Early Childhood Stage- The Preschooler

Areas to study: Physical, Cognitive, Socio-emotional

Age range: 3-5 Years Old

Although this stage is known as the years before formal schooling, it is by no way less
important than the grade school years. The preschool years are very important as it lays
foundation to later development. The thing that makes this critical is that, children in this stage
(on average) will definitely remember all the episodes they encounter, from simple to complex.
All these episodes then will most likely affect, influence and relate the coming episodes they
would experience in the middle and late childhood.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Big ideas about preschoolers’ physical development:

1. There are significant changes in physical growth

2. The development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development pf
preschoolers
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptation made in the classroom, materials and activities

Center of gravity-
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly distributed.
Infants and toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level. This is why they have difficulty
doing sudden movements without falling down.
Preschoolers have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly
button. This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than that of toddlers. The
preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a more steady bearing. They no
longer “toddle”, that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This also allows the preschooler to move
more successfully than the toddler.
Some say that the later part of the preschooler years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to
begin learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating. By the time the child
reaches 3 years old, all primary or deciduous, or what also called “baby or milk” teeth are
already in place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age 6 are also developing.
The preschooler years are therefore a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.

Gross and fine motor development

Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles. These gross
motor skills are categorized into 3:

 Locomotor skills- are those that involve going from one place to another like walking,
running, and the like.
 Non-locomotor skills- are those that the child stays in place like bending, stretching,
turning and swaying.
 Manipulative skills- are those that involve projecting and receiving objects like throwing,
striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling.

Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm,
hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing,
pounding, and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. It also involves self-help
skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing.
 By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their thumb
and fingers draw pictures; write letters use scissors do stringing and threading activities. They
can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up independently. Significantly progress in
fine motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if they are aptly supported and
appropriate activities are provided for them.

Viktor Lowenfield’s Stages of Drawing (Preschoolers Artistic Development)

This theory has been used by child development scholars in understanding the
development of handwriting skills of children.

Stage 1- Scribbling Stage This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later become
circular markings.
Stage 2- Preschematic It includes early representation. For instance, the moment the
Stage child tries to draw a human being.
Stage 3- Schematic Stage More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw from
experience and exposures. The drawings may include houses,
trees, the sun, the sky and people.

Preschoolers' Nutrition and Sleep

The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical growth
and development. The preschooler's nutritional status is the result of what nutrients he or she
actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for his her age. Obviously, having
too much or too little both have their negative effects. Here in our country, we can see the
extreme of preschoolers not having enough food and those on the other end of the extreme where
we find preschoolers who are not just over weight but obese. The celebration of the Nutrition
month every July is aimed at advocating for proper nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to
advocate good nutritional habits while government programs on giving out fortified bread, milk
and even noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep. Preschoolers
benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are asleep that vital biological
processes that affect physical and cognitive development take place. During sleep, especially in
the dream state (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are released. Blood supply to the
muscles are likewise increased helping preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming,
increased brain activity is also attained.

A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do: Physical Skills

This bulleted list of preschoolers' physical skills is lifted from the Physical Domain
component of the Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS). This set of
standards was based on a study commissioned by UNICEF and the Child Welfare Council
(CWC).
This is now adopted for use by the Early Childhood Care and Development Council.

Gross Motor Skills: 36-48 months

 Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot
 Skips (with alternating feet)
 Jumps and turns
 Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds
 Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
 Throws a ball overhead with control of speed
 'Kicks a ball with control of speed

Fine-motor Skills: 36-48 Months

  Consistently turns pages of a picture or story book one page at a time, looking at pictures
with interest
 Purposefully copies diagonal lines
 Purposefully bisects a cross
 Purposefully copies a square
 Purposefully copies a triangle
 Cuts with scissors following a line
49-60 months
 Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes
 Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs. etc.) without prompts
 Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
 Colors with strokes staying within the lines

Personal Care and Hygiene: Self-Help Skills

36-48 months
 Pours from pitcher without spillage
 Feeds self using spoon without spillage
 Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
 Puts on socks independently

49-60 months
 Feeds self using fingers without spillage
 Prepares own food
 Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
 Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement
 Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
 Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
 Takes a bath independently without having to be told

The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and Development of the Preschooler:

Optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced by the supportive

caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment and appropriate
activities for the children. If you have friends and relatives who are responsible for preschoolers,
read and share the following tips: (This collection includes those suggested by Lesia Oesterreich,
M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State
University).

For all preschoolers:

a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking.
b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and bean bags.
c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and lines on the
classroom floor or—playground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines on their
preschool classroom floors.
d. Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft mats. Keen
observation and monitoring is, of course expected to keep them safe from injury.
e. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for bed time is ideal.
f. Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more fruits, vegetables, water and
fresh juices, rather than processed foods, sugary snacks and sodas.

3-year-olds
a. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttons or old beads
to string on a shoe lace.
b. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.
 c. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither like
a snake, and run like a deer.
d. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking "what" children are drawing.
Three-year-olds may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process of drawing.
e. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages from magazine
pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to experiment with new
media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yam. Teach children to mix different
colors with paint.

4 year-olds
a. Encourage physical development. Play follows the leader. Pretend to walk like various
animals.
b. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing, leaping,
balancing, and running across stepping stones.
c. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.

5 year-olds
a. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing "Follow the Leader" with
skipping, galloping, and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk dances and
games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted rope suspended from a
sturdy frame.
b. Teach sack-walking and "twist-em," "statue," or "freeze" games to provide an outlet for
their drive for physical activity.
c. Play games that can teach right and left, directions, like "Hokey-Pokey," "Looby-Loo,"
and "Simon Says."
d. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors, by letting them cut out coupons.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Preschoolers’ Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking

Pre-operational thought-
In Piagets cognitive development stages, this happens in which the thought of the child is
egocentric and intuitive and not yet logical or capable of performing mental tasks. Piaget
believed that during the preschool period and up to about age 6 or 7, children are in a
preoperational stage— too young to perform mental operations.

There are two sub stages of Piaget's preoperational thought. Namely, symbolic sub stage
and intuitive sub stage. In the symbolic stage, preschool children show progress in their
cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic increase in
their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive sub stage, preschool children begin to use
primitive reasoning and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability
facilitates their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable
cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity
or limitations.

Unidimensional thought-
Children’s thought is only focused on one dimension or one aspect, hence their minds are not
flexibile and irreversible.

While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as you have seen in the
Activity, they are making significant advancemerts in their cognitive abilities like the acquisition
of symbolic thought. Symbolic thought is shown in preschool children's ability to mentally
represent object that is not present. They do not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an
object, person, or event in order to think about it. Johar asks his Mom about the giraffe they saw
in the zoo five months ago.
 Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or people have properties other
than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his one-foot ruler is a saw while he pretends to
saw a piece of wood. Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing when, for
instance, children pretend that one thing represents another such as a wooden block used as a
microphone in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog Bantay while in a sociodramatic
play. In reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events in a story and that letters
represent sounds used in language.

Brain Connections in the Preschool Years

Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young

children have been of great interest to the field of early childhood. Brain research findings point
us to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science lessons you had in
high school or even in elementary, you will remember that our brain is composed of numerous
cells called neurons that connect to each other to function. Cell connections are what we call
synapses, sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections.

Did you know that:

 the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth
 by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be made
during one's lifetime
 around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking patterns

All these facts point to the enormous potential that the preschooler's brain has. The child's
billion cells have the ability to make almost countless connections that prepare the child for
intricate pathways to learn langurige, acquire logical-mathematical skills, interact with people,
grow In his feelings and emotions, and even express himself in art. As such, a preschool teacher
would often observe how a. child now has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud
and independent
preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy "reading" a book, tell his own stories among
friends, build beautiful block structures and wear his jacket all by himself.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment. Experts have
shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to environmental stimulation. Therefore, the
brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are different for each person. The quality of
these connections depends on the quality of stimulation and exposure provided by the
environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and stimulating environment is that which
offers many experiences involving the different senses (multi-sensorial), and that which allows
the child to think, imagine and create is best. This environment can be provided for by a good
combination of a healthy and functional family environment and a quality preschool program.
What did that milk commercial say? Oh yes... expose...explore...experience. May we add, all
these lead to exponential brain development!
Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler's brain development, strong
evidence also show that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and chaos affect the
cognitive development of preschoolers. High levels of stress hormones such as cortisol may lead
to diminished brain growth in areas needed for memory, learning and emotional attachment. It
may also lead to anxiety and hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. It's not only the extreme form
of negative environment that negatively affects the preschooler's brain. An environment that
lacks the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage. Preschools who make children
work with nothing but work sheets and pictures instead of real life, hands-on experiences do
more harm than good. As future teachers, always be aware of your defining role in providing a
quality environment that will lead to optimum brain development for preschoolers.

Language and Reading Development

Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go

through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology, semantics,
pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking- involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly conclude
that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people and things.

Fast mapping- a process by which children absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it
once or twice in conversation. Prescholl children combine syllables into words and words into
sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner.

Private speech- an episode that happens when young children use language both to
communicate socially and to plan, guide and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion.
Piaget believed that episodes like this are indications of what he called as egocentrism and
immaturity, contrary to how Vygotsky described it as an important tool of thought during early
childhood.

Jean Chall’s Reading Development Stages:

Stage 1- Pre-reading Emergent literacy

Stage 2- Initial reading
Stage 3- Fluency
Stage 4- Reading for learning
the new
Stage 5- Multiple view points
This is where the child observably flips through the
pages of the book, the reason why the pages of any
children’s book are thicker than that of an ordinary book.
Matching a set of letters to form a word
The content of what the child is reading is related to
his/her own experiences
Reading through gaining pieces of information
When the reader starts comparing and contrasting the
ideas or thoughts of the books he/she reads

Stage 6- Construction and When the reader interprets his/her own understanding of
reconstruction the texts he/she reads

Information Processing Theory- Attention and Memory

The Young Children’s Theory of Mind

Theory of mind- refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work (Santrock,
2002). It includes awareness of one’s own thought processes, social and cognitive. By the age 2
or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs, emotions, and mental
states. Cognitive terms such as know, remember and think usually appear after perceptual and
emotional terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002). As their representation of the world and
ability to remember and solve problems improve, children start to reflect on their own thought
process.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

During the preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment. They
become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. A lot of very important
social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults.
These skills can even determine the individual’s later social adjustment and consequent quality
of relationships in adult life.

Judicious permissiveness- this involves setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe
and respectful of self and others, while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks
and to engage in creative processes.

Fast mapping- refers to the process of children absorbing the meaning of a new word from adult
conversation.

Gender typing- the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors
accepted by society. Thus, during preschool children are becoming sensitive on the differences
of a ‘boy’ and a ‘girl’.

Self-concept- refers to the way one sees himself, a general view about one’s abilities,
strengths and weaknesses.

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years with its essential social dimensions. As the
preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases.
Caregiving Styles

Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers here
refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for the child. Dianna Baumrind
gave a model that describes different types of caregiving styles.
 Authoritative- high Permissive- low
demandingness/hig demandingness/hig
h responsiveness h responsiveness

Authoritarian- high Negligent- low

demandingness/ demandingness/low
low responsiveness responsiveness

Responsiveness- refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of affection and

communication, i.e. how warm, caring and respectful the adult is to the child.

Demandingness- refers to the level of control and expectations. This involves disciple and
confrontation strategies.

The Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional Development of the Preschooler:

 Greet each child with his or her names each day

 Read storybooks that deal about friendships and different feelings
 Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and getting
along
 Help children learn to make rules
 Let them play games that involve social interaction and team work
 Observe how a child plays with other children
 Help children understand and cope with strong feelings
 Acknowledge how the child feels
 Catch children when they do good
 For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting along
 Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)

Developmental Milestones
Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress
themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having
independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school
bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become
more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this
time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as
through friends, schoolwork, and sports.

What physical development takes place in middle childhood?

 During middle childhood, children's bones broaden and lengthen dramatically
and in general, they will grow an average of 2-3 inches taller each year
throughout this period.
 Both boys and girls are building muscle and on average, they will gain 6-7
pounds a year, each year during middle childhood.
 It's extremely important for kids of this age to continue (or to start) to lead a
healthy lifestyle, including eating nutritious meals as well as getting plenty of
exercise and adequate sleep every day.
 During middle childhood, children continue to build on and improve gross
motor skills.
 Children in middle childhood also continue to hone their fine motor skills which
can be distinguish from gross motor skills in that they require hand-eye
coordination.
 Specifically, middle-childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements
with regard to their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters
(e.g., "script" forms of handwriting).
 Children's easy use of communications tools such as cell phones and
computers, which becomes possible as they master increasingly complex fine
motor skills, exposes them to a world much larger and more complicated than
they can possibly imagine.

What cognitive development takes place in middle childhood?

 The mental (cognitive) changes children undergo during the middle childhood
era are often more pronounced and noticeable than their physical changes.
  Children's ability to consciously, thoughtfully and pro-actively choose to
pursue goals (instead of simply reacting to the environment) appears during
this developmental period.
 Children's thinking style gradually becomes more logical, organized, and
flexible as well.
 Children in middle childhood master hierarchical classification, which is the
ability to simultaneously sort things into general and more specific groups,
using different types of comparisons.
 Children become able to discriminate objects that are nearby and far away
based on their apparent size.
 Children become more efficient at processing "inputs," their attention span
lengthens in duration and their ability to focus and concentrate their attention
becomes more pronounced and reliable.
 Children's memory capacity and the ability to use their memory also increases
and improves during middle childhood.
 A more visible expression of children's cognitive development during middle
childhood can be found in their ability to use and appreciate increasingly
sophisticated forms of language.
 In most American public schools today, IQ tests (in conjunction with
achievement tests) are primarily used to determine whether a particular child
needs supplemental educational programming or services above and beyond
a traditional

What emotional/social development takes place in middle childhood?

 During middle childhood, children make great strides in terms of their ability to
recognize emotions in themselves and others, control their own emotions, and
communicate about emotions, both expressively and with language.
 As children practice interpreting people's complex emotional displays, their
perspective taking abilities and their empathy skills increase.
 During middle childhood, children's personal identity develops so as to
become more complex, multi-faceted and abstract in nature.
 Children's overall self-esteem may fluctuate or decrease as they start the
process of social comparison with their peers.
 It's especially important that parents, teachers and other concerned adults in
children's lives look out for any challenges or problems that may negatively
impact the development of their overall self-image and self-esteem and do
what they can to help address those problems early on so that they do not
contribute to children's more permanently low self-esteem.
 During middle childhood, peer friendships take on a more prominent role than
ever before.
 Children become better at reading and responding to other kids' emotions,
and understanding other kids' intentions and needs; why they behave in
specific ways at specific times.
 Though children's peer relationships mature and become increasingly
prominent during middle childhood, children's connection to their parents and
core family continues to be of tremendous importance for their well-being and
functioning.
 Children's increased interest and investment in relationships with peers and
adults in middle childhood makes them sensitive to the self-conscious
emotions of pride, guilt and shame.

Positive Parenting Tips

Following are some things you, as a parent, can do to help your child during this time:

 Show affection for your child. Recognize her accomplishments.

 Help your child develop a sense of responsibility—ask him to help with
household tasks, such as setting the table.
 Talk with your child about school, friends, and things she looks forward to in the
future.
 Talk with your child about respecting others. Encourage him to help people in
need.
 Help your child set her own achievable goals—she’ll learn to take pride in herself
and rely less on approval or reward from others.
 Help your child learn patience by letting others go first or by finishing a task
before going out to play. Encourage him to think about possible consequences
before acting.
 Make clear rules and stick to them, such as how long your child can watch TV or
when she has to go to bed. Be clear about what behavior is okay and what is not
okay.
 Do fun things together as a family, such as playing games, reading, and going to
events in your community.
 Get involved with your child’s school. Meet the teachers and staff and get to
understand their learning goals and how you and the school can work together to
help your child do well.
 Continue reading to your child. As your child learns to read, take turns reading to
each other.
 Use discipline to guide and protect your child, rather than punishment to make
him feel bad about himself. Follow up any discussion about what not to do with a
discussion of what to do instead.
 Praise your child for good behavior. It’s best to focus praise more on what your
child does (“you worked hard to figure this out”) than on traits she can’t change
(“you are smart”).
 Support your child in taking on new challenges. Encourage her to solve
problems, such as a disagreement with another child, on her own.
 Encourage your child to join school and community groups, such as a team
sports, or to take advantage of volunteer opportunities.

References:
 https://www.helenfarabee.org/poc/center_index.php?cn=1272
 https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle.html
 Adolescence: Physical Development of the High School Learners
Adolescence:
-the phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation compared with that occurring
in previous millennia. (The maximum height is reaches between 18-20 years for boys
and 13-14 for girls.)
- is the age or stage when an organism can reproduce. It is sometimes
considered synonymous with adulthood. In humans, the process of sexually maturing is
termed puberty. Hormones are recognized to be powerful and highly specialized
chemical substances hat interact with bodily cells. Gonadotropic hormones are secreted
by the anterior pituitary, which lies beneath the base of the brain and are situated
approximately at the geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the
ovaries of the female and the testis in the male are then stimulated by the gonadrotopic
hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones. Secondary male sex characteristics
are stimulated by testosterone, while estrogen is secreted when female ovary is
stimulated. Spermache signals the first sign of puberty and sexual maturity in boys.
Three stages of changes in adolescence:
1) Early adolescence (between 10 and 13 years old)
2) Middle adolescence (within the ages of 14 and 16 years old)
3) Late adolescence (17-20 years old)

PUBERTAL CHANGES
 The Ideal Masculine and Feminine Physiques
 Pluses and Minus in Early Maturation
-adolescence became aware of changes in sexuality, thus undergoing a period of
exploration and adjustment.
-necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of vitamin B12, calcium, zinc,
iron, riboflavin, and vitamin D. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced
with food intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating protein sources such as
milk, dairy products and eggs.
-change in physical appearance, a more rapid development (next to growth of the fetus
in the uterus) known as growth spurts.
The Ideal Body
-Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be a factor for
adolescence acceptance and comfort or satisfaction with his/her body image.
-the physical features of the human body depend on genetic heritage which must
generally be respected. There is more to body image than physical looks and these
concern good habits in relation to:
 Cleanliness and grooming
 Proper wearing of clothes following current styles
 Erect bodily posture
 Eye contact while communication
 Decorum and decency

Adolescence Sleeping Habit

-human development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this
entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being.
-studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and would want to sleep
more.

Sexual Maturity
-begins with biological changes of puberty and ends with the role and work of adult life;
is a period of transition in terms of physical transition being particularly coupled with
sexual transformation.

References: https://prezi.com/wmzmqjevrm8g/module-24-physical-development-of-the-
high-school-learners/

Adolescent: Socio-Emotional Development

Addressing the Social and Psychological Development of Adolescents

Five areas that affect students' social and psychological development are self-
esteem, achievement motivation, social skills, coping skills, and aspirations. Although
we will look at these five areas separately, in many situations they compliment each
other.

Self-Esteem
Although school achievement affects self-esteem and vice versa, the focus on
improving student self-esteem should not be connected solely to improving academic
achievement. A formal program is not necessary to nurture students' self-esteem; daily
interactions with teachers and the environment they create in classrooms have a
significant effect on self-esteem.

Although positive feedback from others is important, how students interpret and process
the feedback ultimately determines its effect on their self-esteem. Teachers can help
nurture students' self-esteem in several ways. For example:

 Use learning activities for which students receive feedback that helps build
confidence.
 Work with students' "significant others" (parents/guardians, grandparents,
family members, and other students) to reinforce their positive
accomplishments in school.
 Share success stories of adults whose childhood backgrounds and
accomplishments were similar to those of your students.
 Help students identify their strengths and resources, and consider how to
use them to achieve educational and personal goals.
 Emphasize the relationship between success in and outside of school.
 Reduce competition between students; cooperative learning takes place in
groups under the teacher's guidance.
 Monitor interaction in the classroom to eliminate teasing, bullying, and
negative feedback.

Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is the student's drive, desire, and persistence to master a goal
or task. Students with high achievement motivation have "stick to it" behaviors
(sometimes referred to as grit) that often lead them to accomplish what they set out to
do.

It is important for students to believe they can be successful in school and that their
goals are worthwhile. Further, students need positive feedback for what teachers may
view as a small accomplishment to prompt the student to put forth continued effort to
accomplish the next tasks. It is also important for students to have input about what
happens in their classrooms. Strategies to enhance achievement motivation include:

 Structure activities so that every student's achievement is recognized.

 Create challenges that build on students' existing strengths.
 Create ways for students to assess and discuss their progress.
 Offer "personal best" awards and other incentives for attendance, grades,
and/or achievement.
 Structure classroom experiences so that students feel responsible for their
actions.
 Have students evaluate their own work performance as they work to produce
a quality product.
 Structure lessons to prompt active participation from all students.

Social Skills
Social skills pertain to students being able to work and interact productively with others
in meaningful ways. Students who have good social skills know how to develop positive
interpersonal interactions, avoid using negative and violent behaviors, and have
tolerance for those whom they may view as "different." Productive interpersonal
relations often contribute to a positive self-esteem.

Strategies for enhancing students' social skills include:

  Assign informal small-group learning activities in space for groups to
congregate and to cooperate in developing peer-help programs.
 Use activities that emphasize social interaction with a heterogeneous mix of
students.
 Eliminate social subgroups that ostracize others.
 Help students accept and appreciate individual differences.
 Emphasize the need to be sensitive to the feelings of other people.
 Reduce competition when it can lead to negative relationships.
 Teach diversity in the context of showing how differences among people are
strengths, especially for problem solving.
 Demonstrate positive social skills in the way you interact with students and
others.

Coping Skills
Students who consistently experience failure at tasks can fall into a state of "learned
helplessness." They may feel they have so little control over outcomes that are
important to them that they develop the attitude of "why even try?"

Coping skills can help students overcome adversity. Strategies for enhancing coping
skills include:

 Incorporate activities that encourage students to talk about their emotions,

listen to their classmates express their feelings, and reflect on what
motivates people. Provide stress-free learning environments.
 Encourage nonjudgmental and non disruptive venting of emotions rather
than negative verbal and physical aggression.
 Stress to students that they can have control over what happens to them.
 Teach students various t methods of relaxation, such as deep muscle
relaxation and deep breathing, for times when they need strategies to reduce
anxiety.
 Foster a sense of belonging for the students in the classroom so they feel a
connection to school.

Aspirations
The current emphasis on college and career readiness focuses not only on academic
skills needed for students to maximize their potential, but also on the aspirations
students need to develop the knowledge, drive, and motivation to pursue future
endeavors.

It is important to help students set aspirations for their future and to help them
understand what it takes to reach their life goals. Strategies to help students enhance
aspirations include:

 Demonstrate the relationship between schoolwork and careers by using

vocational, career, and other job-related examples in classroom activities.
Talk to students about their interests and relate those interests to possible
vocations, careers, and college programs.
 Point out the relationship between success in school and success in the real
world. .
 Assure students that everyone has positive attributes and that those,
coupled with training and aspirations, can lead to a successful and rewarding
career.
 Expose students to a variety of careers and avocations so they can become
"career wise" across curriculum areas.
  Explain to students what "career and college readiness" means by using
activities designed to pique their aspirations.
 Use advisory time to teach life and employment skills.

If you are a parent of an adolescent, you might notice the following changes:

1. Social changes.

You might notice that the teen is:

 searching for identity: young people are busy working out who they are and
where they fit in the world. This search can be influenced by gender, peer
group, cultural background, media, school and family expectations
 seeking more independence: this is likely to influence the decisions your child
makes and the relationships your child has with family and friends
 seeking more responsibility, both at home and at school
 looking for new experiences: the nature of teenage brain development means
that teenagers are likely to seek out new experiences and engage in more
risk-taking behaviour. But they’re still developing control over their impulses
 thinking more about “right” and “wrong”: your child will start developing a
stronger individual set of values and morals. Teenagers also learn that they’re
responsible for their own actions, decisions and consequences. They question
more things. Your words and actions shape your child’s sense of ‘‘right’’ and
“wrong”
 influenced more by friends, especially when it comes to behaviour, sense of
self and self-esteem
 starting to develop and explore a sexual identity: your child might start to have
romantic relationships or go on “dates”. These are not necessarily intimate
relationships. For some young people, intimate or sexual relationships don’t
occur until later on in life
 communicating in different ways: the internet, cell phones and social media
can significantly influence how your child communicates with friends and
learns about the world. 

2. Emotional changes
You might notice that your teen:
 shows strong feelings and intense emotions at different times. Moods might
seem unpredictable. These emotional ups and downs can lead to increased
conflict. Your child’s brain is still learning how to control and express emotions
in a grown-up way
 is more sensitive to your emotions: young people get better at reading and
processing other people’s emotions as they get older. While they’re
developing these skills, they can sometimes misread facial expressions or
body language
 is more self-conscious, especially about physical appearance and changes.
Teenage self-esteem is often affected by appearance - or by how teenagers
 think they look. As they develop, teens might compare their bodies with those
of friends and peers
 goes through a “invincible” stage of thinking and acting as if nothing bad could
happen to him. Your child’s decision-making skills are still developing, and
your child is still learning about the consequences of actions.

3. Changes in relationships
You might notice that your teen:
 wants to spend less time with family and more time with friends
 has more arguments with you: some conflict between parents and children
during the teenage years is normal as teens seek more independence. It
actually shows that your child is maturing. Conflict tends to peak in early
adolescence. If you feel like you’re arguing with your child all the time, it might
help to know that this isn’t likely to affect your long term relationship with your
child
 sees things differently from you: this isn’t because your child wants to upset
you. It’s because your child is beginning to think more abstractly and to
question different points of view. At the same time, some teens find it hard to
understand the effects of their behaviour and comments on other people.
These skills will develop with time.

References:
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-
lifespandevelopment/chapter/emotional-and-social-development-in-adolescence/
 https://www.amle.org/BrowsebyTopic/WhatsNew/WNDet/TabId/270/ArtMID/888/
ArticleID/719/Enhancing-the-Social-and-Psychological-Development-of-Young-
Adolescents.aspx

Adolescent Stage- The Teen Agers

Areas to study: Cognitive Development
Age range: 13-18 Years Old

Corpus collosum- refers to the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing
in weight and refining synaptic connections. It joins and coordinates the 2 hemispheres of the
brain.

Myelination- refers to the process of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefrontal
cortex and related temporal and parietal areas. Moreover, it covers the brain systems whose
executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning.

Through brain scanning, 3 peaks in brain maturation have been identified by neurological
scientists and these are at age 12, age 15 and age 18.5 coinciding with the operational thinking
processes of logical reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in cognitive capability, the
adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or general ideas involving
numbers, order and cause-effect. All these changes propel the adolescent from the world of the
sensible and concrete thoughts to the world of the possible and the universal abstract ideas, such
as on the generally good, true and beautiful.

Piaget’s formal operational thinking theory

This theory explains how cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go
beyond the sensible and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, multidimensional
and possible. In here, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of
possible and futuribles. More specifically, it consists:

Propositional thinking- making assertions outside visual evidence, and stating what may be
possible in things not seen by the eyes, e.g. whether an unseen object is red or green, big or
small, flat or round.

Relativistic thinking- subjectively making an opinion on facts involving one’s own bias,
prejudice of distortion of facts which may be either right or wrong, e.g. arguing for or against the
superiority of races.

Real versus possible- examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms of situations or
solutions, e.g. possible success in implementing a student project or a school policy.

Robert Siegler’s information processing skills

Siegler sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but more of a sequential
acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem solving. In his experiments, he used
rule models relation to balance, weight, distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and conflict
balance problems. He examined the correct and wrong answers to each of the problems, drawing
out rule models in thinking and knowing. Thereupon, adolescents may show:

 Speed in information processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and
acquired knowledge base- a more efficient kind of thinking compared with that of the
child;
 Complexity by way of considering longer term implications and possibilities beyond the
here-and-now;
 Increased volume of information processing, coupled with longer memory span.

Metacognition
Overachievers- those learners who get IQ scores that place them in the top 3 and 5 percent on
the bell curve (gifted).

Underachievers- learners whose performance are below the measured IQ levels. Their grades
are below their measured aptitudes for academic achievement. Withdrawn underachievers are
described as having a more pronounced tendency to be passive (their overt behavior being
submissive and docile). While aggressive underachievers tend to be talkative, if not disruptive
and rebellious.