) , packed in plastic bags and stored at
room temperature for further analysis.

43
3.2.6 Physical characteristics of loaf bread and biscuits
samples:
3.2.6.1 Loaf bread volume :
The loaf volume expressed in cubic centimeters was determined by the
seed displacement method according to Pyler (1973). The loaf was placed in
a container of known volume into which millet seeds were run until the
container is full. The volume of seeds displaced by the loaf was considered
as the loaf volume.

3.2.6.2 Loaf bread specific volume :

The specific volume of the loaf was calculated according to the AACC
(1986) by dividing volume of the loaf (cm3.) by its weight (g.).
3.2.6.3 Spread ratio:
The spread ratio for all samples of biscuits was calculated by using 6
pieces according to the following equation:

Diameter
Spread ratio =
Thickness

3.2.7 Sensory evaluation:

3.2.7.1 Panel test for bread samples (Hedonic scale)
3.2.7.1.1 Method :
Fourteen panelists from the Food Research Centre in Shambat carried
the test as prescribed in Appendix (2).
3.2.7.2 Panel test for biscuits samples (Hedonic scale)
3.2.7.2.2 Method :
Fourteen panelists from the University of Khartoum carried the test as
prescribed in Appendix (3).

44
3.2.8 Statistical analysis:
Replicates of each sample were analysed using statistical analysis system.
The analysis of variance was performed to examine the significant effect in
all parameters measured . Duncan’s multiple range test was used to separate
the means.

45
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 The chemical composition of teff [Eragrositis tef (ZUCC.)

Trotter.] flour :-
4.1.1 Moisture Content:
The moisture content of teff flour (i.e.whole-grains flour)is presented
in table(1),this result 8.7% is lower than the values which obtained by Lovis
(2003) who found that the moisture content of teff grains was 11%,while
the result obtained was comparble with Pearl millet values obtained by
Abdelrahman (2004) who reported that‚the moisture content of eight
cultivars of Pearl millet ranged from 7.7 to 8.9% , but it is higher than
wheat values obtained by Ahmed (1995) who reported that‚the moisture
content of Sudanese wheat cultivars ranged from 6.33 to 8.6% .
4.1.2 Ash content:
Ash content of teff flour is 2.56% , this result obtained here was been
found higher than the wheat values obtained by Bashir (2006) who reported
that, the ash content of whole and whit flours of three local wheat cultivars
ranged from 1.63-1.51% and 0.55-0.41% respectively . Also it is higher than
wheat values obtained by Abdelrahman (2005) who found that , the ash
content of whole – meal flour is 1.0% , but it is comparable with data
reported by Abdelrahman (2004) who reported that the ash content of Pearl
millet,Cultivars ranged from 1.6% for Dahabaya, 2.3% for Population
Ishambat.
4.1.3 Protein content:
Protein content of teff flour is presented in table (1) is 10.03%; this result
obtained was comparable with data reported by Bashir(2006) who found that
the protein content of whole flours and white flours of the three local

46
 Table (2): Chemical composition (%), energy (K.Cal/100g) ,test weight (Kg/hectoliter) and kernel weight
(g/1000kernel) of teff grains.

Test 1000
Moisture Ash Protein Fat Fiber
Carbohydrates Energy weight Kernel
content content content content content
weight

8.67 2.57 10.03 4.56 3.65 70.65 363.4 84.9 0.43

*All the results of proximate analysis as dry matter.

47
wheat cultivars ranged from 12.6 % to 16.1% and 10 .77% to 13.37%
respectively . This result is higher than values obtained by Lovis(2003)
who reported that the protein content of teff grains is 9.6% , while this
value is lower than values obtained by Abdelrahman (2004) who reported
that the protein content of Pearl millet cultivars ranged from 11.44% to
12.99% .
4.1.4 Fat content:
Fat content of teff flour is illustrated in table (1), is 4.34% this value
is higher than value obtained by Lovis(2003) who found that the fat content
of teff grains , sorghum grains , brown rice and wheat meal flour is 2%,
3.3%, 2.78% and 1.66% respectively, but comparable with data obtained by
Abdelrahman (2004) who reported that the oil content of Pearl millet is 4%
for (Kordofaini) and 7.7% for (Madelkawaya) .
4.1.5 Fiber content:
Fiber content of the investigated teff flour is presented in table (1) as
3.7% .The result is higher than the values obtained by Lovis(2003) who
reported that total dietary fiber of teff grains flour is 3%, and white rice
flour 2.4% but it is lower than brown rice flour (4.6%) values obtained by
Lovis (2003).The result is higher than wheat values obtained by
Bashir(2006) who found that the fiber content of whole and white flours of
the local cultivars of wheat ranged from 1.74% to 1.86% and 1.06% to
1.15% respectively .While this value agreed with values obtained by
Abdelrahman(2004) who reported that the fiber content of Pearl millet were
ranged from 2.1 to 3.2% .
4.1.6 Carbohydrates content:
Carbohydrates content of teff flour is presented in table (1), as 70.65% this
result is lower than the value obtained by Lovis(2003) who found that the
carbohydrates content of teff grains was 73.0%, while wheat flour gave
72.53%, sorghum was 74.6% and brown rice flour gave 76.48% . This

48
result is similar to pearl millet value obtained by Abdelrahman et.al.
(2005) who reported that the carbohydrates content of millet (Dahabaya)
was 70.67% .
4.1.7 Total energy content:
Energy for teff flour is illustrated in table(1) , as 363.4 Kcal/100g .
The result is higher than the value obtained by Lovis (2003) who found
that the energy of teff grain was 336 Kcal/100g .Whereas Mohmoud
(2003) found that the energy of Australian wheat flour was (352.8
Kcal/100g) . Result of teff flour is lower than sorghum value obtained by
Mohammed , (2003) who reported that the energy for sorghum
(Fakimustahi) flour was (379.7Kcal/100g) ,but comparable to data which
obtained by Lovis, (2003) who found that brown rice flour was
363.0Kcal/100g .
4.1.8 Physical criteria of teff grains for quality assessment:
4.1.8.1 Test weight:
Hectoliter weight of teff grains is shown in table(1) . The value was
(84.9 Kg/hectoliter), this result obtained was higher than the values
obtained by Bashir(2006) who found that the value of the local wheat’s
ranged between (82.1 and 83.8 Kg/hectoliter) . This is due to teff kernel
size being the smallest cereal grains so the density of teff grains was higher
than wheat grains .
4.1.8.2 kernel Wight:
Weight of 1000 kernels of teff grains is shown in table(1).Thousand
kernel Weight of teff grain was 0.43g ,this value obtained was lower than
the result obtained by Bashir (2006) who stated that the thousand kernel
weight of three local wheat cultivars ranged from 34.12g to 41.24g , this
is due to the kernel size of teff grain being very small .

49
4.1.9 Minerals content of teff flour and extractability:
Major and minor minerals content and their availability in teff flour
is illustrated in table(2) .The results showed that the values of major
minerals content are P content (1813 mg/ 100g) and the available is
(24.159%), Mg content (229.917mg/100g) and the available is (34.56%) ,
Na content was (925mg/100g) and the available was (5.405%) and K
content is(425mg/100g)and The available (8.824%) while Ca content
is(59.682mg/100g) and the available (7.423%). These results are higher
than the values obtained by Lovis(2003) who found that the teff grain had
170mg/100g , 378 mg/100g and 5.8 mg/100g for Mg and P content. P
content in teff flour which are higher than the values obtained by
Abdelrahman et.al.(2005) for pearl millet (Ashana cultivar ),1107mg
P/100g and the available 35% and for sorghum (Tabat) was (283mg
P/100g) and available (45%). The values of minor minerals content in teff
flour are Cu content (0.768 mg/100g) but the available is 73.997% ,Mn
content (4.609 mg/100g) and available (38.1197%) and Zn (5.584
mg/100g) and the available (28.305%) and the Fe content is (44.319
mg/100g) and available (2.89%). These results are slightly higher than the
values which were obtained by Lovis (2003)who found that the teff grain
had 0.7mg/100g , 2mg/100g and 5.8 mg/100g for Cu , Zn and Fe
respectively. These results are slightly higher than the values obtained by
Lovis (2003)who found that wheat flour had (0.182mg Cu /100g) , brown
rice flour had (0.23mg Cu /100g) and (0.00 mg Cu /100g) for sorghum , but
our results are comparable to data reported by Abdalla(1996) who found
that the Cu content in pearl millet ranged form (0.1 to1.8 mg/100g). The
high content of minerals in teff grains may be due to genentical or soil
conditions.

50
Table (2): Total and extractable minerals in teff flour.

Minerals Total of Extractable

mineral (%)
(mg/100g)
Na 925 5.405

K 425 8.824

Cu 0.768 73.997

Ca 59.682 7.423

Mg 229.917 34.56

P 1813 24.159

Fe 44.319 2.89

Zn 5.584 28..305

Mn 4.609 38.1197

51
4.1.10 Anti-nutritional factors of teff flour:

The results showed that teff flour has 0.6mg tannins/100g , 536.12mg phytic
acid/100g and 333.6mg polyphenols/100g .These results are lower than pearl
milet values obtained by Abdelrahman et.al.(2005) who reported that the phytic
acid content of Pearl Millet (Dahabaya) was (991.11mg/100g) , and higher than
sorghum result obtained by Badi (2004) who found that sorghum has (233.00
mg phytic acid/100g).The result showed that the polyphenol content of teff
flour is higher than other cereal results reported by Abdelrahman et.al.(2005)
for pearl millet (Ashana) which was (306.65 mg polyphenol/100g) and
sorghum (Tabat) which had (198.43 mg polyphenol/100g) .While the tannins
content of teff was lower than sorghum value obtained by Badi (2004) for
Sorghum (Tabat) which was 3.5mg/100g.

4.1.11 Amino acids profile:

The amino acids composition of teff flour is illustrated in table (3) and
Appendix (4) and Appendix (5) .The results obtained are higher than the
recommended levels for chidren by FAO/WHO/UN (1985).The highest value
of amino acids was shown by proline, alanine and leucinne while the lowest
value was by threonine and lysine. The lysine content of teff flour are higher
than sorghum values found by Dendy(1995) who studied the amino acids
composition of sorghum , regular and brown and regular cultivars and found
them ranged from 0.7 to 3.9 g/100g protein and brown cultivars ranged from
2.0 to 2.4 g/100 g protein .While the results showed the aspartic acid, leucine,
glutamic acid and alanine content of teff to be within the range from 2.8 to 10.1
g/100g protein , 7.8 to 24.9g/100g protein , 13.3 to36.1 g/100g protein of

52
 Table (3): Teff flour amino acids (aa) composition.

Teff flour Recommended levels*

Amino acids
(g aa/100g protien) (g aa/100g protien)
(g aa/100g protien)
Essential amino acids
(aa)
Phenylalanine 11.4 -
Histidine 6.4 1.40
Isoleucine 13.3 4.00
Leucine 18.3 7.00
Lysine 5.6 5.44
Methionine 9.1 3.52
Threonine 6.3 4.00
Tryptophan - 0.96
Valine 16.6 3.50
Non- essential amino
acids(aa)
Aspartic 9.9 -
Glutamic 21.6 -
Alanine 20.0 -
Argnine 11.3 -
Cystine 4.8 3.52
Glycine 3.4 -
Proline 22.4 -
Serine 7.0 -
Tyrosine 5.4 -
*Recommended levels for children FAO/WHO/UN (1985).

53
sorghum , respectively. This is due to the presence of the germ which
contains the best balance of amino acids. The embryo is about half or
more the length of the teff grain (Winton, and Winton, 1939) .
4.2 proximate analysis of composite flour (teff flour and all- purpose
wheat flour):
4.2.1 Moisture content:
The moisture content of the five blends is presented in table (4)
11.10%, 10.73%, 9.83%, 10.10% and 10,03% for control (bread
flour),5,10,15 and 20% teff flour respectively . Statistical analysis
revealed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their
moisture content but 15% and 20% teff flour showed no different
between their moisture content . These results are in agreement with data
reported by Abdelrahman(2005) who found that the moisture content of
all-purpose wheat flour was (10.7%) and whole wheat flour was (11.1%).
It is observed that the decrease in moisture content with the increase in
of teff flour percent, this may be due to the low moisture content of teff
flour .
4.2.2 Protein content:
The protein content of the five blends is illustrated in table (4). The
control (bread flour), 5, 10, 15 and 20% teff flour gave 11.80 and 11.67,
11.77, 11.43 and 11.10% respectively . The statistical analysis showed
that no significant difference in 0,5 and 10% teff flour but significant
difference in 15 and 20% teff flour (P≤0.05) in their protein content .
These results are lower than values obtained by Abdelrahman (2005) who
found that the protein of all-purpose wheat flour was 13.85% and whole
meal was 13.28% .

54
Table (4): Chemical composition (%) of all-purpose wheat flour with teff
flour.

Flour
blends Moisture content Ash content Protein content

A 11.10 (±0.10)a 0.802 (±0.001)e 11.80 (±0.17)a

B 10.73 (±0.12)b 0.993 (±0.001)d 11.67 (±0.12)a

C 9.83 (±0.12)d 1.153 (±0.002)c 11.77 (±0.0)a

D 10.10 (±0.10)c 1.280 (±0.001)b 11.43 (±0.12)b

E 10.03 (±0.11)c 1.470 (±0.001)a 11.10 (±0.10)c

Values are means (±SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P< 0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.
Where:
A : bread flour

B : 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

55
4.2. 3 Ash content:

The ash content of the five blends is illustrated in table (4).The control , 5,
10,15and 20% of teff flour gave 0.802 and 0.993, 1.153, 1.280 and 1.470%
respectively . The lowest value was shown by control, while the 20% of teff flour
gave the highest value .Generally analysis of variance showed significant
difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their ash content . This is due to the
high ash content in teff flour .These results are higher than the values reported by
Abdelrahman (2005)who reported that the ash content of all-purpose wheat flour to
be (o.627%) and whole wheat flour was 1.010% .

4.3 Proximate analysis of composite flour (teff flour and special wheat flour):
4.3.1 Moisture content:
The moisture content of the five blends is presented in table (5) . As 10.04%,
8.39%, 8.83%, 9.03% and 8.7% for control , 25 , 50 , 75 and 100% teff flour
respectively . Satistical analysis revealed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the
five blends in their moisture content. these results are lower than the values
reported by Abdelrahman (2005) for special wheat flour which was 10.1% and
11.1% moisture content for whole wheat flour .
4.3.2 Protein Content:

The protein content of the five blends is illustrated in table (5) .The control,
25, 50, 75 and 100% teff flour gave 11.87% , 11.50%, 10.77%, 10.10% and
10.03% respectively. The control gave the highest value but 100% of teff flour
gave the lowest Value. Generally analysis of variance showed highly
significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their protein content;
This is due to the low protein content of teff flour . These results are in
agreement with data reported by Abdelrahman(2005) who found that the
protein content of special wheat flour was 10.17% , lower than the whole
wheat our which was 13.28% of protein content .

56
 Table (5): Chemical composition (%) of special wheat with teff flours.

Flour Moisture content Ash content Protein content

blends

A-1 10.04 (±0.01)a 0.71 (±0.02)d 11.87 (±0.06)a

B-1 8.39 (±0.15) e 1.34 (±0.05)c 11.50 (±0.00)b

C-1 8.83 (±0.06)c 1.85 (±0.02)b 10.77 (±0.06)c

D-1 9.03 (±0.12)b 2.54 (±0.03)a 10.10 (±0.17)d

E-1 8. 7 (±0.1)d 2.57 (±0.03)a 10.03 (±0.21)e

Values are means (±SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P< 0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

Where:
A-1 : control biscuits flour

B-1 : 2 5% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

E-1 : 100% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

57
4.3.3 Ash content:

The ash content of five blends is illustrated in table (5) . The control
gave 0.71% but the other samples gave 1.34 , 1.85 , 2.54 and 2.57% for 25,
50, 75 and 100% of teff flour respectively. It is observed that control gave the
lowest value while 100% teff flour gave the highest value of ash content. The
analysis of variance showed significant difference(P≤0.05) among the five
blends in their ash content .This is due to the high ash content of teff flour.
These results are higher than the values which obtained by Abdelrahman
(2005) who reported that the ash content of special wheat flour 0.73% ,whole
wheat flour was 1.010%and 0.627% for all-purpose wheat flour.

4.4 Rheological properties of doughs prepared from wheat flour with teff
flour:

4.4.1 Farinograph test:

4.4.1.1 Farinograph of all-purpose wheat flour with teff flour :

The farinograph results of dough prepared from all-purpose wheat flour

with teff flour are presented in table (6) and Appendix(5-8).The water
absorption(%) of dough prepared from all-purpose wheat flour (control) , 5,
10, 15 and 20% teff flour bread were 63.0%, 65.1% , 65.9% , 64.9% and
64.4% respectively. The highest value of water absorption was observed in
10% teff flourbread whereas control gave the lowest value . These results are
within the range of 58.6% to 65.1% of Canadian flour reported by Inone et. al.
(1992). While these results are lower than the value obtained by
Abdelrahman, (2005) who reported that the water absorption of all-purpose
wheat flour was 68.9% .

58
Table (6): Farinograph results of bread flour with different ratio with teff
flour .

Softening
Water
Flour Development Stability time after12
absorption F.Q.N.
blends Time (min.) time(min.) min.
(%)
( F.U.)

A 63.0 5.3 8.8 72 98

B 65.1 5.3 5.9 131 77

C 65.9 5.3 5.5 138 74

D 64.9 4.3 5.2 146 68

E 64.4 3.8 4.8 169 59

Where:
A : control bread flour

B : 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

F.Q.N. : Farinograph Quality Number

59
 The development time (minute) is presented in table (7).The dough
prepared from all-purpose wheat flour (control) 5, 10, 15 and 20% teff flour
were (5.3, 5.3, 5.3, 4.3 and 3.8min.), respectively. It is observed that the
control and 5, 10% teff flour gave the highest value as (5.3min.), but 20% teff
flour gave the lowest value. These results are higher than what was obtained
by Abdelrahman (2005) who found that the development time of dough
prepared from all-purpose wheat flour was 4.8 min. , while these results lie
within the range 4.0 to 7.8 min. of three wheat cultivars reported by Bashir
(2006). The stablitiy of dough(min.) is presented in table (7).The dough
prepared from all-purpose wheat flour (control),5,10,15and 20% teff flour
gave 8.8, 5.9 ,5.5, 5.2 and 4.8min., respectively. The stability of dough
(minute)is presented in table (7)The dough prepared from all- purpose wheat
flour (control) 8.8min., but 5, 10, 15 and 20% teff flour. The highest stability
time of dough was given by control while 20% teff flour gave the lowest
stability time of dough . These results are in agreement with the range 2.71 to
17.8min., for the three wheat cultivars which were reported by Bashir, (2006).
The degree of softening after 12 minutes (F.U.) is presented in table (7).The
dough prepared from all- purpose wheat flour (control) 72 F.U., while 5, 10,
15 and 20% teff flour were given 131, 138, 149 and 169 F.U., it is observed
that the highest value was given by the control but 20% teff flour gave the
lowest value. These results were higher than the values found by Bashir
(2006) who reported that the degree of softening of three wheat cultivars
ranged 38 -95(F.U.) .The farinograph quality number for control 5 ,10,15and
20% teff flour with bread flour were 98, 77, 74 , 68 and 59, respectively. This
result indicates that the teff flour weakens the wheat flour dough .

60
4.4.1.2 Farinograph of special wheat flour with teff flour:

The farinograph results of dough prepared from special wheat flour with teff
flour are presented in table(7)and Appendix (7-10) .The water absorption(%) of
dough prepared from special wheat flour with (control) , 25, 50 and 75% teff flour
was (64.2 ,63.6 , 60.8 , 54.7%),respectively . The highest value of water
absorption was observed in control whereas 75% teff flour gave the lowest value
.These results are within the range of 58.6% to 65.1% for Canadian flour reported
by Inone et. al. (1992) , and higher than the value reported by Mahamoud (2003)
who found that the water absorption of the doughs prepared from Australlian
wheat flour with 20,40 ,60% of sorghum flour was 55.6, 51.1 and 48.6%
respectively.

The development time (minute) is presented in table (7) the dough prepared
from special wheat flour with (control), 25, 50 and 75 % teff flour gave (4.5, 3.8 ,
3.5and 17.0 min.) respectively .It is observed that the 75% teff flour gave the
highest value (17.0 min.), but 50% teff flour gave the lowest value . These results
were similar to the results obtained by Abdelrahman (2005) who found that the
development time of dough prepared from special wheat flour was (4.7 min.)and
within range (4.0 to 7.8 min.) of three wheat cultivars reported by
Bashir,(2006).These results are in general agreement with the findings of Anaka
and Tipples,(1979)who reported that the dough development time decreased in
the flour with low protein content.The stability of dough (minute)is presented in
table (8).The dough prepared from special wheat flour (control) with teff flour in
the following ratio 0,25, 50 and 75 % gave (7.2 ,4.4, 2.6 and 16.9 min.)
respectively,the highest stability time of dough was shown by 75% teff flour
while 50% teff flour gave the lowest stability time of dough .

61
 Table (7): Farinograph results of biscuits flour with different ratio with teff
flour .

Softening
Water
Development Stability time after 12
Flour absorption F.Q.N.
Time (min.) time(min.) min.
blends (%)
F.U.

A-1 64.2 4.5 7.2 73 86

B-1 63.6 3.8 4.4 147 61

C-1 60.8 3.5 2.6 189 50

D-1 54.7 17.0 16.9 449 200

Where:
A-1 : control biscuits flour

B-1 : 25% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

F.Q.N. : Farinograph Quality Number

62
These results are in agreement with the data reported by Bashir (2006)who found
that the stability of dough prepared from three wheat cultivars Canadi , Debiara
and Wadi Elneel was (17.8, 4.5and 4.0 min.), respectively .
The softening of dough after 12 minutes (F.U.) is presented in table (7). The
dough prepared from special wheat flour (control), 25, 50, 75% teff flour gave
(73,147, 189 and 449 F.U.), respectively . It is observed that the highest value
shown by the 75% teff flour while control gave the lowest value . These results are
higher than the values obtained by Bashir (2006) which reported that the degree of
dough softening(ICC)FU.,of three wheat cultivars Canadian,Debiara and Wadi
Elneel were 38 ,95 and 85 FU.,respectively. The highest farinograph quality
number for control, 25, 50 teff flour were 86, 61and 50 respectively,while 75% teff
flour biscuits gave 200.This is due to the low water absorption of 75% teff flour
dough .
4.4.2 Gluten quantity and quality:
4.4.2.1 Gluten quantity and quality of all-purpose wheat flour with teff flour:
The wet gluten percentages of control and four flour blends is presented in table
(8).The all-purpose wheat flour (control) gave 28.60% wet gluten while wheat
flour with 5 , 10, 15 and 20% teff flour gave 21.63%, 23.63%, 21.80% and 16.27%
wet gluten respectively . It is observed that wheat flour with 10% teff flour has the
highest value of wet gluten percentage than the blends with 5%, 15%and 20% of
teff flour. The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among
the five blends in their wet gluten percent but 5% and 15% teff flour showed that
there was no significant difference in their wet gluten (%) . These results are in
agreement with data reported by Ahmad (2005) who found that the wet gluten (%)
of wheat flour (Debeira) was 28.478% and wadi Elneel %22.272 .

63
 Table (8) : Gluten content (%) and gluten index(%)of teff flour and all -
purpose wheat flour blends.

Flour
blends Wet Gluten Dry Gluten Gluten index

A 28.60 (±0.763)a 10.83 (±0.058)a 82.50 (±2.014)a

B 21.63 (±0.611)c 10.58 (±0.416)b 64.38 (±1.393)c

C 23.63 (±0.513)b 10.30+(±0.1)c 71.26 (±1.798)b

D 21.80 (±0.4)c 10.02 (0.029)d 67.00 (±1.410)bc

E 16.27 (±1.50)d 9.73 (±0.058)e 52.04 (±4.243)d

Values are means (+ SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P≤0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

Where:
A : control bread flour

B : 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

64
 The dry gluten percentage of control and four flour blends is illustrated in
table (9). All-purpose wheat flour (control) gave 10.83% dry gluten while wheat
flour with 5 , 10 , 15 and 20% teff flour gave (10.58, 10. 30, 10.02 and 9.73%)dry
gluten, respectively .Generally analysis of variance showed significant difference
(P≤0.05)among the five blends in their dry gluten (%) .
The gluten index (%) of control and four blends is illustrated in table (8)and
fig.(1).The all-purpose wheat flour(control) gave 82.50% gluten index while wheat
flour with (5, 10, 15and 20%) of teff flour were gave 64.26, 71.26%, 67.00% and
52.04% gluten index, respectively. The highest value was obtained by the control
but wheat flour with 20% of teff flour gave the lowest value of gluten
index(%).Statistical analysis revealed highly significant difference (P≤0.05) among
the five blends in their gluten index . Bread flour with 10% teff flour has the
highest value of gluten index (%) compared with 5,15and 20% teff flour .These
results are higher than the results reported by Ahmad (2005) who found that the
gluten index (%)of wheat flour (Debeira) was 23.869% and (wadie Elneel)
54.661% .The gluten index of these results was slightly lower than 80% gluten
index the standard good quality of bread flour reported by (ICC. ,1992).
4.4.2.2 Gluten quantity and quality of special wheat flour with teff flour:
The wet gluten percentages of control and four flour blends is presented in
table (9).The special wheat flour (control) gave 25.6% while wheat flour with
25,50and 75% teff flour gave 10.93, 11.10 and 2.20 %wet gluten respectively. It is
observed that 50% teff flour is the highest value of wet gluten percentage
compared with 25,50and75% teff flour.Generally analysis of variance showed
significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their wet gluten percent
but 25% and 50% teff flour showed that their no significant different in their wet
gluten (%),these results present here are lower than the values reported by

65
Fig.(1) Effect of adding teff flour to bread flour on it is Gluten index .

90
80
70
Gluten index(%)

60
50
Series1
40
30
20
10
0
A1 2B C3C D4 E5

Where:

A : control bread flour

B: 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

66
Table (9) : Gluten content (%) and gluten index (%)of teff flour and special
wheat flour blends.

Flour
blends Wet Gluten Dry Gluten Gluten index

A-1 25.6 (±0.416)a 9.22 (±0.166)a 92.55 (±1.919)a

B-1 10.93 (±0.270)b 8.25 (±0.039)b 45.31 (±0.775)b

C-1 11.10 (±0.557)b 4.86 (±0.091)c 72.02 (±5.179)c

D-1 2.28 (±0.2)c 2.20 (±0.029)d 30.13 (±2.035)d

Values are means (+ SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P≤0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

Where:

A-1 : control biscuits flour

B-1 : 25% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

67
Ahmad(2005) who found that the wet gluten (%)of wheat flour (Debeira)was
28.478% and(wadie Elneel) was 22.272% .

The dry gluten percentages of control and four blends is illustrated in table
(9).The special wheat flour (control) gave 9.22% while wheat flour wtih 25, 50,
75% teff flour gave 8.25, 4.86, 2.28 % dry gluten, respectively. Generally analysis
of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their
dry gluten (%) .

The gluten index (%) of control and four blends is illustrated in table (9)and
fig.(2)thespecial wheat flour (control) gave 92.55% gluten index while wheat flour
with 25, 50, 75% teff flour gave 45.31%, 72.02% and 30.13 % gluten index
respectively .The highest value was obtained by the control but 75% of teff flour
gave the lowest value of gluten index (%) . The analysis revealed significant
difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends in their gluten index . It is observed that
50% of teff flour has the highest value of gluten index (%) than 25 ,50 and 75%
teff flour . These results are higher than the results reported by Ahmad (2005) who
found that the gluten index (%)of wheat flour (Debeira) was 23.869% and (wadie
Elneel) was 54.661% .The gluten index of these results was lower than
80%gluten index the standard good quality of bread flour ,reported by (ICC.
,1992).

68
Fig.( 2 ) Effect of adding teff flour to biscuits flour on it is Gluten index .

100

90

80

70
Gluten index(%)

60

50 Series1

40

30

20

10

0
A-1
1 B-1
2 C-1
3 D-1
4

Where:

A-1 : control biscuits flour

B-1: 25% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

69
4.4.3 Falling number(sec.):
4.4.3.1 Falling No (sec.) of all-purpose wheat flour with teff flour :
The falling No (sec.) expressed of the (activities alpha-amylase)of flour
The falling No results are presented in table (11).The all-purpoes wheat
flour(control) has 536(sec.),while wheat flour with 5,10,15and 20% teff
flour gave 588.00 , 624.33 ,750.67and 943.33(sec.) , respectively .The
highest value given by 20% teff flour (low alpha-amylase activity),but 5%
teff flour gave the lowest value (high alpha-amylase activity) .The analysis
showed significant difference (P≤0.05)among the five blends in their
alpha-amylase activity.These results are comparable with data reported by
Bashir (2006)who found that the falling No (sec.)of all-purpose wheat
flour is 582(sec.),but 10, 15 and 20% teff flour exhibited higher value(low
alpha- amylase activity Compared with 582(sec.) ,while these results
obtained were out of the range 397 to 482(sec.) reported by by Ahmad
(1995) for whole wheat flour (Sudanese wheat cultivars).
4.4.3.2 Falling No (sec.) of special wheat flour with teff flour :
The falling No results are presented in table (10).The all-purpoes wheat
flour(control) has 656(sec.),while wheat flour with 25,50and 75% teff flour
gave 739.33 , 807.00 and 915.00(sec.) , respectively. The highest value
given by 75% teff flour (low alpha-amylase activity),but control gave the
lowest value(high alpha-amylase activity).The analysis showed significant
difference (P≤0.05)among the five blends in their alpha-amylase activity.
These results are are higher than the value reported by Bashir (2006) who
found that the falling No (sec.) of special wheat flour is 554.00(sec.), while
these results obtained were out of the range 397 to 482(sec.) reported by by
Ahmad(1995) for whole wheat flour (Sudanese wheat cultivars).

70
 Table (10): Falling Number of bread and biscuits flours with teff flour.

Flours blends Falling No (sec.)

A 536.33(±15.05)e

B 588.00 (±4.60)d
Bread flour
(all purpose wheat C 624.33 (±12.66)c
flour)
D 750.67 (±10.6o)b

E 943.33 (±11.93)a

A-1 656.00(±9.54)d

B-1 739.33(±50.8)c
Biscuits flour
(special wheat flour) C-1 807.00(±13.5)b

D-1 915.00(±11.5)a

Where:
A : bread flour
A-1 : biscuits flour
B : 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour
B-1 : 25% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuitsflour
D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

Values are means (±SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly (P<
0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

71
4.5 Change of physical characteristics of bread and biscuits:
The physical characteristics of bread and biscuits which are made from
wheat flours with teff flour are presented in table (11),(12),fig.(3),(4) and plate (2)
and (4).

4.5.1 Loaf bread volume :

The volume of breads which are made from all-purpose wheat flour with teff
flour was shown in table (11) and plate (2) .The control , 5, 10, 15 and 20% teff
flour gave 391.67cm3.,while 430.00, 415.00, 400.00 and 381.00cm3., respectively.
The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five
blends in their volume, from these results it has been observed that 5% teff flour
bread gave the highest volume, while the control and 20% teff flour gave the
lowest volume of loaf bread . These results are comparable with data reported by
Bashir (2006) who showed that the volume of loaf bread made from whole wheat
flour is 328.33cm3.,and all-purpose wheat flour was 418.33cm3.While this results
are higher than the values which obtained by Eltoum (2004)who found that 5% of
Gongolase substitute of wheat flour while 343.3 cm3, while that result was lower
than 5% gudame substitute of wheat flour which gave 481.7cm3 as reported by
Eltoum (2004) .

4.5.2 Loaf bread weight:

The weight of breads which are made from all-purpose wheat flour with teff
flour are shown in table (11) .The control gave (107.50g.) While wheat flour with
5, 10, 15and 20% teff flour bread gave 106.70, 108.73, 110.23 g. and 108.93g.,
respectively.The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05)
among the five blends in their weight , it is observed that15% teff flour gave the
highest weight.

72
Table (11) Volume ,weight and specific volume of bread samples
containing teff flour with wheat flour.

Specific volume
Weight (g.) Volume(cm3)
Flour blends
(Cm3/g)

A 107.50 (±0.26)b 391.67 (±2.87)c d 3.65 (±0.03)c d

B 106.70 (±0.44)d 430.00(±13.4)a 4.03 (±0.13)a

C 108.73 (±0.60)c 415.00 (±5.00)b 3.82 (±0.07)b

D 110.23 (±0.25)a 400.00 (±8.66)c 3.63 (±0.11)c d

E 108.93 (±0.76)b 383.33 (±2.89)d 3.52 (±0.02)d

Values are means (±SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly (P< 0.05)
different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

Where:
A : control bread flour

B : 5% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

73
Plate(2): Loaf bread made from teff flour with all-purpose wheat flour.

Where:
A : Control bread flour

B : 5% teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% teff flour substitute of bread flour

74
Plate (4) Biscuits made from teff flour with special wheat flour

where:
A-1 : Control biscuits flour
B-1 : 25% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
C-1 : 50% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
D-1 : 75% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
E-1 : 100% teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

75
 Table (12): Thickness ,diameter and spread ratio of biscuits samples contain
teff flour with wheat flour.

Thickness (cm). Diameter (cm). Spread ratio

Flour blends

A-1 3.53 (±0.06)a 30.47 (±0.15)a 8.62 (±0.13)c

B-1 3.50 (±0.00)a 30.10 (±0.1)b 8.57 (±0.00 )c

C-1 3.23 (±0.06)b 29.53 (±0.06)c 9.14 (0.14 )b

D-1 3.00 (±0.00)d 29.17 (±0.06)d 9.64 (±0.16)b

E-1 3.10 (±0.00)c 29.13 (±0.06) d 9.38 (±0.02)a

Values are means (+ SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P≤0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.
Where:
A-1 : control biscuits flour
B-1 : 25% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
C-1 :50% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
D-1 : 75% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour
E-1 : 100% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

76
while the 5% teff flour gave the lowest weight of loaf bread . These results are in
agreement with data reported by Bashir (2006) who showed than the weight of loaf
bread made from whole wheat flour is 108.70g., and all-purpose wheat flour is
106.70g, while 15% showed higher weight than the pervious data.
4.5.3 Loaf bread specific volume :
The specific volume of breads which are made from all-purpose wheat flour
with teff flour are shown in table(11)and fig.(14).The control 5,10,15and 20% teff
flour gave (3.65, 4.03 ,3.82 , 3.63 and 3.52cm3/g.) specific volume,respectively.
The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five
blends in their specific volume, from these results it is observed that 5% teff flour
gave the highest specific volume, while the 20% teff flour gave the lowest specific
volume of loaf bread , but control and 15, 20% teff flour bread showed that there
are no significant difference .These results are higher than the values reported by
Bashir (2006) who showed that the specific volume of loaf bread made from whole
wheat flour is 3.91 cm3/g., and all-purpose wheat flour is 3.23 cm3/g.,also these
results are higher than the values which obtained by Eltoum(2004) who found that
5% of gongolase substitute of wheat flour 3.1 cm3/g. While these results are lower
than 5% gudeime substitute of wheat flour which gave 4.4 cm3/g. as reported by
Eltoum (2004). This may be due to the nutritional value of teff flour which raised
the yeast activity during fermentation.
4.5.4 Biscuits thickness and diameter :
The thickness and diameter of biscuits prepared from special wheat flour
with teff flour are illustrated in table (13) . The control gave 30.47 while 25, 50,75
and 100% teff flour gave 30.10, 29.53, 29.17, 29.13(cm.)dimeter, respectively, for
diameter.

77
Fig.( 3 ) Effect of adding teff flour to bread flour(all -purpoes wheat flour) on
their specific value cm3/g.

4.1

3.9
Specifice value cc/g

3.8

3.7
Series1
3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2
A1 B
2 C3 D
4 5E

Where:
A : control bread flour

B : 5% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

78
While the thickness of control 3.53 cm., and 25, 50, 75 and 100% teff flour gave
3.50, 3.23, 3.00 and 3.10 (cm.)thickness respectively . The control gave the
highest value of diameter while 100% teff flour gave the lowest value . The
analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five blends
in their thickness and diameter, while 75% and 100% exhibit their no different
between them on diameter, but control and 25% teff flour showed that their no
differ between them on thickness. These results are lower value on diameter and
thickness than the value which obtained by Bashir(2006) who the diameter of
biscuits made from special wheat flour (49.85 cm.) while its thickness (6.14cm.).
4.5.5 Biscuits spread ratio:

The spread ratio results of biscuits prepared from special wheat flour with
teff flour are illustrated in table(12)and fig.( 4).The control, 25,50,75and 100% teff
flour gave (8.62, 8.5, 9.14, 9.64 and 9.38) respectively. The 75% teff flour biscuits
gave the highest value of spread ratio while control and 25% teff flour gave the
lowest value. The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05)
among the five blends in their spread ratio, while 75% and 50% exhibit no
difference between them on spread ratio, but control and 25% teff flour showed
that there are no difference between them on spread ratio. These results are higher
than the values which obtained by Bashir(2006) who the spread ratio of biscuits
made from special wheat flour 8.12 .

79
Fig.( 4 ) Effect of adding teff flour to biscuits flour on their spread ratio.

9.8

9.6

9.4

9.2
spread ratio

9
Series1
8.8

8.6

8.4

8.2

8
A-1
1 B-1
2 C-1
3 D-1
4 E-1
5

Where:
A-1 : Control biscuits flour

B-1 : 25% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

C-1 :50% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

D-1 : 75% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

E-1 : 100% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

80
4.6 Organoleptic evaluation :
4.6.1 Loaf Bread :
The organoleptic evaluation values of loaf bread prepared from all-purpose
wheat flour with teff flour are shown in table (13) and plate (2).
4.6.1.1 Crust color :
The score of crust color of five bread samples is presented in table (13) and
plate (2) .The crust color score ranged between 8.9 and 1.6 .The highest value was
shown by control was (8.9 excellent) and 5% teff flour was (7.0 very good), while
the lowest value by 15 and 20% teff flour was (2.0 and 1.6 poor) respectively . The
analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five bread
samples in crust color,as notice in plate (2) 5% teff flour bread shows a well
developed brown color,beside good voulme .
4.6.1.2 Crumb color :
The score of crumb color of the five bread samples is presented in table (13)
and plate (2). The crumb color score preference ranged between 7.8 to 1.0 . The
highest value was given by control (7.8 excellent) but 5% teff flour gave (6.9 very
good),while the lowest value given by 20% teff flour was(1.0 poor).The analysis of
variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five bread samples in
crumb color.

4.61.3 Aroma :

The score of aroma preference ranged from 7.2 to 4.5 .The most preferred aroma
score was in bread made from 5% teff flour (7.2 very good), while the least
preferece was for 15% teff flour (4.5 good) .The analysis of variance showed
significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five bread samples in aroma . The
increment of teff flour percentage in bread (5, 10, 15and 20% teff flour) enhaned
the loaf bread flavor this is due to the distinctive flavor of teff flour liked by the
panelist.

81
Table(13): Sensory evaluation of loaf bread made from all-purpoes wheat
flour with teff flour .

Flour
Crust Crumb Over all
blendes Aroma Taste Texture
color color acceptance
A 8.9 a 7.8 a 6.5 a b 8.2a 8.8 a 8.1 a

B 7.0 b 6.9 b 7.2 a 8.9 a 7.9 b 6.7 b

C 4.3 c 4.1 c 6.7 ab 6.0 b 3.9 c 4.3 c

D 2.0 d 2.9 d 4.9 b 3.0 d 2.4 d 2.4 d

E 1.6 d 1.0 e 4.5 b 3.8 c 1.5d 1.0 e

Where:
A : Control bread flour

B : 5% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

C : 10% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

D : 15% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

E : 20% of teff flour substitute of bread flour

Values are means (+ SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly (P≤0.05)
different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

82
4.6.1.4 Taste :

The score of taste preference ranged between 8.9 and 3.8 the most
preferred taste was for bread made with 5% teff flour (8.9 excellent) while
control bread gained (8.2 excellent) .The least preferred bread taste was for
15% teff flour (3.0 fair).The analysis of variance showed significant
difference (P≤0.05) among the five bread samples in taste .
4.61.5 Texture :
The score of bread texture preference ranged between 8.8 and 1.5 .The
highest values were given by control (8.8 excellent) and 5% teff flour (7.9
excellent), while the lowest values were given by 15 and 20% teff flour bread
(2.4 and 1.5 poor).The analysis of variance showed significant difference
(P≤0.05) among the five bread samples in texture score . The addition of teff
flour to bread flour caused increase in volume pores of crumb, this is due the
increase yeast activity which may be caused by the high nutritive value of teff
flour (amino acids balance).
4.61.6 Over all acceptance :
The control and 5% teff flour breads gained the highest score of
acceptance (8.1 excellent) and (6.7 very good), respectively. While 10% of
teff flour gained a score of (4.3 good). Lowest acceptance score of bread was
for 15% and 20% teff flour (2.4 and 1.0 poor) respectively. The analysis of
variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in over all acceptance score
of the five bread samples control , 5 and 10% teff flour bread were highly
acceptable.The unacceptance of other samples may be due to their brown
color and unfamiliar taste.

83
4.6.2 Biscuits pieces:
The organoleptic evaluation values of biscuits pieces prepared from
special wheat flour with teff flour were shown in table (14) and plate (4).
4.6.2.1 Color :
The color score of five biscuits samples is presented in table (15) and
plate (4) The color preference score ranged between 9 and 1.8 . The highest
value was given by control (9 excellent) but 25% teff flour biscuits score (6.3
very good), while the lowest value given by 100% teff flour biscuits score was
(1.8 poor) . The analysis of variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in
the color score of the five biscuits samples , preferring the biscuits containing
25and 50% teff flour .
4.6.2.2 Aroma:
The aroma score of five biscuits samples is presented in table (14). The
aroma preference ranged between 6.9 to 5.8 . The highest value was given by
control and 50% teff flour biscuits (6.9 very good) and 25% teff flour (7.0
very good) , while the lowest value was given by 100% teff flour biscuits (5.8
very good). The analysis of variance showed significant difference in aroma
(P≤0.05) among the five biscuits samples . The increment of teff flour
percentage in biscuits (25, 50, 75 and 100% teff flour) enhaned the biscuits
flavor this is due to the distinctive flavor of teff flour liked by the panelists.
4.6.2.3 Texture:
The texture score of five biscuits samples is presented in table (14). The
texture preference score ranged between 6.8 and 5.0 . The highest value was
given by control (6.8 very good) ,25% and 50% teff flour biscuits (5.96 and
6.1 very good) respectively, while the lowest values were given by 100%
and75% teff flour (5.6 and 5.0 very good) respectively. The analysis of
variance showed significant difference (P≤0.05) among the five biscuits
sample in texture .

84
Table (14): Sensory evaluation of biscuits made from special wheat flour
with teff flour.

Flour
Over all
blends Color Aroma Taste Texture Mouth feel
acceptance
A-1 9.0 a 6.9 a 6.5 a 6.8 a 7.0a 8.0 a

B-1 6.3 b 7.0 a 6.0 a b 5.96 a b 6.3 b 7.2 b

C-1 4.3 c 6.7a 5.0 b 6.1ab 6.0 b 6.9 c

D-1 2.3 d 6.2 a b 4.9 b 5.6 ab 4.9 c 5.1 d

E-1 1 .8 d 5.8a b 2.4 c 5.0 ab 3.0 d 2.4 e

Where:
A-1 : Control biscuits flour

B-1 : 25% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

C-1 :50% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

D-1 : 75% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

E-1 : 100% of teff flour substitute of biscuits flour

Values are means (+ SD)

Means in a column not sharing a common superscript letter are significantly
(P≤0.05) different as assessed by Duncan’s multiple range test.

85
4.6.2.4 Mouth feel :
The mouth feel score of five biscuits samples is presented in table (14)
The mouth feel preference score ranged between 7.0 and 3.0 . The highest
value was given by control (7.0 very good), 25% and 50% teff flour (6.3 and
6.0 very good), respectively, while the lowest values were given by 100% teff
flour (3.0 fair) . The analysis of variance showed significant difference
(P≤0.05) in mouth feel score among the five biscuits samples.
4.6.2.5 Taste :
The taste score of five biscuits samples is presented in table (14) The
taste preference score ranged between 6.5 and 4.2 .The highest value was
shown by control and 25% teff flour (6.2 and 6.0 very good) respectively,
followed by, 50% and 75% teff flour (5.0 and 4.9 good), while the lowest
value was given by 100% teff flour(2.4 poor). The analysis of variance
showed significant difference in the taste score (P≤0.05) among the five
biscuits samples.
4.6.2.6 Over all acceptance :
The control gained the highest score of over all acceptance (9 excellent)
while 25% and 50% teff flour gained score of (7.2 and 6.9 very good),
respectively , lowest the acceptance score were for 75% and 100% teff flour
(5.1 good) and (2.4 poor) respectively.The analysis of variance showed
significant difference (P≤0.05) in over all acceptance scores among the five
biscuits samples,control,25 and 50% teff flour biscuits were highly acceptable
by the panelists .The unacceptance of other samples may be due to their dark
brown color,unfamiliar taste and besides their tough texture .

86
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCULSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions:
The following conclusions could be drawn from this study :

1/ Teff grains represent a good source of essential amino acids and

Phosphorus, Copper, Magnesium ,Sodium , dietary fiber and ash .

2/ The addition of teff flour to bread flour exhibited significant increase

(P≤0.05) in water absorption while the addition of teff flour to biscuits flour
exhibited significant decrease (P≤0.05) .

3/ The addition of teff flour to bread or biscuit flours exhibited significant

decrease (P≤0.05) in their gluten content and gluten index .

4/ The addition of teff flour to bread or biscuit flours showed significant

increase (P≤0.05) in their falling number (sec.) .

5/ 5% teff flour bread showed significant increasing (P≤0.05) in specific

volume of loaf bread , beside high preference observed by the panelists .

6/ 25% teff flour biscuits showed significant decrease (P≤0.05) in spread ratio
of biscuits, beside high preference observed by the panelists .
5.2 Recommendations:

1/ Teff flour had the highest lysine(which is the limited amino acid in cereals)
content than the other cereal grains,thus it enhances the nutritional value of
bread and biscuits flour .
2/ It is rocommened that up to 10% teff flour can be added to wheat flour to
make good bread and up to 50% teff flour can be added to wheat flour to
make acceeptale biscuits with good charactors.

87
3/ Teff flour could be used as flavoring agent and the grain for confectionery
decoration and as bread improving agent .
4/ Further studies are needed to determine the ascorbic acid(Vit.C)content in
teff flour .
5/ 100% teff flour biscuits could be used as replacement to wheat flour
biscuits for people who suffer from caelic disease .
6/ Further studies are needed to improve the quality of teff flour by
decortication and bleaching .
7/ To cook the teff flour or germinated the seeds to reduce phytate and tannins
to release the phosphorus and let the iron and other minerals to be available .
8/ Agronomies studies are needed to investigate growing teff in Sudan .

88
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 Appendices

Appendix. (1): Amino acid content of teff grain (g/16N) compared with other

cereals and the FAO /WHO (1973) pattern .

Pearl FAO/
Amino acid Teff Barely Maize Oats Rice Sorghum Wheat
millet WHO

Lysine 3.68 3.46 2.67 3.71 3.79 2.02 2.08 2.08 4.2

Isoleucine 4.00 3.58 3.68 3.78 3.81 3.92 3.68 3.09 4.2

Leucine 8.53 6.67 12.5 7.26 8.22 13.3 7.04 7.29 4.8

Valine 5.46 5.04 4.85 5.10 5.50 5.01 4.13 4.49 4.2

*Phen. 5.69 5.14 4.88 5.00 5.15 4.90 4.86 3.46 2.8

Tyrosine 3.84 3.10 3.82 3.30 3.49 2.67 2.32 1.41 2.8

Tryptophan 1.30 1.54 0.70 1.26 1.25 1.22 1.07 1.62 1.4

Threonine 4.32 3.31 3.60 3.31 3.90 3.02 2.69 2.50 2.8

Histidine 3.21 2.11 2.72 2.10 2.50 2.14 2.08 2,08 -

Arginine 5.15 4.72 4.19 6.29 8.26 3.07 3.54 3.54 -

Methionin 4.06 1.66 1.92 1.68 2.32 1.39 1.46 1.46 2.2

Cystine 2.50 - - - - - - - 2

*Phen= phenylalanine

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Appendix. (2): Sensory evaluation of bread samples (Hedonic scale) :
Please examine the following samples of bread in front of you, and give
values to attributes shown below.

No.of Crust Crumb Taste Aroma Texture Over all acceptance

Sample Color Color
A
B
C
D
E

Excellent 8-9
Very good 6-7.5
Good 4-5
Fair 2-3.9
Poor 1-2

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 Appendix. (3): Sensory evaluation of biscuits sample (Hedonic scale):
Please examine the following samples of biscuits in front of you, and give
values to attributes shown below.

No.of Color Aroma Taste Texture Mouth feel Overall acceptance

Sample
A-1
B-1
C-1
D-1
E-1

Excellent 8-9
Very good 6-7.5
Good 4-5
Fair 2-3.9
Poor 1-2

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 Appendxi.(4)

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106
Fig. (2) Farinogram of dough prepared from all-purpose wheat flour .

Fig.(3) Farinogram of dough prepared from 5% of teff flour with 95% all-
purpose wheat flour .

107
Fig.(4) Farinogram of dough prepared from 10% teff flour with 90% all-
purpose wheat flour

Fig.(5) Farinogram of dough prepared from 15% teff flour with 85% all-
purpose wheat flour.

108
Fig. (6) Farinogram of dough prepared from 20% teff flour with 80%all-
purpose wheat flour.

109
Fig.(7) Farinogram of dough prepared from special wheat flour.

Fig.(8) Farinogram of dough prepared from 25% teff flour with 75% special
wheat flour.

110
Fig. (9) Farinogram of dough prepared from 50% teff flour with 50% special
wheat flour.

Fig. (10) Farinogram of dough prepared from 75% teff flour with 25% special
wheat flour.

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