Critical thinking

Critical thinking means making reasoned judgments that are logical and well-
thought out. It is a way of thinking in which you don't simply accept all
arguments and conclusions you are exposed to but rather have an attitude
involving questioning such arguments and conclusions. It requires wanting to
see what evidence is involved to support a particular argument or conclusion.
People who use critical thinking are the ones who say things such as, 'How do
you know that? Is this conclusion based on evidence or gut feelings?' and 'Are
there alternative possibilities when given new pieces of information?'
Additionally, critical thinking can be divided into the following three core skills:

1. Curiosity is the desire to learn more information and seek evidence as

well as being open to new ideas.

2. Skepticism involves having a healthy questioning attitude about new

information that you are exposed to and not blindly believing everything
everyone tells you.

3. Finally, humility is the ability to admit that your opinions and ideas are
wrong when faced with new convincing evidence that states otherwise.

Critical thinking requires skill at analyzing the reliability and validity of information, as well as the
attitude or disposition to do so. The skill and attitude may be displayed with regard to a particular
subject matter or topic, but in principle it can occur in any realm of knowledge (Halpern, 2003; Williams,
Oliver, & Stockade, 2004). A critical thinker does not necessarily have a negative attitude in the everyday
sense of constantly criticizing someone or something. Instead, he or she can be thought of as astute: the
critical thinker asks key questions, evaluates the evidence for ideas, reasons for problems both logically
and objectively, and expresses ideas and conclusions clearly and precisely. Last (but not least), the critical
thinker can apply these habits of mind in more than one realm of life or knowledge.

With such a broad definition, it is not surprising that educators have suggested a variety of specific
cognitive skills as contributing to critical thinking. In one study, for example, the researcher found how
critical thinking can be reflected in regard to a published article was stimulated by annotation—writing
questions and comments in the margins of the article (Liu, 2006). In this study, students were initially
instructed in ways of annotating reading materials. Later, when the students completed additional
readings for assignments, it was found that some students in fact used their annotation skills much more
than others—some simply underlined passages, for example, with a highlighting pen. When essays
written about the readings were later analyzed, the ones written by the annotators were found to be
more well reasoned—more critically astute—than the essays written by the other students.
In another study, on the other hand, a researcher found that critical thinking can also involve oral
discussion of personal issues or dilemmas (Hawkins, 2006). In this study, students were asked to verbally
describe a recent, personal incident that disturbed them. Classmates then discussed the incident
together in order to identify the precise reasons why the incident was disturbing, as well as the
assumptions that the student made in describing the incident. The original student—the one who had
first told the story—then used the results of the group discussion to frame a topic for a research essay. In
one story of a troubling incident, a student told of a time when a store clerk has snubbed or rejected the
student during a recent shopping errand. Through discussion, classmates decided that an assumption
underlying the student’s disturbance was her suspicion that she had been a victim of racial profiling
based on her skin color. The student then used this idea as the basis for a research essay on the topic of
“racial profiling in retail stores.” The oral discussion thus stimulated critical thinking in the student and
the classmates, but it also relied on their prior critical thinking skills at the same time.

Notice that in both of these research studies, as in others like them, what made the thinking “critical”
was students’ use of metacognition—strategies for thinking about thinking and for monitoring the
success and quality of one’s own thinking. This concept was discussed in the chapter, “The learning
process,” as a feature of constructivist views about learning. There we pointed out that when students
acquire experience in building their own knowledge, they also become skilled both at knowing how they
learn, and at knowing whether they have learned something well. These are two defining qualities of
metacognition, but they are part of critical thinking as well. In fostering critical thinking, a teacher is
really fostering a student’s ability to construct or control his or her own thinking and to avoid being
controlled by ideas unreflectively.

How best to teach critical thinking remains a matter of debate. One issue is whether to infuse critical
skills into existing courses or to teach them through separate, free-standing units or courses. The first
approach has the potential advantage of integrating critical thinking into students’ entire educations. But
it risks diluting students’ understanding and use of critical thinking simply because critical thinking takes
on a different form in each learning context. Its details and appearance vary among courses and
teachers. The free-standing approach has the opposite qualities: it stands a better chance of being
understood clearly and coherently, but at the cost of obscuring how it is related to other courses, tasks,
and activities. This dilemma is the issue—again—of transfer, discussed in the chapter, “The learning
process.” Unfortunately, research to compare the different strategies for teaching critical thinking does
not settle the matter. The research suggests simply that either infusion or free-standing approaches can
work as long as it is implemented thoroughly and teachers are committed to the value of critical thinking
(Halpern, 2003).

A related issue about teaching critical thinking is about deciding who needs to learn critical thinking skills
the most. Should it be all students, or only some of them? Teaching all students seems the more
democratic alternative and thus appropriate for educators. Surveys have found, however, that teachers
sometimes favor teaching of critical thinking only to high-advantage students—the ones who already
achieve well, who come from relatively high-income families, or (for high school students) who take
courses intended for university entrance (Warburton & Torff, 2005). Presumably the rationale for this
bias is that high-advantage students can benefit and/or understand and use critical thinking better than
other students. Yet, there is little research evidence to support this idea, even if it were not ethically
questionable. The study by Hawkins (2006) described above, for example, is that critical thinking was
fostered even with students considered low-advantage.

Critical Thinking Skills

The essence of the independent mind lies not in what it thinks, but in how it thinks. —Christopher
Hitchens, author and journalist

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Define critical thinking

  Describe the role that logic plays in critical thinking

 Describe how critical thinking skills can be used to problem-solve

 Describe how critical thinking skills can be used to evaluate information

 Identify strategies for developing yourself as a critical thinker

Critical Thinking

Thinking comes naturally. You don’t have to make it happen—it just does. But you can make it happen in
different ways. For example, you can think positively or negatively. You can think with “heart” and you
can think with rational judgment. You can also think strategically and analytically, and mathematically
and scientifically. These are a few of multiple ways in which the mind can process thought.

What are some forms of thinking you use? When do you use them, and why?

As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most
important of these skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all
tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a “domain-general”
thinking skill—not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular
subject area.

Great leaders have highly attuned critical thinking skills, and you can, too. In fact, you probably have a lot
of these skills already. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It
means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this
instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts
or blindly accepting what you hear or read.

Imagine, for example, that you’re reading a history textbook. You wonder who wrote it and why, because
you detect certain biases in the writing. You find that the author has a limited scope of research focused
only on a particular group within a population. In this case, your critical thinking reveals that there are
“other sides to the story.”

Who are critical thinkers, and what characteristics do they have in common? Critical thinkers are
usually curious and reflective people. They like to explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge,
clarification, and new solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and
they distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs,
possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit lack of knowledge or understanding when
needed. They are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning, and
seeking new knowledge is a lifelong pursuit.

This may well be you!

No matter where you are on the road to being a critical thinker, you can always more fully develop and
finely tune your skills. Doing so will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly,
read critically, and glean important information efficiently. Critical thinking skills will help you in any
profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching. With critical thinking,
you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

Critical Thinking IS Critical Thinking is NOT

Skepticism Memorizing

Examining assumptions Group thinking

Challenging reasoning Blind acceptance of authority

Uncovering biases

The following video, from Lawrence Bland, presents the major concepts and benefits of critical thinking.

ACTIVITY: SELF-ASSESS YOUR CRITICAL THINKING STRATEGIES

Objectives

 Assess your basic understanding of the skills involved in critical thinking.

Directions

 Visit the Quia Critical Thinking Quiz page and click on Start Now (you don’t need to enter your
name). Select the best answer for each question, and then click on Submit Answers. A score of
70 percent or better on this quiz is considering passing.

 Based on the content of the questions, do you feel you use good critical thinking strategies in
college? In what ways might you improve as a critical thinker?

Critical Thinking and Logic

Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the
information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate
says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and
everything is subject to question and examination for the purpose of logically constructing reasoned
perspectives.

What Is Logic, and Why Is It Important in Critical Thinking?

The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike, referring to the science or art of reasoning.
Using logic, a person evaluates arguments and reasoning and strives to distinguish between good and
bad reasoning, or between truth and falsehood. Using logic, you can evaluate ideas or claims people
make, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about the world. [1]

Questions of Logic in Critical Thinking

Let’s use a simple example of applying logic to a critical-thinking situation. In this hypothetical scenario, a
man has a PhD in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife works at the
college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their family is well known in
the community. The man is now running for political office. Are his credentials and experience sufficient
for entering public office? Will he be effective in the political office? Some voters might believe that his
personal life and current job, on the surface, suggest he will do well in the position, and they will vote for
him. In truth, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job. The
information is somewhat irrelevant. What else might you want to know? How about whether the man
had already held a political office and done a good job? In this case, we want to ask, How much
information is adequate in order to make a decision based on logic instead of assumptions?

The following questions, presented in Figure 1, below, are ones you may apply to formulating a logical,
reasoned perspective in the above scenario or any other situation:

1. What’s happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions.

2. Why is it important? Ask yourself why it’s significant and whether or not you agree.

3. What don’t I see? Is there anything important missing?

4. How do I know? Ask yourself where the information came from and how it was constructed.

5. Who is saying it? What’s the position of the speaker and what is influencing them?

6. What else? What if? What other ideas exist and are there other possibilities?
Figure 1

Problem-Solving with Critical Thinking

For most people, a typical day is filled with critical thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact,
critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and
data to solve problems effectively. But with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting,
and defending your solution. Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve:

 Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which put a crimp in the
relationship. You try to see through the angry behaviors to determine how you might best
support the roommate and help bring the relationship back to a comfortable spot.

 Your campus club has been languishing on account of lack of participation and funds. The new
club president, though, is a marketing major and has identified some strategies to interest
students in joining and supporting the club. Implementation is forthcoming.

 Your final art class project challenges you to conceptualize form in new ways. On the last day of
class when students present their projects, you describe the techniques you used to fulfill the
assignment. You explain why and how you selected that approach.

 Your math teacher sees that the class is not quite grasping a concept. She uses clever
questioning to dispel anxiety and guide you to new understanding of the concept.

 You have a job interview for a position that you feel you are only partially qualified for, although
you really want the job and you are excited about the prospects. You analyze how you will
explain your skills and experiences in a way to show that you are a good match for the
prospective employer.

 You are doing well in college, and most of your college and living expenses are covered. But
there are some gaps between what you want and what you feel you can afford. You analyze your
income, savings, and budget to better calculate what you will need to stay in college and
maintain your desired level of spending.

Problem-Solving Action Checklist

Problem-solving can be an efficient and rewarding process, especially if you are organized and mindful of
critical steps and strategies. Remember, too, to assume the attributes of a good critical thinker. If you are
curious, reflective, knowledge-seeking, open to change, probing, organized, and ethical, your challenge
or problem will be less of a hurdle, and you’ll be in a good position to find intelligent solutions.
 STRATEGIES ACTION CHECKLIST[2]

 Identify the problem

 Provide as many supporting details as possible

1 Define the problem
 Provide examples

 Organize the information logically

 Use logic to identify your most important goals

 Identify implications and consequences

2 Identify available solutions
 Identify facts

 Compare and contrast possible solutions

 Use gathered facts and relevant evidence

3 Select your solution  Support and defend solutions considered valid

 Defend your solution

Evaluating Information with Critical Thinking

Evaluating information can be one of the most complex tasks you will be faced with in college. But if you
utilize the following four strategies, you will be well on your way to success:

1. Read for understanding by using text coding

2. Examine arguments

3. Clarify thinking

4. Cultivate “habits of mind”

Read for Understanding Using Text Coding

When you read and take notes, use the text coding strategy. Text coding is a way of tracking your
thinking while reading. It entails marking the text and recording what you are thinking either in the
margins or perhaps on Post-it notes. As you make connections and ask questions in response to what
you read, you monitor your comprehension and enhance your long-term understanding of the material.

With text coding, mark important arguments and key facts. Indicate where you agree and disagree or
have further questions. You don’t necessarily need to read every word, but make sure you understand
the concepts or the intentions behind what is written. Feel free to develop your own shorthand style
when reading or taking notes. The following are a few options to consider using while coding text.

Shorthand Meaning

! Important

L Learned something new

! Big idea surfaced

* Interesting or important fact

? Dig deeper

✓ Agree

≠ Disagree

See more text coding from PBWorks and Collaborative for Teaching and Learning.

Examine Arguments

When you examine arguments or claims that an author, speaker, or other source is making, your goal is
to identify and examine the hard facts. You can use the spectrum of authority strategy for this purpose.
The spectrum of authority strategy assists you in identifying the “hot” end of an argument—feelings,
beliefs, cultural influences, and societal influences—and the “cold” end of an argument—scientific
influences. The following video explains this strategy.

Clarify Thinking

When you use critical thinking to evaluate information, you need to clarify your thinking to yourself and
likely to others. Doing this well is mainly a process of asking and answering probing questions, such
as the logic questions discussed earlier. Design your questions to fit your needs, but be sure to cover
adequate ground. What is the purpose? What question are we trying to answer? What point of view is
being expressed? What assumptions are we or others making? What are the facts and data we know,
and how do we know them? What are the concepts we’re working with? What are the conclusions, and
do they make sense? What are the implications?

Cultivate “Habits of Mind”

“Habits of mind” are the personal commitments, values, and standards you have about the principle of
good thinking. Consider your intellectual commitments, values, and standards. Do you approach
problems with an open mind, a respect for truth, and an inquiring attitude? Some good habits to have
when thinking critically are being receptive to having your opinions changed, having respect for others,
being independent and not accepting something is true until you’ve had the time to examine the
available evidence, being fair-minded, having respect for a reason, having an inquiring mind, not making
assumptions, and always, especially, questioning your own conclusions—in other words, developing an
intellectual work ethic. Try to work these qualities into your daily life.

Developing Yourself As a Critical Thinker

Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert,
readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every kind of imposture. —
Francis Bacon, philosopher

Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit.
Below are additional strategies to develop yourself as a critical thinker in college and in everyday life:

 Reflect and practice: Always reflect on what you’ve learned. Is it true all the time? How did you
arrive at your conclusions?

 Use wasted time: It’s certainly important to make time for relaxing, but if you find you are
indulging in too much of a good thing, think about using your time more constructively.
Determine when you do your best thinking and try to learn something new during that part of
the day.
  Redefine the way you see things: It can be very uninteresting to always think the same
way. Challenge yourself to see familiar things in new ways. Put yourself in someone else’s shoes
and consider things from a different angle or perspective. If you’re trying to solve a problem, list
all your concerns: what you need in order to solve it, who can help, what some possible barriers
might be, etc. It’s often possible to reframe a problem as an opportunity. Try to find a solution
where there seems to be none.

 Analyze the influences on your thinking and in your life: Why do you think or feel the way you
do? Analyze your influences. Think about who in your life influences you. Do you feel or react a
certain way because of social convention, or because you believe it is what is expected of you?
Try to break out of any molds that may be constricting you.

 Express yourself: Critical thinking also involves being able to express yourself clearly. Most
important in expressing yourself clearly is stating one point at a time. You might be inclined to
argue every thought, but you might have greater impact if you focus just on your main
arguments. This will help others to follow your thinking clearly. For more abstract ideas, assume
that your audience may not understand. Provide examples, analogies, or metaphors where you
can.

 Enhance your wellness: It’s easier to think critically when you take care of your mental and
physical health. Try taking 10-minuteactivity breaks to reach 30 to 60 minutes of physical
activity each day. Try taking a break between classes and walk to the coffee shop that’s farthest
away. Scheduling physical activity into your day can help lower stress and increase mental
alertness. Also, do your most difficult work when you have the most energy. Think about the
time of day you are most effective and have the most energy. Plan to do your most difficult work
during these times. And be sure to reach out for help. If you feel you need assistance with your
mental or physical health, talk to a counselor or visit a doctor.

ACTIVITY: REFLECT ON CRITICAL THINKING

Objective

 Apply critical thinking strategies to your life

Directions:

 Think about someone you consider to be a critical thinker (friend, professor, historical figure,
etc). What qualities does he/she have?

 Review some of the critical thinking strategies discussed on this page. Pick one strategy that
makes sense to you. How can you apply this critical thinking technique to your academic work?

 Habits of mind are attitudes and beliefs that influence how you approach the world (i.e.,
inquiring attitude, open mind, respect for truth, etc). What is one habit of mind you would like to
actively develop over the next year? How will you develop a daily practice to cultivate this habit?

 Write your responses in journal form, and submit according to your instructor’s guidelines.

Summary

The following text is an excerpt from an essay by Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, “Thinking Critically and
Creatively.” In these paragraphs, Dr. Baker underscores the importance of critical thinking—the
imperative of critical thinking, really—to improving as students, teachers, and researchers. The follow-up
portion of this essay appears in the Creative Thinking section of this course.

THINKING CRITICALLY AND CREATIVELY

Critical thinking skills are perhaps the most fundamental skills involved in making judgments and solving
problems. You use them every day, and you can continue improving them.

The ability to think critically about a matter—to analyze a question, situation, or problem down to its
most basic parts—is what helps us evaluate the accuracy and truthfulness of statements, claims, and
information we read and hear. It is the sharp knife that, when honed, separates fact from fiction, honesty
from lies, and the accurate from the misleading. We all use this skill to one degree or another almost
every day. For example, we use critical thinking every day as we consider the latest consumer products
and why one particular product is the best among its peers. Is it a quality product because a celebrity
endorses it? Because a lot of other people may have used it? Because it is made by one company versus
another? Or perhaps because it is made in one country or another? These are questions representative
of critical thinking.

The academic setting demands more of us in terms of critical thinking than everyday life. It demands that
we evaluate information and analyze myriad issues. It is the environment where our critical thinking skills
can be the difference between success and failure. In this environment we must consider information in
an analytical, critical manner. We must ask questions—What is the source of this information? Is this
source an expert one and what makes it so? Are there multiple perspectives to consider on an issue? Do
multiple sources agree or disagree on an issue? Does quality research substantiate information or
opinion? Do I have any personal biases that may affect my consideration of this information?
It is only through purposeful, frequent, intentional questioning such as this that we can sharpen our
critical thinking skills and improve as students, learners and researchers.

—Dr. Andrew Robert Baker, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom

References

Hawkins, J. (2006). Accessing multicultural issues through critical thinking, critical inquiry, and the
student research process. Urban Education, 41(2), 169–141.

Liu, K. (2006). Annotation as an index to critical writing. Urban Education, 41(2), 192–207.

Warburton, E. & Torff, E. (2005). The effect of perceived learner advantages on teachers’ beliefs about
critical-thinking activities. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(1), 24–33.

Williams, R., Oliver, R., & Stockade, S. (2004). Psychological versus generic critical thinking as predictors
and outcome measures in a large undergraduate human development [Link] of General
Education, 53(1), 37–58.
Creative thinking

A way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective that suggests unorthodox solutions
(which may look unsettling at first). Creative thinking can be stimulated both by an unstructured process
such as brainstorming, and by a structured process such as lateral thinking.

Creativity

The ability to make or do something new that is also useful or valued by others (Gardner, 1993).

The “something” can be an object (like an essay or painting), a skill (like playing an instrument), or an
action (like using a familiar tool in a new way). To be creative, the object, skill, or action cannot simply be
bizarre or strange; it cannot be new without also being useful or valued, and not simply be the result of
accident. If a person types letters at random that form a poem by chance, the result may be beautiful,
but it would not be creative by the definition above. Viewed this way, creativity includes a wide range of
human experience that many people, if not everyone, have had at some time or other (Kaufman & Baer,
2006). The experience is not restricted to a few geniuses, nor exclusive to specific fields or activities like
art or the composing of music.

Especially important for teachers are two facts. The first is that an important form of creativity is creative
thinking, the generation of ideas that are new as well as useful, productive, and appropriate. The second
is that creative thinking can be stimulated by teachers’ efforts. Teachers can, for example, encourage
students’ divergent thinking—ideas that are open-ended and that lead in many directions (Torrance,
1992; Kim, 2006). Divergent thinking is stimulated by open-ended questions—questions with many
possible answers, such as the following:

 How many uses can you think of for a cup?

 Draw a picture that somehow incorporates all of these words: cat, fire engine, and banana.

 What is the most unusual use you can think of for a shoe?

Note that answering these questions creatively depends partly on having already acquired knowledge
about the objects to which the questions refer. In this sense divergent thinking depends partly on its
converse, convergent thinking, which is focused, logical reasoning about ideas and experiences that lead
to specific answers. Up to a point, then, developing students’ convergent thinking—as schoolwork often
does by emphasizing mastery of content—facilitates students’ divergent thinking indirectly, and hence
also their creativity (Sternberg, 2003; Runco, 2004; Cropley, 2006). But carried to extremes, excessive
emphasis on convergent thinking may discourage creativity.

Whether in school or out, creativity seems to flourish best when the creative activity is its own intrinsic
reward, and a person is relatively unconcerned with what others think of the results. Whatever the
activity—composing a song, writing an essay, organizing a party, or whatever—it is more likely to be
creative if the creator focuses on and enjoys the activity in itself, and thinks relatively little about how
others may evaluate the activity (Brophy, 2004). Unfortunately, encouraging students to ignore others’
responses can sometimes pose a challenge for teachers. Not only is it the teachers’ job to evaluate
students’ learning of particular ideas or skills, but also they have to do so within restricted time limits of
a course or a school year. In spite of these constraints, though, creativity still can be encouraged in
classrooms at least some of the time (Claxton, Edwards, & Scale-Constantinou, 2006). Suppose, for
example, that students have to be assessed on their understanding and use of particular vocabulary.
Testing their understanding may limit creative thinking; students will understandably focus their energies
on learning “right” answers for the tests. But assessment does not have to happen constantly. There can
also be times to encourage experimentation with vocabulary through writing poems, making word
games, or in other thought-provoking ways. These activities are all potentially creative. To some extent,
therefore, learning content and experimenting or playing with content can both find a place—in fact one
of these activities can often support the other. We return to this point later in this chapter, when we
discuss student-centered strategies of instruction, such as cooperative learning and play as a learning
medium

Creative thinking involves four stages:

1. Preparation:

In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered
necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved even after days, weeks or
months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the thinker turns away from it initiating
next stage.

2. Incubation:

During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade. The overt
activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the unconscious
thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period.
Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games, etc. Inspite
of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind.

3. Illumination:

Following the period of incubation the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently the obscure thing
becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination and is similar to ‘aha (eureka)’
experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to the crown problem.

4. Verification:

Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that solution is
correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the solution is not
satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning.

If it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor modification may also be made in
solution.

References

Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn, 2nd edition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Claxton, G., Edwards, L., & Constantinou, V. (2006). Cultivating creative mentalities: A framework for
education. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 1(1), 57–61.

Cropley, A. (2006). In praise of convergent thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 18(1), 291–404.

Gardner, H. (1993). Creative minds. New York: Basic Books.

Kaufman, J. & Baer, J. (2006). Creativity and reason in cognitive development. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Kim, K. (2006). Is creativity unidimensional or multidimensional? Analysis of Torrance Tests of Creative

Thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 18(1), 251–259.
Runco. M. (2004). Divergent thinking, creativity, and giftedness. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Definitions and
conceptions of giftedness, pp. 47–62.

Sternberg, R. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York: Cambridge University
Press.

Torrance, E. (1992). Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service.

Problem-solving

Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying,
prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.

Somewhat less open-ended than creative thinking is problem solving, the analysis and solution of tasks
or situations that are complex or ambiguous and that pose difficulties or obstacles of some kind (Mayer
& Wittrock, 2006). Problem solving is needed, for example, when a physician analyzes a chest X-ray: a
photograph of the chest is far from clear and requires skill, experience, and resourcefulness to decide
which foggy-looking blobs to ignore, and which to interpret as real physical structures (and therefore real
medical concerns). Problem solving is also needed when a grocery store manager has to decide how to
improve the sales of a product: should she put it on sale at a lower price, or increase publicity for it, or
both? Will these actions actually increase sales enough to pay for their costs?

EXAMPLE 1: PROBLEM SOLVING IN THE CLASSROOM

Problem solving happens in classrooms when teachers present tasks or challenges that are deliberately
complex and for which finding a solution is not straightforward or obvious. The responses of students to
such problems, as well as the strategies for assisting them, show the key features of problem solving.
Consider this example, and students’ responses to it. We have numbered and named the paragraphs to
make it easier to comment about them individually:

Scene #1: A problem to be solved

A teacher gave these instructions: “Can you connect all of the dots below using only four straight lines?”
She drew the following display on the chalkboard:
The problem itself and the procedure for solving it seemed very clear: simply experiment with different
arrangements of four lines. But two volunteers tried doing it at the board, but were unsuccessful. Several
others worked at it at their seats, but also without success.

Scene #2: Coaxing students to re-frame the problem

When no one seemed to be getting it, the teacher asked, “Think about how you’ve set up the problem in
your mind—about what you believe the problem is about. For instance, have you made any assumptions
about how long the lines ought to be? Don’t stay stuck on one approach if it’s not working!”

Scene #3: Alicia abandons a fixed response

After the teacher said this, Alicia indeed continued to think about how she saw the problem. “The lines
need to be no longer than the distance across the square,” she said to herself. So she tried several more
solutions, but none of them worked either.

The teacher walked by Alicia’s desk and saw what Alicia was doing. She repeated her earlier comment:
“Have you assumed anything about how long the lines ought to be?”

Alicia stared at the teacher blankly, but then smiled and said, “Hmm! You didn’t actually say that the
lines could be no longer than the matrix! Why not make them longer?” So she experimented again using
oversized lines and soon discovered a solution:

Scene #4: Willem’s and Rachel’s alternative strategies

Meanwhile, Willem worked on the problem. As it happened, Willem loved puzzles of all kinds, and had
ample experience with them. He had not, however, seen this particular problem. “It must be a trick,” he
said to himself, because he knew from experience that problems posed in this way often were not what
they first appeared to be. He mused to himself: “Think outside the box, they always tell you. . .”
And that was just the hint he needed: he drew lines outside the box by making them longer than the
matrix and soon came up with this solution:
When Rachel went to work, she took one look at the problem and knew the answer immediately: she
had seen this problem before, though she could not remember where. She had also seen other drawing-
related puzzles, and knew that their solution always depended on making the lines longer, shorter, or
differently angled than first expected. After staring at the dots briefly, she drew a solution faster than
Alicia or even Willem. Her solution looked exactly like Willem’s.

This story illustrates two common features of problem solving: the effect of degree of structure or
constraint on problem solving, and the effect of mental obstacles to solving problems. The next sections
discuss each of these features, and then looks at common techniques for solving problems.

The effect of constraints: well-structured versus ill-structured problems

Problems vary in how much information they provide for solving a problem, as well as in how many rules
or procedures are needed for a solution. A well-structured problem provides much of the information
needed and can in principle be solved using relatively few clearly understood rules. Classic examples are
the word problems often taught in math lessons or classes: everything you need to know is contained
within the stated problem and the solution procedures are relatively clear and precise. An ill-structured
problem has the converse qualities: the information is not necessarily within the problem, solution
procedures are potentially quite numerous, and a multiple solutions are likely (Voss, 2006). Extreme
examples are problems like “How can the world achieve lasting peace?” or “How can teachers insure
that students learn?”

By these definitions, the nine-dot problem is relatively well-structured—though not completely. Most of
the information needed for a solution is provided in Scene #1: there are nine dots shown and
instructions given to draw four lines. But not all necessary information was given: students needed to
consider lines that were longer than implied in the original statement of the problem. Students had to
“think outside the box,” as Willem said—in this case, literally.

When a problem is well-structured, so are its solution procedures likely to be as well. A well-defined
procedure for solving a particular kind of problem is often called an algorithm; examples are the
procedures for multiplying or dividing two numbers or the instructions for using a computer (Leiserson,
et al., 2001). Algorithms are only effective when a problem is very well-structured and there is no
question about whether the algorithm is an appropriate choice for the problem. In that situation it pretty
much guarantees a correct solution. They do not work well, however, with ill-structured problems,
where they are ambiguities and questions about how to proceed or even about precisely what the
problem is about. In those cases it is more effective to use heuristics, which are general strategies
—“rules of thumb,” so to speak—that do not always work, but often do, or that provide at least partial
solutions. When beginning research for a term paper, for example, a useful heuristic is to scan the library
catalogue for titles that look relevant. There is no guarantee that this strategy will yield the books most
needed for the paper, but the strategy works enough of the time to make it worth trying.

In the nine-dot problem, most students began in Scene #1 with a simple algorithm that can be stated like
this: “Draw one line, then draw another, and another, and another.” Unfortunately this simple procedure
did not produce a solution, so they had to find other strategies for a solution. Three alternatives are
described in Scenes #3 (for Alicia) and 4 (for Willem and Rachel). Of these, Willem’s response resembled
a heuristic the most: he knew from experience that a good general strategy that often worked for such
problems was to suspect a deception or trick in how the problem was originally stated. So he set out to
question what the teacher had meant by the word line, and came up with an acceptable solution as a
result.

Common obstacles to solving problems

The example also illustrates two common problems that sometimes happen during problem solving. One
of these is functional fixedness: a tendency to regard the functions of objects and ideas as fixed (German
& Barrett, 2005). Over time, we get so used to one particular purpose for an object that we overlook
other uses. We may think of a dictionary, for example, as necessarily something to verify spellings and
definitions, but it also can function as a gift, a doorstop, or a footstool. For students working on the nine-
dot matrix described in the last section, the notion of “drawing” a line was also initially fixed; they
assumed it to be connecting dots but not extending lines beyond the dots. Functional fixedness
sometimes is also called response set, the tendency for a person to frame or think about each problem
in a series in the same way as the previous problem, even when doing so is not appropriate to later
problems. In the example of the nine-dot matrix described above, students often tried one solution after
another, but each solution was constrained by a set response not to extend any line beyond the matrix.

Functional fixedness and the response set are obstacles in problem representation, the way that a
person understands and organizes information provided in a problem. If information is misunderstood or
used inappropriately, then mistakes are likely—if indeed the problem can be solved at all. With the nine-
dot matrix problem, for example, construing the instruction to draw four lines as meaning “draw four
lines entirely within the matrix” means that the problem simply could not be solved. For another,
consider this problem: “The number of water lilies on a lake doubles each day. Each water lily covers
exactly one square foot. If it takes 100 days for the lilies to cover the lake exactly, how many days does it
take for the lilies to cover exactly half of the lake?” If you think that the size of the lilies affects the
solution to this problem, you have not represented the problem correctly. Information about lily size
is not relevant to the solution, and only serves to distract from the truly crucial information, the fact that
the lilies double their coverage each day. (The answer, incidentally, is that the lake is half covered in 99
days; can you think why?)

Strategies to assist problem solving

Just as there are cognitive obstacles to problem solving, there are also general strategies that help the
process be successful, regardless of the specific content of a problem (Thagard, 2005). One helpful
strategy is problem analysis—identifying the parts of the problem and working on each part separately.
Analysis is especially useful when a problem is ill-structured. Consider this problem, for example: “Devise
a plan to improve bicycle transportation in the city.” Solving this problem is easier if you identify its parts
or component subproblems, such as (1) installing bicycle lanes on busy streets, (2) educating cyclists and
motorists to ride safely, (3) fixing potholes on streets used by cyclists, and (4) revising traffic laws that
interfere with cycling. Each separate subproblem is more manageable than the original, general problem.
The solution of each subproblem contributes the solution of the whole, though of course is not
equivalent to a whole solution.

Another helpful strategy is working backward from a final solution to the originally stated problem. This
approach is especially helpful when a problem is well-structured but also has elements that are
distracting or misleading when approached in a forward, normal direction. The water lily problem
described above is a good example: starting with the day when all the lake is covered (Day 100), ask
what day would it therefore be half covered (by the terms of the problem, it would have to be the day
before, or Day 99). Working backward in this case encourages reframing the extra information in the
problem (i. e. the size of each water lily) as merely distracting, not as crucial to a solution.

A third helpful strategy is analogical thinking—using knowledge or experiences with similar features or
structures to help solve the problem at hand (Bassok, 2003). In devising a plan to improve bicycling in
the city, for example, an analogy of cars with bicycles is helpful in thinking of solutions: improving
conditions for both vehicles requires many of the same measures (improving the roadways, educating
drivers). Even solving simpler, more basic problems is helped by considering analogies. A first grade
student can partially decode unfamiliar printed words by analogy to words he or she has learned already.
If the child cannot yet read the word screen, for example, he can note that part of this word looks similar
to words he may already know, such as seen or green, and from this observation derive a clue about how
to read the word screen. Teachers can assist this process, as you might expect, by suggesting reasonable,
helpful analogies for students to consider.

THE FOUR BASIC STEPS OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS

In order to effectively manage and run a successful organization, leadership must guide their employees
and develop problem-solving techniques. Finding a suitable solution for issues can be accomplished by
following the four-step problem-solving process and methodology outlined below.

Step Characteristics
1. Define the problem  Differentiate fact from opinion

 Specify underlying causes

 Consult each faction involved for information

 State the problem specifically

 Identify what standard or expectation is violated

 Determine in which process the problem lies

 Avoid trying to solve the problem without data

2. Generate alternative solutions  Postpone evaluating alternatives initially

 Include all involved individuals in the generating of alternatives

 Specify alternatives consistent with organizational goals

 Specify short- and long-term alternatives

 Brainstorm on others' ideas

 Seek alternatives that may solve the problem

3. Evaluate and select an alternative  Evaluate alternatives relative to a target standard

 Evaluate all alternatives without bias

 Evaluate alternatives relative to established goals

 Evaluate both proven and possible outcomes

 State the selected alternative explicitly

4. Implement and follow up on the solution  Plan and implement a pilot test of the chosen alternative

 Gather feedback from all affected parties

 Seek acceptance or consensus by all those affected

 Establish ongoing measures and monitoring

 Evaluate long-term results based on final solution

Problem Solving Chart

1. Define the problem

Diagnose the situation so that your focus is on the problem, not just its symptoms. Helpful problem-
solving techniques include using flowchartsto identify the expected steps of a process and cause-and-
effect diagrams to define and analyze root causes.

The sections below help explain key problem-solving steps. These steps support the involvement of
interested parties, the use of factual information, comparison of expectations to reality, and a focus on
root causes of a problem. You should begin by:

 Reviewing and documenting how processes currently work (i.e., who does what, with what
information, using what tools, communicating with what organizations and individuals, in what
time frame, using what format).

 Evaluating the possible impact of new tools and revised policies in the development of your
“what should be” model.

2. Generate alternative solutions

Postpone the selection of one solution until several problem-solving alternatives have been proposed.
Considering multiple alternatives can significantly enhance the value of your ideal solution. Once you
have decided on the "what should be" model, this target standard becomes the basis for developing a
road map for investigating alternatives. Brainstorming and team problem-solving techniques are both
useful tools in this stage of problem solving.

Many alternative solutions to the problem should be generated before final evaluation. A common
mistake in problem solving is that alternatives are evaluated as they are proposed, so the first acceptable
solution is chosen, even if it’s not the best fit. If we focus on trying to get the results we want, we miss
the potential for learning something new that will allow for real improvement in the problem-solving
process.

3. Evaluate and select an alternative

Skilled problem solvers use a series of considerations when selecting the best alternative. They consider
the extent to which:

 A particular alternative will solve the problem without causing other unanticipated problems.

 All the individuals involved will accept the alternative.

 Implementation of the alternative is likely.

 The alternative fits within the organizational constraints.

4. Implement and follow up on the solution

Leaders may be called upon to direct others to implement the solution, "sell" the solution, or facilitate
the implementation with the help of others. Involving others in the implementation is an effective way to
gain buy-in and support and minimize resistance to subsequent changes.

Regardless of how the solution is rolled out, feedback channels should be built into the implementation.
This allows for continuous monitoring and testing of actual events against expectations. Problem solving,
and the techniques used to gain clarity, are most effective if the solution remains in place and is updated
to respond to future changes.

References

Bassok, J. (2003). Analogical transfer in problem solving. In Davidson, J. & Sternberg, R. (Eds.). The
psychology of problem solving. New York: Cambridge University Press.

German, T. & Barrett, H. (2005). Functional fixedness in a technologically sparse culture. Psychological
Science, 16(1), 1–5.

Leiserson, C., Rivest, R., Cormen, T., & Stein, C. (2001). Introduction to algorithms. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.

Luchins, A. & Luchins, E. (1994). The water-jar experiment and Einstellung effects. Gestalt Theory: An
International Interdisciplinary Journal, 16(2), 101–121.

Mayer, R. & Wittrock, M. (2006). Problem-solving transfer. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of
Educational Psychology, pp. 47–62. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Thagard, R. (2005). Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Voss, J. (2006). Toulmin’s model and the solving of ill-structured problems. Argumentation, 19(3), 321–
329.

Metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Thinking about One’s Thinking

Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one’s thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes
used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a
critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.

Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985), researchers
soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then, these thought
processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). In How People
Learn, the National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of decades of research on the science of
learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the effectiveness of a “‘metacognitive’ approach to
instruction” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 18).

Metacognitive practices increase students’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts
and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Scardamalia et al., 1984;
Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of awareness above the subject matter:
they also think about the tasks and contexts of different learning situations and themselves as learners in
these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002) asserts that “Students who know about the different
kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them” (p. 222),
notice the students must “know about” these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David
(2009) explain, there must be a “conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]” (p. 179).

Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses as learners,
writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the limit of one’s
knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend the ability. Those
who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to “actively monitor their
learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular tasks and performances”
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67).

The absence of metacognition connects to the research by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, and Kruger on
“Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence” (2003). They found that “people tend to be
blissfully unaware of their incompetence,” lacking “insight about deficiencies in their intellectual and
social skills.” They identified this pattern across domains—from test-taking, writing grammatically,
thinking logically, to recognizing humor, to hunters’ knowledge about firearms and medical lab
technicians’ knowledge of medical terminology and problem-solving skills (p. 83-84). In short, “if people
lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to know when their
answers, or anyone else’s, are right or wrong” (p. 85). This research suggests that increased
metacognitive abilities—to learn specific (and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice
them—is needed in many contexts.
Putting Metacognition into Practice

In “Promoting Student Metacognition,” Tanner (2012) offers a handful of specific activities for biology
classes, but they can be adapted to any discipline. She first describes four assignments for explicit
instruction (p. 116):

 Preassessments—Encouraging Students to Examine Their Current Thinking: “What do I already

know about this topic that could guide my learning?”

 The Muddiest Point—Giving Students Practice in Identifying Confusions: “What was most
confusing to me about the material explored in class today?”

 Retrospective Postassessments—Pushing Students to Recognize Conceptual Change: “Before this

course, I thought evolution was… Now I think that evolution is ….” or “How is my thinking
changing (or not changing) over time?”

 Reflective Journals—Providing a Forum in Which Students Monitor Their Own Thinking: “What
about my exam preparation worked well that I should remember to do next time? What did not
work so well that I should not do next time or that I should change?”

Next are recommendations for developing a “classroom culture grounded in metacognition” (p. 116-
118):

 Giving Students License to Identify Confusions within the Classroom Culture: ask students what
they find confusing, acknowledge the difficulties

 Integrating Reflection into Credited Course Work: integrate short reflection (oral or written) that
ask students what they found challenging or what questions arose during an
assignment/exam/project

 Metacognitive Modeling by the Instructor for Students: model the thinking processes involved in
your field and sought in your course by being explicit about “how you start, how you decide what
to do first and then next, how you check your work, how you know when you are done” (p. 118)

To facilitate these activities, she also offers three useful tables:

 Questions for students to ask themselves as they plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking
within four learning contexts—in class, assignments, quizzes/exams, and the course as a whole
(p. 115)

 Prompts for integrating metacognition into discussions of pairs during clicker activities,
assignments, and quiz or exam preparation (p. 117)

 Questions to help faculty metacognitively assess their own teaching (p. 119)
Weimer’s “Deep Learning vs. Surface Learning: Getting Students to Understand the Difference” (2012)
offers additional recommendations for developing students’ metacognitive awareness and improvement
of their study skills:

“[I]t is terribly important that in explicit and concerted ways we make students aware of themselves as
learners. We must regularly ask, not only ‘What are you learning?’ but ‘How are you learning?’ We must
confront them with the effectiveness (more often ineffectiveness) of their approaches. We must offer
alternatives and then challenge students to test the efficacy of those approaches.” (emphasis added)

She points to a tool developed by Stanger-Hall (2012, p. 297) for her students to identify their study
strategies, which she divided into “cognitively passive” (“I previewed the reading before class,” “I came
to class,” “I read the assigned text,” “I highlighted the text,” et al) and “cognitively active study
behaviors” (“I asked myself: ‘How does it work?’ and ‘Why does it work this way?’” “I wrote my own
study questions,” “I fit all the facts into a bigger picture,” “I closed my notes and tested how much I
remembered,” et al). The specific focus of Stanger-Hall’s study is tangential to this discussion, 1 but
imagine giving students lists like hers adapted to your course and then, after a major assignment, having
students discuss which ones worked and which types of behaviors led to higher grades. Even further,
follow Lovett’s advice (2013) by assigning “exam wrappers,” which include students reflecting on their
previous exam-preparation strategies, assessing those strategies and then looking ahead to the next
exam, and writing an action plan for a revised approach to studying. A common assignment in English
composition courses is the self-assessment essay in which students apply course criteria to articulate
their strengths and weaknesses within single papers or over the course of the semester. These activities
can be adapted to assignments other than exams or essays, such as projects, speeches, discussions, and
the like.

As these examples illustrate, for students to become more metacognitive, they must be taught the
concept and its language explicitly (Pintrich, 2002; Tanner, 2012), though not in a content-delivery model
(simply a reading or a lecture) and not in one lesson. Instead, the explicit instruction should be “designed
according to a knowledge construction approach,” or students need to recognize, assess, and connect
new skills to old ones, “and it needs to take place over an extended period of time” (Zohar & David, p.
187). This kind of explicit instruction will help students expand or replace existing learning strategies
with new and more effective ones, give students a way to talk about learning and thinking, compare
strategies with their classmates’ and make more informed choices, and render learning “less opaque to
students, rather than being something that happens mysteriously or that some students ‘get’ and learn
and others struggle and don’t learn” (Pintrich, 2002, p. 223).

Metacognition instruction should also be embedded with the content and activities about which
students are thinking. Why? Metacognition is “not generic” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 19) but
instead is most effective when it is adapted to reflect the specific learning contexts of a specific topic,
course, or discipline (Zohar & David, 2009). In explicitly connecting a learning context to its relevant
processes, learners will be more able to adapt strategies to new contexts, rather than assume that
learning is the same everywhere and every time. For instance, students’ abilities to read disciplinary
texts in discipline-appropriate ways would also benefit from metacognitive practice. A literature
professor may read a passage of a novel aloud in class, while also talking about what she’s thinking as
she reads: how she makes sense of specific words and phrases, what connections she makes, how she
approaches difficult passages, etc. This kind of modeling is a good practice in metacognition instruction,
as suggested by Tanner above. Concepción’s “Reading Philosophy with Background Knowledge and
Metacognition” (2004) includes his detailed “How to Read Philosophy” handout (pp. 358-367), which
includes the following components:

 What to Expect (when reading philosophy)

 The Ultimate Goal (of reading philosophy)

 Basic Good Reading Behaviors

 Important Background Information, or discipline- and course-specific reading practices, such as

“reading for enlightenment” rather than information, and “problem-based classes” rather than
historical or figure-based classes

 A Three-Part Reading Process (pre-reading, understanding, and evaluating)

 Flagging, or annotating the reading

 Linear vs. Dialogical Writing (Philosophical writing is rarely straightforward but instead “a
monologue that contains a dialogue” [p. 365].)

What would such a handout look like for your discipline?

Students can even be metacognitively prepared (and then prepare themselves) for the overarching
learning experiences expected in specific contexts. Salvatori and Donahue’s The Elements (and
Pleasures) of Difficulty(2004) encourages students to embrace difficult texts (and tasks) as part of deep
learning, rather than an obstacle. Their “difficulty paper” assignment helps students reflect on and
articulate the nature of the difficulty and work through their responses to it (p. 9). Similarly, in courses
with sensitive subject matter, a different kind of learning occurs, one that involves complex emotional
responses. In “Learning from Their Own Learning: How Metacognitive and Meta-affective Reflections
Enhance Learning in Race-Related Courses” (Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, 2009), students were informed
about the common reactions to learning about racial inequality (Helms, 1995; Adams, Bell, & Griffin,
1997; see student handout, Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, p. 23-24) and then regularly wrote about their
cognitive and affective responses to specific racialized situations. The students with the most developed
metacognitive and meta-affective practices at the end of the semester were able to “clear the obstacles
and move away from” oversimplified thinking about race and racism ”to places of greater questioning,
acknowledging the complexities of identity, and redefining the world in racial terms” (p. 14).

Ultimately, metacognition requires students to “externalize mental events” (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, p. 67), such as what it means to learn, awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses with
specific skills or in a given learning context, plan what’s required to accomplish a specific learning goal or
activity, identifying and correcting errors, and preparing ahead for learning processes.
1
Students who were tested with short answer in addition to multiple-choice questions on their exams reported
more cognitively active behaviors than those tested with just multiple-choice questions, and these active behaviors
led to improved performance on the final exam.
Language and Thinking

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the relationship between language and thinking

When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and
events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can
words themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long investigated the
question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape
our language. Two researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this investigation in the
1940s. They wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that
community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941/1964). Sapir and Whorf proposed
that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that a person whose community language
did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Researchers
have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and
Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study
and debate the relationship between language and thought.

WHAT DO YOU THINK?: THE MEANING OF LANGUAGE

Think about what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak multiple languages. Imagine for
a moment that your closest friend fluently speaks more than one language. Do you think that friend
thinks differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You may know a few words that are not
translatable from their original language into English. For example, the Portuguese
word saudade originated during the 15th century, when Portuguese sailors left home to explore the seas
and travel to Africa or Asia. Those left behind described the emptiness and fondness they felt
as saudade (Figure 1). The word came to express many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning,
warm memories, and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of those emotions in a
single description. Do words such as saudade indicate that different languages produce different
patterns of thought in people? What do you think??
Figure 1. These two works of art depict saudade. (a) Saudade de Nápoles, which is translated into
“missing Naples,” was painted by Bertha Worms in 1895. (b) Almeida Júnior painted Saudade in 1899.

Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as linguistic determinism. One
recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin
Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about time using terms that
describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for example, saying something like “I’m running behind
schedule” or “Don’t get ahead of yourself.” While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time in
horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement. For
example, the past might be described as being “up” and the future as being “down.” It turns out that
these differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests designed to
measure how quickly an individual can recognize temporal relationships. Specifically, when given a series
of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers were faster at recognizing temporal
relationships between months. Indeed, Boroditsky (2001) sees these results as suggesting that “habits in
language encourage habits in thought” (p. 12).
Language does not completely determine our thoughts—our thoughts are far too flexible for that—but
habitual uses of language can influence our habit of thought and action. For instance, some linguistic
practice seems to be associated even with cultural values and social institution. Pronoun drop is the case
in point. Pronouns such as “I” and “you” are used to represent the speaker and listener of a speech in
English. In an English sentence, these pronouns cannot be dropped if they are used as the subject of a
sentence. So, for instance, “I went to the movie last night” is fine, but “Went to the movie last night” is
not in standard English. However, in other languages such as Japanese, pronouns can be, and in fact
often are, dropped from sentences. It turned out that people living in those countries where pronoun
drop languages are spoken tend to have more collectivistic values (e.g., employees having greater loyalty
toward their employers) than those who use non–pronoun drop languages such as English (Kashima &
Kashima, 1998). It was argued that the explicit reference to “you” and “I” may remind speakers the
distinction between the self and other, and the differentiation between individuals. Such a linguistic
practice may act as a constant reminder of the cultural value, which, in turn, may encourage people to
perform the linguistic practice.

One group of researchers who wanted to investigate how language influences thought compared how
English speakers and the Dani people of Papua New Guinea think and speak about color. The Dani have
two words for color: one word for light and one word for dark. In contrast, the English language has 11
color words. Researchers hypothesized that the number of color terms could limit the ways that the Dani
people conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors with the same ability as
English speakers, despite having fewer words at their disposal (Berlin & Kay, 1969). A recent review of
research aimed at determining how language might affect something like color perception suggests that
language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain. You may
recall from earlier chapters that the left hemisphere is associated with language for most people.
However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less affected by linguistic influences on
perception (Regier & Kay, 2009)

Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology

An interesting and persistent controversy in the study of language behaviour has been the relationship
between thought and speech.

The issue involved here may be stated as follows:

Is it possible to think without acquiring language? Are thought processes possible without words and
other forms of verbal elements? Is it that all our thought processes are dependent on acquisition of
language and that thought processes are impossible without language symbols of some sort or the
other?
Arguments are very strong on either side, even today. The classical view in psychology, emanating from
early experimental psychology identified image as one of the fundamental elements of consciousness
and constituting the contents of thinking. In the light of this, thinking was regarded as a primary ability
found even in very young children and language was regarded as secondary.

Some subsequent experiments carried out by Kulpe, Marbe and others on the issue of image and
thought went a step further, and held that even images, let alone verbal images are not necessary for
thought processes to occur. Evidence from experiments on chimpanzees like ‘the delayed reactions
experiment’ of Hunter and even Kohlers experiments on ‘insight learning’ in a way uphold the primacy of
thought over language.

More recently a group of psychologists hold that thought being primary, language is only an agency for
organising, encoding and decoding our thoughts. They hold that language is determined and controlled
by our thought processes.

A leading advocate’ of such a view is J.S. Burner, who argues that language behaviour or speech is
possible only because of the existence of a topic common in structure in different languages, pre-lingual
processes and mechanisms, and language only helps to encode and receive these structures.

Further support to this view advocating the primacy of thought over language comes from certain
experiments on colour experience. In an interesting experiment Berlin IC employed an array of 329
colours which were presented to people speaking 20 different languages. In the first instance the
investigator ascertained the basic colour terms in each language.
After ascertaining the basic colours, the authors put on a clear piece of acetate over the colours. The
subjects were required to map out the areas of each colour term and also put a cross mark against the
best representation of each colour form marked by them.

Some of the findings were as follows:

1. It was found that in almost all the languages, the number of basic terms or vocabulary related to
colour are very limited.

2. The focal or best example of colour terms is the same across the twenty languages. If for example, one
language has four basic terms for colour and another language more, four focal colours chosen for the
first language are found to overlap very much with the basics for the second language. Thus, there
appears to be a common factor of description of colour experiences in all languages.

3. It was further found that there is a common and standard order when terms distinguishing colour are
added. For example, there are two terms, related to black bright colours. If there is a third term, then it
is red and yellow, green or green and yellow, and the sixth blue.

The implication of this is that no matter what the language involved is, there seems to be a basic
sequence of the ordering of the emergence of colour forms showing that there is no unlimited freedom
exercised or possible in any language to describe or define colour experiences in its own peculiar way,
showing that experiences or perception of colour is more primary compared to words.
IQ

Measures of Intelligence

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Describe the development of IQ tests, their purposes, and benefits

 Explain the bell curve, and how IQ is measured

While you’re likely familiar with the term “IQ” and associate it with the idea of intelligence, what does IQ
really mean? IQ stands for intelligence quotient and describes a score earned on a test designed to
measure intelligence. You’ve already learned that there are many ways psychologists describe
intelligence (or more aptly, intelligences). Similarly, IQ tests—the tools designed to measure intelligence
—have been the subject of debate throughout their development and use.

When might an IQ test be used? What do we learn from the results, and how might people use this
information? IQ tests are expensive to administer and must be given by a licensed psychologist.
Intelligence testing has been considered both a bane and a boon for education and social policy. In this
section, we will explore what intelligence tests measure, how they are scored, and how they were
developed.

Measuring Intelligence

It seems that the human understanding of intelligence is somewhat limited when we focus on traditional
or academic-type intelligence. How then, can intelligence be measured? And when we measure
intelligence, how do we ensure that we capture what we’re really trying to measure (in other words, that
IQ tests function as valid measures of intelligence)? In the following paragraphs, we will explore the how
intelligence tests were developed and the history of their use. The IQ test has been synonymous with
intelligence for over a century.

In the late 1800s, Sir Francis Galton developed the first broad test of intelligence (Flanagan & Kaufman,
2004). Although he was not a psychologist, his contributions to the concepts of intelligence testing are
still felt today (Gordon, 1995). Reliable intelligence testing (you may recall from earlier modules that
reliability refers to a test’s ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early 1900s
with a researcher named Alfred Binet. Binet was asked by the French government to develop an
intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included
many verbally based tasks. American researchers soon realized the value of such testing.

Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work by standardizing the administration of the test
and tested thousands of different-aged children to establish an average score for each age. As a result,
the test was normed and standardized, which means that the test was administered consistently to a
large enough representative sample of the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve
(bell curves will be discussed later). Standardization means that the manner of administration, scoring,
and interpretation of results is consistent. Norming involves giving a test to a large population so data
can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or referential
scores, by which to interpret future scores. Norms are not expectations of what a given
group should know but a demonstration of what that group does know. Norming and standardizing the
test ensures that new scores are reliable. This new version of the test was called the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916). Remarkably, an updated version of this test is still widely used today.

Figure 1. French psychologist Alfred Binet helped to develop intelligence testing. (b) This page is from a
1908 version of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Children being tested were asked which face, of each
pair, was prettier.

In 1939, David Wechsler, a psychologist who spent part of his career working with World War I veterans,
developed a new IQ test in the United States. Wechsler combined several subtests from other
intelligence tests used between 1880 and World War I. These subtests tapped into a variety of verbal and
nonverbal skills, because Wechsler believed that intelligence encompassed “the global capacity of a
person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” (Wechsler,
1958, p. 7). He named the test the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1981). This
combination of subtests became one of the most extensively used intelligence tests in the history of
psychology. Although its name was later changed to the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and has
been revised several times, the aims of the test remain virtually unchanged since its inception (Boake,
2002). Today, there are three intelligence tests credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV) (Wechsler, 2012). These tests are used widely
in schools and communities throughout the United States, and they are periodically normed and
standardized as a means of recalibration.
Interestingly, the periodic recalibrations have led to an interesting observation known as the Flynn effect.
Named after James Flynn, who was among the first to describe this trend, the Flynn effect refers to the
observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. Flynn himself argues,
however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent
per se (Flynn, Shaughnessy, & Fulgham, 2012). As a part of the recalibration process, the WISC-V (which
was released in 2014) was given to thousands of children across the country, and children taking the test
today are compared with their same-age peers. The WISC-V is composed of 14 subtests, which comprise
five indices, which then render an IQ score. The five indices are Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial,
Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. When the test is complete, individuals receive
a score for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. The method of scoring reflects the
understanding that intelligence is comprised of multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses
on the mental processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each test item (Heaton,
2004).

Ultimately, we are still left with the question of how valid intelligence tests are. Certainly, the most
modern versions of these tests tap into more than verbal competencies, yet the specific skills that should
be assessed in IQ testing, the degree to which any test can truly measure an individual’s intelligence, and
the use of the results of IQ tests are still issues of debate (Gresham & Witt, 1997; Flynn, Shaughnessy, &
Fulgham, 2012; Richardson, 2002; Schlinger, 2003).

Why Measure Intelligence?

The value of IQ testing is most evident in educational or clinical settings. Children who seem to be
experiencing learning difficulties or severe behavioral problems can be tested to ascertain whether the
child’s difficulties can be partly attributed to an IQ score that is significantly different from the mean for
her age group. Without IQ testing—or another measure of intelligence—children and adults needing
extra support might not be identified effectively. In addition, IQ testing is used in courts to determine
whether a defendant has special or extenuating circumstances that preclude him from participating in
some way in a trial. People also use IQ testing results to seek disability benefits from the Social Security
Administration. While IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious
purposes, such as the eugenics movement (Severson, 2011), the following case study demonstrates the
usefulness and benefits of IQ testing.

Candace, a 14-year-old girl experiencing problems at school, was referred for a court-ordered
psychological evaluation. She was in regular education classes in ninth grade and was failing every
subject. Candace had never been a stellar student but had always been passed to the next grade.
Frequently, she would curse at any of her teachers who called on her in class. She also got into fights
with other students and occasionally shoplifted. When she arrived for the evaluation, Candace
immediately said that she hated everything about school, including the teachers, the rest of the staff, the
building, and the homework. Her parents stated that they felt their daughter was picked on, because she
was of a different race than the teachers and most of the other students. When asked why she cursed at
her teachers, Candace replied, “They only call on me when I don’t know the answer. I don’t want to say,
‘I don’t know’ all of the time and look like an idiot in front of my friends. The teachers embarrass me.”
She was given a battery of tests, including an IQ test. Her score on the IQ test was 68. What does
Candace’s score say about her ability to excel or even succeed in regular education classes without
assistance?

The Bell Curve

The results of intelligence tests follow the bell curve, a graph in the general shape of a bell. When the
bell curve is used in psychological testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in this
case, intelligence, in the human population. Many human traits naturally follow the bell curve. For
example, if you lined up all your female schoolmates according to height, it is likely that a large cluster of
them would be the average height for an American woman: 5’4”–5’6”. This cluster would fall in the
center of the bell curve, representing the average height for American women (Figure 2). There would be
fewer women who stand closer to 4’11”. The same would be true for women of above-average height:
those who stand closer to 5’11”.

The trick to finding a bell curve in nature is to use a large sample size. Without a large sample size, it is
less likely that the bell curve will represent the wider population. A representative sample is a subset of
the population that accurately represents the general population. If, for example, you measured the
height of the women in your classroom only, you might not actually have a representative sample.
Perhaps the women’s basketball team wanted to take this course together, and they are all in your class.
Because basketball players tend to be taller than average, the women in your class may not be a good
representative sample of the population of American women. But if your sample included all the women
at your school, it is likely that their heights would form a natural bell curve.

Figure 2. Are you of below-average, average, or above-average height?

The same principles apply to intelligence tests scores. Individuals earn a score called an intelligence
quotient (IQ). Over the years, different types of IQ tests have evolved, but the way scores are interpreted
remains the same. The average IQ score on an IQ test is 100. Standard deviations describe how data are
dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets. The bell curve uses the standard deviation
to show how all scores are dispersed from the average score (Figure 3). In modern IQ testing, one
standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as “one standard deviation below
the mean.” How would you describe a score of 115 and a score of 70? Any IQ score that falls within one
standard deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average, and 82% of
the population has IQ scores in this range. An IQ score of 130 or above is considered a superior level.

Figure 3. The majority of people have an IQ score between 85 and 115.

Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70 (American Psychological Association [APA], 2013).
A score of 70 or below indicates significant cognitive delays, major deficits in adaptive functioning, and
difficulty meeting “community standards of personal independence and social responsibility” when
compared to same-aged peers (APA, 2013, p. 37). An individual in this IQ range would be considered to
have an intellectual disability and exhibit deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior
(American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 2013). Formerly known as mental
retardation, the accepted term now is intellectual disability, and it has four subtypes: mild, moderate,
severe, and profound. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders lists criteria for
each subgroup (APA, 2013).
 Intellectual Percentage of Intellectually Description
Disability Subtype Disabled Population

Mild 85% 3rd- to 6th-grade skill level in reading, writing, and

math; may be employed and live independently

Moderate 10% Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care

skills; requires some oversight

Severe 5% Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily

environment and activities

Profound <1% May be able to communicate verbally or nonverbally;

requires intensive oversight

Table 1. Characteristics of Cognitive Disorders

On the other end of the intelligence spectrum are those individuals whose IQs fall into the highest
ranges. Consistent with the bell curve, about 2% of the population falls into this category. People are
considered gifted if they have an IQ score of 130 or higher, or superior intelligence in a particular area.
Long ago, popular belief suggested that people of high intelligence were maladjusted. This idea was
disproven through a groundbreaking study of gifted children. In 1921, Lewis Terman began a longitudinal
study of over 1500 children with IQs over 135 (Terman, 1925). His findings showed that these children
became well-educated, successful adults who were, in fact, well-adjusted (Terman & Oden, 1947).
Additionally, Terman’s study showed that the subjects were above average in physical build and
attractiveness, dispelling an earlier popular notion that highly intelligent people were “weaklings.” Some
people with very high IQs elect to join Mensa, an organization dedicated to identifying, researching, and
fostering intelligence. Members must have an IQ score in the top 2% of the population, and they may be
required to pass other exams in their application to join the group.

DIG DEEPER: WHAT’S IN A NAME? MENTAL RETARDATION

In the past, individuals with IQ scores below 70 and significant adaptive and social functioning delays
were diagnosed with mental retardation. When this diagnosis was first named, the title held no social
stigma. In time, however, the degrading word “retard” sprang from this diagnostic term. “Retard” was
frequently used as a taunt, especially among young people, until the words “mentally retarded” and
“retard” became an insult. As such, the DSM-5 now labels this diagnosis as “intellectual disability.” Many
states once had a Department of Mental Retardation to serve those diagnosed with such cognitive
delays, but most have changed their name to Department of Developmental Disabilities or something
similar in language. The Social Security Administration still uses the term “mental retardation” but is
considering eliminating it from its programming (Goad, 2013). Earlier in the module, we discussed how
language affects how we think. Do you think changing the title of this department has any impact on
how people regard those with developmental disabilities? Does a different name give people more
dignity, and if so, how? Does it change the expectations for those with developmental or cognitive
disabilities? Why or why not?

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence

By Marc Brackett, Sarah Delaney, and Peter Salovey

Yale University

In this module, we review the construct of emotional intelligence by examining its underlying theoretical
model, measurement tools, validity, and applications in real-world settings. We use empirical research
from the past few decades to support and discuss competing definitions of emotional intelligence and
possible future directions for the field.

Learning Objectives

 Understand the theoretical foundations of emotional intelligence and the relationship between
emotion and cognition.

 Distinguish between mixed and ability models of emotional intelligence.

 Understand various methods for measuring emotional intelligence.

 Describe emotional intelligence’s evolution as a theoretical, success-oriented, and achievement-

based framework.

 Identify and define key concepts of emotional intelligence (including emotion regulation,
expression of emotion, understanding emotion, etc.) and the ways they contribute to decision
making, relationship building, and overall well-being.

Introduction

Imagine you are waiting in line to buy tickets to see your favorite band. Knowing tickets are limited and
prices will rise quickly, you showed up 4 hours early. Unfortunately, so did everyone else. The line
stretches for blocks and hasn’t moved since you arrived. It starts to rain. You are now close to Will Call
when you notice three people jump ahead of you to join their friends, who appear to have been saving a
spot for them. They talk loudly on their cellphones as you inch forward, following the slow procession of
others waiting in line. You finally reach the ticket counter only to have the clerk tell you the show is sold
out. You notice the loud group off to the side, waving their tickets in the air. At this exact moment, a fiery
line of emotion shoots through your whole body. Your heart begins to race, and you feel the urge to
either slam your hands on the counter or scream in the face of those you believe have slighted you.
What are these feelings, and what will you do with them?

Emotional intelligence (EI) involves the idea that cognition and emotion are interrelated. From this
notion stems the belief that emotions influence decision making, relationship building, and everyday
behavior. After spending hours waiting eagerly in the pouring rain and having nothing to show for it, is it
even possible to squelch such intense feelings of anger due to injustice? From an EI perspective,
emotions are active mental processes that can be managed, so long as individuals develop the
knowledge and skills to do so. But how, exactly, do we reason with our emotions? In other words, how
intelligent is our emotion system?

To begin, we’ll briefly review the concept of standard, or general, intelligence. The late American
psychologist, David Wechsler, claimed that intelligence is the “global capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with their environment” (Wechsler, 1944). If we choose
to accept this definition, then intelligence is an operational process through which we learn to utilize our
internal abilities in order to better navigate our surroundings—a process that is most certainly similar to,
if not impacted by, our emotions. In 1990, Drs. Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer first explored and
defined EI. They explained EI as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990). EI, according to these researchers, asserts that all individuals possess the ability to
leverage their emotions to enhance thinking, judgment, and behavior. This module aims to unpack this
theory by exploring the growing empirical research on EI, as well as what can be learned about its impact
on our daily lives.

History of EI

Traditionally, many psychologists and philosophers viewed cognition and emotion as separate domains,
with emotion posing a threat to productive and rational thinking. Have you ever been told not to let your
emotions get in the way of your decisions? This separation of passion and reason stretches as far back as
early ancient Greece (Lyons, 1999). Additionally, mid-20th century scholars explained emotions as
mentally destabilizing forces (Young, 1943). Yet, there are traces throughout history where the
intersection of emotion and cognition has been theoretically questioned. In 350 B.C.E., the famous Greek
philosopher Aristotle wrote, “some men . . . if they have first perceived and seen what is coming and
have first roused themselves and their calculative faculty, are not defeated by their emotion, whether it
be pleasant or painful”( Aristotle, trans. 2009, Book VII, Chapter 7, Section 8). Still, our social interactions
and experiences suggest this belief has undergone centuries of disregard, both in Western and Eastern
cultures. These are the same interactions that teach us to “toughen up” and keep our emotions hidden.
So, how did we arrive at EI—a scientific theory that claims all individuals have access to a “calculative
faculty” through emotion?

In the early 1970s, many scientists began to recognize the limitations of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)—
the standardized assessment of intelligence. In particular, they noticed its inability to explain differences
among individuals unrelated to just cognitive ability alone. These frustrations led to the advancement of
more inclusive theories of intelligence such as Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory (1983/1993) and
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence (1985). Researchers also began to explore the influence of
moods and emotions on thought processes, including judgment (Isen, Shalker, Clark, & Karp, 1978) and
memory (Bower, 1981). It was through these theoretical explorations and empirical studies that the
concept of EI began to take shape.

Today, the field of EI is extensive, encompassing varying perspectives and measurement tools. Some
attribute this growth to Daniel Goleman’s popularization of the construct in his 1995 book, Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Generating public appeal, he focused on EI’s connection
to personal and professional success. Goleman’s model of EI includes a blend of emotion-related skills,
traditional cognitive intelligence, and distinct personality traits. This embellished conceptualization of EI,
followed by an increase in EI literature, contributed, at least in part, to conflicting definitional and
measurement models within the field.

Models and Measures of EI

Many researchers would agree that EI theory will only be as successful as its form of measurement.
Today, there are three primary models of EI: the ability model (Mayer & Salovey 1997; Salovey & Mayer,
1990), mixed models (Bar-On, 2006; Boyatzis & Sala, 2004), and the trait EI model (Petrides & Furnham,
2003).

Ability models approach EI as a standard intelligence that utilizes a distinct set of mental abilities that (1)
are intercorrelated, (2) relate to other extant intelligences, and (3) develop with age and experience
(Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003). In contrast, both mixed
and trait models define and measure EI as a set of perceived abilities, skills, and personality traits.

Ability Models: Mayer and Salovey Four-Branch Model of EIIn this section, we describe the EI (Four-
Branch) model espoused by Mayer and Salovey (1997). This model proposes that four fundamental
emotion-related abilities comprise EI: (1) perception/expression of emotion, (2) use of emotion to
facilitate thinking, (3) understanding of emotion, and (4) management of emotion in oneself and others.

1. Perception of Emotion

Perception of emotion refers to people’s capacity to identify emotions in themselves and others using
facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language (Brackett et al., 2013). Those skilled in the
perception of emotion also are able to express emotion accordingly and communicate emotional needs.
For example, let’s return to our opening scenario. After being turned away at the ticket booth, you slowly
settle into the reality that you cannot attend the concert. A group of your classmates, however, managed
to buy tickets and are discussing their plans at your lunch table. When they ask if you are excited for the
opening band, you shrug and pick at your food. If your classmates are skilled at perception of emotion,
then they will read your facial expression and body language and determine that you might be masking
your true feelings of disappointment, frustration, or disengagement from the conversation. As a result,
they might ask you if something is wrong or choose not to talk about the concert in your presence.

2. Use of Emotion to Facilitate Thinking

Using emotion to enhance cognitive activities and adapt to various situations is the second component
of EI. People who are skilled in this area understand that some emotional states are more optimal for
targeted outcomes than others. Feeling frustrated over the concert tickets may be a helpful mindset as
you are about to play a football game or begin a wrestling match. The high levels of adrenaline
associated with frustration may boost your energy and strength, helping you compete. These same
emotions, however, will likely impede your ability to sit at your school desk and solve algebra problems
or write an essay.

Individuals who have developed and practiced this area of EI actively generate emotions that support
certain tasks or objectives. For example, a teacher skilled in this domain may recognize that her students
need to experience positive emotions, like joy or excitement, in order to succeed when doing creative
work such as brainstorming or collaborative art projects. She may plan accordingly by scheduling these
activities for after recess, knowing students will likely come into the classroom cheerful and happy from
playing [Link] decisions based on the impact that emotional experiences may have on actions
and behavior is an essential component of EI.

3. Understanding of Emotion

EI also includes the ability to differentiate between emotional states, as well as their specific causes and
trajectories. Feelings of sadness or disappointment can result from the loss of a person or object, such as
your concert tickets. Standing in the rain, by most standards, is merely a slight annoyance. However,
waiting in the rain for hours in a large crowd will likely result in irritation or frustration. Feeling like you
have been treated unfairly when someone cuts in line and takes the tickets you feel you deserved can
cause your unpleasantness to escalate into anger and resentment. People skilled in this area are aware
of this emotional trajectory and also have a strong sense of how multiple emotions can work together to
produce another. For instance, it is possible that you may feel contempt for the people who cut in front
of you in line. However, this feeling of contempt does not arise from anger alone. Rather, it is the
combination of anger and disgust by the fact that these individuals, unlike you, have disobeyed the rules.
Successfully discriminating between negative emotions is an important skill related to understanding of
emotion, and it may lead to more effective emotion management (Feldman Barret, Gross, Christensen,
& Benvenuto, 2001).

4. Management of Emotion

Emotion management includes the ability to remain open to a wide range of emotions, recognize the
value of feeling certain emotions in specific situations, and understand which short- and long-term
strategies are most efficient for emotion regulation (Gross, 1998). Anger seems an appropriate response
to falling short of a goal (concert tickets) that you pursued both fairly and patiently. In fact, you may even
find it valuable to allow yourself the experience of this feeling. However, this feeling will certainly need
to be managed in order to prevent aggressive, unwanted behavior. Coming up with strategies, such as
taking a deep breath and waiting until you feel calm before letting the group ahead of you know they cut
in line, will allow you to regulate your anger and prevent the situation from escalating. Using this
strategy may even let you gain insight into other perspectives—perhaps you learn they had already
purchased their tickets and were merely accompanying their friends.

Measuring EI with Performance Measures

While self-report tests are common in psychology, ability models of EI require a different approach:
performance measures. Performance measures require respondents to demonstrate their four emotion
skills (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) by solving emotion-related problems. Among these measures, the Mayer-
Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002) is the most
commonly used. The MSCEIT is a 141-item test comprised of a total of eight tasks, two per each of the
four emotion abilities. To measure emotion management, for example, respondents are asked to read
through scenarios involving emotionally charged conflicts and then asked to evaluate the effectiveness of
different resolutions. For a comprehensive review of the MSCEIT and other performance-assessment
tools, please see Rivers, Brackett, Salovey, and Mayer (2007).

Mixed and Trait Models of EI

Unlike ability models, mixed models offer a broad definition of EI that combines mental abilities with
personality traits such as optimism, motivation, and stress tolerance (see Cherniss, 2010, for a review).
The two most widely used mixed models are the Boyatzis-Goleman model (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004) and
the Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2006). The Boyatzis-Goleman model divides
EI competencies into four groups: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship
management. Similarly, the Bar-On model offers five main components of EI: intrapersonal skills,
interpersonal skills, adaptability, stress management, and mood. Developers of the trait EI model
(Petrides & Furnham, 2003) explain EI as a constellation of self-perceived, emotion-related personality
traits.

Mixed and Trait Model Assessment: Self-Report

Self-report assessments—surveys that ask respondents to report their own emotional skills—are most
often associated with mixed and trait models. Self-report measures are usually quick to administer.
However, many researchers argue that their vulnerability to social-desirability biases and faking are
problematic (Day & Carroll, 2008). In addition, there is wide speculation concerning the potential for
inaccurate judgments of personal ability and skill on behalf of responders (e.g., Paulhus, Lysy, & Yik,
1998). Self-report measures have been shown to lack discriminant validity from existing personality
measures and have very low correlations with ability measures of EI (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Brackett,
Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006). According to Mayer and colleagues (2008), self-report tests
may show reliability for individual personalities, but should not be considered EI because performance
tests are the gold standard for measuring intelligence.

Although tensions between ability and mixed or trait model approaches appear to divide the field,
competing definitions and measurements can only enhance the quality of research devoted to EI and its
impact on real-world outcomes.

Room for Debate

While mixed and trait models shed some light on the concept of EI, many researchers feel these
approaches undermine the EI construct as a discrete and measurable mental ability. EI, when
conceptualized as an ability, most accurately describes the relationship between cognition and emotion
by accounting for changes in individual outcomes that are often missed when focusing solely on
cognitive intelligence or personality traits (O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2010). What’s
more, among adults, personality traits provide little room for malleability, making development in these
areas difficult even when combined with emotional skills. For example, characteristics such as
agreeableness and neuroticism, while contributing to personal and professional success, are seen as
innate traits that are likely to remain static over time. Distinguishing EI from personality traits helps us
better target the skills that can improve desirable outcomes (Brackett et al., 2013). Approaching EI with
language that provides the opportunity for personal growth is crucial to its application. Because the
ability model aligns with this approach, the remainder of this module will focus on ability EI and the ways
in which it can be applied both in professional and academic settings.

Outcomes

Historically, emotions have been thought to have no place in the classroom or workplace (Sutton &
Wheatly, 2003). Yet today, we know empirical research supports the belief that EI has the potential to
influence decision making, health, relationships, and performance in both professional and academic
settings (e.g., Brackett et al., 2013; Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011).

Workplace

Research conducted in the workplace supports positive links between EI and enhanced job performance,
occupational well-being, and leadership effectiveness. In one study, EI was associated with performance
indicators such as company rank, percent merit increase, ratings of interpersonal facilitation, and affect
and attitudes at work (Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall, & Salovey, 2006). Similar correlations have been found
between EI and a variety of managerial simulations involving problem solving, determining employee
layoffs, adjusting claims, and negotiating successfully (Day & Carroll, 2004; Feyerherm & Rice,
2002; Mueller & Curhan, 2006). Emotion management is seen as most likely to affect job performance
by influencing social and business interactions across a diverse range of industries (O’Boyle et al., 2010).

Leaders in the workplace also benefit from high EI. Experts in the field of organizational behavior are
beginning to view leadership as a process of social interactions where leaders motivate, influence, guide,
and empower followers to achieve organizational goals (Bass & Riggio, 2006). This is known as
transformational leadership—where leaders create a vision and then inspire others to work in this
direction (Bass, 1985). In a sample of 24 managers, MSCEIT scores correlated positively with a leader’s
ability to inspire followers to emulate their own actions and attend to the needs and problems of each
individual (Leban & Zulauf, 2004).

Schools

When applied in educational settings, theoretical foundations of EI are often integrated into social and
emotional learning (SEL)programs. SEL is the process of merging thinking, feeling, and behaving. These
skills enable individuals to be aware of themselves and of others, make responsible decisions, and
manage their own behaviors and those of others (Elias et al., 1997; Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg,
2010). SEL programs are designed to enhance the climate of a classroom, school, or district, with the
ultimate goal of enhancing children’s social and emotional skills and improving their academic outcomes
(Greenberg et al., 2003). Adopting curricula that focus on these elements is believed to enable success
in academics, relationships, and, ultimately, in life (Becker & Luthar, 2002; Catalino, Berglundh, Ryan,
Lonczek, & Hawkins, 2004).

Take a moment to think about the role of a teacher. How might emotions impact the climate of a
classroom? If a teacher enters a classroom feeling anxious, disgruntled, or unenthused, these states will
most likely be noticed, and felt, by the students. If not managed well, these negative emotions can hurt
the classroom dynamic and prevent student learning (Travers, 2001). Research suggests that the abilities
to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions are imperative for effective teaching (Reyes,
Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012; Brackett, Reyes, Rivers, Elbertson, & Salovey,
2011; Hargreaves, 2001). In a study that examined the relationship between emotion regulation and
both job satisfaction and burnout among secondary-school teachers, researchers found that emotion
regulation among teachers was associated with positive affect, support from principals, job satisfaction,
and feelings of personal accomplishment (Brackett, Palomera, Mojsa-Kaja, Reyes, & Salovey, 2010).

EI, when embedded into SEL programs, has been shown to contribute positively to personal and
academic success in students (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Tayloer, & Schellinger, 2011). Research also
shows that strong emotion regulation can help students pay attention in class, adjust to the school
environment, and manage academic anxiety (Lopes & Salovey, 2004; Mestre, Guil, Lopes, Salovey, &
Gil-Olarte, 2006). A recent randomized control trial of RULER* also found that, after one year, schools
that used RULER—compared with those that used only the standard curriculum—were rated by
independent observers as having higher degrees of warmth and connectedness between teachers and
students, more autonomy and leadership, less bullying among students, and teachers who focused more
on students’ interests and motivations (Rivers, Brackett, Reyes, Elbertson, & Salovey, 2013).

*RULER – Recognize emotions in oneself and in other people. Understand the causes and consequences
of a wide range of emotions. Label emotions using a sophisticated vocabulary. Express emotions in
socially appropriate way. Regulate emotions effectively.

Limitations and Future Directions

There is a need for further development in EI theory and measurement, as well as more empirical
research on its associated outcomes (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008). Despite its prominent role as the
signature performance assessment of EI, the MSCEIT has a number of limitations. For example, it does
not allow for the assessment of several abilities. These abilities include the expression of emotion and
monitoring or reflecting on one’s own emotions. (Brackett et al. 2013). Researchers must also address
growing criticisms, particularly those that stretch beyond the measurement debate and question the
validity of the EI construct when defined too broadly (Locke, 2005). In order to advance EI research,
there is a great need for investigators to address these issues by reconciling disparate definitions and
refining existing measures. Potential considerations for future research in the field should include deeper
investigation into the genetic (versus acquired) and fluid (versus crystallized) aspects of EI. The cultural
implications and differences of EI also are important to consider. Studies should expand beyond the
United States and Europe in order for the theory of EI to be cross-culturally valid and for its applications
and outcomes to be achieved more universally. Greater attention should also be paid to developmental
trajectories, gender differences, and how EI operates in the workplace and educational settings (Brackett
et al., 2013).

Although further explorations and research in the field of EI are needed, current findings indicate a
fundamental relationship between emotion and cognition. Returning to our opening question, what will
you do when denied concert tickets? One of the more compelling aspects of EI is that it grants us reign
over our own emotions—forces once thought to rule the self by denying individual agency. But with this
power comes responsibility. If you are enraged about not getting tickets to the show, perhaps you can
take a few deep breaths, go for a walk, and wait until your physiological indicators (shaky hands or
accelerated heartbeat) subside. Once you’ve removed yourself, your feeling of rage may lessen to
annoyance. Lowering the intensity level of this feeling (a process known as down regulating) will help re-
direct your focus on the situation itself, rather than the activated emotion. In this sense, emotion
regulation allows you to objectively view the point of conflict without dismissing your true feelings.
Merely down regulating the emotional experience facilitates better problem solving. Now that you are
less activated, what is the best approach? Should you talk to the ticket clerk? Ask to see the sales
manager? Or do you let the group know how you felt when they cut the line? All of these options
present better solutions than impulsively acting out rage.

As discussed in this module, research shows that the cultivation and development of EI contributes to
more productive, supportive, and healthy experiences. Whether we’re waiting in a crowded public place,
delivering lesson plans, or engaging in conversation with friends, we are the ultimate decision makers
when it comes how we want to feel and, in turn, behave. By engaging the right mental processes and
strategies, we can better understand, regulate, and manage our emotional states in order to live the lives
we desire.

Outside Resources

Book: Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam.

Book: Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam.

Discussion Questions

1. What are the four emotional abilities that comprise EI, and how do they relate to each other?

2. What are three possible implications for using ability-based and mixed or trait-based models of
EI?

3. Discuss the ways in which EI can contribute positively to the workplace and classroom settings.

What are mental or cognitive processes?

Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does continuously. They are procedures in
charge of processing all the information we receive from the environment. Thanks to these cognitive
processes, cognition exists and it allows us to explore the world.

Imagine you are sitting on your sofa while watching a movie. Even though the movie is interesting, you
start smelling something burning. What do you do? Fortunately, your brain will center all of
its attention in the possible danger you are facing.

Suddenly, you remember that you had a pizza in the oven. You will run to the kitchen as fast as you can
and coordinate a series of motor movements to take it out of the oven. Then you will decide whether to
eat the less burnt parts or go back to the living room. Cognitive processes have guided this whole
scenario and actions.

A harmonious interaction between cognitive processes is fundamental so that we can analyze reality
adequately and adapt to it. Thanks to mental processes we can be flexible to changes and demands of
the situation. Our executive functions are in charge of coordinating these processes.

Even though, the example we saw the cognitive processes acted together, they can also act separately.
For example, people with a language disorder can still perceive stimuli perfectly and can solve
mathematical problems.

Who studies it?

Cognitive processes are analyzed from different sciences including, sociology, linguistics, neurology,
anthropology, and philosophy. As for psychology, cognitive psychology is the field in charge of studying
cognitive processes.

In the 60’s, a new psychological perspective emerged that lead to the cognitive revolutionand the study
of cognitive processes. Mental processes in psychology are now thoroughly investigated. They are now
even applied not only to explain disorders but to areas such as marketing and sales.

Neuroimaging or brain imaging has been of great help in how we process information and what parts of
the brain are related to what cognitive processes. In this article, we will take a closer look at how
different cognitive processes influence your daily life.

Types of cognitive processes

Basic Cognitive Processes

Sensation and perception

Sensations are caused by different stimuli in our environment. The stimuli first reach our senses and
allow us to filter information from the outside world. Once we receive this information, perception takes
over and we start interpreting these stimuli.
We are continuously using our perception without even noticing it. We are conscious of other people’s
movements, messages we receive on our phone, food flavors, our posture, etc. Our past experiences
also play a part in the interpretation of different stimuli.

Gestalt psychologists were the main researchers in perception.

“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”- Gestalt

They believed that we are active human beings that process reality as a whole comprised of different
parts. They also explained how different types of perception can happen including illusions.

Attention

Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are capable of centering
our attention on the stimuli that interest us. Some actions such as walking and chewing require little
attention. Nonetheless, other activities such as speaking and body language require focus, especially
when we are giving a lecture.

Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves towards relevant stimuli
and consequently respond to it.

There are different types of attention including arousal, focused attention, sustained attention, selective
attention, alternating attention, and divided attention.

Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we have to repeat several times a day,
making it easier to focus on other tasks. For example, at first learning to driveand focus on all the things
one must do is difficult but after a while, it is done naturally and without thinking.

Memory

What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary school? How do you play the guitar?
Our memory has the answers to these questions and much more. It allows us to encode the data we
receive from the environment, consolidate and retrieve it later.

We have different types of memory; sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, semantic
memory, etc. All these types of memories interact together but they don’t all depend on the same brain
areas. An example of this is people with amnesia still remember how to walk but can’t remember their
partner’s name.

Cognitive processes such as memory are essential for daily life. Memory, as a cognitive process, includes
encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the mechanism where information is changed from
the moment it reaches us to a form that our brain can store. Storage refers to how long the memory lasts
for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.
Finally, retrieval refers to getting information out storage.

Basic Cognitive Processes

High or Complex Cognitive Processes

Intelligence

According to Gardner’s multiple bits of intelligence, there is not only one intelligence but several
different bits of intelligence. He established that intrapersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence, logical-
mathematical intelligence, and musical intelligence are examples of higher cognitive processes.
Recently, emotional intelligence has caught people’s attention, it is the ability to manage the difficulties
we face daily.

We can always work to strengthen our different types of intelligence and we shouldn’t limit ourselves to
a number given from a specific intelligence test.

Thought

The complexity and heterogeneity of our thoughts are fascinating. This higher mental process is
responsible for tasks related to problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making, creative thinking, divergent
thinking, etc.

To simplify these functions, our brain creates concepts. We need to group ideas, objects, people or any
other kind of elements that come to mind. Usually, this helps us streamline our cognitive processes.
However, sometimes we try to be logical and often ignore how irrational we can be. We take shortcuts to
process information faster not taking into account the details that might be important. This can lead
to cognitive biases, which are deviations from the normal process of reasoning. For example, we
sometimes believe that we are able to figure out what is going to happen in a game of chance.

On occasions, cognitive biases can lead to cognitive distortions which are extremely negative and
irrational thoughts, for example, “the world hates me”. It’s always important to remember we are able to
stop these thoughts and work on them. If these thoughts overpower you, it’s crucial you speak to
someone.

Language

Astonishingly, we are capable of producing and comprehending different sounds and words, combine
different letters and phrases and expressing with precision what we want to communicate, even in
different languages. We even use our body language to communicate.

Language development is produced all throughout our lifetime. The communicative skills of each person
vary significantly and can be improved by practice. Some language disorders especially make it difficult
to communicate for different reasons, although it is also possible to help people with these problems.

Cognitive processes involved in language are fundamental in learning how to effectively communicate.

Cognitive Processes in Education: Applications and Examples

Cognitive Processes in psychology are analyzed in order to help us improve our quality of life. It’s basic
that we learn how to develop and manage them from birth. In school, we face different activities that
test our skills and ability to learn, listen and solve unforeseeable obstacles.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

All the different theories of learning, except for associative learning, take into account our cognitive
processes. However, no cognitive process acts on its own in the learning process. We strive to integrate
all of our resources to improve our study habits and achieve meaningful learning. Cognitive processes
play a part in learning things such as math concepts and abstract operations. Teaching styles can aide
cognitive processes or even hinder their development. When these fail it is possible to develop
dyscalculia. Find out how to treat dyscalculia.

Cognitive Processes in Reading

When faced with a book, we must recognize the letters, avoid distracting ourselves with irrelevant
stimuli, remember the words we are reading, associate what we read with other contents that we
learned previously, etc. We use our cognitive processes from the beginning to the end. However, the
number of cognitive processes will vary since we will not process the information in the same way if we
only want to find a fragment that interests us other than reading the whole book.

Cognitive Processes in Writing

As for the cognitive processes involved in writing, the same happens with those related to reading. We
need to ignore the noises that make it difficult for us to write, to make our writing readable, to
remember what we have written in the previous paragraphs, to worry about our spelling, etc. In
addition, we also need to properly plan what we want to write. Is this expression too colloquial? Will
others understand what I mean? Does this zero look like an o?

When there is a problem in cognitive processes in reading and/or writing it might be symptoms of
dyslexia. Find out what is dyslexia.

How can you improve your cognitive processes?

Tips and activities to improve your mental processes

We can train our cognitive processes at any stage in our lives, regardless of age. Here are some tips on
how to train and take care of your cognitive processes.

1. Take care of your health

Our physical and mental health is inseparable from our cognitive processes. There are various bad habits
that harm our minds and worsen our performance in different areas of our lives. For example, being on
our cell phone before going to bed, underestimating ourselves, neglecting our social relationships or not
eating properly can affect our mental processes.
2. Benefit from technology

Today there are different activities one can do to train our brains in a fun and simple way.

3. Reflect on your progress

Self-appraisals are important since they show us our progress and where we might need to make more
efforts to continue advancing. It’s essential that we believe in ourselves and our ability to strengthen our
cognitive processes. It’s a matter of practicing and self-confidence.

4. Develop Critical Thinking

Try to ask yourself questions and look for different arguments. This allows for critical thinking to develop,
and in turn increases our reasoning, creativity, and language. Curiosity is essential in order to develop
our full potential. Critical thinking can be developed from childhood, by asking children to explain,
reason and debate their decisions and actions. You can also put these into practice!

5. Read

Reading implies lots of cognitive processes as we explained above. Other than producing great
satisfaction and knowledge, reading is also a way to learn to focus and work on our communication skills.

6. Dedicate time to creative activities

Painting, writing short stories, composing songs, dancing, performing… It doesn’t matter the activity you
choose, the important thing is that creativity is being used. Creativity is all about practice and
perseverance, so go out and try something new!

Creativity allows us to develop our intelligence, concentration, problem-solving, sustained attention and
ability to de-stress and relax. Creativity is all about practice and perseverance, so go out and try
something new!

7. Avoid multitasking

It’s quite common that our obligations are many and we don’t know how to get all of them done. It’s
normal that we try to multitask so we can finish everything quicker. However, this can be
counterproductive since our attention is not centered on one activity. For example, if you are watching a
movie while you are answering an email, writing a paper and cooking it is very probable that one of
those things will turn out wrong. It’s preferable to center your attention in the present in order to enjoy
each activity to the fullest and be more efficient. This can also help in overcoming procrastination since it
centers your attention on one activity making it easier to focus and not get distracted.

8. Let your children solve their own difficulties.

We need to support our children, however, it’s also very important that they don’t get used to us solving
all their difficulties. Solving problems is a way to strengthen cognitive processes, therefore, starting at a
young age is important. Giving clues is a perfect way to encourage children to think outside the box.

If you would like to know more about this topic or review concepts we have discussed we invite you to
watch the following video about cognitive processes in psychology.