CHAPTER 1 Nervous System

Human Body - Fast-acting control system

- Sensory receptors detects changes in
Overview of Anatomy & Physiology temperature, pressure or light & send messages
to the CNS
Anatomy
- Study of structure & shape of the body Endocrine System
- Gross anatomy; large, easily observable - Controls body activities
structures - Slow-acting control system
- Microscopic anatomy; too small to be seen
with the naked eye Cardiovascular System
- Delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones &
Physiology other substances to, and picks up wastes such as
- Study of how body & its parts work or carbon dioxide from cells, near sites of
functions exchange

Relationship between Anatomy& Physiology Lymphatic System

- Structure determines what functions can take
place
Levels of Structural Organization
From Atoms to Organisms
- Chemical level; atoms combine to form
molecules; simplest
- Cellular level; cells are made up of molecules
- Tissue level; tissues consist of similar types
of cells
- Organ level; organs are made up of different
types of tissues
- Organ system level; is a group of organs that
work together to accomplish a common purpose
- Organismal level; sum of total of all
structural levels working together to keep us
alive
- Lymphatic vessels returns to the bloodstream
so that there is enough blood to continuously
circulate through the body
- It helps to cleanse the blood & house white
blood cells involved in immunity
Respiratory System
- Keep the body supplied with oxygen & to
remove carbon dioxide
Digestive System
- Breaks down food & deliver the resulting
nutrients to the blood for dispersal to body cells
Urinary System
- Removes the nitrogen-containing wastes
from the blood & flushes them from the body in
urine

Organ System Overview Reproductive System

- Produce offspring
Integumentary System
- Waterproofs the body & cushions & protects Maintaining Life
the deeper tissues from injury
Necessary Life Functions
Skeletal System - Maintaining boundaries
- Supports the body & provides a framework - Movement
that the skeletal muscles use to cause movement - Responsiveness
- Digestion
Muscular System - Metabolism
- Contract or shorten - Excretion
 - Reproduction - Spinal; extends from the cranial cavity to the
- Growth end of spinal cord

Survival Needs Ventral Body Cavity

- Nutrients; energy & cell building - Thoracic; separates from the rest of the
> Carbohydrates; provides fuel for the body ventral cavity
> Proteins > Mediastinum; central region
> Fats; building cell structure - Abdominopelvic
> Minerals > Abdominal; superior
> Vitamins > Pelvic; inferior
- Oxygen > Quadrants; divides the abdominopelvic
- Water; provides the fluid base for body cavity into four more or less equal regions
secretions & excretions > Nine regions;
- Normal body temperature = Umbilical; middle
- Atmospheric pressure; force exerted on the = Epigastric; upper middle
surface of the body by the weight of air = Hypogastric (pubic); lower middle
= Iliac (inguinal); lower left & right
Language of Anatomy = Lumbar; middle left & right
= Hypochondriac; upper left & right
Anatomical Position
- Standard position Other Body Cavities
- Oral & digestive
Directional Terms - Nasal
- Superior  - Orbital
- Inferior  - Middle ear
- Anterior 
- Posterior  Homeostasis
- Medial   - Body’s ability to maintain relatively stable
- Lateral   internal conditions even though the outside
- Intermediate    world is continuously changing
- Proximal; close - Dynamic state of equilibrium
- Distal; farther
- Superficial; external Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
- Deep; internal (REGIONAL - Receptor; monitors & responds to changes in
TERMS – BOOK) the environment; afferent pathway
Body Planes & Sections > Stimuli; responds to changes by sending
- Plane; imaginary line information to the control center
- Sagittal section; lengthwise/longitudinal - Control center; analyses the information it
- Median (midsagittal) section; right & left receives
- Frontal section (coronal); anterior & - Effector; control center’s response to the
posterior stimulus; efferent pathway
- Transverse section (cross); superior &
inferior Feedback Mechanism
- Negative; shut off the original
Body Cavities stimulus/reduce its intensity
- Positive; increase the original disturbance &
Dorsal Body Cavities to push the variable farther from its original
- Cranial; space inside the bony skull value
CHAPTER 3
Cells & Tissues
I. Cells
- Two types of cell:
> Somatic/Autosomal/Body
> Germ/Sex/Gametes
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell
Nucleus
- Headquarters/control center
- DNA is the blueprint that contains all
instructions
- DNA has genes which carries the instructions
for building protein
- DNA also needs in cell reproduction
Nuclear Envelope
- Double membrane barrier
- It has a fluid-filled moat or space
- Nuclear pores; openings where two layers of
nuclear envelope fuse
- Nucleoplasm; jellylike fluid
Nucleolus
- Dark staining round bodies
- Ribosomes; sites where cell structure
assembled
Chromatin
- When the cell is not dividing, DNA is
wound around proteins “histones” to form a
network of beads on a string
- Condense to form nucleus
- Chromosomes; when a cell is dividing to
form two daughter cells, chromatin threads coil
& condense to form dense & rodlike bodies
Plasma Membrane
- Flagile, transparent barrier that contains the
cell contents & separates them from the
surrounding environment
- Most indispensable
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Two phospholipid (fat) layers arranged “tail
to tail”
- Hydrophilic; polar heads & water loving
- Hydrophobic; non-polar tails & water fearing
- Glycoproteins; sugar-proteins
- Glycocalyx; fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich
Cell Membrane Junctions
- Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an
adhesive/cellular glue
- Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent
cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove fashion
- Special cell membrane junctions are formed
> Tight junctions; impermeable junctions
that encircle the cells & bind them together into
leakproof sheets
> Desmosomes; anchoring junctions that
scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent
cells
> Gap junctions; communicating junctions;
found in heart & embryonic cells
= Connexons; hollow cylinder composed
of proteins; separates the cytoplasm
= Transmembrane proteins; entire width
of abutting membranes
Cytoplasm
- Cellular material outside the nucleus &
inside the plasma membrane.
- Factory floor
Cytosol & Inclusions
- Cytosol; semitransparent fluid that suspends
the other elements
- Inclusions; chemical substance that may or
may not be present, depending on the specific
cell type.
Organelles
- Specialized cellular compartments that are
the metabolic machinery of the cell
Mitochondria
- Tiny, lozenge-like/sauasage-shaped
organelles
- Double membrane
- Outer membrane is smooth & featureless
 - Inner membrane has shelflike Cytoskeleton
protrusions/cristae - Network of protein
- ATP provides the energy for all cellular work - Cells’ bones & muscles
- Powerhouse > Microfilaments; actin & myosin; cell
- ADP motility & shape
> Intermediate filaments; strong, stable,
Ribosomes ropelike that made up of fibrous subunits
- Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins > Microtubules; tubelike that made up of
- rRna (ribosomal Ribonucleic acid) protein tubulin
- Protein synthesis
- Form in nucleoulus Centrioles
- Centrosome
Endoplasmic Reticulum - Rod-shaped bodies that lies at nucleus
- System of fluid-filled tunnels that coil & - Generating microtubules & directing the
twist through the cytoplasm formation of the mitotic spindle
- Two forms: - Bar-like
> Rough ER; studded with ribosomes;
synthesize & excrete proteins Cell Extensions
= Transport vesicles; small sacs of
membrane Cilia & Flagella
> Smooth ER; communicates with the rough - Cilia; tiny, hairlike projections on cell
variety; lacks ribosomes; lipid metabolism & surfaces that move in a wavelike manner
detoxification of drugs & pesticides - Flagella; long, whiplike extensions of the cell
membrane of some bacteria & sperm; serve to
Golgi Apparatus propel the cell
- Stack of flattened membranous sacs that are
associates with swarms of tiny vesicles Microvili
- Traffic director - Tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
- Golgi vesicles; proteins leaving the golgi membrane that project from an exposed cell
apparatus accumulate in sacs surface
- Secretory vesicles; it forms through the - Actin filaments
swollen end that filled with protein and travels - Alcoves
to the plasma membrane - Absorption

Lysosomes Cell Diversity

- Digestive enzymes
- Cellular stomach Cells that connect body parts
- Phagocytes; cells that dispose of bacteria & - Fibroblast
cell debris - RBC

Peroxisomes Cells the cover & line body organs

- Oxidase enzymes - Epithelial cells
- Uses molecular oxygen to detoxify a number
of harmful/poisonous substances Cells the move organs & body parts
- Free radicals; reactive chemicals w/ unpaired - Skeletal
electrons that can damage the structure of - Cardiac
proteins & nucleic acids - Smooth
- Free radicals to H2O2
Cell that stores nutrients
- Fat cell
Cell that fights disease
- WBC
Cell that gathers information & controls body
functions
- Nerve cell
Cells of reproduction
- Oocyte
- Sperm
Cell Physiology
Membrane Transport
- Solution; homogenous mixture of two or
more components
- Solvent; substance present in the largest
amount in a solution
- Solutes; components/substances present in
smaller amounts
- Intracellular fluid; solution contains gases,
nutrients & salts, dissolved in water; cytoplasm
& nucleoplasm
- Extracellular/Interstitial fluid; fluid that
continuously bathes the exterior of our cells
- Selective permeability; barrier allows some
substances to pass through it while excluding
others
- Passive process; transported across the
membrane without any energy input from the
cell; no ATP;  concentration/pressure; 
concentration gradient
- Active process; cells provides the metabolic
energy (ATP) that drives the transport process;
 concentration/pressure; /against
concentration gradient
Passive Processes: Diffusion & Filtration
Diffusion
- Molecules move away from areas where they
are more concentrated to areas where they are
less concentrated
- Overall effect of this movement is that
molecules move down their concentration
gradient
- Concentration
- Simple diffusion; unassisted diffusion of
solutes through the plasma membrane
- Osmosis; diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable; isotonic/hormotonic,
hypotonic & hypertonic; solvent
- Facilitated diffusion; provides passage for
certain needed substances that are both lipid-
insoluble; protein channels/carrier
Filtration
- Process of water & solutes are forced through
a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
- Pressure gradient
Active Processes
Active Transport/Solute-pumping
- Requires protein carriers that interact
specifically & reversibly w/ the substances to be
transported across the membrane
- NaK/ATPase pump; alternately carries Na
out of & K into the cell
- Phosphorylation; ATP is split into ADP & Pi
& the phosphate is attached to the NaK pump
Bulk/Vesicular Transport
- Involves help from ATP to fuse/separate
membrane vesicles & the cell membrane,
moves substances into/out of cells “in bulk” w/o
their actually crossing the plasma membrane
directly
- Exocytosis; out of the cell; secretes
hormones, mucus & other cell products
- Endocytosis; into the cell; includes ATP-
requiring processes that take up/engulf
extracellular substances by enclosing them in a
vesicle
> Phagocytosis; cell eating; bacteria/dead
body cells
> Pinocytosis; cell drinking; absorption
> Receptor-mediated endocytosis; cellular
mechanism for taking up specific target
molecules
Cell Division - Formation of binucleate & multinucleate
cells
- Two major periods:
> Interphase; preparation for cell division; Protein Synthesis
metabolic phase - Fibrous (structural) proteins are the major
> Cell Division building materials for cells
- Globular (functional) proteins are perform
Preparations: DNA Replication roles in the body
- Produce more cells for growth & repair - Every cell needs to produce protein
processes - Genes; DNA blueprints
- Adenine to Thymine
- Thymine to Cytosine Genes: The Blueprint for Protein Structure
- DNA serves as the master blueprint for
Events of Cell Division protein synthesis
- Mitosis; nucleus
- Cytokinesis; cytoplasm The Role of RNA
- DNA is like coded message
Mitosis - Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites for
proteins are in the cytoplasm
Prophase - RNA; messenger & decoder functions are
(Chromatin threads shorten; Sister chromatids carried out
held by centromere; Centrioles separates and > rRNA; helps form ribosomes where
move toward mitotic spindle; Nuclear envelope proteins are built
& nucleoli disappeared & chromosomes > mRNA; carry the message containing
attached to spindle fibers by centromere) instructions for protein synthesis
 Metaphase > tRNA; escort amino acid to ribosomes
(Chromosomes line up)
 The Process of Protein Synthesis
Anaphase - Transcription; complementary mRNA is
(Chromatids split & move slowly apart toward made using the information in the DNA gene
opposite ends) - Translation; information carried in mRNA
 molecules is decoded & translated from nucleic
Telophase acids into proteins
(Chromosomes become chromatid again when
uncoil; Spindle breaks down; Nuclear envelope Transcription
forms around chromatin mass; Nucleoli appear - Same information is transformed from one
in each of daughter nuclei) form to another
- Triplet; three-base sequence specifying a
Cytokinesis particular amino acid on the DNA
- Begins during anaphase & completes during - Codons; corresponding three-base sequence
telophase on mRNA
- Contractile ring made of microfilaments
forms a cleavage furrow over the midline of the Translation
spindle & squeezes/pinches the original - Language of nucleic acids to language of
cytoplasmic mass into two parts proteins
- Daughter cells grow & carry out normal cell - Anticodon; special three-base sequence
activities until it is their turn to divide (Fig. 3.16, Protein Synthesis)
II. Body Tissues Stratified Epithelia
- Protection
Epithelial Tissues
Stratified Squamous
- Lining, covering & glandular tissue of the - Receives good deal of abuse or friction
body - Skin, mouth & esophagus
- Forms the boundaries that separate
- Protection, absorption, filtration & secretion Stratified Cuboidal & Columnar
- Glandular epithelium; forms various glands - Ducts of large glands
- Secretion; produces substances like sweat,
oil, digestive enzymes & mucus Transitional
- Urinary tract
Hallmark of Epithelium
- Apical surface is exposed to the body’s Glandular Epithelium
exterior - One or more cells
- Basement membrane; structureless material - Secretion contains protein molecules
that secreted by epithelial & connective tissue - Two types:
- Avascular (no blood supply) > Endocrine; lose their ducts; ductless
glands; secretions diffuse directly into the blood
Classification of Epithelia vessels
- Layers: > Exocrine; retain their ducts; secretions exit
> Simple; 1 through the ducts to the epithelial surface
> Stratified; more than 1
- Shapes: Connective Tissue
> Squamous; flat
> Cuboidal; cube - Connects body parts
> Columnar; column - Protecting, supporting, & binding

Simple Epithelia Hallmarks of Connective Tissue

- Absorption, filtration & secretion - Vascular (has blood supply)
- Extracellular matrix; nonliving substance
Simple Squamous found outside the cells
- Alveoli
- Filtration Extracellular Matrix
- Serous membranes - Ground substance; water plus some cell
adhesion proteins & large, charged
Simple Cuboidal polysaccharide
- Small tubes/ducts > Cell adhesion proteins; serve as a glue that
- Kidney, ovaries & pancreas allows connective tissue cells to attach to the
matrix fibers
Simple Columnar - Fibers
- Goblet cells; produces lubricating mucus > Collagen (white) fibers; high tensile
- Digestive tract strength
- Mucous membrane > Elastic (yellow) fibers; stretch & recoil
> Reticular fibers; fine collagen fibers that
Pseudostratified Columnar forms the internal skeleton of the organs
- Trachea > Monomers; building blocks that made by
- Gives false impression & ciliated connective tissue
Types of Connective Tissue Reticular
- Network of interwoven reticular fibers
Bone associated w/ reticular cells w/c resemble
- Osseous tissue fibroblast
- Lacunae; composed of osteocytes sitting in
cavities Blood
- Surrounded by layers of hard matrix that - Vascular tissue
contains calcium salts - Blood plasma; non-living, fluid matrix
- Protect & support other body organs - Fibers are soluble proteins that become
visible only in blood clotting
Cartilage
- Chondrocytes Muscle Tissue
- Hyaline; has abundant collagen fibers hidden - Contract/shorten
by rubbery matrix with glassy, blue-white;
forms the trachea/windpipe attaches the ribs to Skeletal Muscle
the breastbone - Voluntarily
- Fibrocartilage; forms the cushion-like discs - Multinucleate
between the vertebrae of the spinal column - Striations
- Elastic; elasticity; external ear - Muscle fibers; provide a long axis for
contraction
Dense Connective Tissue
- Dense fibrous tissue Cardiac Muscle
- Collagen fibers & rows of fibroblast - Involuntarily
- Tendons & ligaments - Uninucleate
- Striations
Loose Connective Tissue - Intercalated discs; tightly together; contains
gap junctions
Areolar
- Soft, liable & cobwebby tissue the cushion & Smooth Muscles
protects the body organs it wraps - No striations
- Universal tissue - Uninucleate
- Helps to hold the internal organs together - When the walls contract, it becomes smaller
- Lamina propria; soft layer - Peristalsis; keeps food moving
- Reservoir of water & salts
- Edema; when a body region is inflamed, Nervous Tissue
areolar tissue soaks up the excess fluid like a - Neurons
sponge & makes the area swells & puffy - Irritability & conductivity
- Neuroglia; supporting cells that insulate,
Adipose support & protect
- Fat
- Forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the
skin
- Insulates the body & protects it from bumps,
heat & cold
 - Lines the fibrous capsules that surrounds
joints
CHAPTER 4 - Bursae; small sacs of connective tissue
Skin & Body Membranes - Tendon sheaths; tube-like
- Moving against each other during muscle
Two major groups: activity
- Epithelial membranes
> Cutaneous; skin/integumentary Integumentary System (Skin)
> Mucous
> Serous Functions of the Integumentary System
- Connective tissue membranes - Insulates & cushion the deeper body organs
> Synovial - Protects the entire body from mechanical,
chemical, microbe and thermal damage, UV
Classifications of Body Membranes radiation, & desiccation
- Aids in body heat loss/retention & excretion
Epithelial Membranes of urea & uric acid
- Covering & lining - Synthesizes vitamin D
- Acid mantle; produces acidic secretions that
Cutaneous Membrane protects against bacterial invasion
- Two layers:
> Superficial epidermis; stratified squamous Structure of the Skin
> Underlying dermis - Two kinds of tissue:
- Air & dry > Outer epidermis
- Covers the body surface > Underlying dermis; dense connective
tissue
Mucous Membranes - Subcutaneous tissue/hypodermis
- Lamina propria; it composed of epithelium > Adipose tissue
that rests on a loose connective tissue > Provides a site for nutrient storage
- Opens the exterior > Shock absorber
- Stratified squamous/simple columnar > Insulate the deeper tissues from
- Absorption/secretion temperature changes

Serous Membrane Epidermis

- Simple squamous - Keratinocytes; produces keratin; connected
- Closes the exterior by desmosomes
- Parietal layer; lines the wall of ventral cavity - Keratinization; fibrous protein that makes the
- Visceral layer; covers the outside of the epidermis a tough protective layer
organs - Five layers (inner to outer):
- Serous fluid; scanty amount of thin, clear
fluid Stratum basale
- Peritoneum; Abdominal cavity (Stratum germinativum)
- Pleurae; Lungs 
- Pericardia; Heart Stratum spinosum

Connective Tissue Membranes Stratum granusolum

Synovial Membranes Stratum lucidum
- Composed of areolar connective tissue 
 Stratum corneum > It keeps the skin soft and moist & prevents
(Filled with horny/cornified cells) hair becoming brittle
- Melanocytes; spider shaped that produces Sweat Glands
melanin; stratum basale - Sudoriferous glands
- Epidermal dendritic cells; sentries that alert - Lysozyme
& activate immune system - ph 4 to 6
- Merkel cells; found in epidermal-dermal - Sweat pore; funnel-shaped
junction - Two types:
- Merkel discs; sensory nerve endings & serve > Eccrine
as touch receptors = Produces sweat
= Clear secretion of NaCl, vitamin C,
Dermis metabolic wastes & lactic acid
- Two major regions: = Secrete sweat when the external
> Papillary layer temperature/body temperature is too high
= Superficial > Apocrine
= Dermal papillae; uneven & peglike = Axillary & genitalia
projections; contains capillary loops = Begins to function during puberty under
> Reticular layer androgens
= Deepest = Activated by nerve fibers during pain
= Dense irregular connective tissue and stress & during sexual arousal
= Lamellar corpuscles; blood vessels,
sweat and oil glands & deep pressure receptors Hair & Hair Follicles
- Collagen & elastic fibers found at the dermis - Hair serves as a guarding the head against
- Collagen for toughness bumps, shielding the eyes & helping to keep
- Elastic for elasticity foreign particles out of the respiratory tract

Skin Color Hairs

- Three pigments that contributes to skin color: - Epithelial structure
> Melanin - Root; enclosed in the hair follicle
> Carotene - Shaft; surface of the scalp/skin
> Hemoglobin - Medulla; central core that consists of large
- Diseases: cells & air spaces surrounds by a bulky cortex
> Redness/erythema layer
> Pallor/branching
> Jaundice/yellow cast Hair Follicles
> Bruises - Compound structure
- Inner epithelial sheath; composed of
Appendages of the Skin epithelial tissue and forms the hair
- Outer fibrous tissue; dermal connective tissue
Cutaneous Glands - Hair papilla; nipple-like that provides the
- Two groups: blood suppy to the matrix in the hair bulb
> Sebaceous - Arrector pili; small bands of smooth muscle
> Sweat cells that connects the each side of hair follicle
- Stratum basale to the dermis to the dermal tissue

Sebaceous Glands Nails

- Oil glands - Scale-like modification
- Sebum; product of sebaceous glands
 - Nail folds; borders of nail are overlapped by
the folds of skin Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- Cuticle; edge of the thick proximal nail fold - Lymph nodes
- Nail bed; stratum basale of the epidermis - UV exposure
extends beneath the nail
- Nail matrix; thickened proximal area that
responsible for nail growth
- Lunule; thickened nail matrix that appears as Malignant Melanoma
a white matrix - Accumulates in DNA damage
- ABCDE rule
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin > Asymmetry
> Border irregularity
Infections & Allergies > Color
- Athlete’s foot > Diameter
- Boils & Carbuncles > Evolution
- Cold sores
- Contact dermatitis
- Impetigo
- Psoriasis

Burns
- Tissue damage & cell death caused by
intense heat, electricity, UV radiation or certain
chemicals w/c denature proteins & cause cell
death in the affected areas
- Rule of nines

First degree burn

(Superficial epidermis)

Second degree burn
(Epidermis & superficial dermis)

Third degree burn
(Epidermis & dermis)

Fourth degree burn
(Bone, muscle & tendons)

Skin Cancer

Basal Cell Carcinoma

- Least malignant
- Most common
- Cannot form keratin
- Proliferate, invading the dermis &
subcutaneous tissue
- Sun-exposed areas
CHAPTER 5 4. Irregular bones
Skeletal System  Not long, short, or flat
 Ex. vertebrae and hip
The Skeletal System
 Parts of the skeletal system Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Bones  Cartilages  Diaphysis – shaft, composed of compact
(skeleton)  Ligaments bone
 Joints
 Epiphysis –ends, composed mostly of
 Divided into two divisions
spongy bone
 Axial  Appendicular  Periosteum – outside covering of the
skeleton skeleton
diaphysis, fibrous connective tissue
membrane
Functions of Bones
 Sharpey’s fibers or perforating fibers –
 Support of the body secure periosteum to underlying bone
 Protection of soft organs  Arteries – supply bone cells with nutrients
 Movement due to attached skeletal muscles  Articular cartilage – covers the external
 Storage of minerals (Ca and P) and fats surface of the epiphyses, made of hyaline
 Blood cell formation - hematopoiesis cartilage, decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Medullary cavity – cavity of the shaft,
Bones of the Human Body contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones adults and red marrow (for blood cell
 Two basic types of osseous – bone tissue formation) in infants
 Compact bone – solid, dense, and  Foramina – opening
homogeneous
 Spongy bone – small needle-like pieces Bone Markings
(bony spicules) and has many open  Surface features of bones
spaces (trabeculae)  Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons,
and ligaments
Classification of Bones (according to shape)  Passages for nerves and blood vessels
1. Long bones  Categories of bone markings
 Typically longer than wide  Projections or processes – grow from
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends bone surface
 More compact than spongy  Depressions or cavities – indentation
 Ex. femur, humerus
2. Short bones
 Generally cube-shaped
 Ex. carpals, tarsals
 Sesamoid bones Ex. patella or kneecap

3. Flat bones
 Spongy bone (diploe) between two
compact bones
 Ex. skull, ribs, sternum, scapula
Projections that are sites of muscle and
ligament attachment
Tuberosi Large, rounded projection; may be
ty roughened
Crest Narrow ridge of bone; usually
prominent
Trochant Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped
er process
Line Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent
than a crest
Tubercle Small, rounded projection or process
Epicond Raised area on or above a condyle
yle
Spine Sharp, slender, often pointed
projection
Process Any bony prominence
Projections that help to form joints
Head Bony expansion carried on a narrow
neck
Facet Smooth, nearly flat articular surface
Condyle Rounded, articular projection
Ramus Armlike bar of bone
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian System) – a unit of bone
 Consists of Haversian canal and lamellae
 Found in the compact layer of the bone
 Central (Haversian) canal – opening in the
center of an osteon which carries blood
vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal – canal
perpendicular to the central canal which
carries blood vessels and nerves
 Lacunae – small depressions housing mature
bone cells (osteocytes) arranged in
concentric rings
 Lamellae – rings around the central canal,
sites of lacunae
 Canaliculi – tiny canals that radiate from the
central canal to lacunae which form a
transport system
Changes in the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
 During development, this cartilage is
replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints
Ossification
Depressions and openings
For passage of blood vessels and nerves
Groov Furrow
e
Fissure Narrow, slitlike opening
Foram Round or oval opening through a
en bone
Notch Indentation at the edge of a structure
Others
Meatus Canal-like passageway
Sinus Cavity within a bone, filled with air
and lines with mucous membrane
Fossa Shallow, basinlike depression in a
bone often serving as an articular
surface
1. Endochondral – mesenchyme  hyaline
cartilage  osseous tissue
2. Intramembranous – mesenchyme  osseous
tissue
Bone Growth
 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long
bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
o Cartilage is broken down and is
replaced by bone
o Bone replaces cartilage
 Process of bone formation – bone-forming
osteoblasts
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width – appositional
growth
 Growth due to growth hormones and sex
hormones
 Bones are remodeled continually in response
to:
 Calcium levels in blood and pull of
gravity and muscles on the bones
Types of Bone Cells
 Osteoprogenitor cell – stem cell
 Osteocytes – mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells, deposits  Types of bone fractures
Ca to bones  Closed (simple) fracture – doesn’t
 Osteoclasts – bone-destroying cells, release penetrate the skin
of calcium  Open (compound) fracture – broken bone
NOTE: Bone remodeling is a process by both penetrates through the skin
osteoblasts and osteoclasts.  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
Bone Fractures  Realignment of the bone – either by
 A break in a bone physician’s hands or surgery

Type Description Comment

Comminuted bone breaks into many Particularly common in older people, whose bones are
fragments more brittle
Compression bone is crushed Common in porous bones (ex. osteoporotic bones of
older people)
Depression broken bone portion is pressed Types of skull fracture
inward
Impact broken bone ends are forced Commonly occurs when someone attempts to break a
into each other fall with outstretched arms
Spiral ragged breaks occur when Common sports fracture
excessive twisting forces are
applied to a bone
Greenstick bones break incompletely Common in children, whose bones are more flexible
(halfway) than those of adults
Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma is formed due to broken blood
vessels
 A fibrocartilage callus acts to splint the
broken bone
 The bony callus made of spongy bone is
formed.
 Bone remodeling occurs.
THE AXIAL SKELETON
 Forms the longitudinal part of the body
 Divided into three parts
 Skull  Bony thorax
 Vertebral
column
The Skull
 Two sets of bones
 Cranium  Facial bones
 Bones are joined by sutures – fibrous joints,
except for the mandible
Cranium – 8 large flat bones (4 are single, 2 are
paired)
 Frontal bone – forehead
 Parietal bones (paired) – superior and lateral
walls
 Temporal bones (paired)
 Meatus
o External – canal to eardrum and
middle ear
o Internal – cranial nerve VII and VIII
 Mastoid process – posterior and inferior
to the external meatus; attachment site for
muscles
 Styloid process – needle-like; attachment
site for muscles and ligaments of the neck
 Zygomaticus process – joins zygomatic
bones
 Jugular foramen – jugular vein (largest
vein in the head) and cranial nerves IX,
X, XI
 Carotid canal – internal carotid artery
passes through into the cranium
 Foramen lacerum – jagged opening for
the internal carotid artery
 Occipital bone
 Occipital condyles – lateral to the
foramen magnum; articulates with C1
forming the atlanto-occipital joint
 Foramen magnum – largest opening at
the base of the skull where the brain
connects with the spinal cord
 Sphenoid bone – butterfly-shaped; keystone
bone of the cranial floor because it is in
contact with all of the other cranial bones
 Sella turcica or Turk’s saddle – site of
pituitary gland
 Foramen ovale – cranial nerve V
 Optic canal – cranial nerve II
 Ethmoid bone
 Crista galli or cock’s comb – meninges
of brain
 Cribriform plates – cranial nerve I
Cranial sutures
 Coronal suture – frontal and parietal
 Sagittal suture – paired parietal bones
 Lambdoid suture – parietal and occipital
 Squamous suture – temporal and parietal
Cranial fossa
Anterior Middle Posterior
Crista galli Turk’s Jugular
Cribriform saddle foramen
plates Optical Foramen
foramina magnum
Occipital
condyles
Facial bones – 14 bones (6 are paired, 2 are
single)
 Maxilla – keystone bone of the face because
it anchors all facial bones
 Alveolar process – carry the set of upper
teeth
 Palatine process – hard palate
 Palatine bones – failure to fuse is cleft
palate
 Zygomatic bones – cheekbones alveolar nerves
 Lacrimal bones – passageway for tears Anterior and Anterior and posterior
 Nasal bones – bridge of the nose posterior ethmoidal nerves and arteries
 Inferior Nasal Conchae – lateral walls of ethmoidal
foramina
nasal cavity
Zygomatic Zygomatic vessels and nerves
 Vomer bone (unpaired) – bony nasal septum foramen
 Mandible (unpaired) – jaw bone Nasolacrimal Lacrimal sac and duct
 Attached by a freely movable joint canal
(temporomandibular joint or TMJ –
lockjaw) The Vertebral Column
 Hyoid Bone – only bone that does not  Each vertebrae is given a name according to
articulate with another bone its location
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue  Before birth: 33 then 9 fuse to form sacrum
and as an attachment point for neck and coccyx
muscles that raise and lower the larynx
when we swallow and speak Vertebrae features
 Fetal Skull – anterior and posterior fontanel;  Body or centrum – disc-like, weight-bearing
fetal skull is large compared to the infants part
total body length
 Vertebral arch – arch formed from the
 Fontanels – fibrous membranes joining of all posterior extensions (laminae,
connecting the cranial bones pedicles, spinous process)
 Paranasal Sinuses – hollow and air-filled  Vertebral foramen – passageway of spinal
 Functions of paranasal sinuses cord
o Lighten the skull  Transverse processes – two lateral
o Give resonance and amplification to projections from the vertebral arch
voice
 Spinous processes – single projection from
 4 types the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch;
o Frontal o Sphenoid sinus fused laminae
sinus o Maxillary sinus*
 Superior and inferior articular processes –
o Ethmoid
paired projections lateral to the vertebral
sinus*
foramen which allows a vertebra to form
joints with another
9 Major Structures that pass
Openings  Intervertebral discs – fibrocartilage that
Optic foramen Optic nerve and its separate and cushion vertebrae and absorb
meningeal coverings; shocks
ophthalmic artery  Intervertebral foramina – opening for spinal
Superior orbital CN 3, 4, 6; ophthalmic nerve nerves
fissure division of CN 5; branches of
middle meningeal artery  Cervical curvature – C1 – C7
Inferior orbital Infraorbital nerve, zygomatic  Transverse processes contain foramina
fissure nerve, infraorbital artery through which vertebral arteries pass
Supraorbital Supraorbital vessels and
 Smallest, lightest vertebrae
foramen nerves
Infraorbital Infraorbital vessels and  Spinous processes are short and divided
groove canal nerves; anterior and middle into two – bifid or forked
  Atypical
o C1 (Atlas) – facets that receive
occipital condyles forming the
atlanto-occipital joint
o C2 (Axis) – presence of dens or
odontoid as a pivot point to form the
atlanto-axial joint.
o C7 – longer spinous process
 Thoracic curvature – T1 – T12
 Has two costal facets which receive the
heads of ribs
 Heart-shaped body
 Spinous process is long and hooks
downward
 Giraffe’s head
 Lumbar curvature – L1 – L5
 Hatchet-shaped spinous process
 Sturdiest of the vertebrae
 Moose head
 Sacral curvature – 5 fused vertebrae
 Alae – winglike; acticulates with the
ilium to form the sacroiliac joint
 Median sacral crest – fused spinous
process
 Sacral foramina – passageway for sacral
nerves
 Coccyx – tail bone
 3-5 tiny, irregularly shaped vertebrae
 Attached to the sacrum by ligaments
The Bony Thorax
 Cone-shaped cage-like structure to protect
major organs
 Made up of three parts
 Sternum  Thoracic
 Ribs vertebrae
 Jugular notch – upper border of
manubrium; T3
 Sternal angle – where the manubrium
and body meet at a slight angle; 2nd rib
 Xiphisternal joint – point where the
body and xiphoid process fuse; T9
Ribs – 12 pairs
 1 – 7 – true ribs – attach directly to the
sternum
 8 – 12 – false ribs – attach indirectly or not
at all
 11 and 12 – floating ribs – lack attachment
 The intercostal spaces between ribs are
filled with intercostal muscles which
aids in breathing
 Costal cartilage – hyaline cartilage
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Composed of 126 bones
 Limbs (appendages)
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle
The Pectoral Girdle
 Composed of two bones
 Clavicle and scapula
 These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement due to:
 Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial
skeleton at only one point
 Loose attachment of the scapula allows
it to slide back and forth against the
thorax as muscles act
 The glenoid cavity is shallow, and the
shoulder joint is poorly reinforced by
ligaments

Sternum – breast bone Clavicle – collarbone

 Fusion of 3 bones  Medial or sternal end – manubrium of the
 Manubrium  Xiphoid process sternum
 Body  Lateral or acromial end – scapula
Scapula – shoulder blade
 3 bony landmarks  2 important processes
  Acromion – enlarged end; connects with
the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint
 Coracoid – beaklike; points over the top
of the shoulder and anchors some of the
arm muscles
 Suprascapular notch – passageway of
suprascapular nerves
 Has 3 borders
 Superior
 Medial or vertebral
 Lateral or axillary
 Has 3 angles
 Superior
 Inferior
 Lateral
o Glenoid cavity – articulates with the
head of the humerus, to form the
shoulder joint.
Bones of the Upper Limb
 Humerus
 Forearm
 Ulna and radius
 The Hand
 Carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
Humerus – arm bone
 Head – rounded proximal end that fits into
the glenoid cavity of the scapula
 Anatomical neck –a slight constriction
inferior to the head
 Greater and lesser tubercles – anterolateral to
the head
 Separated by intertubercular sulcus
 Sites of muscle attachment
 Surgical neck – distal to the tubercles
 Most frequently fractured part
 Deltoid tuberosity – midpoint of the shaft
 Site of attachment for the deltoid muscle
 Radial groove – runs obliquely down the
posterior aspect
 Marks the course of the radial nerve
 Large central condyle articulate with forearm
bones
 Capitulum – lateral, ball-like; articulates
with radius
 Trochlea – medial; spool-like; articulates
with ulna
 2 epicondyles – allow corresponding
processes of the ulna to move freely
when elbow is bent or extended
o Medial epicondyles
o Lateral epicondyles
 3 fossae found distally on the humerus:
 Coronoid fossa – anteriorly above the
trochlea
 Olecranon fossa – posteriorly above the
trochlea
 Radial fossa – above the capitulum
Ulna – medial
Radius – lateral
 Radioulnar joints – proximally and distally
 Joint between the radius and ulna
 Interosseous membrane – connects the two
bones
 Styloid process – found at the distal end of
both
 Attachment sites for many muscles.
 Head of the radius – forms a joint with the
capitulum
 Radial tuberosity – below the head
 Site of attachment for the tendon of the
biceps
 2 processes of the ulna – grip the trochlea;
proximal end
 Coronoid – anterior; coronoid fossa
 Olecranon – posterior; olecranon fossa
 Separated by a trochlear notch
Carpals – wrist
 8 bones arranged in two irregular rows of 4
bones each
Metacarpals – palm
 Knuckles when fist is clenched
Phalanges – fingers
 14 phalanges – 3 in each finger (proximal,
middle, distal) except the thumb which has 2
(proximal and distal)
The Pelvic Girdle
 Coxal or hip bones
 Ilium, ischium, pubic bones
 The total weight of the upper body rests on
the pelvis
 Protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
Hip bones – 3 pairs of fused bones
 Ilium (Iliac) – attached to the sacrum
posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint
 Alae – winglike portions of the ilia
 Iliac crest – upper edge of an ala; IM
injections
o Ends anteriorly – anterior superior
iliac spine
 Below – anterior inferior iliac
spine
o Ends posteriorly – posterior superior
iliac spine
 Below – posterior inferior iliac
spine
 Ischium (Ischial) – sit-down bone
 Ischial tuberosity – roughened area that
bears body weight when sitting
 Ischial spine – superior to tuberosity;
narrows the outlet of the pelvis in
pregnant women
 Greater sciatic notch – allows blood
vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass
into the posterior part of the thigh
 Pubis (Pubic) – most anterior part of a hip
bone
 Pubic symphysis – a cartilaginous joint
formed by the fusion of pubic bones
 Obturator foramen – allows blood vessels
and nerves to pass into the anterior part of
the thigh
o Anterior – pubis rami
o Posterior – ischium
Acetabulum or vinegar’s cup – deep socket
where the ilium, ischium and pubis fuse
 Articulates with the head of the thigh bone
Bony pelvis – 2 regions
 False pelvis – superior to the true pelvis
 True pelvis – surrounded by bone and lies
inferior
Gender Difference of the Pelvis
The female:
 inlet is larger and more circular
 pelvis as a whole is shallower, bones are
lighter and thinner
 ilia flare more laterally
 sacrum is shorter and less curved
 ischial spines are shorter and farther apart,
thus the outlet is larger
 pubic arch is more rounded because the
angle of pubic arch is greater
Bones of the Lower Limbs
 Femur
 Leg bones
 Tibia and fibula
 The Foot
 Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Femur – thigh bone
 Heaviest, strongest bone in the body
 Head – ball-like proximal end that
articulates with the acetabulum of the hip
bone
 Neck – flattened pyramidal process of
bone, connecting the head with shaft;
common fracture site
 Greater and lesser trochanters –
anterolateral to the head
 Separated anteriorly by the
intertrochanteric line
 Separated posteriorly by the
intertrochanteric crest
 Sites of muscle attachment
 Gluteal tuberosity – gives attachment to
gluteus maximus
 Lateral and medial condyles – articulate with
the tibia
 Intercondylar fossa – separates the two
condyle posteriorly
 Patellar surface – smooth; anterior to the
condyles
 Forms joint with kneecap
Tibia – medial; shin bone
Fibula – lateral
 Tibiofibular joints – proximally and distally
 Joint between the tibia and fibula
 Interosseous membrane – connects the two
bones
 Lateral and medial condyles – proximal end
of tibia
 Intercondylar eminence – separates the
two condyles
 Articulate with the distal end of the femur
to form the knee joint
 Patellar ligament – encloses and connects the
patella to the tibia.
 Tibial tuberosity – roughened area on
anterior tibial surface
 Anterior border – anterior surface of the tibia
 A sharp ridge unprotected by muscles
easily felt beneath the skin
 Medial malleolus – distal end of the tibia
 Forms the inner bulge of the ankle
 Lateral malleolus – distal end of the fibula
 Forms the outer part of the ankle
 Head of the fibula – proximal end of the
fibula
 For the attachment of muscles and
ligaments
Tarsals – ankle
 Composed of 7 bones
 Body weight is carried mostly by the two
largest
o Calcaneus or heelbone
o Talus or ankle – lies between the
tibia and calcaneus
Metatarsals – sole
Phalanges – toes
 14 phalanges – 3 in each toe (proximal,
middle, distal) except the great toe which
has 2 (proximal and distal)
Arches of the Foot
 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three
strong arches
 Two longitudinal – medial and lateral
 One transverse
Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allows mobility
 Classification
 Functionally
 Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Ex. skull
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Ex. intervertebral discs
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
 Ex. hip and shoulder joints
Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joints – generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints – slightly moveable
 Synovial joints – freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue
 Synostosis ex. sutures in skull
 Syndesmosis ex. distal end of tibia and
fibula
o Allows more movement than sutures
because fibers are longer
 Gomphosis ex. periodontal membrane
Cartilaginous Joints
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Symphysis ex. pelvis
 Synchondrosis ex. vertebrae
Synovial Joints
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint
cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Features of Synovial Joints
 Articular cartilage (hyaline) – covers ends of
bones
 Articular capsule – encloses joint surfaces
 Joint cavity – filled with synovial fluid
 Ligaments – reinforce the joint
Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs lined with
synovial membrane and thin film of synovial
fluid; found where there is rubbing
Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that wraps
around a tendon
Types of Synovial Joints
 Plane joint – articular surface essentially flat
and only short slipping or gliding movements
are allowed
 Nonaxial joints – gliding does not involve
rotation around any axis
o ex. intercarpal joints of wrist
 Hinge joint – cylindrical end of one bone fits
into a trough-shaped surface of another bone
 Uniaxial joints – allow movement around
one axis
o ex. elbow joints, ankle joints, joints
between phalanges of fingers
 Pivot joint – rounded end of one bone fits
into a sleeve or ring of bone
 Uniaxial joints – rotating bone can turn
only around its long axis
o ex. proximal radioulnar joint and the
joint between the atlas and the dens of
the axis
 Condylar joint – egg-shaped articular surface
of one bone fits into an oval concavity in
another, both of these articular surfaces are
oval and allow the moving bone to travel
from side to side and back and forth but it
cannot rotate around its long axis
 Biaxial joints – movement occurs
around two axes
o ex. knuckles
 Saddle joint – each articular surface has
both convex and concave areas like a saddle
 Biaxial joints – allow same movements
as condyloid such as twiddling your
thumbs
o ex. carpometacarpal joints in the
thumb
 Ball-and-socket joint – spherical head of
one bone fits into a round socket in another
 Multiaxial joints – allow movement in
all axes including rotation
o ex. shoulder and hips
Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint
 Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint and
common where ligaments, muscles,
skin, tendons, or bones rub together
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
Inflammatory Conditions Associated with
Joints
 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually
caused by a blow or friction to the knee
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon
sheaths - sprain
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative
diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease
in the US
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Osteoarthritis – wear-and-tear arthritis
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging
processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 An autoimmune disease – the immune
system attacks the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral
inflammation of certain joints
 Often leads to deformities
 Gouty Arthritis - Gout
 Inflammation of joints is caused by an
accumulation in blood and deposition of
urate crystals (uric acid) from the blood
 Usually affects only one joint
 Can usually be controlled with diet

Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System

 At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
 Bones are joined by fibrous membranes –
fontanelles
 Fontanelles are completely replaced with
bone within two years after birth