1st year Relativity - Notes on Lectures 6, 7 & 8

Lecture Six
1. Let us consider momentum
Both Galilean and relativistic mechanics define momentum to be:

p = mv and
X
pi = P = a constant
i

i.e. Total momentum in a system of interacting particles is conserved - has its

origin in Newton’s third law and it is a principle that holds both relativistically
and non-relativistically. Therefore we have conservation of momentum in special
relativity. However, as p → ∞ classically v → ∞ - not allowed in special relativity!
Therefore:
p = mf (v)v
where f (v) → 1 as v → 0 and must be dimensionless, f (v) can only depend upon
the magnitude of v and thus can only depend upon terms such as v 2 (and higher
even powers). Because it is dimensionless then it is reasonable to say f (v) ∼ v 2 /c2 .
Therefore
f (v) = f (v 2 /c2 ) or f (v) = f (γ)
In fact
1
f (v) = γ = q
1 − v 2 /c2
To get the identity f (v) = γ requires an analysis of collisions between equal mass
particles (see later). So we have:
mv
p = mγv = q
1 − v 2 /c2

m is the REST MASS and I will always use it as such to avoid confusion. Thus
Newton’s second law becomes:
dp d
F= = m (γv)
dt dt
dv
N.B. we now see that F and dt
no longer have to point in the same direction!
2. Force:
dp d
F = = m (γv)
dt dt
dγ
F = γma + mv
dt
dv
where a =
dt
so if a leads to a change of speed, dγ
dt
is finite. Therefore “force equals mass times
acceleration” is NOT valid in relativistic mechanics.
3. Motion of a particle in a field

felect = qE
fmag = qv ∧ B

The Lorentz force law for EM fields:

d
Ftotal = (γmv)
dt " #
d mv
= = q(E + v ∧ B)
dt (1 − v 2 /c2 ) 12

q must not depend upon v otherwise the hydrogen atom would not be neutral!
(confidence in this statement is at the 1 : 1020 level experimentally). Shown by
King (1960).
4. Motion in an electric field
Diagram is on viewgraph (p24 of Rosser fig 2.2). Form above
" #
d v qE
=
dt (1 − v 2 /c2 ) 12 m

Then integrate with respect to time to give:

" #v
v qE t
= [t]
(1 − v 2 /c2 )
1
2
0
m 0
q 2 E 2 t2
v 2 = (1 − v 2 /c2 )
m2
q 2 E 2 t2
v2 = ³
q 2 E 2 t2
´
m2 1 + m2 c2
qEt
v = ³ ´1
q 2 E 2 t2 2
m 1+ m2 c2

multiply top and bottom by mc/qEt to get:

c
v=³ ´1
m2 c2 2
1+ q 2 E 2 t2

m2 c2
If t is very big (long acceleration time in the field) then q 2 E 2 t2
¿ 1 and v → c
(although always less than c).
In Newtonian mechanics,
f qE
a = =
m m
qEt
v = at =
m
v → ∞ as t → ∞
 qEt qEt
from above if mc
¿ 1 then v ≈ m
as required.
This was confirmed experimentally by Bertozzi (1964). A van der Graaf accelerator
was used to accelerate electrons to 1.5MeV and then to 15MeV using a linac [French
p7 - p9]. Times of flight over 8.4m were measured. For the speed of light, t =
28ns. tpulse = 3ns, therefore time of flight is long compared to the pulse width [see
viewgraph].

5. What about x?
dx qEt
v= = ³ ´1
dt q 2 E 2 t2 2
m 1+ m2 c2

If at x = 0, t = 0 then, Z x Z t
qEt dt
dx = ³ ´1
0 0 q 2 E 2 t2 2
m 1+ m2 c2

this can be integrated by the substitution w = 1 + q 2 E 2 t2 /m2 c2 giving (do this as

an exercise) Ã 
!1
2 2 2 2 2
mc  q E t
x= 1+ − 1
qE m2 c2

1 qEt2
From Newton x = 12 at2 = 2 m
expand the above equation for x using the Binomial
theorem:
à !
mc2 1 q 2 E 2 t2
x ≈ 1+ + ... − 1
qE 2 m2 c2
1 qEt2
≈
2 m

The above approximation is OK for v < 3000kmh−1 .

6. What about B fields?

Here |v| is a constant because:

Work done = W = f .dl

dW dl
then = f . = f .v
dt dt
f = qv ∧ B
dW
= qv.v ∧ B ≡0
dt

Therefore the kinetic energy is constant, |v| is constant, thus

d dv
f = (γmv) = γm = qv ∧ B
dt dt
qvB
acceleration a =
γm
v2 qvB
but a = =
r γm
 γmv
r =
qB
p = γmv = qBr

and the period is given by

2πr 2πγm
T = =
v qB
then we have an expression for the Larmor frequency ω L :
qB
ωL =
γm

7. Transformation of Velocity ****THIS IS NOT REQUIRED FOR PRELIMS****

Consider two inertial frames S and S 0 , where S 0 is moving at a constant relative
speed v with respect to S along their mutual x axes. Then we have
dx
In S, u =
dt
dx0
In S 0 , u0 =
dt0

8. Then applying the Lorentz transformations gives

x0 = γ(x − βct) y0 = y
ct0 = γ(ct − βx) z0 = z
dx0 dx0 dt
u0x = =
dtÃ0 dt !dt0
0
dx dx
= γ − v = γ(ux − v)
dt dt
à !
dt0 dx v
= γ 1−
dt dt c2

division gives
ux − v
u0x =
(1 − ux v/c2 )
if we now look at the y components we get
uy
u0y =
γ(1 − ux v/c2 )

and similarly for u0z . Thus even for relative motion of the inertial frames along x
alone, u0x , u0y and u0z are ALL changed.

9. If u0y and u0z are not simple transformations then is there some set of quantities
which does transform more like x and ct?

10. Momentum – from above if we stick to mv as p then conservation of momentum

becomes FRAME DEPENDENT.
11. As an example consider the viewgraph showing the collision of two particles.
Consider an elastic collision between two equal mass particles from the point of
view of two inertial frames S and S 0 . S is the centre of mass frame and thus both
particles approach each other with equal and opposite velocities.

Before After
v1 = (−vx , −vy ) v1 = (−vx , vy )
v2 = (vx , vy ) v2 = (vx , −vy )

the y component of velocity is reversed in the collision. In S 0 , which has a velocity

vx along Ox with respect to S, particle 2 has no component of velocity vx .
Before After
v1 = (−v1x , −v1y ) v10 = (−v1x
0 0 0 0 0
, v1y )
0 0 0 0
v2 = (0, v2y ) v2 = (0, −v2y )
We can now use the transformation of velocities to relate vy and vy0 .
0 vy
v1y =
γ(1 + vx2 /c2 )
0 vy
v2y =
γ(1 − vx2 /c2 )

but the masses are the same, so the momentum in the y 0 direction is not conserved in
S 0 if it is in S. The problem is that time is NOT an invariant, we need PROPER
TIME:
τ = t/γ or t = γτ
where τ is the proper time. In the particle’s rest frame γ = 1 so t = τ . This leads
us to a definition of the relativistic velocity of the form:
dx dx dt dx
V= = = γ(v)
dτ dt dτ dt
we then have a definition for relativistic momentum of the form:
P = mV = γ(v)mv

Does this fix the conservation of momentum problem above? - YES.

dy dy 0
In S: py = m In S 0 : p0y = m
dτ dτ
But m is constant and τ an invariant so if y = y 0 then py = p0y . Therefore if
momentum is conserved in y direction in S it will remain so in S 0 .
12. What happens to px ?
dx0
p0x = m but x0 = γ(x − βct)
dτ Ã !
dx dt
p0x = mγ(v) − β(v)c
dτ dτ
p0x = γ(v) (px − mβ(v)cγ (u))
 This is nearer our goal of a Lorentz transformation but the second term above is
still a problem - we need the energy!
13. Relativistic Energy
The relativistic force is given by:
dp
Frel =
dt
Then the work done W is: Z
W = F.dx

To bring a particle at rest at t = 0 to a speed v at time t we have

Z Z t Z t
dx
W = F dx = F dt = F vdt
0 dt 0
dp d
Fv = v = vm (γv)
dt dt
dγ dv
= mv 2 + mγv
dt dt
The first term contains
à !
dγ d ³ ´− 1 1³ ´− 3 −2 dv
= 1 − v 2 /c2 2 = − 1 − v 2 /c2 2 v
dt dt 2 c2 dt
3
γ dv
= 2v (a)
c dt à !
Z t" 2
#
3 v dv
W = mγ 2
+ mγ v dt
0 c dt

The factor in square brackets in this expression is:

"Ã ! # " # " #
v2 2 v 2 /c2 1
mγ 2
γ + 1 = mγ 2 2
+ 1 = mγ 2 2
= mγ 3
c 1 − (v /c ) 1 − v /c

Thus the integrand is mγ 3 v dv

dt
, but from (a),
dv dγ
mγ 3 v = mc2
dt dt
Z t Z γ=γ
dγ
W = mc2
dt = mc2 dγ 0
0 dt γ=1
" #
2 2 1
W = mc (γ − 1) = mc 1 − 1
(1 − v 2 /c2 ) 2

This is the expression for the Relativistic Kinetic Energy.

14. What happens as v/c → 0? For small v 2 /c2 ,
1
(1 − v 2 /c2 ) 2 ≈ 1 − v 2 /2c2
v2 1
W = mc2 . 2 = mv 2 !
2c 2
15. An Invariant

p = γmv
pc = γmvc

Now DEFINE E = W + mc2 = γmc2 . Then consider E 2 − (pc)2 :

E 2 − (pc)2 = (mc2 )2 γ 2 − (mc)2 γ 2 v 2

= (mc)2 γ 2 (c2 − v 2 )
1 c2
But γ 2 = =
1 − v 2 /c2 c2 − v 2
E 2 − (pc)2 = m2 c4 INVARIANT

Lecture Seven
16. Let’s recap the results of the last lecture:

E 2 − p2 c2 = m2 c4 INVARIANT
p2 c2 − E 2 = −m2 c4
c.f. x2 − c2 t2 = −c2 τ 2 INVARIANT

When v = 0, γ = 1 and W = 0, therefore

E = mc2

This is the REST ENERGY of the particle.

17. Transformation of E and p
From above
p0x = γ(v) (px − mβ(v)cγ (u))

The extra bit is now recognisable as E/c. Therefore

p0x = γ(px − βE/c)

and E 0 = γ(E − βpx c)

Thus we can now write the transformation of relativistic momentum and energy in
special relativity as:

p0x = γ(px − βE/c)

p0y = py
p0z = pz
E 0 /c = γ(E/c − βpx )

This is just the same Lorentz transformation as for (x, t, x0 , t0 ). So in general we

can write:
Xµ0 = Lµν Xν
 where X is a 4-vector and Lµν is the Lorentz transformation matrix. Thus quite
generally:

xµ = (x, y, z, ict)
pµ = (px , py , pz , iE/c)
 
γ 0 0 iβγ
 0 1 0 0 
Lµν = 



 0 0 1 0 
−iβγ 0 0 γ

18. What about velocity?

If you remember the transformation of velocity discussion in lecture 6 (NOT ON
SYLLABUS!) then you will, I hope, see that we can now define a 4-velocity as:
dxµ
Uµ = = γ (u) (u, ic)
dτ

Then
Uµ0 = Lµν Uν

or in the full, expanded form (NOT ON SYLLABUS!),

    
u0x γ 0 0 iβγ ux
 u0y   0 1 0 0   u 
γ(u0 ) 

 
=
 y


 γ(u)
 u0z   0 0 1 0   uz 
ic −iβγ 0 0 γ ic

which will lead to the transformation of velocity derived earlier - as an exercise

for the brave expand the above to recover the transformation equations derived in
lecture 6, note that the ic term lets you eliminate γ(u0 ).

19. Therefore we have for momentum

pµ = mUµ = mγ(v)(v, ic)

imc
p4 = imcγ(v) = 1
(1 − v 2 /c2 ) 2

expanding gives à !
v2
p4 ≈ imc 1 + 2 + . . .
2c
or à !
mv 2
2
p4 c ≈ i mc + + . . . = iE
2

20. I hope that from the above you can now see that it is the ENERGY and the
MOMENTUM and not the velocity that are the natural quantities to use in
relativistic kinematics. Conservation of energy and momentum holds so that in a
P P
closed system (no external forces) Ei and pi are CONSERVED.
21. The relevance of Erest = mc2
This is an amazing result, starting from a re-examination of ideas of space, time
and simultaneity we now find that mass and energy are in some sense INTER-
CHANGEABLE. Because c2 is so big, small mass changes release huge amounts
of energy e.g. fission and fusion.
22. Zero mass particles
If m = 0 then E = pc. Thus radiation (photons) have an associated momentum -
already proven by Maxwell (whose equations are, of course, correct relativistically).
Thus all massless particles must travel at the speed of light.
23. Relativistic Kinematics
Particle physicists don’t like c! They use units more suited to collisions involving
sub-atomic particles. Everything is measured in terms of energy in MeV or GeV.
1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
1MeV = 106 eV, 1GeV = 109 eV, 1TeV = 1012 eV

We have E 2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4 thus we say that mass is measured in units of MeV/c2 ,

and that momentum is measured in units of MeV/c. This gives
E 2 = p2 + m2

24. There is an important, and useful, limit to the above equations. In particle physics
β ≈ 1 in many cases. If this is the case then γ becomes the important quantity and
the relations for E and p are:
E = γmc2 |p| = γmcβ
E |p|c
γ = β=
mc2 E
m always refers to the rest mass quantity. Thus in particle physics units,
E |p|
γ= β= and tpart = γτ part = Eτ part /m
m E
25. Centre of Mass and Centre of Momentum Frame
The C of M frame is convenient in both non-relativistic and relativistic mechanics.
To transform to the C of M of a system of particles we need to find the velocity of
the C of M in terms of Ei and pi for the particle in an arbitrary frame. For a single
particle we know that E 2 −p2 c2 is an invariant. Because the Lorentz transformation
is linear it is straightforward to show that
à !2 à !2
X X
A= Ei − pi c
i i
P
is also invariant for a group of particles. In the C of M frame, by definition i pi = 0.
So in C of M frame à ! 2
X
A= Ei∗ = (Ecm )2
i
 where Ei∗ is the energy of the ith particle in that frame. Then, by analogy with the
single particle case P
Ei
γ CM = i
Ecm
and P
| pi c|
β CM = Pi
i Ei

where β CM is the velocity of the centre of mass of the particles in the frame in which
the momenta and energies are pi , Ei , and Ecm is the total energy of those particles
in the C of M frame.

26. Threshold Energies

Because E and m are interchangeable we can “create” particles out of energy. This
energy is usually provided by colliding other, stable, particles such as protons,
electrons, etc. Suppose I have a proton beam and a hydrogen target and I want to
make a pp̄ pair - what is the minimum energy that the proton beam must have?

p + p → p + p + (p + p̄)

In the C of M frame, the question is easy, Ecm must be just big enough to make 4
proton masses
Ecm = 4mp c2
2
But A = Ecm is an invariant and therefore we must have same value in the LAB
frame in which there are only two protons, one at rest. Thus in the LAB frame:

a b

EaL , p mpc2
and

A = (EaL + mp c2 )2 − (pc)2
= (EaL )2 − (pc)2 + 2mp c2 EaL + (mp c2 )2

but

(EaL )2 − (pc)2 = (mp c2 )2 (invariants again)

A = 2mp c2 (mp c2 + EaL )

but

Athreshold = (Ecm )2 = (4mp c2 )2

16(mp c2 )2 = 2mp c2 (mp c2 + EaL )
8(mp c2 ) = (mp c2 + EaL )
EaL = 7mp c2
 or, the kinetic energy of the proton beam must be

TaL = EaL − mp c2 = 6mp c2

Note – by the use of invariants we have NOT needed Lorentz transformations in

this problem.

27. General point about 2 body collisions

A particle of mass m1 collides with a particle of mass m2 at rest, m1 has energy
and momentum given by p1 , E1 . What is Ecm , vcm ?
p1
β cm =
E 1 + m2
A = (Ecm )2 = (E1 + m2 )2 − p21
1
Ecm = (m21 + m22 + 2m2 E1 ) 2

1
Therefore the available energy for creating particles increases only as E 2 when
working with a stationary target. This is the reason that colliding beam accelerators
are used.

28. Two Body Decay

(a) Decay of a stationary particle:

a E*a
b X q
*
Eb -q
In the rest frame of the parent particle (equivalent to the C of M frame of the decay
products)
X →a+b

Decay products must have equal and opposite momenta q ∗ . What are the energies
∗
Ea,b ?
Conservation of Energy
mX c2 = Ea∗ + Eb∗ (1)

and

m2a c4 = Ea∗2 − (qc)2 (2)

m2b c4 = Eb∗2 − (qc)2 (3)

subtract equation 3 from equation 2 to give

³ ´
m2a − m2b c4 = Ea∗2 − Eb∗2 (4)
 Divide 4 by 1 to give
(m2a − m2b ) c2
= Ea∗ − Eb∗ (5)
mX
finally, add or subtract 5 to/from 1 and get
(m2X + m2a − m2b )c2
Ea∗ =
2mX
(mX + m2b − m2a )c2
2
Eb∗ =
2mX

from 2 we can then recover |qc| (exercise for the reader!) to give the final result (in
particle physics units)
m4X + m4a + m4b − 2m2X m2a − 2m2X m2b − 2m2a m2b
q2 =
4m2X
q q
mX = q2 + m2a + q 2 + m2b

Thus everything apart from the direction of q is fixed in terms of the particle masses.

Lecture Eight
29. Two Body Decay
(b) Decay of moving particle:
In the LAB system we need to use the Lorentz transformations explicitly. Suppose
particle X has energy and momentum EX and pX , take pX along OX .

E*a q*
pa
Ea
pX , EX qa q*

X qb
Eb Eb*
-q*
pb
LAB C of M
N.B. – the β and γ for the Lorentz transformations are those of particle X, so
EX
γX =
mX c2
|pX |c
βX =
EX

Since we want a Lorentz transformation from the rest frame of X to the LAB
frame, we use the inverse transform. In this way we can use results derived in the
rest frame. The energy is given by
Ea = γ X (Ea∗ + β X q ∗ c cos θ∗ )
 and similarly for Eb . From this relation we see that Ea varies between two limits,
θ∗ = 0 (max) and θ∗ = π (min). Therefore
γ X (Ea∗ − β X q ∗ c) ≤ Ea ≤ γ X (Ea∗ + β X q ∗ c)

These cases correspond to a along the line of flight of X.

Now lets look at the angles θa and θb . The component of p along OX is:
pa cos θa = γ X (q ∗ cos θ∗ + β X Ea∗ /c)
pa sin θa = q ∗ sin θ∗

The solution is now straightforward, if messy, remembering that we also have

pb cos θb = γ X (−q ∗ cos θ∗ + β X Eb∗ /c)
pb sin θb = q ∗ sin θ∗

If you want to follow this derivation in detail see “Lectures on Special Relativity”
by M.G. Bowler.
I’ll take a special example at this point, π 0 → 2γ. Since γ is massless, E ∗ = q ∗ c,
we can use this and take the ratio of the angular equations above:
sin θ∗
tan θa =
γ X (cos θ∗ + β X )
sin θ∗
tan θb =
γ X (− cos θ∗ + β X )
taking these two together we get
2β X γ X sin θ∗
tan(θa + θb ) =
(γ 2X − 1) sin2 θ∗ − 1
Thus in this decay in the LAB frame we get a range of opening angles which can
be obtained by varying θ∗ between π/2 and π (one γ must go backwards)
30. Photons
hc
E = hν = (mrest = 0)
λ
|p|c = E or p = E/c

as we have seen before, photons are the ultimate relativistic particle.

31. Compton Scattering
This is the scattering of photons by electrons. Apart from being an important
process itself, it was also historically important in confirming the quantum theory
of light and providing very accurate tests of the relativistic velocity - momentum
relation. Let’s work in the LAB frame in which an incoming photon of frequency
ν scatters from a stationary electron. A scattered photon is produced of frequency
ν 0 at an angle θ relative to the incoming photon direction
γ+e→γ+e
 ν

ν
θ

E = hν, E 0 = hν 0 , E 2 = (p0 c)2 + (mc2 )2

Now we conserve energy and momentum to give

E + mc2 = E0 + E (6)
q = q 0 + p0
p0 = q − q0
(p0 c)2 = (qc)2 + (q 0 c)2 − 2q.q0 c2

However, Ephoton = pphoton c and so

(p0 c)2 = E 2 + E 02 − 2EE 0 cos θ

= E 2 − (mc2 )2 (7)

We can use 6 to eliminate E,

E = E − E 0 + mc2
(E − E 0 + mc2 )2 − (mc2 )2 = E 2 + E 02 − 2EE 0 cos θ
(E − E 0 )2 + 2(E − E 0 )mc2 = −2EE 0 cos θ + E 2 + E 02
−2EE 0 + 2(E − E 0 )mc2 = −2EE 0 cos θ
mc2 (E − E 0 ) = EE 0 (1 − cos θ) (8)

But we know that E = hν = hc/λ and that E 0 = hc/λ0 , therefore

hνν 0
ν − ν0 = (1 − cos θ)
mc2
h
λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ)
mc

This is the expression for the change in wavelength of the scattered photon.

32. We can also find the energy and angle of the recoil electron. Rewriting 6,

E − mc2 = E − E 0
the left hand side is the kinetic energy of the electron. Rearranging 8 to give E 0 in
terms of E and θ:

E 0 [E(1 − cos θ) + mc2 ] = Emc2

Emc2
E0 = (9)
E(1 − cos θ) + mc2

We can therefore write the kinetic energy Te as

Emc2
Te = E − E 0 = E −
E(1 − cos θ) + mc2
E 2 (1 − cos θ)
Te =
E(1 − cos θ) + mc2

This is a maximum when θ = π (photon is back-scattered) then:

2E 2
Te =
2E + mc2

We can get the angle of scattering by considering the conservation of momentum

q = E/c
q = q 0 cos θ + p0 cos φ
E = E 0 cos θ + p0 c cos φ (px ) (10)
0 = E 0 sin θ − p0 c sin φ (py ) (11)

thus from 11 we have

E 0 sin θ
p0 c =
sin φ
If we now substitute this into 10 we have

E = E 0 (cos θ + sin θ cot φ)

using equation 9 we can write

E
E0 = E
mc2
(1 − cos θ) + 1
cos θ + sin θ cot φ
1 = E
mc2
(1 − cos θ) + 1
E
(1 − cos θ) + 1 = cos θ + sin θ cot φ
mc2 µ ¶ µ ¶
E E
+ 1 = cos θ + 1 + sin θ cot φ
mc2 mc2
 at this point I’ll introduce a trick, let a = (E/mc2 + 1) and t = tan θ/2 so that
(using a trig. formula from the SMP tables)
2t
sin θ =
1 + t2
1 − t2
cos θ =
1 + t2
(1 − t2 ) 2t cot φ
a = a +
(1 + t2 ) (1 + t2 )
a(1 + t2 ) = a − at2 + 2t cot φ
2at2 = 2t cot φ
cot φ = at
µ ¶
E
cot φ = + 1 tan θ/2
mc2

33. Recoil shifts in emission and absorption of radiation

For an atom or nucleus, let the excitation energy be E0 and the ground state rest
mass energy be mc2 . Define

m∗ c2 = E0 + mc2
 




  
(a) Emission – Atom/nucleus in an excited state decays at rest
A∗ → A + γ

Since A recoils, E0 is not the energy of the emitted γ! What is the difference? As
in a 2-body decay
Energy m∗ c2 = EA + Eγ (12)

The momenta are the same, therefore

(mc2 )2 = EA2 − (pc)2

and 0 = Eγ2 − (pc)2 ⇒ Eγ2 = (pc)2
EA2 = Eγ2 + (mc2 )2 (13)

Eliminate EA using 12 13 to give

(m∗ c2 − Eγ )2 = Eγ2 + (mc2 )2
(m∗ c2 )2 − 2m∗ c2 Eγ = (mc2 )2
(m∗ c2 )2 − (mc2 )2
Eγ =
2m∗ c2
 But, from energy level diagram,

mc2 = m∗ c2 − E0
(m∗ c2 )2 − (m∗ c2 − E0 )2
Eγ =
2m∗ c2
E02
Eγ = E0 −
2m∗ c2

(b) Absorption – Ground state A at rest, absorbs photon of energy Eγ0 to produce
and excite state A∗ which recoils
 

γ 

γ




Eγ0 + mc2 = E ∗
E0 + mc2 = m∗ c2

The momentum of A∗ equals that of the γ so

2
E ∗ = Eγ02 + (m∗ c2 )2

eliminate E ∗ to give

(Eγ0 + mc2 )2 = Eγ02 + (E0 + mc2 )2

2Eγ0 mc2 = E02 + 2E0 mc2
E02
Eγ0 = E0 +
2mc2

For most nuclei and atoms the difference between m and m∗ can be ignored. This
is not so for sub-nuclear particles. The shifts for atoms and nuclei are small and are
generally unimportant for atoms, but are relatively more important for nuclei. The
criterion is the size of the shift (E02 /2mc2 ) compared to the “natural” line width
obtained from quantum mechanical considerations:

h̄
Γ∼ τ = lifetime
τ

34. Mössbauer ‘recoilless’ spectroscopy

Consider the radioactive decay detailed below
57 57 ∗
27 Co → 26 Fe (excited state) + e+ + ν e
57 ∗ 57
26 Fe → 26 Fe + γ (14.4 keV)
∆ν ³57 ´
Fe = 6 × 10−13
ν 26

(Pound and Rebeka, PRL 3, 439-441 (1959))

The linewidth of the emitted γ is extremely small. Therefore in this special case
we have the opportunity to measure the relativistic correction. From above, for
emission:
µ ¶
E0
Eγ = E0 1 −
2m∗ c2
∆E E0 −14.4 × 10−3
= − ∗ 2 = = −1.4 × 10−7
E 2m c 2 × 938 · 3 × 57

Thus the effect is easily seen.

In 1958 R.L. Mössbauer, aged 29, showed that when radioactive nuclei embedded
in a solid emit γ-rays, many fail to recoil as free atoms. Instead they behave as if
locked rigidly to the rest of the solid. The recoil is then communicated to the solid
as a whole, thus giving an effective m∗ many orders of magnitude bigger than that
of the nucleus alone (mass of the crystal). Thus ∆E ≈ 0 and we have a so called
“recoilless” process. For example assume that the mass of the crystal is 1g, then

∆E E0 −14.4 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19

=− ∗ 2 = −3 8
= 3.8 × 10−21
E 2m c 2 × 10 × 3 × 10

The Mössbauer effect has been used to test relativity as it gives an extremely precise
tool with which to measure any energy shifts. Some of these are detailed below
(a) Doppler effect test using resonant scattering (one moving Fe source and one
stationary Fe absorber).
(b) Tests of the gravitational red shift - Pound and Snider, Phys. Rev. 140,
B788-803 (1965), PRL 4, 337-341 (1960).
(c) Test of the twins paradox using the thermal motion of Fe nuclei at different
temperatures, PRL 4, 274-275 (1960).