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bloch2008manyBodyPhysi PDF
bloch2008manyBodyPhysi PDF
Jean Dalibard†
Laboratoire Kastler Brossel, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure,
24 rue Lhomond, F-75005 Paris, France
Wilhelm Zwerger‡
Physik-Department, Technische Universität München, D-85748 Garching, Germany
共Published 18 July 2008兲
This paper reviews recent experimental and theoretical progress concerning many-body phenomena
in dilute, ultracold gases. It focuses on effects beyond standard weak-coupling descriptions, such as the
Mott-Hubbard transition in optical lattices, strongly interacting gases in one and two dimensions, or
lowest-Landau-level physics in quasi-two-dimensional gases in fast rotation. Strong correlations in
fermionic gases are discussed in optical lattices or near-Feshbach resonances in the BCS-BEC
crossover.
al., 2003b; Zwierlein et al., 2003b兲. Common to all of interactions even in extremely dilute gases can no longer
these phenomena is the existence of a coherent, macro- be described by a picture based on noninteracting qua-
scopic matter wave in an interacting many-body system, siparticles. The appearance of such phenomena is char-
a concept familiar from the classic areas of superconduc- acteristic for the physics of strongly correlated systems.
tivity and superfluidity. It was the basic insight of For a long time, this area of research was confined to the
Ginzburg and Landau 共1950兲 that, quite independent dense and strongly interacting quantum liquids of con-
of a detailed microscopic understanding, an effective densed matter or nuclear physics. By contrast, gases—
description of the coherent many-body state is provided almost by definition—were never thought to exhibit
by a complex, macroscopic wave function 共x兲 = 兩共x兲 兩 strong correlations.
⫻exp i共x兲. Its magnitude squared gives the superfluid The use of Feshbach resonances and optical potentials
density, while the phase 共x兲 determines the superfluid for exploring strong correlations in ultracold gases was
velocity via vs = 共ប / M兲 ⵜ 共x兲 共see the Appendix for a dis- crucially influenced by earlier ideas from theory. In par-
cussion of these concepts and their connection with the ticular, Stoof et al. 共1996兲 suggested that Feshbach reso-
microscopic criterion for BEC兲. As emphasized by Cum- nances in a degenerate gas of 6Li, which exhibits a tun-
mings and Johnston 共1966兲 and by Langer 共1968兲, this able attractive interaction between two different
picture is similar to the description of laser light as a hyperfine states, may be used to realize BCS pairing of
coherent state 共Glauber, 1963兲. It applies both to the fermions in ultracold gases. A remarkable idea in a
standard condensates of bosonic atoms and to weakly rather unusual direction in the context of atomic physics
bound fermion pairs, which are the building blocks of was the proposal by Jaksch et al. 共1998兲 to realize a
the BCS picture of superfluidity in Fermi systems. In quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a Mott-
contrast to conventional superfluids like 4He or super- insulating state by loading a BEC into an optical lattice
conductors, where the macroscopic wave function pro- and increasing its depth. Further directions in the regime
vides only a phenomenological description of the super- of strong correlations were opened with the suggestions
fluid degrees of freedom, the situation in dilute gases is by Olshanii 共1998兲 and Petrov, Shlyapnikov, and Wal-
considerably simpler. In fact, as a result of the weak in- raven 共2000兲 to realize a Tonks-Girardeau gas with
teractions, dilute BEC’s are essentially pure condensates BEC’s confined in one dimension and by Wilkin and
sufficiently below the transition. The macroscopic wave Gunn 共2000兲 to explore quantum Hall effect physics in
function is thus directly connected with the microscopic fast-rotating gases.
degrees of freedom, providing a complete and quantita- Experimentally, the strong-coupling regime in dilute
tive description of both static and time-dependent phe- gases was first reached by Cornish et al. 共2000兲 using
nomena in terms of a reversible, nonlinear Schrödinger Feshbach resonances for bosonic atoms. Unfortunately,
equation, the famous Gross-Pitaevskii equation 共Gross, in this case, increasing the scattering length a leads to a
1961; Pitaevskii, 1961兲. In dilute gases, therefore, the strong decrease in the condensate lifetime due to three-
many-body aspect of a BEC is reduced to an effective body losses, whose rate on average varies as a4
single-particle description, where interactions give rise 共Fedichev, Reynold, and Shlyapnikov, 1996; Petrov,
to an additional potential proportional to the local par- 2004兲. A quite different approach to the regime of
ticle density. Adding small fluctuations around this strong correlations, which does not suffer from problems
zeroth-order picture leads to the well-known Bogoliu- with the condensate lifetime, was taken by Greiner et al.
bov theory of weakly interacting Bose gases. Like the 共2002a兲. Loading BEC’s into an optical lattice, they ob-
closely related BCS superfluid of weakly interacting fer- served a quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a
mions, the many-body problem is then completely Mott-insulating phase even in the standard regime
soluble in terms of a set of noninteracting quasiparticles. where the average interparticle spacing is much larger
Dilute, ultracold gases provide a concrete realization of than the scattering length. Subsequently, the strong con-
these basic models of many-body physics, and many of finement available with optical lattices made possible
their characteristic properties have been verified quanti- the achievement of low-dimensional systems where new
tatively. Excellent reviews of this remarkably rich area phases can emerge. The observation of a 共Tonks-
of research have been given by Dalfovo et al. 共1999兲 and Girardeau兲 hard-core Bose gas in one dimension by Ki-
by Leggett 共2001兲 and, more recently, by Pethick and noshita et al. 共2004兲 and Paredes et al. 共2004兲 constituted
Smith 共2002兲 and Pitaevskii and Stringari 共2003兲. a first example of a bosonic Luttinger liquid. In two di-
In the past several years, two major new develop- mensions, a Kosterlitz-Thouless crossover between a
ments have considerably enlarged the range of physics normal phase and one with quasi-long-range order was
that is accessible with ultracold gases. They are associ- observed by Hadzibabic et al. 共2006兲. The physics of
ated with 共i兲 the ability to tune the interaction strength strongly interacting bosons in the lowest Landau level is
in cold gases by Feshbach resonances 共Courteille et al., accessible with fast-rotating BEC’s 共Bretin et al., 2004;
1998; Inouye et al., 1998兲; and 共ii兲 the possibility of Schweikhard et al., 2004兲, where the vortex lattice is pre-
changing the dimensionality with optical potentials and, dicted to melt by quantum fluctuations. Using atoms like
52
in particular, of generating strong periodic potentials for Cr, which have a larger permanent magnetic moment,
cold atoms through optical lattices 共Greiner et al., BEC’s with strong dipolar interactions have been real-
2002a兲. The two developments, either individually or in ized by Griesmaier et al. 共2005兲. In combination with
combination, allow one to enter a regime in which the Feshbach resonances, this opens the way to tuning the
nature and range of the interaction 共Lahaye et al., 2007兲, cold atoms in optical lattices for quantum information
which might, for instance, be used to reach many-body are omitted completely; for an introduction, see Jaksch
states that are not accessible in the context of the frac- and Zoller 共2005兲.
tional quantum Hall effect.
In Fermi gases, the Pauli principle suppresses three-
body losses, whose rate in fact decreases with increasing A. Scattering of ultracold atoms
values of the scattering length 共Petrov, Salomon, and
Shlyapnikov, 2004兲. Feshbach resonances, therefore, al- For an understanding of the interactions between neu-
low one to enter the strong-coupling regime kF兩a兩 Ⰷ 1 in tral atoms, first at the two-body level, it is instructive to
ultracold Fermi gases 共O’Hara et al., 2002; Bourdel et al., use a toy model 共Gribakin and Flambaum, 1993兲, in
2003兲. In particular, there exist stable molecular states of which the van der Waals attraction at large distances is
weakly bound fermion pairs in highly excited rovibra- cut off by a hard core at some distance rc on the order of
tional states 共Cubizolles et al., 2003; Strecker et al., 2003兲. an atomic dimension. The resulting spherically symmet-
The remarkable stability of fermions near Feshbach ric potential,
resonances allows one to explore the crossover from a
molecular BEC to a BCS superfluid of weakly bound
Cooper pairs 共Bartenstein et al., 2004a; Bourdel et al.,
V共r兲 = 再 − C6/r6 if r ⬎ rc
⬁ if r 艋 rc ,
冎 共1兲
2004; Regal et al., 2004a; Zwierlein et al., 2004兲. In par- is, of course, not a realistic description of the short-range
ticular, the presence of pairing due to many-body effects interaction of atoms; however, it captures the main fea-
has been probed by rf spectroscopy 共Chin et al., 2004兲 or tures of scattering at low energies. The asymptotic be-
the measurement of the closed-channel fraction 共Par- havior of the interaction potential is fixed by the van der
tridge et al., 2005兲, while superfluidity has been verified Waals coefficient C6. It defines a characteristic length
by observation of quantized vortices 共Zwierlein et al.,
2005兲. Recently, these studies have been extended to ac = 共2MrC6/ប2兲1/4 共2兲
Fermi gases with unequal densities for the spin-up and at which the kinetic energy of the relative motion of two
spin-down components 共Partridge et al., 2006; Zwierlein atoms with reduced mass Mr equals their interaction en-
et al., 2006兲, where pairing is suppressed by the mis- ergy. For alkali-metal atoms, this length is typically on
match of the respective Fermi energies. the order of several nanometers. It is much larger than
Repulsive fermions in an optical lattice allow one to the atomic scale rc because alkali-metal atoms are
realize an ideal and tunable version of the Hubbard strongly polarizable, resulting in a large C6 coefficient.
model, a paradigm for the multitude of strong- The attractive well of the van der Waals potential thus
correlation problems in condensed matter physics. Ex-
supports many bound states 共of order 100 in 87Rb兲. Their
perimentally, some basic properties of degenerate fermi-
number Nb may be determined from the WKB phase
ons in periodic potentials, such as the existence of a
Fermi surface and the appearance of a band insulator
at unit filling, have been observed by Köhl et al. 共2005a兲. ⌽= 冕 rc
⬁
dr冑2Mr兩V共r兲兩/ប = a2c /2r2c Ⰷ 1 共3兲
While it is difficult to cool fermions to temperatures
much below the bandwidth in a deep optical lattice, at zero energy, via Nb = 关⌽ / + 1 / 8兴, where 关 兴 means tak-
these experiments give hope that eventually magneti- ing the integer part.1 The number of bound states in this
cally ordered or unconventional superconducting phases model, therefore, depends crucially on the precise value
of the fermionic Hubbard model will be accessible with of the short-range scale rc. By contrast, the low-energy
cold gases. The perfect control and tunability of the in- scattering properties are determined by the van der
teractions in these systems provide a novel approach for Waals length ac, which is sensitive only to the asymptotic
studying basic problems in many-body physics and, in behavior of the potential. Consider the scattering in
particular, for entering regimes that have never been ac- states with angular momentum l = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . in the rela-
cessible in condensed matter or nuclear physics. tive motion 共for identical bosons or fermions, only even
This review aims to give an overview of this rapidly or odd values of l are possible, respectively兲. The effec-
evolving field, covering both theoretical concepts and tive potential for states with l ⫽ 0 contains a centrifugal
their experimental realization. It provides an introduc- barrier whose height is of order Ec ⯝ ប2l3 / Mra2c . Convert-
tion to the strong-correlation aspects of cold gases, that ing this energy into an equivalent temperature, one ob-
is, phenomena that are not captured by weak-coupling tains for small l temperatures around 1 mK for typical
descriptions like the Gross-Pitaevskii or Bogoliubov atomic masses. At temperatures below that, the energy
theory. The focus of this review is on examples that have ប2k2 / 2Mr in the relative motion of two atoms is typically
already been realized experimentally. Even within this below the centrifugal barrier. Scattering in states with
limitation, however, the rapid development of the field l ⫽ 0 is therefore frozen out, unless there exist so-called
in recent years makes it impossible to give a complete
survey. In particular, important subjects like spinor
gases, Bose-Fermi mixtures, quantum spin systems in 1
This result follows from Eq. 共5兲 below by noting that a new
optical lattices, or dipolar gases will not be discussed bound state is pulled in from the continuum each time the
关see, e.g., Lewenstein et al. 共2007兲兴. Also, applications of scattering length diverges 共Levinson’s theorem兲.
shape resonances, i.e., bound states with l ⫽ 0 behind the As noted by Fermi in the context of scattering of slow
centrifugal barrier, which may be in resonance with the neutrons and by Lee, Huang, and Yang for the low-
incoming energy; see Boesten et al. 共1997兲 and Dürr et al. temperature thermodynamics of weakly interacting
共2005兲. For gases in the sub-millikelvin regime, there- quantum gases, Eq. 共6兲 is the exact scattering amplitude
fore, usually the lowest-angular-momentum collisions at arbitrary values of k for the pseudopotential,3
dominate 共s-wave for bosons, p-wave for fermions兲,
4 ប 2a
which in fact defines the regime of ultracold atoms. In V共x兲共¯兲 = ␦共x兲 共r ¯ 兲. 共7兲
the s-wave case, the scattering amplitude is determined 2Mr r
by the corresponding phase shift ␦0共k兲 via 共Landau and At temperatures such that kBT ⬍ Ec, two-body interac-
Lifshitz, 1987兲 tions in ultracold gases may be described by a pseudo-
potential, with the scattering length usually taken as an
1 1 experimentally determined parameter. This approxima-
f共k兲 = → . 共4兲
k cot ␦0共k兲 − ik − 1/a + rek2/2 − ik tion is valid in a wide range of situations, provided no
longer-range contributions come into play as, e.g., in the
At low energies, it is characterized by the scattering case of dipolar gases. The interaction is repulsive for
length a and the effective range re as the only two pa- positive and attractive for negative scattering lengths.
rameters. For the truncated van der Waals potential 共1兲, Now, as shown above, the true interaction potential has
the scattering length can be calculated analytically as many bound states, irrespective of the sign of a. For
共Gribakin and Flambaum, 1993兲 low-energy scattering of atoms, however, these bound
states are irrelevant as long as no molecule formation
a = ā关1 − tan共⌽ − 3/8兲兴, 共5兲 occurs via three-body collisions. The scattering ampli-
tude in the limit k → 0 is sensitive only to bound 共or
where, ⌽ is the WKB phase 共3兲 and ā = 0.478ac is the virtual for a ⬍ 0兲 states near zero energy. In particular,
so-called mean scattering length. Equation 共5兲 shows within the pseudopotential approximation, the ampli-
that the characteristic magnitude of the scattering length tude 共6兲 has a single pole k = i, with = 1 / a ⬎ 0 if the
is the van der Waals length. Its detailed value, however, scattering length is positive. Quite generally, poles of the
depends on the short-range physics via the WKB phase scattering amplitude in the upper complex k plane are
⌽, which is sensitive to the hard-core scale rc. Since the connected with bound states with binding energy b
detailed behavior of the potential is typically not known = ប22 / 2Mr 共Landau and Lifshitz, 1987兲. In the pseudo-
precisely, in many cases neither the sign of the scattering potential approximation, only a single pole is captured;
length nor the number of bound states can be deter- the energy of the associated bound state is just below
mined from ab initio calculations. The toy-model result, the continuum threshold. A repulsive pseudopotential
however, is useful beyond the identification of ac as the thus describes a situation in which the full potential has
characteristic scale for the scattering length. Indeed, if a bound state with a binding energy b = ប2 / 2Mra2 on the
ignorance about the short-range physics is replaced by order of or smaller than the characteristic energy Ec in-
the 共maximum likelihood兲 assumption of a uniform dis- troduced above. The associated positive scattering
tribution of ⌽ in the relevant interval 关0 , 兴, the prob- length is then identical with the decay length of the wave
ability for finding a positive scattering length, i.e., function ⬃exp共−r / a兲 of the highest bound state. In the
tan ⌽ ⬍ 1, is 3 / 4. A repulsive interaction at low energy, attractive case a ⬍ 0, in turn, there is no bound state
which is connected with a positive scattering length, is within a range Ec below the continuum threshold; how-
therefore three times more likely than an attractive one, ever, there is a virtual state just above it.
where a ⬍ 0 共Pethick and Smith, 2002兲. Concerning the
effective range re in Eq. 共4兲, it turns out that re is also on
the order of the van der Waals or the mean scattering B. Weak interactions
length ā rather than the short-range scale rc, as might
have been expected naively2 共Flambaum et al., 1999兲. For a qualitative discussion of what defines the weak-
Since kac Ⰶ 1 in the regime of ultracold collisions, this interaction regime in dilute, ultracold gases, it is useful
to start with the idealization of no interactions at all.
implies that the k2 contribution in the denominator of
Depending on the two fundamental possibilities for the
the scattering amplitude is negligible. In the low-energy
statistics of indistinguishable particles, Bose or Fermi,
limit, the two-body collision problem is thus completely
the ground state of a gas of N noninteracting particles is
specified by the scattering length a as the single param-
either a perfect BEC or a Fermi sea. In the case of an
eter, and the corresponding scattering amplitude
ideal BEC, all particles occupy the lowest available
single-particle level, consistent with a fully symmetric
f共k兲 = − a/共1 + ika兲. 共6兲
many-body wave function. For fermions, in turn, the
2
This is a general result for deep potentials with a power-law 3
Because of the ␦ function, the last term involving the partial
decay at large distances, as long as the scattering energy is derivative with respect to r = 兩x兩 can be omitted when the po-
much smaller than the depth of the potential well. tential acts on a function that is regular at r = 0.
for a homogeneous gas is given by 共Lifshitz and Pita- harmonic-oscillator ground state wave function 0共x兲. Its
evskii, 1980兲 characteristic width is the oscillator length ᐉ0 = 冑ប / M
¯,
Bose =
4 ប 2a
M
冋 冉 冊
n 1+
32 na3
3
1/2
+ ¯ . 册 共9兲
which is on the order of 1 m for typical confinement
frequencies. Adding even small repulsive interactions
changes the distribution quite strongly. Indeed, in the
experimentally relevant limit Na Ⰷ ᐉ0, the density profile
Moreover, interactions lead to a depletion
n共x兲 in the presence of an external trap potential U共x兲
n0 = n关1 − 38 共na3/兲1/2 + ¯ 兴 共10兲 can be obtained from the local-density approximation
共LDA兲
of the density n0 of particles at zero momentum com-
pared to the perfect condensate of an ideal Bose gas. 关n共x兲兴 + U共x兲 = 关n共0兲兴. 共12兲
The finite value of the chemical potential at zero tem-
perature defines a characteristic length by ប2 / 2M2 For weakly interacting bosons in an isotropic harmonic
= Bose. This is the so-called healing length 共Pitaevskii trap, the linear dependence Bose = gn of the chemical
and Stringari, 2003兲, which is the scale over which the potential on the density in the homogeneous case then
macroscopic wave function 共x兲 varies near a boundary leads to a Thomas-Fermi profile n共x兲 = n共0兲关1 − 共r / RTF兲2兴.
共or a vortex core; see Sec. VII兲 where BEC is sup- Using the condition 兰n共x兲 = N, the associated radius
pressed. To lowest order in 冑na3, this length is given by RTF = ᐉ0 exceeds considerably the oscillator length since
= 共8na兲−1/2. In the limit na3 Ⰶ 1, the healing length is the dimensionless parameter = 共15Na / ᐉ0兲1/5 is typically
therefore much larger than the average interparticle much larger than 1 共Giorgini et al., 1997兲.6 This broad-
spacing n−1/3. In practice, the dependence on the gas pa- ening leads to a significant decrease in the density n共0兲
rameter na3 is so weak that the ratio n1/3 ⬃ 共na3兲−1/6 is at the trap center by a factor −3 compared with the
never very large. On a microscopic level, is the length noninteracting case. The strong effect of even weak in-
associated with the ground-state energy per particle by teractions on the ground state in a trap may be under-
the uncertainty principle. It can thus be identified with stood from the fact that the chemical potential
the scale over which bosons may be considered to be = ប¯ 2 / 2 is much larger than the oscillator ground-state
localized spatially. For weak-coupling BEC’s, atoms are energy. Interactions are thus able to mix in many single-
therefore smeared out over distances much larger than particle levels beyond the harmonic trap ground state.
the average interparticle spacing. Near the critical temperature, in turn, the ratio / kBTc
Interactions also shift the critical temperature for ⯝ 关n共0兲a3兴1/6 is small. Interaction corrections to the con-
BEC away from its value T共0兲 c in the ideal Bose gas. To
densation temperature, which dominate finite-size cor-
lowest order in the interactions, the shift is positive and rections for particle numbers much larger than N ⯝ 104,
linear in the scattering length 共Baym et al., 1999兲, are therefore accessible perturbatively 共Giorgini et al.,
1997兲. In contrast to the homogeneous case, where the
Tc/T共0兲 1/3
c = 1 + cn a + ¯ 共11兲 density is fixed and Tc is shifted upward, the dominant
effect in a trap arises from the reduced density at the
with a numerical constant c ⬇ 1.32 共Arnold and Moore, trap center. The corresponding shift may be expressed as
2001; Kashurnikov et al., 2001兲. The unexpected increase ⌬Tc / Tc = −const⫻ a / Tc 共Giorgini et al., 1997; Holzmann
of the BEC condensation temperature with interactions
et al., 2004; Davis and Blakie, 2006兲. A precise measure-
is due to a reduction of the critical density. While a
ment of this shift has been performed by Gerbier et al.
quantitative derivation of Eq. 共11兲 requires quite sophis-
共2004兲. Their results are in quantitative agreement with
ticated techniques 共Holzmann et al., 2004兲, the result can
mean-field theory, with no observable contribution of
be recovered by a simple argument. To leading order,
critical fluctuations at their level of sensitivity. Quite re-
the interaction induced change in Tc depends only on cently, evidence for critical fluctuations has been in-
the scattering length. Compared with the noninteracting
ferred from measurements of the correlation length
case, the finite scattering length may be thought of as
⬃ 共T − Tc兲− very close to Tc. The observed value
effectively increasing the quantum-mechanical uncer-
= 0.67± 0.13 共Donner et al., 2007兲 agrees well with the
tainty in the position of each atom due to thermal mo-
expected critical exponent of the 3D XY model.
tion from to ¯ = + a. To lowest order in a, the
T T T In spite of the strong deviations in the density distri-
modified ideal gas criterion n¯ T3 = 共3 / 2兲 then gives rise bution compared to the noninteracting case, the one-
c
to the linear and positive shift of the critical temperature and two-particle correlations of weakly interacting
in Eq. 共11兲 with a coefficient c̄ ⬇ 1.45, which is not far
from the numerically exact value. 6
In the standard situation of a gas confined in a har- For fermions, the validity of the LDA, which is in fact just a
semiclassical approximation 关see, e.g., Brack and Bhaduri
monic trap with characteristic frequency ¯ , the influence
共1997兲兴, does not require interactions. The leading term
of weak interactions is quantitatively different for tem- Fermi ⬃ n2/3 of Eq. 共8兲 leads to a density profile n共x兲 = n共0兲关1
peratures near T = 0 or near the critical temperature Tc. − 共r / RTF兲2兴3/2 with a radius RTF = ᐉ0. Here = kF共N兲ᐉ0
At zero temperature, the noninteracting Bose gas has a = 共24N兲1/6 Ⰷ 1 and the Fermi wave vector kF共N兲 in a trap is
density distribution n共0兲共x兲 = N兩0共x兲兩2, which reflects the ⑀F共N兲 = ប2k2F共N兲 / 2M.
bosons are well described by approximating the many- state of a gas of hard-sphere bosons, for instance, loses
body ground state of N bosons by a product BEC already for na3 ⲏ 0.24 by a first-order transition to
a solid state 共Kalos et al., 1974兲. On a variational level,
N
choosing the two-particle wave functions in Eq. 共14兲 of
⌿GP共x1,x2, . . . ,xN兲 = 兿 1共xi兲 共13兲 the form 2共xi , xj兲 ⬃ exp− u共兩xi − xj兩兲 with an effective
i=1
two-body potential u共r兲 describes so-called Jastrow wave
in which all atoms are in the identical single-particle functions. They allow taking into account strong short-
state 1共x兲. Taking Eq. 共13兲 as a variational ansatz, the range correlations; however, they still exhibit BEC even
optimal macroscopic wave function 1共x兲 is found to in a regime in which the associated one-particle density
obey the well-known Gross-Pitaevskii equation. More describes a periodic crystal rather than a uniform liquid,
generally, it turns out that for trapped BEC’s, the Gross- as shown by Chester 共1970兲. Crystalline order may thus
Pitaevskii theory can be derived mathematically by tak- coexist with BEC. For a discussion of this issue in the
ing the limits N → ⬁ and a → 0 in such a way that the context of a possible supersolid phase of 4He, see Clark
ratio Na / ᐉ0 is fixed 共Lieb et al., 2000兲. A highly non- and Ceperley 共2006兲.
trivial aspect of these derivations is that they show ex- For weakly interacting fermions at kFa Ⰶ 1, the varia-
plicitly that, in the dilute limit, interactions enter only tional ground state, which is analogous to Eq. 共13兲, is a
via the scattering length. The Gross-Pitaevskii equation Slater determinant
thus remains valid, e.g., for a dilute gas of hard spheres.
Since the interaction energy is of kinetic origin in this ⌿HF共x1,x2, . . . ,xN兲 = det关1,i共xj兲兴 共15兲
case, the standard mean-field derivation of the Gross-
of optimized single-particle states 1,i共xj兲. In the transla-
Pitaevskii equation via the replacement of the field op-
tionally invariant case, they are plane waves 1,i共x兲
erators by a classical c number ⌿̂共x兲 → 冑N1共x兲 is thus = V−1/2 exp共iki · x兲, where the momenta ki are filled up to
incorrect in general. From a many-body point of view, the Fermi momentum kF. Although both the Bose and
the ansatz Eq. 共13兲, where the ground state is written as Fermi ground-state wave functions consist of symme-
a product of optimized single-particle wave functions, is trized or antisymmetrized single-particle states, they de-
the standard Hartree approximation. It is the simplest scribe fundamentally different physics. In the Bose case,
possible approximation to account for interactions; how- the one-particle density matrix g共1兲共⬁兲 = n0 / n approaches
ever, it contains no interaction-induced correlations be- a finite constant at infinite separation, which is the basic
tween different atoms at all. A first step beyond that is criterion for BEC 共see the Appendix兲. The many-body
the well-known Bogoliubov theory. This is usually intro- wave function is thus sensitive to changes of the phase at
duced by considering small fluctuations around the points separated by distances r that are large compared
Gross-Pitaevskii equation in a systematic expansion in to the interparticle spacing. By contrast, the Hartree-
the number of noncondensed particles 共Castin and Dum, Fock state 共15兲 for fermions shows no long-range phase
1998兲. It is also instructive from a many-body point of coherence, and indeed the one-particle density matrix
view to formulate Bogoliubov theory such that the bo- decays exponentially g共1兲共r兲 ⬃ exp共−␥r兲 at any finite tem-
son ground state is approximated by an optimized prod- perature 共Ismail-Beigi and Arias, 1999兲. The presence of
uct 共Lieb, 1963b兲
N distinct eigenstates in Eq. 共15兲, which is a necessary
consequence of the Pauli principle, leads to a many-
⌿Bog共x1,x2, . . . ,xN兲 = 兿 2共xi,xj兲 共14兲
i⬍j
body wave function that may be characterized as near-
sighted. The notion of nearsightedness depends on the
of identical, symmetric two-particle wave functions 2. observable, however. As defined originally by Kohn
This allows one to include interaction effects beyond the 共1996兲, it means that a localized external potential
Hartree potential of the Gross-Pitaevskii theory by sup- around some point x⬘ is not felt at a point x at a distance
pressing configurations in which two particles are close much larger than the average interparticle spacing. This
together. The many-body state thus incorporates two- requires the density response function 共x , x⬘兲 to be
particle correlations that are important, e.g., to obtain short ranged in position space. In this respect, weakly
the standard sound modes and the related coherent su- interacting bosons, where 共x , x⬘兲 ⬃ 关exp共−兩x − x⬘兩 / 兲兴 / 兩x
perposition of “particle” and “hole” excitations. This − x⬘兩 decays exponentially on the scale of the healing
structure, which has been experimentally verified by Vo- length , are more nearsighted than fermions at zero
gels et al. 共2002兲, is expected to apply in a qualitative temperature, where 共x , x⬘兲 ⬃ sin共2kF兩x − x⬘兩兲 / 兩x − x⬘兩3 ex-
form even for strongly interacting BEC’s, whose low- hibits an algebraic decay with Friedel oscillations at
energy excitations are exhausted by harmonic phonons twice the Fermi wave vector 2kF. The characterization
共see the Appendix兲. of many-body wave functions in terms of the associated
Quantitatively, however, the Bogoliubov theory is re- correlation functions draws attention to another basic
stricted to the regime 冑na3 Ⰶ 1, where interactions lead point emphasized by Kohn 共1999兲: in situations with a
only to a small depletion 共10兲 of the condensate at zero large number of particles, the many-body wave function
temperature. Going beyond that requires one to specify itself is not a meaningful quantity because it cannot be
the detailed form of the interaction potential V共r兲 and calculated reliably for N ⲏ 100. Moreover, physically ac-
not only the associated scattering length a. The ground cessible observables are sensitive only to the resulting
C. Feshbach resonances
Energy
bound incident
1 state energy
V共r兲 = 4 关3Vt共r兲 + Vs共r兲兴 + Ŝ1 · Ŝ2关Vt共r兲 − Vs共r兲兴 共18兲
closed
of projections onto the singlet Vs共r兲 and triplet Vt共r兲 mo-
channel
lecular potentials, where the Ŝi’s 共i = 1 , 2兲 are the spin
operators for the valence electron of each atom. These
potentials have the same van der Waals attractive behav- open
ior at long distances, but they differ considerably at channel
short distances, with a much deeper attractive well for
the singlet than for the triplet potential. Now, in a large
but finite magnetic field, the initial state 兩a , b典 is not a
purely triplet state. Because of the tensorial nature of Interactomic
V共r兲, this spin state will thus evolve during the collision. distance
More precisely, since the second term in Eq. 共18兲 is not
diagonal in the basis 兩a , b典, the spin state 兩a , b典 may be
coupled to other scattering channels 兩c , d典, provided the FIG. 3. 共Color online兲 The two-channel model for a Feshbach
resonance. Atoms prepared in the open channel, correspond-
z projection of the total spin is conserved 共mfc + mfd
ing to the interaction potential Vop共r兲, undergo a collision at
= mfa + mfb兲. When the atoms are far apart, the Zeeman
low incident energy. In the course of the collision, the open
+ hyperfine energy of 兩c , d典 exceeds the initial kinetic en- channel is coupled to the closed channel Vcl共r兲. When a bound
ergy of the pair of atoms prepared in 兩a , b典 by an energy state of the closed channel has an energy close to zero, a scat-
on the order of the hyperfine energy. Since the thermal tering resonance occurs. The position of the closed channel can
energy is much smaller than that for ultracold collisions, be tuned with respect to the open one, e.g., by varying the
the channel 兩c , d典 is closed and the atoms always emerge magnetic field B.
from the collision in the open-channel state 兩a , b典. How-
ever, due to the strong coupling of 共a , b兲 to 共c , d兲 via the
second term in Eq. 共18兲, which is typically on the order ditional open-channel resonance has to be included in
of eV, the effective scattering amplitude in the open the model, as discussed by Marcelis et al. 共2004兲.
channel can be strongly modified. We assume that the magnetic moments of the collid-
Two-channel model. We now present a simple two- ing states differ for the open and closed channels, and
channel model that captures the main features of a Fes- denote their difference by . Varying the magnetic field
hbach resonance 共see Fig. 3兲. Consider a collision be- by ␦B, therefore, amounts to shifting the closed-channel
tween two atoms with reduced mass Mr, and model the energy by ␦B with respect to the open channel. In the
system in the vicinity of the resonance by the Hamil- following, we are interested in the magnetic field region
tonian 共Nygaard et al., 2006兲 close to Bres such that one 共normalized兲 bound state
res共r兲 of the closed-channel potential Vcl共r兲 has an en-
冢 冣
ប2 2 ergy Eres共B兲 = 共B − Bres兲 close to 0. It can thus be reso-
− ⵜ + Vop共r兲 W共r兲
2Mr nantly coupled to the collision state where two atoms in
Ĥ = . 共19兲 the open channel have a small positive kinetic energy. In
ប2 2
W共r兲 − ⵜ + Vcl共r兲 the vicinity of the Feshbach resonance, the situation is
2Mr
now similar to the well-known Breit-Wigner problem
Before collision, the atoms are prepared in the open 关see, e.g., Landau and Lifshitz 共1987兲, Sec. 134兴. A par-
channel, whose potential Vop共r兲 gives rise to the back- ticle undergoes a scattering process in a 共single-channel兲
ground scattering length abg. Here the zero of energy is potential with a quasi- or true bound state at an energy
chosen such that Vop共⬁兲 = 0. In the course of the colli- , which is nearly resonant with the incoming energy
sion, a coupling to the closed channel with potential E共k兲 = ប2k2 / 2Mr. According to Breit and Wigner, this
Vcl共r兲 关Vcl共⬁兲 ⬎ 0兴 occurs via the matrix element W共r兲, leads to a resonant contribution
whose range is on the order of the atomic scale rc. For
simplicity, we consider here only a single closed channel, ␦res共k兲 = − arctan„⌫共k兲/2关E共k兲 − 兴… 共20兲
which is appropriate for an isolated resonance. We also
assume that the value of abg is on the order of the van
to the scattering phase shift, where = 共B − B0兲 is con-
der Waals length 共2兲. If abg is anomalously large, as oc-
ventionally called the detuning in this context 共for the
curs, e.g., for the 6Li resonance shown in Fig. 2, an ad-
difference between Bres and B0, see below兲.The associ-
ated resonance width ⌫共k兲 vanishes near zero energy,
7
The fact that there is a nonvanishing s-wave scattering with a threshold behavior linear in k = 冑2MrE / ប due to
length for these states is connected with the different nuclear the free-particle density of states. It is convenient to de-
and not electronic spin in this case. fine a characteristic length r쐓 ⬎ 0 by
⌫共k → 0兲/2 = ប2k/2Mrr쐓 . 共21兲 and B are the Bohr radius and Bohr magneton. From
these parameters, the characteristic length associated
The scattering length a = −limk→0 tan共␦bg + ␦res兲 / k then with the two resonances turns out to be r쐓 = 0.5aB and
has the simple form r쐓 = 28aB, both obeying the wide-resonance condition
a = abg − ប2/2Mrr쐓 . 共22兲 r쐓 Ⰶ 兩abg兩.
Weakly bound states close to the resonance. In addition
This agrees precisely with Eq. 共16兲 provided the width to the control of scattering properties, an important fea-
parameter ⌬B is identified with the combination ture of Feshbach resonances concerns the possibility to
⌬Babg = ប2 / 2Mrr쐓 of the two characteristic lengths abg form weakly bound dimers in the regime of small nega-
and r쐓. tive detuning = 共B − B0兲 → 0−, where the scattering
On a microscopic level, these parameters may be ob- length approaches +⬁. We briefly present below some
tained from the two-channel Hamiltonian 共19兲 by the key properties of these dimers, restricting for simplicity
standard Green’s-function formalism. In the absence of to the vicinity of the resonance 兩B − B0兩 Ⰶ 兩⌬B兩.
coupling W共r兲, the scattering properties of the open To determine the bound state for the two-channel
channel are characterized by Gop共E兲 = 共E − Hop兲−1, with Hamiltonian 共19兲, one considers the Green’s function
Hop = P2 / 2Mr + Vop共r兲. We denote by 兩0典 the eigenstate
G共E兲 = 共E − Ĥ兲−1 and looks for the low-energy pole at
of Hop associated with the energy 0, which behaves as
E = −b ⬍ 0 of this function. The corresponding bound
0共r兲 ⬃ 1 − abg / r for large r. In the vicinity of the reso-
state can be written
nance, the closed channel contributes through the state
res, and its Green’s function reads
Gcl共E,B兲 ⯝ 兩res典具res兩/关E − Eres共B兲兴. 共23兲
具x兩⌿共b兲典 = 冉冑 冑
1 − Zbg共r兲
Zres共r兲
冊 , 共27兲
With this approximation, one can project the eigenvalue where the coefficient Z characterizes the closed-channel
equation for the Hamiltonian Ĥ onto the background admixture. The values of b and Z can be calculated
and closed channels. One can then derive the scattering explicitly by projecting the eigenvalue equation for Ĥ on
length a共B兲 of the coupled-channel problem and write it each channel. Close to resonance, where the scattering
in the form of Eq. 共16兲. The position of the zero-energy length is dominated by its resonant contribution, Eq.
resonance B0 is shifted with respect to the “bare” reso- 共22兲 and the standard relation b = ប2 / 2Mra2 for a ⬎ 0
nance value Bres by show that the binding energy
共B0 − Bres兲 = − 具res兩WGop共0兲W兩res典. 共24兲
b = 关共B − B0兲兴2/쐓 共28兲
The physical origin of this resonance shift is that an in-
of the weakly bound state vanishes quadratically, with
finite scattering length requires that the contributions to
characteristic energy 쐓 = ប2 / 2Mr共r쐓兲2. In an experimen-
k cot ␦共k兲 in the total scattering amplitude from the
tal situation which starts from the atom continuum, it is
open and closed channels precisely cancel. In a situation
precisely this weakly bound state which is reached upon
in which the background scattering length deviates con-
varying the detuning by an adiabatic change in the mag-
siderably from its typical value ā and where the off-
netic field around B0. The associated closed-channel ad-
diagonal coupling measured by ⌬B is strong, this cancel-
mixture Z can be obtained from the binding energy as
lation already appears when the bare closed-channel
bound state is far away from the continuum threshold. A b 兩兩 r* 兩B − B0兩
simple analytical estimate for this shift has been given by Z=− ⯝2 * =2 . 共29兲
⑀ 兩abg兩 兩⌬B兩
Julienne et al. 共2004兲,
For a wide resonance, where r쐓 Ⰶ 兩abg兩, this admixture
B0 = Bres + ⌬Bx共1 − x兲/关1 + 共1 − x兲2兴, 共25兲
remains much smaller than 1 over the magnetic field
where x = abg / ā. The characteristic length r* defined in range 兩B − B0兩 ⱗ 兩⌬B兩.
Eq. 共21兲 is determined by the off-diagonal coupling via The bound state 兩⌿共b兲典 just presented should not be
共b兲
confused with the bound state 兩⌽op 典, that exists for abg
具res兩W兩0典 = 共ប2/2Mr兲冑4/r쐓 . 共26兲
⬎ 0 in the open channel, for a vanishing coupling W共r兲.
共b兲
Its inverse 1/r* is therefore a measure of how strongly The bound state 兩⌽op 典 has a binding energy of order
the open and closed channels are coupled. In the experi- ប2 / 共2Mrabg2
兲, that is much larger than that of Eq. 共28兲
mentally most relevant case of wide resonances, the when 兩B − B0兩 Ⰶ 兩⌬B兩. For 兩B − B0兩 ⬃ 兩⌬B兩 the states 兩⌿共b兲典
共b兲
length r* is much smaller than the background scattering and 兩⌽op 典 have comparable energies and undergo an
length. Specifically, this applies to the Feshbach reso- avoided crossing. The universal character of the above
nances in fermionic 6Li and 40K at B0 = 834 and 202 G, results is then lost and one has to turn to a specific study
respectively, which have been used to study the BCS- of the eigenvalue problem.
BEC crossover with cold atoms 共see Sec. VIII兲. They To conclude, Feshbach resonances provide a flexible
are characterized by the experimentally determined tool to change the interaction strength between ultra-
parameters abg = −1405aB, ⌬B = −300 G, = 2B and abg cold atoms over a wide range. To realize a proper many-
= 174aB, ⌬B = 7.8 G, = 1.68B, respectively, where aB body Hamiltonian with tunable two-body interactions,
this is possible for fermions, where the relaxation rate is As Eqs. 共31兲 and 共32兲 show, the ratio of scattering rate to
small near Feshbach resonances 共Petrov, Salomon, and the optical potential depth vanishes in the limit 兩⌬兩 Ⰷ ⌫.
Shlyapnikov, 2004, 2005兲. A strictly conservative potential can thus be reached in
principle by increasing the detuning of the laser field. In
practice, however, such an approach is limited by the
II. OPTICAL LATTICES maximum available laser power. For experiments with
ultracold quantum gases of alkali-metal atoms, the de-
In the following, we discuss how to confine cold atoms tuning is typically chosen to be large compared to the
by laser light into configurations of a reduced dimen- excited-state hyperfine structure splitting and in most
sionality or in periodic lattices, thus generating situa- cases even large compared to the fine-structure splitting
tions in which the effects of interactions are enhanced. in order to sufficiently suppress spontaneous scattering
events.
The intensity profile I共r , z兲 of a Gaussian laser beam
A. Optical potentials propagating along the z direction has the form
2/w2共z兲
The physical origin of the confinement of cold atoms I共r,z兲 = 关2P/w2共z兲兴e−2r . 共33兲
with laser light is the dipole force Here P is the total power of the laser beam, r is the
distance from the center, and w共z兲 = w0冑1 + z2 / zR 2
is the
2 ␣ 共 L兲
1
F= 关兩E共r兲兩2兴 共30兲
1 / e2 radius. This radius is characterized by a beam waist
due to a spatially varying ac Stark shift that atoms w0 that is typically around 100 m. Due to the finite
experience in an off-resonant light field 共Grimm et al., beam divergence, the beam width increases linearly with
2000兲. Since the time scale for the center-of-mass motion z on a scale zR = w20 / , which is called the Rayleigh
of atoms is much slower than the inverse laser frequency length. Typical values for zR are in the millimeter to
L, only the time-averaged intensity 兩E共r兲兩2 enters. centimeter range. Around the intensity maximum, a po-
The direction of the force depends on the sign of tential depth minimum occurs for a red-detuned laser
the polarizability ␣共L兲. In the vicinity of an atomic beam, leading to an approximately harmonic potential
resonance from the ground 兩g典 to an excited state 兩e典
Vdip共r,z兲 ⬇ − Vtrap关1 − 2共r/w0兲2 − 共z/zR兲2兴. 共34兲
at frequency 0, the polarizability has the form ␣共L兲
⬇ 円具e兩d̂E兩g典円2 / ប共0 − L兲, with d̂E the dipole operator in The trap depth Vtrap is linearly proportional to the laser
the direction of the field. Atoms are thus attracted to the power and typically ranges from a few kilohertz up to
nodes or to the antinodes of the laser intensity for blue- 1 MHz 共from the nanokelvin to the microkelvin regime兲.
共L ⬎ 0兲 or red-detuned 共L ⬍ 0兲 laser light, respec- The harmonic confinement is characterized by radial r
tively. A spatially dependent intensity profile I共r兲, there- and axial z trapping frequencies r = 共4Vtrap / Mw20兲1/2
fore, creates a trapping potential for neutral atoms. and z = 2Vtrap / MzR2
. Optical traps for neutral atoms
Within a two-level model, an explicit form of the dipole have a wide range of applications 共Grimm et al., 2000兲.
potential may be derived using the rotating-wave ap- In particular, they are inevitable in situations in which
proximation, which is a reasonable approximation pro- magnetic trapping does not work for the atomic states
vided that the detuning ⌬ = L − 0 of the laser field is under consideration. This is often the case when interac-
small compared to the transition frequency itself 兩⌬兩 tions are manipulated via Feshbach resonances, involv-
Ⰶ 0. With ⌫ as the decay rate of the excited state, one ing high-field-seeking atomic states.
obtains for 兩⌬兩 Ⰷ ⌫ 共Grimm et al., 2000兲 Optical lattices. A periodic potential is generated by
overlapping two counterpropagating laser beams. Due
3c2 ⌫ to the interference between the two laser beams, an op-
Vdip共r兲 = I共r兲, 共31兲 tical standing wave with period / 2 is formed, in which
230 ⌬
atoms can be trapped. More generally, by choosing the
which is attractive or repulsive for red 共⌬ ⬍ 0兲 or blue two laser beams to interfere under an angle less than
共⌬ ⬎ 0兲 detuning, respectively. Atoms are thus attracted 180°, one can also realize periodic potentials with a
or repelled from an intensity maximum in space. It is larger period 共Peil et al., 2003; Hadzibabic et al., 2004兲.
important to note that, in contrast to the form suggested The simplest possible periodic optical potential is
in Eq. 共30兲, the light force is not fully conservative. In- formed by overlapping two counterpropagating beams.
deed, spontaneous emission gives rise to an imaginary For a Gaussian profile, this results in a trapping poten-
part of the polarizability. Within a two-level approxima- tial of the form
tion, the related scattering rate ⌫sc共r兲 leads to an absorp- 2/w2共z兲
V共r,z兲 ⯝ − V0e−2r sin2共kz兲, 共35兲
tive contribution ប⌫sc共r兲 to the conservative dipole po-
tential 共31兲, which can be estimated as 共Grimm et al., where k = 2 / is the wave vector of the laser light and
2000兲 V0 is the maximum depth of the lattice potential. Note
angles; see, e.g., Jessen and Deutsch 共1996兲 and Gryn- TABLE I. Hopping matrix elements to nearest J and next-
berg and Robillard 共2001兲. nearest neighbors J共2d兲, bandwidth W, and overlap between
the Wannier function and the local Gaussian ground state in
1D optical lattices. Table courtesy of M. Holthaus.
B. Band structure
V0 / Er 4J / Er W / Er J共2d兲 / J 円具w 兩 典円2
We now consider single-particle eigenstates in an infi- 3 0.444 109 0.451 894 0.101 075 0.9719
nite periodic potential. Any additional potential from 5 0.263 069 0.264 211 0.051 641 0.9836
the intensity profile of the laser beams or from some
10 0.076 730 0.076 747 0.011 846 0.9938
magnetic confinement is neglected 关for the single-
particle spectrum in the presence of an additional har- 15 0.026 075 0.026 076 0.003 459 0.9964
monic confinement, see Hooley and Quintanilla 共2004兲兴. 20 0.009 965 0.009 965 0.001 184 0.9975
In a simple cubic lattice, the potential is given by Eq.
共36兲, with a tunable amplitude V0 and lattice constant
d = / k. In the limit V0 Ⰷ Er, each well supports a num-
ber of vibrational levels, separated by an energy ប0
Ⰷ Er. At low temperatures, atoms are restricted to the
冕 d3r wn* 共r − R兲wn⬘共r − R⬘兲 = ␦n,n⬘␦R,R⬘ 共40兲
lowest vibrational level at each site. Their kinetic energy for different bands n and sites R. Since the Wannier
is then frozen, except for the small tunneling amplitude functions for all bands n and sites R form a complete
to neighboring sites. The associated single-particle
basis, the operator ˆ 共r兲, which destroys a particle at an
eigenstates in the lowest band are Bloch waves with qua-
arbitrary point r, can be expanded in the form
simomentum q and energy
ˆ 共r兲 = 兺 wn共r − R兲âR,n . 共41兲
0共q兲 = 23 ប0 − 2J共cos qxd + cos qyd + cos qzd兲 + ¯ . R,n
冉 冊 冋 冉 冊册
R,R⬘,n
3/4 1/2
4 V0 V0
J⯝ Er exp − 2 . 共38兲
冑 Er Er It describes the hopping in a given band n with matrix
elements Jn共R兲, which in general connect lattice sites at
For lattice depths larger than V0 ⬎ 15Er, this approxima- arbitrary distance R. The diagonalization of this Hamil-
tonian by Bloch states 共39兲 shows that the hopping ma-
tion agrees with the exact values of J given in Table I to
better than 10% accuracy. More generally, for any peri- trix elements Jn共R兲 are uniquely determined by the
odic potential Vp共r + R兲 = Vp共r兲 which is not necessarily Bloch band energies n共q兲 via
deep and separable, the exact eigenstates are Bloch
functions n,q共r兲. They are characterized by a discrete
兺R Jn共R兲exp共iq · R兲 = n共q兲. 共43兲
band index n and a quasimomentum q within the first
Brillouin zone of the reciprocal lattice 共Ashcroft and In the case of separable periodic potentials Vp共r兲 = V共x兲
Mermin, 1976兲. Since Bloch functions are multiplied by + V共y兲 + V共z兲, generated by three orthogonal optical
a pure phase factor exp共iq · R兲, upon translation by one lattices, the single-particle problem is one dimensional.
of the lattice vectors R, they are extended over the A complete analysis of Wannier functions in this case
whole lattice. An alternative single-particle basis, which has been given by Kohn 共1959兲. Choosing appropri-
is useful for describing the hopping of particles among ate phases for the Bloch functions, there is a unique
discrete lattice sites R, is provided by Wannier functions Wannier function for each band, which is real and expo-
wn,R共r兲. They are connected with the Bloch functions by nentially localized. The asymptotic decay ⬃exp共−hn兩x兩兲
a Fourier transform is characterized by a decay constant hn, which is a de-
creasing function of the band index n. For the lowest
n,q共r兲 = 兺 wn,R共r兲eiq·R 共39兲 band n = 0, where the Bloch function at q = 0 is finite at
R the origin, the Wannier function w共x兲 can be chosen to
be symmetric around x = 0 共and correspondingly it is
on the lattice. The Wannier functions depend only on antisymmetric for the first excited band兲. More pre-
the relative distance r − R, and, at least for the lowest cisely, the asymptotic behavior of the 1D Wannier func-
bands, they are centered around the lattice sites R 共see tions and the hopping matrix elements is 兩wn共x兲兩
below兲. By choosing a convenient normalization, they ⬃ 兩x兩−3/4 exp共−hn兩x兩兲 and Jn共R兲 ⬃ 兩R兩−3/2 exp共−hn兩R兩兲, re-
obey the orthonormality relation spectively 共He and Vanderbilt, 2001兲. In the particular
(a) (b)
20 Er 4 Er Free particle
ω
E
p
-3k -2k -k k 2k 3k
-k k -k k -k k
q q q
FIG. 6. 共Color online兲 Adiabatic band mapping. 共a兲 Bloch bands for different potential depths. During an adiabatic ramp down the
quasimomentum is conserved and 共b兲 a Bloch wave with quasimomentum q in the nth energy band is mapped onto a free particle
with momentum p in the nth Brillouin zone of the lattice. From Greiner et al., 2001.
2 hk
3 3
4 2 4
3 3
2 hk
2 hk
FIG. 7. Brillouin zones. 共a兲 Brillouin zones of a 2D simple cubic optical lattice. 共b兲 For a homogeneously filled lowest Bloch band,
an adiabatic shutoff of the lattice potential leads to a homogeneously populated first Brillouin zone, which can be observed
through absorption imaging after a time-of-flight expansion. 共c兲 If in addition higher Bloch bands are populated, higher Brillouin
zones become populated as well. From Greiner et al., 2001.
zone 共see Fig. 6兲 共Kastberg et al., 1995; Greiner et al., 共for simplicity, the band index n = 0 is omitted for the
2001; Köhl et al., 2005a兲. lowest band兲. The explicit result for the on-site interac-
The adiabatic mapping technique has been used with tion U is obtained by taking w共r兲 as the Gaussian ground
both bosonic 共Greiner et al., 2001兲 and fermionic 共Köhl state in the local oscillator potential. As mentioned
et al., 2005a兲 atoms. For a homogeneously filled lowest- above, this is not the exact Wannier wave function of the
energy band, an adiabatic ramp down of the lattice po- lowest band. In the deep-lattice limit V0 Ⰷ Er, however,
tential leaves the central Brillouin zone—a square of the result 共47兲 provides the asymptotically correct be-
width 2បk—fully occupied 关see Fig. 7共b兲兴. If, on the havior. Note that the strength 兩U兩 of the on-site interac-
other hand, higher-energy bands are populated, one also tion increases with V0, which is due to the squeezing of
observes populations in higher Brillouin zones 关see Fig.
the Wannier wave function w共r兲.
7共c兲兴. As in this method each Bloch wave is mapped onto
Repulsively bound pairs. Consider now an optical lat-
a specific free-particle momentum state, it can be used
tice at very low filling. An occasional pair of atoms at
to efficiently probe the distribution of particles over
the same site has an energy U above or below the center
Bloch states in different energy bands.
of the lowest band. In the attractive case U ⬍ 0, a two-
particle bound state will form for sufficiently large val-
ues of 兩U兩. In the repulsive case, in turn, the pair is ex-
pected to be unstable with respect to breakup into two
D. Interactions and two-particle effects
separate atoms at different lattice sites to minimize the
So far we have only discussed single-particle behavior repulsive interaction. This process, however, is forbid-
of ultracold atoms in optical lattices. However, short- den if the repulsion is above a critical value U ⬎ Uc. The
ranged s-wave interactions between particles give rise to physical origin for this result is that momentum and en-
an on-site interaction energy, when two or more atoms ergy conservation do not allow the two particles to sepa-
occupy a single lattice site. Within the pseudopotential rate. There are simply no free states available if the en-
approximation, the interaction between bosons has the ergy lies more than zJ above the band center, which is
form the upper edge of the tight-binding band. Here z de-
notes the number of nearest neighbors on a lattice. Two
冕
bosons at the same lattice site will stay together if their
Ĥ⬘ = 共g/2兲 d3r ˆ †共r兲ˆ †共r兲ˆ 共r兲ˆ 共r兲. 共46兲 interaction is sufficiently repulsive. In fact, the two-
particle bound state above the band for a repulsive in-
teraction is the precise analog of the standard bound
Inserting the expansion Eq. 共41兲 leads to interactions in- state below the band for attractive interactions, and
volving Wannier states in both different bands and dif- there is a perfect symmetry around the band center.
ferent lattice sites. The situation simplifies, however, for Such “repulsively bound pairs” have been observed in
a deep optical lattice and with the assumption that only an experiment by Winkler et al. 共2006兲. A dilute gas of
the lowest band is occupied. The overlap integrals are 87
Rb2 Feshbach molecules was prepared in the vibra-
then dominated by the on-site term Un̂R共n̂R − 1兲 / 2, tional ground state of an optical lattice. Ramping the
which is nonzero if two or more atoms are in the same magnetic field across a Feshbach resonance to negative
Wannier state. At the two-particle level, the interaction a, these molecules can be adiabatically dissociated and
between atoms in Wannier states localized around R then brought back again to positive a as repulsive pairs.
and R⬘ is thus reduced to a local form U␦R,R⬘ with Since the bound state above the lowest band is built
1000
a b
rf
0
-500
mF = -9/2 mF = -9/2
+ mF = -7/2 + mF = -5/2
-1000
180 190 200 210 220 230 240
magnetic field [G]
FIG. 10. 共Color online兲 Experimentally observed interaction-induced transitions between Bloch bands. 共a兲 Two Feshbach reso-
nances between the 兩F = 9 / 2, mF = −9 / 2典 and 兩F = 9 / 2, mF = −7 / 2典 states 共left兲 and the 兩F = 9 / 2, mF = −9 / 2典 and 兩F = 9 / 2, mF = −5 / 2典
states 共right兲 are exploited to tune the interactions in the gas. 共b兲 Quasimomentum distribution for a final magnetic field of B
= 233 G. Arrows indicate atoms in the higher bands. From Köhl et al., 2005a.
motion of two particles form a sequence that, at infinite servables, such as, e.g., the visibility of the interference
scattering length, is shifted upwards by precisely ប0 pattern between two released quantum gases or fluctua-
compared to the noninteracting levels at zero angular tions in the momentum distribution after release from
momentum E共0兲共nr兲 = ប0共2nr + 3 / 2兲. In particular, a the trap, contain information about the initial correlated
change of the scattering length from small positive to quantum state. The noise-correlation techniques intro-
small negative values, through a Feshbach resonance duced below will yield information either on the first-
where a diverges, increases the energy by 2ប0, while order correlation function 共see Secs. III.C and VI兲 or on
particles are transferred to the next higher level nr = 1. the second- 共or higher-兲 order correlation properties 共see
Feshbach resonances can thus be used to switch pairs of Sec. III.B兲. They can therefore probe various kinds of
particles in individual wells of a deep optical lattice, order in real space, such as, e.g., antiferromagnetically
where tunneling is negligible, to higher bands. Experi- ordered states. Such correlation techniques for expand-
mentally, this has been studied by Köhl et al. 共2005a兲. ing atom clouds have been successfully employed in re-
Starting from a two-component gas of fermionic 40K at cent experiments, probing the momentum correlations
a ⬇ 0 and unit filling, i.e., with two fermions at each lat- between atomic fragments emerging from a dissociated
tice site in the center of the trap, atoms were transferred molecule 共Greiner et al., 2005兲, revealing the quantum
to a different hyperfine state and the magnetic field was statistics of bosonic or fermionic atoms in an optical lat-
then increased beyond the associated Feshbach reso- tice 共Fölling et al., 2005; Rom et al., 2006兲, or exploring
nance at B0 = 224 G.8 The resulting transfer of particles the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in two-dimensional
into higher bands is then revealed by observing the qua- Bose-Einstein condensates 共Hadzibabic et al., 2006兲. All
simomentum distribution in time-of-flight images after correlation techniques for strongly correlated quantum
adiabatically turning off the optical lattice; see Fig. 10. gases can also benefit greatly from efficient single-atom
Ho 共2006兲 pointed out that such Feshbach sweeps open detectors that have recently begun to be used in the
novel possibilities for creating fermionic Mott insulating context of cold quantum gases 共Öttl et al., 2005; Schelle-
states. kens et al., 2005; Jeltes et al., 2007兲.
8 9
Changing a from positive to negative values avoids creation In this section, we denote in-trap spatial coordinates by r
of molecules in an adiabatic ramp. and spatial coordinates after time of flight by x for clarity.
具n̂3D共x兲典TOF = 具âTOF
†
共x兲âTOF共x兲典TOF state released from a 3D optical lattice, and 共ii兲 two in-
terfering one-dimensional quantum gases separated by a
⬇ 具â†共k兲â共k兲典trap = 具n̂3D共k兲典trap , 共51兲 distance d.
冕
assumption is, however, correct only if during the expan-
sion process interactions between atoms do not modify â共k兲 = e−ik·rˆ 共r兲d3r ⯝ w̃共k兲 兺 e−ik·RâR , 共54兲
the initial momentum distribution, which we assume R
throughout. When interactions between atoms have
been enhanced, e.g., by a Feshbach resonance, or a high- where w̃共k兲 denotes the Wannier function in momentum
density sample is prepared, such an assumption is not space.
always valid. Near Feshbach resonances, one therefore For the two states considered here, the expectation
often ramps back to the zero crossing of the scattering value in Eq. 共53兲 factorizes into one-particle density ma-
length before expansion. trices 具â†RâR⬘典 = nR␦R,R⬘ with vanishing off-diagonal or-
Density-density correlations in time-of-flight images. der. The density-density correlation function after a time
We now turn to the observation of density-density cor- of flight is then given by 共omitting the autocorrelation
relations in the expanding atom clouds 共Altman et al., term of order 1 / N兲
2004兲. These are characterized by the density-density
具n̂3D共x兲n̂3D共x⬘兲典 = 兩w̃共Mx/បt兲兩2兩w̃共Mx⬘/បt兲兩2N2
冉 冏兺 冏冊
correlation function after time-of-flight
1
ei共x−x⬘兲·R共M/បt兲nR
2
⫻ 1± .
具n̂共x兲n̂共x⬘兲典 = 具n̂共x兲典具n̂共x⬘兲典g共2兲共x,x⬘兲 + ␦共x − x⬘兲具n̂共x兲典, N2 R
共52兲 共55兲
which contains the normalized pair distribution The plus sign in the above equation corresponds to
g共2兲共x , x⬘兲 and a self-correlation term. Relating the op- the case of bosonic particles and the minus sign to the
erators after time-of-flight expansion to the in-trap mo- case of fermionic particles in a lattice. Both in a Mott
mentum operators, using Eq. 共51兲, one obtains state of bosons and in a filled band of fermions, the local
occupation numbers nR are fixed integers. The above
具n̂3D共x兲n̂3D共x⬘兲典TOF ⬇ 具â†共k兲â共k兲â†共k⬘兲â共k⬘兲典trap equation then shows that correlations or anticorrelations
in the density-density expectation value appear for
= 具â†共k兲â†共k⬘兲â共k⬘兲â共k兲典trap bosons or fermions, whenever k − k⬘ is equal to a
+ ␦kk⬘具â†共k兲â共k兲典trap . 共53兲 reciprocal-lattice vector G of the underlying lattice. In
real space, where images are actually taken, this corre-
The last term on the right-hand side of the above sponds to spatial separations for which
equation is the autocorrelation term and will be dropped
in the subsequent discussion, as it contributes to the sig- 兩x − x⬘兩 = ᐉ = 2ht/M. 共56兲
nal only for x = x⬘ and contains no more information Such spatial correlations or anticorrelations in the
about the initial quantum state than the momentum dis- quantum noise of the density distribution of expanding
tribution itself. The first term, however, shows that, for atom clouds can in fact be traced back to the Hanbury
x ⫽ x⬘, subtle momentum-momentum correlations of the Brown and Twiss 共HBT兲 effect 共Hanbury Brown and
in-trap quantum states are present in the noise- Twiss, 1956a, 1956b; Baym, 1998兲 and its analog for fer-
correlation signal of the expanding atom clouds. mionic particles 共Henny et al., 1999; Oliver et al., 1999;
We now discuss the results obtained for two cases that Kiesel et al., 2002; Iannuzzi et al., 2006; Rom et al., 2006;
have been analyzed in experiments: 共i兲 ultracold atoms Jeltes et al., 2007兲. For the case of two atoms localized at
in a Mott-insulating state or a fermionic band-insulating two lattice sites, this can be understood in the following
x10-4 a c
a c
6
0
2hk
Column Density (a.u.)
-2
b d 6 4
共2兲
共b兲
冕 具n共x + b/2兲n共x − b/2兲典d2x
共57兲
As a second example, we consider two bosonic one-
dimensional quantum gases oriented along the z direc-
冕
gexp = .
tion and separated by a distance d along the x direction.
具n共x + b/2兲典具n共x − b/2兲典d2x The density-density correlation function at positions x
= 共x , y = 0 , z兲 and x⬘ = 共x⬘ , y⬘ = 0 , z⬘兲 after time of flight is
As shown in Fig. 11, the Mott insulating state exhibits then given by
long-range order in the pair correlation function g共2兲共b兲.
This order is not connected with the trivial periodic 具n̂3D共x兲n̂3D共x⬘兲典 = 具âTOF
†
共x兲âTOF
†
共x⬘兲âTOF共x兲âTOF共x⬘兲典
modulation of the average density imposed by the opti- + ␦xx⬘n共x兲n共x⬘兲. 共58兲
cal lattice after time of flight, which is factored out in
g共2兲共x , x⬘兲 关see Eq. 共52兲兴. Therefore, in the superfluid re- The operators for the creation âTOF†
共x兲 and destruction
gime, one expects g共2兲共x , x⬘兲 ⬅ 1 despite the periodic den- âTOF共x兲 of a particle after a time-of-flight period at po-
sity modulation in the interference pattern after time of sition x can be related to the in-trap operators describing
the trapped quantum gases 1 and 2. Since the expansion nent determined by the Luttinger parameter K 共see Sec.
mostly occurs along the initially strongly confined direc- V.B兲. As a result, the interference amplitudes exhibit an
tions x and y, we can neglect for simplicity the expansion anomalous scaling 具兩Âk兩2典 ⬀ L2−1/K 共Polkovnikov et al.,
along the axial direction z and obtain for y = 0
2006兲. By determining higher moments 具兩Âk兩2n典 of arbi-
âTOF共x兲 = â1共z兲e ik1x
+ â2共z兲e ik2x
, 共59兲 trary order n of the visibility in an interference experi-
ment, one can characterize the full distribution function
with k1,2 = M共x ± d / 2兲 / បt. The interference part,
of the normalized random variable 兩Âk兩2 / 具兩Âk兩2典. Full
ik共x−x⬘兲
具â†2共z兲â1共z兲â†1共z⬘兲â2共z⬘兲典 ⫻ 共e + c.c.兲, 共60兲 knowledge of the distribution function in fact amounts
to a complete characterization of correlations in the
of the correlation function in Eq. 共58兲 is an oscillatory many-body systems, as was shown by Gritsev et al.
function, with wave vector k = Md / បt. In a standard ab- 共2006兲 and allows one to infer the number statistics of
sorption image, with the propagation direction of the the initial state 共Polkovnikov, 2007兲. For the case of 1D
imaging beam pointing along the z direction, one has to Bose-Einstein condensates, this has recently been
take into account additionally an integration along this achieved by Hofferberth et al. 共2008兲.
direction over a length L from which a signal is re- The above analysis for one-dimensional quantum
corded. We then obtain for the interfering part systems can be extended to two-dimensional systems
共Polkovnikov et al., 2006兲 and has been used to detect a
具n̂共x兲n̂共x⬘兲典int = 具兩Âk兩2典共eik共x−x⬘兲 + c.c.兲, 共61兲 Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless transition 共Hadzibabic
with the observable et al., 2006兲 with ultracold quantum gases 共see Sec. VI兲.
For lattice-based systems, it has been shown that noise
Âk = 冕 L/2
−L/2
dz â†1共z兲â2共z兲. 共62兲
correlations can be a powerful way to reveal, e.g., an
antiferromagnetically ordered phase of two-component
bosonic or fermionic quantum gases 共Altman et al., 2004;
The above observable characterizes the phase and vis- Werner et al., 2005兲 to characterize Bose-Fermi mixtures
ibility of the interference pattern obtained in a single 共Ahufinger et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2005兲 and quantum
run of the experiment. Each run yields one of the eigen- phases with disorder 共Rey et al., 2006兲, as well as to de-
values of Âk . Its typical magnitude is determined by the tect supersolid phases 共Scarola et al., 2006兲.
expectation value
冕 冕
IV. MANY-BODY EFFECTS IN OPTICAL LATTICES
具兩Âk兩 典 =
2
dz dz⬘具â†2共z兲â1共z兲â†1共z⬘兲â2共z⬘兲典, 共63兲
As a first example illustrating how cold atoms in opti-
cal lattices can be used to study genuine many-body phe-
which can be obtained by statistical analysis of the vis-
nomena in dilute gases, we discuss the Mott-Hubbard
ibility of the interference patterns obtained in several
transition for bosonic atoms. Following the proposal by
runs of the experiment. The basic example in this con-
Jaksch et al. 共1998兲, this transition was first observed in
text is the observation of a pronounced interference pat-
3D by Greiner et al. 共2002a兲 and subsequently in 1D and
tern in a single realization of two overlapping but inde-
2D 共Stöferle et al., 2004; Spielman et al., 2007, 2008兲. The
pendent condensates with fixed particle numbers by
theory of the underlying quantum phase transition is
Andrews et al. 共1997兲. As discussed, e.g., by Javanainen
based on the Bose-Hubbard model, introduced by
and Yoo 共1996兲 and by Castin and Dalibard 共1997兲, the
Fisher et al. 共1989兲 to describe the destruction of super-
detection of particles at certain positions entails a non-
fluidity due to strong interactions and disorder.
vanishing interference amplitude in a single realization,
whose typical visibility is determined by 具兩Âk兩2典 ⫽ 0. Av-
A. Bose-Hubbard model
eraging over many realizations, in turn, completely
eliminates the interference because 具Âk典 = 0 共Leggett, A conceptually simple model to describe cold atoms
2001兲. in an optical lattice at finite density is obtained by com-
For the case of identical 共but still independent兲 homo- bining the kinetic energy 共42兲 in the lowest band with
geneous quantum gases, one can simplify Eq. 共63兲 to the on-site repulsion arising from Eq. 共46兲 in the limit of
yield a sufficiently deep optical lattice. More precisely, the
Bose-Hubbard model 共BHM兲 is obtained from a general
具兩Âk兩2典 ⬇ L 冕 L/2
−L/2
dz具â†共z兲â共0兲典2 = L 冕 兩G共1兲共z兲兩2dz. many-body Hamiltonian with a pseudopotential interac-
tion under the following assumptions: 共i兲 both the ther-
mal and mean interaction energies at a single site are
共64兲
much smaller than the separation ប0 to the first excited
Fluctuations in the interference pattern are directly band; and 共ii兲 the Wannier functions decay essentially
linked to the coherence properties of the one- within a single lattice constant.
dimensional quantum systems. For the case of Luttinger Under these assumptions, only the lowest band needs
liquids, the one-particle density matrix G共1兲共z兲 ⬃ z−1/共2K兲 to be taken into account in Eq. 共41兲. Moreover, the hop-
at zero temperature decays algebraically with an expo- ping matrix elements J共R兲 are non-negligible only for
R = 0 or to nearest neighbors 共NN兲 in Eq. 共42兲, and the Indeed, from Eqs. 共38兲 and 共47兲, the ratio U / J
interaction constants are dominated by the on-site con- ⬃ 共a / d兲exp共2冑V0 / Er兲 increases exponentially with the
tribution 共47兲. This leads to the BHM lattice depth. Of course, to see strong interaction effects,
the average site occupation 具n̂R典 needs to be on the or-
U
Ĥ = − J 兺 â†RâR⬘ + 兺 n̂R共n̂R − 1兲 + 兺R ⑀Rn̂R .
2 R
der of 1, otherwise the atoms never see each other. This
was the situation for cold atoms in optical lattices in the
具R,R⬘典
1990s, studied, e.g., by Westbrook et al. 共1990兲, Grynberg
共65兲 et al. 共1993兲, Hemmerich and Hänsch 共1993兲, and Kast-
共具R , R⬘典 denotes a sum over all lattice sites R and its berg et al. 共1995兲.
nearest neighbors at R⬘ = R + d, where d runs through
the possible nearest-neighbor vectors.兲 The hopping ma-
trix element J共d兲 = −J ⬍ 0 to nearest neighbors is always
B. Superfluid–Mott-insulator transition
negative in the lowest band, because the ground state
must have zero momentum q = 0 in a time-reversal in- The BHM Eq. 共65兲 is not an exactly soluble model,
variant situation. For a separable lattice and in the limit not even in one dimension, despite the fact that the cor-
V0 Ⰷ Er, it is given by Eq. 共38兲. More generally, the hop- responding continuum model in 1D, the Lieb-Liniger
ping matrix elements are determined by the exact band model, is exactly soluble. Nevertheless, the essential
energy using Eq. 共43兲. An alternative, but more indirect, physics of the model and, in particular, the existence and
expression is J共R兲 = 具w共R兲兩Ĥ0兩w共0兲典 共Jaksch et al., 1998兲. properties of the quantum phase transition that the
Since the standard BHM includes next neighbor- BHM exhibits as a function of U / J are rather well un-
hopping only, a convenient approximation for J in Eq. derstood 共Fisher et al., 1989兲. In fact, for the 3D case and
共65兲 is obtained by simply adjusting it to the given band- effectively unit filling, the existence of a quantum phase
width. Concerning the on-site repulsion U, which disfa- transition from a homogeneous BEC to a Mott insulator
vors configurations with more than one boson at a given 共MI兲 with a nonzero gap has been proven rigorously in a
site, its precise value as determined by Eq. 共47兲 requires model of hard-core bosons in the presence of a stag-
the exact Wannier function. In the low-filling n̄ ⬃ 1 re- gered field by Aizenman et al. 共2004兲. We first discuss the
gime, it follows from the single-particle Bloch states via limiting cases, which describe the two possible phases in
Eq. 共39兲. For higher fillings, the mean-field repulsion on the ground state of the BHM.
each lattice site leads to an admixture of excited states in Superfluid phase. In the trivial limit U = 0, the many-
each well and eventually to a description where for n̄ body ground state is simply an ideal BEC where all N
Ⰷ 1 one has a lattice of coupled Josephson junctions with atoms are in the q = 0 Bloch state of the lowest band.
a Josephson coupling EJ = 2n̄J and an effective charging Including the normalization factor in a lattice with NL
energy U 共Fisher et al., 1989; Cataliotti et al., 2001兲. For sites, this state can be written in the form
intermediate fillings, the Wannier functions entering
both the effective hopping matrix element J and on-site
repulsion U have to be adjusted to account for the
兩⌿N典共U = 0兲 =
1
冑N! 冉 1
冑N L 兺
R
â†R 冊 N
兩0典. 共66兲
mean-field interaction 共Li et al., 2006兲. The change in the In the limit U / J → 0, therefore, the ground state of the
on-site interaction energy with filling was observed ex- BHM is a Gross-Pitaevskii-type state with a condensate
perimentally by Campbell et al. 共2006兲. In a more de- fraction that is equal to 1. The critical temperature of
tailed description, the effects of interactions at higher
the ideal Bose gas in an optical lattice at filling n̄ = 1 can
filling can be accounted for by a multiorbital generaliza-
be obtained from the condition 兰d g共兲nB共c兲 = 1,
tion of the Gross-Pitaevskii ansatz 共Alon et al., 2005兲.
where g共兲 is the density of states in the lowest band and
This leads to effective “dressed” Wannier states, which
include higher bands and coupling between different nB共x兲 = 关exp共x兲 − 1兴−1 is the Bose-Einstein distribution.
sites. The last term with a variable on-site energy ⑀R This gives kBTc = 5.59J. In the presence of an optical lat-
tice, therefore, the critical temperature for BEC is sig-
= Ṽ共R兲 describes the effect of the smooth trapping po- nificantly reduced compared with the free-space situa-
tential Ṽ共r兲. It includes the constant band center energy, tion, essentially due to the increased effective mass M*
arising from the J共R = 0兲 term of the hopping contribu- of particles in the lattice. The relevant parameter, how-
tion 共42兲, and acts like a spatially varying chemical po- ever, is not the temperature but the entropy, which is
tential. S = 1.13NkB at Tc. Indeed, by starting with a deeply de-
The BHM describes the competition between the generate gas and adiabatically switching on the optical
kinetic energy J, which is gained by delocalizing par- lattice, the entropy remains constant while the tempera-
ticles over lattice sites in an extended Bloch state, and ture is reduced by a factor M / M* 共Hofstetter et al., 2002;
the repulsive on-site interaction U, which disfavors Olshanii and Weiss, 2002; Blakie and Porto, 2004兲.
having more than one particle at any given site. In an For a sufficiently large system N , NL → ⬁ at fixed 共not
optical lattice loaded with cold atoms, the ratio U / J necessarily integer兲 density N / NL 关in the experiment
between these two energies can be changed by varying 共Greiner et al., 2002a兲, the total number of occupied lat-
the dimensionless depth V0 / Er of the optical lattice. tice sites was about 105兴, the perfect condensate Eq. 共66兲
FIG. 13. 共Color online兲 Schematic zero-temperature phase diagram of the Bose-Hubbard model. Dashed lines of constant-integer
density 具n̂典 = 1 , 2 , 3 in the SF hit the corresponding MI phases at the tips of the lobes at a critical value of J / U, which decreases with
increasing density n̄. For 具n̂典 = 1 + the line of constant density stays outside the n̄ = 1 MI because a fraction of the particles
remains superfluid down to the lowest values of J. In an external trap with an n̄ = 2 MI phase in the center, a series of MI and SF
regions appear on going toward the edge of the cloud, where the local chemical potential has dropped to zero.
becomes indistinguishable in practice from a coherent netic energy outweighs the repulsion due to double oc-
state cupancies. Atoms then undergo a transition to a
冋 冉冑 冊 册
superfluid, in which they are delocalized over the whole
exp共冑Nâq=0
N †
†
兲兩0典 = 兿 exp â 兩0典R . 共67兲 lattice. This is a sharp quantum phase transition in the
R NL R thermodynamic limit in two and three dimensions, be-
cause the state 共66兲, in contrast to Eq. 共68兲, exhibits off-
It factorizes into a product of local coherent states at diagonal long-range order, which cannot disappear in a
every lattice site R with average n̄ = 具n̂典 = N / NL, because continuous manner. By contrast, the evolution between
boson operators at different sites commute. The prob- these two states is completely smooth for, say, two par-
ability distribution for the number of atoms at any given ticles in two wells, where a simple crossover occurs from
site for a perfect BEC in an optical lattice is therefore a state with a well-defined relative phase at J Ⰷ U to one
Poissonian with a standard deviation given by 共n̄兲 = 冑n̄. with a well-defined particle number in each well at
Taking N = NL, i.e., an average density such that there is J Ⰶ U.
one atom for each lattice site, there is a 1 − 2 / e = 0.27 Phase diagram. The zero-temperature phase diagram
probability that any given site is occupied by more than of the homogeneous BHM is shown schematically in Fig.
one atom. The kinetic energy minimization requirement 13共a兲 as a function of J / U, with the density controlled by
that every atom wants to be at all lattice sites with equal a chemical potential . At U / J → 0, the kinetic energy
amplitude thus necessarily leads to a substantial prob- dominates and the ground state is a delocalized super-
ability of finding more than one atom on a given site. At fluid, described by Eq. 共67兲 to lowest order. At large
finite repulsion U ⬎ 0, such configurations are, of course, values of U / J, interactions dominate and one obtains a
disfavored. series of MI phases with fixed integer filling n̄ = 1 , 2 , . . ..
Mott-insulating phase. To understand the behavior in These states are incompressible, implying that their den-
the opposite limit U Ⰷ J, it is useful to consider the case sity remains unchanged when the chemical potential is
of unit filling, i.e., the number N of atoms is precisely varied. In fact, it is the property n / = 0 that is the
equal to the number NL of lattice sites. In the limit U defining property of a MI, and not the existence of local
Ⰷ J, hopping of atoms is negligible and the ground state Fock states that exist only at J = 0. The transition be-
兩⌿N=NL典共J = 0兲 = 冉兿 冊
R
â†R 兩0典 共68兲
tween the superfluid 共SF兲 and MI phases is associated
with the loss of long-range order in the one-particle den-
sity matrix g共1兲共x兲. In the 3D case, the order parameter of
is a simple product of local Fock states with precisely the SF-MI transition is therefore the condensate fraction
one atom per site. With increasing J, atoms start to hop n0 / n, which drops continuously from 1 at U / J Ⰶ 1 to zero
around, which involves double occupancy increasing the at 共U / J兲c. The continuous nature of the SF-MI quantum
energy by U. Now as long as the gain J in kinetic energy phase transition in any dimension follows from the fact
due to hopping is smaller than U, atoms remain local- that the effective field theory for the complex order pa-
ized. For any J ⫽ 0, however, the ground state is no rameter is that of a 共d + 1兲-dimensional XY model
longer a simple product state as in Eq. 共68兲. Once J be- 共Fisher et al., 1989; Sachdev, 1999兲. More precisely, this is
comes of the order of or larger than U, the gain in ki- valid for the special transition at integer density, which is
driven by phase fluctuations only. By contrast, if the cause two of those particles will never be at the same
SF-MI phase boundary is crossed by a change in the place. The same argument applies to holes when is
chemical potential, the associated change in the density negative. As a result, in the homogeneous system, the
gives rise to a different critical behavior 共Fisher et al., quantum phase transition from a SF to a MI only ap-
1989兲. For instance, the excitation gap in the MI phase pears if the density is equal to a commensurate, integer
vanishes linearly with the distance from the boundary of value.
the Mott lobe in this more generic case. In-trap density distribution. Fortunately, the situation
Within a mean-field approximation, the critical value is much less restrictive in the presence of a harmonic
for the transition from a MI to a SF is given by 共U / J兲c trap. Within the local-density approximation, the inho-
= 5.8z for n̄ = 1 and 共U / J兲c = 4n̄z for n̄ Ⰷ 1 共Fisher et al., mogeneous situation in a harmonic trap is described by a
1989; Sheshadri et al., 1993; van Oosten et al., 2001兲. spatially varying chemical potential R = 共0兲 − ⑀R with
Here z is the number of nearest neighbors and 2zJ is the ⑀R = 0 at the trap center. Assuming, e.g., that the chemi-
total bandwidth of the lowest Bloch band, which is the cal potential 共0兲 at the trap center falls into the n̄ = 2
relevant parameter that has to be compared with U. Mott lobe, one obtains a series of MI domains separated
Recently, precise quantum Monte Carlo simulations by by a SF by moving to the boundary of the trap where R
Capogrosso-Sansone et al. 共2007兲 determined the critical vanishes 关see Fig. 13共b兲兴. In this manner, all different
value for the n̄ = 1 transition in a simple cubic lattice to phases that exist for given J / U below 共0兲 are present
be at 共U / J兲c = 29.36, with an accuracy of about 0.1%. In simultaneously. The SF phase has a finite compressiblity
one dimension, the SF-MI transition is of the Kosterlitz-
= n / and a gapless excitation spectrum of the form
Thouless type, with a finite jump of the superfluid den-
共q兲 = cq because there is a finite superfluid density ns
sity at the transition. Precise values for the critical cou-
pling are available from density-matrix renormaliza- 共see the Appendix兲. By contrast, in the MI phase both ns
tion-group 共DMRG兲 calculations, giving 共U1 / J兲c = 3.37 and vanish. As predicted by Jaksch et al. 共1998兲, the
incompressibility of the MI phase allows one to distin-
共Kühner et al., 2000; Kollath et al., 2004兲, for the n̄ = 1
guish it from the SF by observing the local-density dis-
transition. For n̄ Ⰷ 1, the BHM is equivalent to a chain
tribution in a trap. Since = 0 in the MI, the density stays
of Josephson junctions with coupling energy EJ = 2n̄J.
constant in the Mott phases, even though the external
The SF-MI transition is then desribed by the 共1 + 1兲-
trapping potential is rising. In the limit of J → 0, the SF
dimensional O共2兲 model, which gives 共U1 / J兲c = 2.2n̄
regions vanish and one obtains a “wedding-cake”-type
共Hamer and Kogut, 1979; Roomany and Wyld, 1980兲.
density profile, with radii Rn of the different Mott insu-
From Eqs. 共38兲 and 共47兲, the critical value of the di-
mensionless lattice depth V0 / Er for deep lattices is ob- lating regions, given by Rn = 冑2关共0兲 − nU兴 / M2 共De-
tained from Marco et al., 2005兲.
The existence of such wedding-cake-like density pro-
共V0/Er兲c = 41 ln2关共冑2d/a兲共U/J兲c兴. 共69兲 files of a Mott insulator was supported by Monte Carlo
共Batrouni et al., 2002; Kashurnikov et al., 2002; Wessel
Using the experimental parameters d = 426 nm and et al., 2004; Rigol et al., 2006兲 and DMRG 共Kollath et al.,
a = 5.7 nm 共Greiner et al., 2002a兲, the precise result for 2004兲 calculations in one, two, and three dimensions.
共U / J兲c in a simple cubic lattice gives a critical value Number-state-resolved, in-trap density profiles were
兩V0 / Er兩c = 11.9 for the SF-MI transition with n̄ = 1. Given detected experimentally by Campbell et al. 共2006兲 and
that Eq. 共38兲, on which the above estimate for the criti- Fölling et al. 共2006兲. In the latter case, it was possible to
cal lattice depth is based, is not very precise in this re- directly observe the wedding-cake density profiles and
gime, this result is in reasonable agreement with the lat- confirm the incompressibility of Mott-insulating regions
tice depth of V0 = 12− 13Er, where the transition is of the atomic gas in the trapping potential. A sharp drop
observed experimentally 共Greiner et al., 2002a; Gerbier in the radii of the n = 2 occupied regions was observed
et al., 2005b兲. when the transition point was crossed 共Fölling et al.,
Consider now a filling with 具n̂典 = 1 + , which is slightly 2006兲. It should be noted that in-trap density profiles can
larger than 1. For large J / U, the ground state has all be used as a sensitive thermometer for the strongly in-
atoms delocalized over the whole lattice and the situa- teracting quantum gas. For typical experimental param-
tion is hardly different from the case of unit filling. Upon eters, one finds that, for temperatures around T*
lowering J / U, however, the line of constant density re- ⲏ 0.2U / kB, the wedding-cake profiles become com-
mains slightly above the n̄ = 1 “Mott lobe,” and stays in pletely washed out 共Gerbier, 2007兲. Within the strongly
the SF regime down to the lowest J / U 共see Fig. 13兲. For interacting regime, the superfluid shells accommodate
any noninteger filling, therefore, the ground state re- most entropy of the system and can already turn into a
mains SF as long as atoms can hop at all. This is a con- normal thermal gas at a lower temperature Tc ⬃ zJ with
sequence of the fact that, even for J Ⰶ U, there is a small the Mott-insulating shells still intact 共Capogrosso-
fraction of atoms that remain SF on top of a frozen MI Sansone et al., 2007; Gerbier, 2007; Ho and Zhou, 2007兲.
phase with n̄ = 1. Indeed, this fraction can still gain ki- In order to reach the lowest temperatures in this regime,
netic energy by delocalizing over the whole lattice with- it is advantageous to keep the external harmonic con-
out being blocked by the repulsive interaction U be- finement as low as possible, or even decrease it during
a b c d
an increase of the lattice depth 共Gerbier, 2007; Ho and G共1兲共R兲 decays to zero, remnants of the interference
Zhou, 2007兲. peaks still remain 关see, e.g., Fig. 14共f兲兴 as long as G共1兲共R兲
Phase coherence across the SF-MI transition. The dis- extends over several lattice spacings, because the series
appearance of superfluidity 共or better, of BEC兲 at the in Eq. 共70兲 adds up constructively at k = G. A more de-
SF-MI transition was initially observed experimentally tailed picture for the residual short-range coherence fea-
by a time-of-flight method 共Greiner et al., 2002a兲. The tures beyond the SF-MI transition is obtained by consid-
corresponding series of images is shown in Fig. 14 for ering perturbations deep in the Mott-insulating regime
different values of V0, ranging between V0 = 0 共a兲 and at J = 0. There G共1兲共R兲 vanishes beyond R = 0 and the
20Er 共h兲. One observes a series of interference peaks momentum distribution is a structureless Gaussian, re-
around the characteristic “zero-momentum” peak of a flecting the Fourier transform of the Wannier wave func-
condensate in the absence of an optical lattice. With in- tion 关see Fig. 14共h兲兴. With increasing tunneling J, the
creasing V0, these peaks become more pronounced. Be- Mott state at J / U → 0 is modified by a coherent admix-
yond a critical lattice depth around V0 ⬇ 共12− 13兲Er 共e兲, ture of particle-hole pairs. However, due the presence of
which agrees well with the above estimate for the SF-MI a gapped excitation spectrum, such particle-hole pairs
transition for one boson per site, this trend is suddenly cannot spread out and are rather tightly bound to close
reversed, however, and the interference peaks eventu- distances. They do, however, give rise to a significant
ally disappear completely. In order to understand why degree of short-range coherence. Using first-order per-
these pictures indeed provide direct evidence for the SF turbation theory with the tunneling operator as a pertur-
to MI transition predicted by the Bose-Hubbard model, bation on the dominating interaction term, one finds
it is useful to consider the idealized situation of a perfect that the amplitude of the coherent particle-hole admix-
periodic lattice in the absence of any trapping potential. tures in a Mott-insulating state is proportional to J / U,
From Eq. 共44兲, the observed density at position x reflects
the momentum distribution at k = Mx / បt. Factoring out J
the number of lattice sites, it is proportional to the lat- 兩⌿典U/J ⬇ 兩⌿典U/J→⬁ + 兺 ↠âR 兩⌿典U/J→⬁ .
U 具R,R 典 R ⬘
共71兲
tice Fourier transform ⬘
n共k兲 ⬃ 兩w̃共k兲兩2 兺 eik·RG共1兲共R兲 共70兲 Close to the transition point, higher-order perturba-
R tion theory or a Green’s-function analysis can account
for coherence beyond nearest neighbors and the com-
of the one-particle density matrix G共1兲共R兲 at separation plete liberation of particle-hole pairs, which eventually
R. For optical lattice depths below the critical value, the leads to the formation of long-range coherence in the
ground state in a 3D situation is a true BEC, where superfluid regime. The coherent particle-hole admixture
G共1兲共兩R兩 → ⬁兲 = n0 approaches a finite value at large sepa- and its consequences for the short-range coherence of
ration. For the MI phase, in turn, G共1兲共R兲 decays to zero the system have been investigated experimentally and
exponentially. The SF phase of cold atoms in a homoge- theoretically by Gerbier et al. 共2005a, 2005b兲 and Sen-
neous optical lattice is thus characterized by a momen- gupta et al. 共2005兲.
tum distribution that exhibits sharp peaks at the The SF-MI quantum phase transition, therefore,
reciprocal-lattice vectors k = G 关defined by G · R = 2 shows up directly in the interference pattern. For the
times an integer; see, e.g., Ashcroft and Mermin 共1976兲兴 homogeneous system, it reveals the existence or not of
plus a smooth background from short-range correla- off-diagonal long-range order in the one-particle density
tions. The fact that the peaks in the momentum distri- matrix. The relevant order parameter is the condensate
bution at k = G initially grow with increasing depth of fraction. Of course the actual system is not homoge-
the lattice potential is a result of the strong decrease in neous and numerical computation of the interference
spatial extent of the Wannier function w共r兲, which en- pattern is necessary for a quantitative comparison with
tails a corresponding increase in its Fourier transform experiment. This has been done, e.g., for the 3D case by
w̃共k兲 at higher momenta. In the MI regime, where Kashurnikov et al. 共2002兲 and for the 1D case by Ba-
trouni et al. 共2002兲 and Kollath et al. 共2004兲. Due to the sociated sound velocity c is determined by Mc2 = ns /
finite size and the fact that different MI phases are in- and thus gives information about the superfluid density
volved, the pattern evolves continuously from the SF to ns. The existence of a soundlike excitation even in the
the MI regime. While critical values for J / U are differ- presence of an underlying lattice that explicitly breaks
ent for the MI phases with n̄ = 1 and 2, which are present translation invariance is a consequence of long-range
in the experiment 共Greiner et al., 2002a兲, the transition phase coherence in the SF. Its observation would there-
seen in the time-of-flight images occurs rather rapidly fore directly probe superfluidity, in contrast to the peaks
with increasing lattice depth. Indeed, from Eq. 共69兲, the in the interference pattern, which measure BEC.
experimental control parameter V0 / Er depends only Number statistics. Associated with the transition from
logarithmically on the relevant parameter U / J of the a superfluid to a Mott-insulating state is a profound
BHM. The small change from V0 = 13Er in 共e兲 to V0 change in the atom number statistics per lattice site. As
= 14Er in 共f兲 thus covers a range in J / U wider than that noted above, in the homogeneous system the ground
state in the extreme MI limit 共J / U → 0兲 is a product of
which would be required to distinguish the n̄ = 1 from the
Fock states with an integer number n̄ of particles at each
n̄ = 2 transition. For a quantitative evaluation of interfer-
site. At finite hopping J ⫽ 0, this simple picture breaks
ence patterns, one must also take into account the
down because the atoms have a finite amplitude to be at
broadening mechanism during time-of-flight expansion,
different sites. The many-body ground state can then no
as discussed in Sec. II.C.
longer be written as a simple product state. In the oppo-
When approaching the SF-MI transition from the su-
site limit U → 0, the ground state is a condensate of zero-
perfluid regime, the increasing interactions tend to in-
crease the depletion of the condensate and thereby re- quasimomentum Bloch states. In the limit N , NL → ⬁ at
duce the long-range phase-coherent component with fixed 共not necessarily integer兲 density n̄ = N / NL, the as-
increasing U / J 共Orzel et al., 2001; Hadzibabic et al., 2004; sociated perfect condensate is a product of coherent
Schori et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2006兲. For increasing lattice states on each lattice site,
depth, the condensate density as a measure of the long-
range coherent fraction then decreases continuously and ␣n
兺n 冑n! 兩n典,
2/2
vanishes at the transition point. The visibility of the in- 兩␣典 = e−兩␣兩 共72兲
terference pattern in general, however, evolves smoothly
across the SF-MI transition, due to the presence of a
strong short-range coherent fraction in the MI just with ␣ describing the amplitude and phase of the coher-
across the transition point 共see the discussion above兲. ent matter wave-field. This corresponds to a Poissonian
Above the transition point, the visibility of the interfer- atom number distribution on each lattice site with aver-
ence pattern can also show kinks as the lattice depth is age 兩␣兩2 = n̄.
increased, which have been attributed to the beginning A consequence of the representation 共67兲 is that, at
formation of shell structures in the MI state 共Gerbier et least for integer densities n̄ = 1 , 2 , . . ., the many-body
al., 2005a, 2005b; Sengupta et al., 2005兲. ground state may be factorized into a product over
Excitation spectrum. A second signature of the SF-MI single sites,
transition is the appearance of a finite excitation gap ⌬
⫽ 0 in the Mott insulator. Deep in the MI phase, this gap
has size U, which is the increase in energy if an atom
tunnels to an already occupied adjacent site 共note that U
is much smaller than the gap ប0 for excitation of the
兩⌿GW典 = 兿
R
冉兺 冊
⬁
n=0
cn兩n典R , 共73兲
resonances, the 3D scattering length is much smaller diffusion constant D = 1 in units where ប = 2Mr = 1. Tak-
than the transverse oscillator length. In this weak- ing the limit r → 0, Eq. 共79兲 finally leads to the exact
confinement limit 兩a兩 Ⰶ ᐉ⬜, the effective 1D interaction is equation
冕
obtained by integrating the 3D pseudopotential ⬁
g 兰 d3x兩0共y , z兲兩2␦共x兲 over the ground-state density of the 1/4a = dt 关P共0兲共t兲 − eEtP共t兲兴 共80兲
transverse motion. The resulting effective 1D interaction 0
is then of the form V共x兲 = g1␦共x兲 with
for the bound-state energies E of two particles with a
g1共兩a兩 Ⰶ ᐉ⬜兲 = g兩0共0,0兲兩2 = 2ប⬜a. 共78兲 pseudopotential interaction and scattering length a.
Trivially, an attractive or repulsive pseudopotential leads Here P共0兲共t兲 = 共4t兲−3/2 is the probability density at the
to a corresponding sign of the 1D interaction. In order origin of a free random walk after time t, starting and
to discuss what happens near Feshbach resonances, ending at x = 0, while P共t兲 is the same quantity in the
where the weak-confinement assumption breaks down, presence of an additional confining potential. Note that,
we consider bound states of two particles in a strong in the formulation of Eq. 共80兲, the regularization of the
transverse confinement. Starting with an attractive 3D 1 / r singularity in G共E , x兲 is accounted for by cancella-
pseudopotential a ⬍ 0, the effective 1D potential 共78兲 has tion of the short-time divergence due to P共t → 0兲
a bound state with binding energy b = Mrg21 / 2ប2. With = 共4t兲−3/2, because the random walk does not feel the
increasing magnitude of a, this binding energy increases, confinement as t → 0. For two particles in free space,
finally diverging at a Feshbach resonance. In turn, upon where P共t兲 = P共0兲共t兲 at all times, Eq. 共80兲 gives the stan-
crossing the resonance to the side where a ⬎ 0, the effec- dard result that a bound state at E = −b below the con-
tive potential 共78兲 becomes repulsive. The bound state, tinuum at E = 0 exists only for a ⬎ 0, with b = ប2 / 2Mra2.
therefore, has disappeared even though there is one in In the presence of an additional confinement, however,
the 3D pseudopotential for a ⬎ 0. Obviously, this cannot there is a bound state for an arbitrary sign of the scat-
be correct. As pointed out above, the result 共78兲 applies tering length. The quasibound state in the continuum at
only in the weak-confinement limit 兩a兩 Ⰶ ᐉ⬜. In the fol- a ⬍ 0 thus becomes a true bound state, i.e., it is shifted
lowing, we present the scattering properties of confined upward by less than the continuum threshold Ec. The
particles for arbitrary values of the ratio 兩a兩 / ᐉ⬜. To this physics behind this is the fact that the average time
end, we first consider the issue of two-particle bound ⬃兰dt P共t兲exp共Ect兲 spent near the origin is infinite for the
states with a pseudopotential interaction in quite general confined random walk. This provides an intuitive under-
terms by mapping the problem to a random-walk pro- standing of why an infinitesimally small 共regularized兲 ␦
cess. Subsequently, we derive the low-energy scattering potential is able to bind a state.
amplitudes by analytic continuation. For harmonic confinement, the probability density
Confinement-induced bound states. Quite generally, P共t兲 = 关共4兲3 det Ĵ共t兲兴−1/2 can be calculated from the de-
two-particle bound states may be determined from the
terminant det Ĵ共t兲 for small fluctuations around the
condition VĜ = 1 of a pole in the exact T matrix. In the
trivial Brownian path x共t⬘兲 ⬅ 0. Here Ĵ共t兲 obeys the
case of a pseudopotential with scattering length a, the
simple 3 ⫻ 3 matrix equation 共Schulman, 1981兲
matrix elements 具x兩 ¯ 兩0典 of this equation lead to
1
= 关rG共E,x兲兴r=0 = lim G共E,x兲 +
4a r r→0
1
冉
4r
, 冊 共79兲
共− 2t +
ˆ 2兲Ĵ共t兲 = 0 with Ĵ共0兲 = 0, 兩tĴ共t兲兩t=0 = 1,
共81兲
in units where ប = 2Mr = 1. Here G共E , x兲 = 具x兩共E where is the 共diagonal兲 matrix of the trap frequencies.
ˆ2
− Ĥ0兲 兩0典 is the Green’s function of the free Schrödinger
−1 The fluctuation determinant is thus equal to det Ĵ共t兲
equation, and Ĥ0 includes both the kinetic energy and = t关sinh共⬜t兲 / ⬜兴2 for two confining directions and equal
the harmonic confining potential. As r → 0, the Green’s to det Ĵ共t兲 = t2 sinh共zt兲 / z for a pancake geometry. Since
function diverges as −共4r兲−1, thus providing the regu- the continua start at ប⬜ and បz / 2, respectively, we
larization for the pseudopotential through the second write the bound-state energies as E = ប⬜ − b or E
term of Eq. 共79兲. For energies E below the bottom of the = បz / 2 − b. The dimensionless binding energy ⍀
spectrum of Ĥ0, the resolvent 共E − Ĥ0兲−1 = −兰⬁0 dt exp共E = b / ប⬜,z in the presence of confinement then follows
from the transcendental equation
− Ĥ0兲t can be written as a time integral. Moreover, by
the Feynman-Kac formulation of quantum mechanics,
the 共imaginary-time兲 propagator P共x , t兲 = 具x兩exp共−Ĥ0t兲兩0典
ᐉ⬜,z
a
= 冕冑 冉
0
⬁
du
4u3
1−
e−⍀u
兵关1 − exp共− 2u兲兴/2u其n/2
冊
can be interpreted as the sum over Brownian mo-
tion trajectories from x = 0 to x at time t weighted with = fn共⍀兲, 共82兲
exp„−兰t0U关x共t⬘兲兴…, where U共x兲 is the external potential in where n = 1 , 2 is the number of confined directions.
the free Hamiltonian Ĥ0. Similarly, the contribution The functions f1,2 are shown in Fig. 18. For small bind-
共4r兲−1 = 兰⬁0 dtP共0兲共x , t兲 can be written in terms of the ing energies ⍀ Ⰶ 1, their asymptotic behavior is f1共⍀兲
probability density of free Brownian motion with the = ln共⍀ / B兲 / 冑2 and f2共⍀兲 = −1 / 冑⍀ + A with numerical
As shown by Bergeman et al. 共2003兲, it can be under- where interactions dominate. This rather counterintui-
stood as a Feshbach resonance where a bound state in tive result can be understood physically by noting that
the closed channel drops below the continuum of the the scattering amplitude Eq. 共85兲 approaches −1 as k
ground state. Now, in a 1D waveguide, the separation → 0. Since, at a given interaction strength g1, the low-
between energy levels of successive transverse eigen- energy limit is reached at low densities, atoms in this
states with zero angular momentum is exactly 2ប⬜, in- regime are perfectly reflected by the repulsive potential
dependent of the value of a 共Bergeman et al., 2003兲. The of surrounding particles. For ␥ Ⰷ 1, therefore, the system
confinement-induced resonance thus appears precisely approaches a gas of impenetrable bosons where all en-
when the exact bound-state energy b—which cannot ergy is kinetic.14 In particular, as shown by Girardeau
be determined from the pseudopotential 共86兲 unless 共1960兲, at ␥ = ⬁, the hard-core condition of a vanishing
⍀ ⬍ 0.1—reaches 2ប⬜. An analogous confinement- wave function whenever two particle coordinates coin-
induced resonance appears in a 2D pancake geometry; cide is satisfied by a wave function
see Petrov, Holzmann, and Shlyapnikov 共2000兲.
⌿B共x1, . . . ,xN兲 = 兿 兩sin关共xj − xi兲/L兴兩, 共89兲
i⬍j
B. Bosonic Luttinger liquids; Tonks-Girardeau gas
which coincides with the absolute value of the wave
To describe the many-body problem of bosons con- function of a noninteracting spinless Fermi gas. Strongly
fined to an effectively 1D situation, the basic micro- interacting bosons in 1D thus acquire a fermionic char-
scopic starting point is a model due to Lieb and Liniger acter, a fact well known from the exact solution of a
共1963兲, hard-core Bose or spin-1 / 2 system on a 1D lattice in
N
terms of noninteracting fermions by the Jordan-Wigner
ប2 2 transformation; see, e.g., Wen 共2004兲.
H=− 兺
2M i=1 x2i
+ g1 兺 ␦共xi − xj兲.
i⬍j
共87兲
Crossover diagram in a harmonic trap. In the presence
of an additional harmonic confinement V共x兲 = M20x2 / 2
It is based on pairwise interactions with a pseudopoten- along the axial direction, the relative interaction
tial ⬃g1␦共x兲, as given in Eq. 共86兲. This is a valid descrip- strength depends, in addition to the parameter ␥ intro-
tion of the actual interatomic potential provided that the duced above, also on the ratio ␣ = ᐉ0 / 兩a1兩 ⬇ 2aᐉ0 / ᐉ⬜
2
be-
two-body scattering amplitude has the low-energy form 冑
tween the oscillator length ᐉ0 = ប / M0 and the magni-
of Eq. 共85兲 for all relevant momenta k. In the limit tude of the 1D scattering length. For tight radial
Ⰶ ប⬜ of a single transverse mode, they obey kᐉ⬜ Ⰶ 1. confinement ᐉ⬜ ⬇ 40 nm and typical values ᐉ0 ⬇ 2 m for
Remarkably, in this regime, the pseudopotential ap-
the axial oscillator length, one obtains ␣ ⬇ 12 for 87Rb.
proximation is always applicable. Indeed, it follows from
This is in fact the interesting regime, since for ␣ Ⰶ 1 the
the leading correction ⬃⍀ in the low-binding-energy ex-
typical relative momenta k ⬇ 1 / ᐉ0 of two particles are so
pansion f2共⍀兲 = −1 / 冑⍀ + A + b⍀ + ¯ of the function de-
large that the strong-interaction limit k兩a1兩 Ⰶ 1 cannot be
fined in Eq. 共82兲 that the denominator of the 1D scatter-
reached at all. The conditions for realizing the Tonks-
ing amplitude 共85兲 has the form 1 + ika1 − ib共kᐉ⬜兲3 + ¯ at
Girardeau 共TG兲 limit in a trap have been discussed by
low energies with a numerical coefficient b = 0.462. Since Petrov, Shlyapnikov, and Walraven 共2000兲 using a quan-
a1 ⬇ −ᐉ⬜ 2
/ a in typical situations where a Ⰶ ᐉ⬜, the condi- tum hydrodynamic description 关see also Ho and Ma
tion k ⬍ 1 / aᐉ⬜ for a negligible cubic term in the scatter-
2
共1999兲 and the review by Petrov, Gangardt, and Shlyap-
ing amplitude is always obeyed in the regime kᐉ⬜ Ⰶ 1 of nikov 共2004兲 on trapped gases in low dimensions兴. Using
a single transverse mode. In this limit, the interaction Eq. 共A8兲 in the Appendix, the phase fluctuations in a 1D
between cold atoms in a 1D tube is therefore generically Bose gas behave like ␦2共x兲 = 关ln共兩x兩 / 兲兴 / K at zero tem-
described by the integrable Hamiltonian 共87兲. In the ho- perature. From the Lieb-Liniger solution discussed be-
mogeneous case, stability requires g1 to be positive,13 low, both the characteristic healing length ⬇ K共␥兲 / n1
i.e., the 3D scattering length obeys ᐉ⬜ ⬎ Aa ⬎ 0. At a and the dimensionless so-called Luttinger parameter K
given 1D density n1 = N / L, the strength of the interac- are monotonically decreasing functions of the interac-
tions in Eq. 共87兲 is characterized by a single dimension- tion strength. In particular, K共␥兲 → / 冑␥ is much larger
less parameter than 1 in the limit ␥ Ⰶ 1. In this limit, the 1D Bose gas
g 1n 1 2 2a loses its phase coherence on a scale ᐉ共T = 0兲 = exp K
␥= = ⬇ if ᐉ⬜ Ⰷ a. 共88兲 关defined by ␦2共x = ᐉ兲 ⬇ 1兴, which exceeds the healing
ប n1/M
2 2
n1兩a1兩 n1ᐉ⬜
2
length by an exponentially large factor. The gas behaves
In marked contrast to the 3D situation, the dimension- like a true condensate as long as its size R is smaller than
less interaction strength ␥ scales inversely with the 1D ᐉ. Applying the Gross-Pitaevskii equation plus the
density n1 共Petrov, Shlyapnikov, and Walraven, 2000兲. In
one dimension, therefore, it is the low-density limit
14
In fact, it follows from the Lieb-Liniger solution that the
ratio of the interaction and kinetic energy per particle diverges
13
For a possible extension to a metastable “super-Tonks” re- as 1 / 冑␥ for ␥ Ⰶ 1 and decreases monotonically to zero as 1 / ␥
gime at g1 ⬍ 0, see Astrakharchik et al. 共2005a兲. for ␥ Ⰷ 1.
1200
WH2 (m )
40
1000 approaches the Fermi energy of a spinless, noninteract-
1D
30 800 ing Fermi gas at density n1, the healing length is essen-
T
2
20 The sound velocity c turns out to coincide with the
400
10 200 simple thermodynamic formula Mc2 = / n, which is
0 obtained from the quantum hydrodynamic Hamiltonian
0 Eq. 共A6兲 under the assumption that the superfluid den-
0 20 40 60 80
U (E ) sity at T = 0 coincides with the full density. The ground
0 rec state of the Lieb-Liniger gas is in fact fully superfluid at
arbitrary values of ␥ in the sense of Eq. 共A4兲, despite the
FIG. 20. 共Color online兲 Average axial energy per particle and fact that phase fluctuations destroy a plain BEC even at
equivalent temperature T1D as a function of the transverse zero temperature. The sound velocity increases mono-
confinement U0. With increasing values of U0, the energy
tonically with ␥, approaching the finite value c共⬁兲 = vF
crosses over from a weakly interacting Bose gas 共long-dashed
line兲 to a Tonks-Girardeau gas 共short-dashed line兲, where T1D = បn1 / M of an ideal Fermi gas in the Tonks-Girardeau
is independent of U0. From Kinoshita et al., 2004. limit. The second type of excitation found by Lieb
共1963a兲 also has a linear dispersion at small q with the
same velocity. However, in contrast to the Bogoliubov-
to the free-fermion-type wave function Eq. 共89兲 of a like spectrum discussed before, it is restricted to a finite
Tonks-Girardeau gas. For arbitrary coupling, both the
range 兩q兩 艋 n1 and terminates with a vanishing group
ground-state energy per particle E0 / N = 共n21ប2 / 2M兲e共␥兲 velocity. It turns out that these excitations are precisely
and the chemical potential = E0 / N are monotoni- the solitons of the nonlinear Schrödinger equation 共Ish-
cally increasing functions of ␥ at fixed density n1. For ikawa and Takayama, 1980兲; for a discussion in the cold
weak interactions ␥ Ⰶ 1, the chemical potential = g1n1 gas context, see Jackson and Kavoulakis 共2002兲.
follows the behavior expected from a mean-field ap- Momentum distribution in the Luttinger liquid regime.
proach, which is valid here for high densities n1兩a1兩 Ⰷ 1. To obtain the momentum distribution of a strongly cor-
In the low-density regime ␥ Ⰷ 1, in turn, related 1D Bose gas, it is convenient to start from a
= ប2共n1兲2 / 2M approaches a coupling-independent value quantum hydrodynamic description of the one-particle
that is just the Fermi energy associated with kF = n1. density matrix. At zero temperature, the logarithmic in-
The energy per particle in this regime is of completely crease ␦2共x兲 = 共ln兩x兩 / 兲 / K of the phase fluctuations with
kinetic origin, independent of the interaction strength ␥. distance 关see Eq. 共A8兲兴 leads to an algebraic decay of
This remarkable property of the Tonks-Girardeau gas g共1兲共x兲 at scales beyond the healing length . The associ-
was observed experimentally by Kinoshita et al. 共2004兲 ated exponent 1 / 共2K兲 is rather small in the weak-
共see Fig. 20兲. They measured the axial expansion energy coupling regime and approaches its limiting value 1 / 2 in
of an array of 1D Bose gases as a function of the the TG limit. The resulting momentum distribution thus
strength U0 of the transverse confinement. Since ⬜ exhibits a power-law divergence ñ共k兲 ⬃ k−关1−共1/2K兲兴 for
⬃ 冑U0, the dimensionless coupling ␥ is monotonically in- k Ⰶ 1. At any finite temperature, however, this diver-
creasing with U0 at fixed density n1. In the weak- gence is cut off due to thermal phase fluctuations. In-
confinement limit, the expansion energy scales linearly deed, these fluctuations increase linearly with distance
with 冑U0, reflecting the mean-field behavior e共␥兲 = ␥共1 ␦2共x兲 = 兩x兩 / ᐉ共T兲 on a scale ᐉ共T兲, implying an exponen-
− 4冑␥ / 3 + ¯ 兲 of the average energy per particle. By tial decay of the one-particle density matrix for 兩x兩 ⬎ ᐉ.
contrast, for large values of 冑U0, where 兩a1兩 becomes This leads to a rounding of the momentum distribution
shorter than the average interparticle spacing, the en- at small k ⯝ 1 / ᐉ.
ergy e共␥兲 = 2共1 − 4 / ␥ + ¯ 兲 / 3 saturates at a value that is Experimentally, the momentum distribution of a
fixed by the density. Tonks-Girardeau gas was observed for ultracold atoms
The low-lying excitations of the Lieb-Liniger model in a 2D optical lattice by Paredes et al. 共2004兲. There a
have been obtained exactly by Lieb 共1963a兲. Surpris- weak optical lattice was applied along the axial direction
ingly, it turned out that there are two types of excita- in order to tune the system into the strongly interacting
tions, both with a linear spectrum = cq at low mo- regime, where K is close to 1. Indeed, for the low filling
menta. One of them has a Bogoliubov-like dispersion, factors f Ⰶ 1 used in the experiment, there is no Mott-
linear at q Ⰶ 1 and quadratic at q Ⰷ 1. The crossover insulating phase. Instead, the 1D Bose-Hubbard model
from collective to single-particle behavior occurs at a at f Ⰶ 1 describes a bosonic Luttinger liquid with K ⬇ 1
characteristic length , which is related to the chemical + 4f / ␥L 共Cazalilla, 2004b兲, where ␥L = U / J is the effec-
potential in the ground state via = ប2 / 2M2. In the limit tive coupling parameter on a lattice. When the axial lat-
␥ Ⰶ 1, the crossover length can be expressed as n1 tice depth is increased, this ratio becomes very large,
101
a b FIG. 21. 共Color online兲 Axial momentum dis-
tribution of a lattice-based one-dimensional
bosonic quantum gas for 共a兲 ␥L ⬇ 14 and 共b兲
100 ␥L ⬇ 24. The solid curve is the theoretical mo-
n(p)
n(x)
0 0
respectively. The insets show the correspond-
-20 0 20 -20 0 20
2x/ 2x/ ing in-trap density distributions. From Pare-
-2
10 des et al., 2004.
p (hk) p (hk)
of order ␥L = 5 – 200. As shown in Fig. 21, the observed mensionless parameter K. In the translation-invariant
momentum distributions exhibit a power-law decay over case, K = បn1 / Mc is fixed by c and the average density.
a wide momentum range. They are in good agreement Moreover, for interactions that may be described by a
with a fermionization-based calculation of a hard-core 1D pseudopotential, K may be expressed in terms of the
Bose gas in a harmonic confinement. The momentum microscopic coupling constant ␥ using the Lieb-Liniger
distributions at finite values of U have been studied solution. The resulting value of K = vF / c decreases
by quantum Monte Carlo calculations. Although the monotonically from K共␥兲 = / 冑␥ Ⰷ 1 in the weak-
final hard-core limit is only reached for large values of interaction, high-density limit to K共␥兲 = 1 + 4 / ␥ + ¯ in the
␥L → ⬁ 共Pollet et al., 2004兲, deviations in the momentum Tonks-Girardeau limit 关see Cazalilla 共2004a兲兴. The prop-
distribution compared to fermionized bosons are less erty K ⬎ 1 for repulsive bosons is valid for interactions
than a few percent already for ␥L ⬎ 5 共Wessel et al., that decay faster than 1 / x3 such that the 1D scattering
2005兲. In the experiment, a significant deviation from the length a1 is finite. The algebraic decay of g共1兲共x兲 in a 1D
limiting value of 1 − 1 / 共2K兲 → 1 / 2 of the exponent in the gas at zero temperature is formally similar to the situa-
momentum distribution at small values of k is found. In tion in 2D at finite temperatures, where g共1兲共r兲 exhibits a
fact, the low-k divergence of the momentum distribution power-law decay with exponent 关see Eq. 共100兲兴. Apart
is masked by finite-temperature effects and finite-size from the different nature of phase fluctuations 共quantum
cutoffs. For larger momenta, the momentum distribu- versus thermal兲, there is, however, an important differ-
tion of the quantum gas is determined by short-range ence between the two situations. In the 2D case, super-
correlations between particles, which can increase the
fluidity is lost via the BKT transition once ⬎ 1 / 4 关see
coefficient of the power-law decay in the momentum dis-
Eq. 共101兲兴. By contrast, in one dimension, there is no
tribution above 1 / 2 in experiments. In fact, it was shown
such restriction on the exponent and superfluidity still
by Olshanii and Dunjko 共2003兲 that the momentum dis-
persists if K ⬍ 2. The origin of this difference is related
tribution of a homogeneous 1D Bose gas at large mo-
to the fact that phase slips in one dimension require a
menta k Ⰷ 1 should behave like 1 / k4 as long as kre Ⰶ 1.
nonzero modulation of the potential, e.g., by a weak op-
The parameter K = បc determines the asymptotic
tical lattice 共Büchler et al., 2003兲. Formally, it is related
behavior not only of the one-particle density matrix but
to a Berry-phase term beyond Eq. 共91兲, which confines
in fact of all correlation functions. This may be under-
vortex-antivortex pairs in this case; see Wen 共2004兲.
stood from Haldane’s description of 1D quantum
Two- and three-particle correlations. An intuitive un-
liquids16 in terms of their long-wavelength density oscil-
derstanding of the evolution from a weakly interacting
lations 共Haldane, 1981兲. In its most elementary form,
quasicondensate to a Tonks-Girardeau gas with increas-
this is the 1D version of the quantum hydrodynamic
ing values of ␥ is provided by considering the pair dis-
Hamiltonian equation 共A6兲. On introducing a field ˆ 共x兲 tribution function g共2兲共x兲. It is defined by the density cor-
that is related to small fluctuations around the average relation function 具n̂共x兲n̂共0兲典 = n1␦共x兲 + n21g共2兲共x兲 and is a
density by ␦n̂1共x兲 = xˆ 共x兲 / , the effective Hamiltonian measure of the probability of finding two particles sepa-
describing the low-lying excitations is of the form rated by a distance x. For an ideal BEC in three dimen-
冕 冉 冊
sions, the pair distribution function is g共2兲共x兲 ⬅ 1 at arbi-
បc 1
Ĥ = dx K共x
ˆ 兲2 + 共xˆ 兲2 共91兲 trary distances. Above Tc, it drops monotonically from
2 K g共2兲共0兲 = 2 to the trivial limit g共2兲共⬁兲 = 1 of any homoge-
with sound velocity c. The low-energy physics of a 1D neous system on the scale of the thermal wavelength T.
Bose liquid is determined by the velocity c and the di- For cold atoms in 3D, these basic results on bosonic
two-particle correlations were verified experimentally by
Schellekens et al. 共2005兲. For the Lieb-Liniger gas, the
16
In the context of cold gases, the notion of a quantum liquid local value of the pair correlation g共2兲共0兲 = de共␥兲 / d␥ can
is purely conventional. These systems are stable only in the be obtained from the derivative of the dimensionless
gaseous phase, yet may be strongly interacting. ground-state energy 共Gangardt and Shlyapnikov, 2003兲.
0.8 was observed by Tolra et al. 共2004兲 using the strong con-
0.7
finement in a 2D optical lattice.
In situ measurements of density fluctuations were per-
0.6
formed by Esteve et al. 共2006兲. They observed a cross-
0.5 over from an effectively high-temperature regime at low
densities n1 Ⰶ 共兩a1兩 / T4 兲1/3, where the number fluctuations
(2)
0.4
g
共2004兲, the corresponding Feshbach resonances are problem for two particles in such a waveguide always
shifted due to the confinement in a similar way as in Eq. exhibits a two-body bound state, whatever the sign and
共86兲 above. This was confirmed experimentally by magnitude of the scattering length a. Its binding energy
Günter et al. 共2005兲. In the case of two different states, right at the confinement-induced resonance is b = 2ប⬜.
s-wave scattering dominates in the ultracold limit. For Since ប⬜ Ⰷ F in the limit of a singly occupied trans-
repulsive interactions, one obtains a fermionic Luttinger verse channel, the two-particle bound-state energy b is
liquid, which is a two-component version of the quan- the largest energy scale in the problem beyond this
tum hydrodynamic Hamiltonian 共91兲. It has a twofold point. In the regime after the confinement-induced reso-
linear excitation spectrum for fluctuations of the total nance, where ␥ becomes positive, the appropriate de-
density and the density difference 共“spin density”兲, re- grees of freedom are therefore no longer single atoms,
spectively. Generically, the velocities of “charge” and but instead are strongly bound fermion pairs. An exact
spin excitations are different. This is the most elemen- solution of the four-body problem in a quasi-1D geom-
tary form of “spin-charge separation,” which has been etry with tight harmonic confinement shows that these
verified experimentally in semiconductor quantum wires dimers have a repulsive interaction 共Mora et al., 2005兲.
共Auslaender et al., 2005兲. In the context of ultracold Attractive fermions in 1D therefore continuously evolve
Fermi gases in a harmonic trap, spin-charge separation from a Luther-Emery liquid to a gas of repulsive bosons.
effects show up in collective excitation frequencies 共Re- As realized by Fuchs et al. 共2004兲 and Tokatly 共2004兲, the
cati et al., 2003兲 or in the propagation of wave packets 1D BCS-BEC crossover problem can be solved exactly
共Kollath et al., 2005兲. A genuine observation of spin- by the Bethe ansatz, connecting the Gaudin-Yang model
charge separation, however, requires one to study single- on the fermionic side with the Lieb-Liniger model on
particle correlations and cannot be inferred from collec- the bosonic side.
tive excitations only. The problem of attractive Fermi gases in one dimen-
For attractive interactions, a spin-1 / 2 Fermi gas in one sion at different densities n↑ ⫽ n↓ of the two components
dimension is a so-called Luther-Emery liquid. Its fluc- was solved by Hu, Liu, and Drummond 共2007兲 and Orso
tuations in the total density have a linear spectrum 共2007兲. The superfluid ground state with equal densities
共q兲 = cq; however, there is a finite gap for spin excita- becomes unstable above a critical chemical potential dif-
tions 共Giamarchi, 2004兲. The origin of this gap is the ference ↑ − ↓ = ⌬s. This is the analog of the Clogston-
appearance of bound pairs of fermions with opposite Chandrasekhar limit 共Chandrasekhar, 1962; Clogston,
spin. The spectrum s共q兲 = 冑共⌬s / 2ប兲2 + 共vsq兲2 for small os- 1962兲, where the paired ground state is destroyed by the
cillations of the spin density is similar to that of quasi- paramagnetic, or Pauli, mechanism. In 3D, this has been
particles in the BCS theory. In analogy to Eq. 共88兲 for observed by Zwierlein et al. 共2006兲. In contrast to the 3D
the bosonic problem, the dimensionless coupling con- case, however, the transition is continuous in 1D and the
stant ␥ = −2 / n1a1 ⬍ 0 is inversely proportional both to the result ⌬c = ⌬s holds for arbitrary coupling strengths.
1D scattering length a1 = −ᐉ⬜ 2
/ a + Aᐉ⬜ 共now for fermions Moreover, since the gap becomes large at low densities,
in different states; note that attractive interactions a ⬍ 0 the SF phase with zero-density imbalance appears at the
imply a positive 1D scattering length a1兲 and to the total trap edge. The phase in the trap center, in turn, is a
1D density n1 = n1↑ + n1↓. As shown by Gaudin 共1967兲 and partially polarized phase that still has superfluid correla-
Yang 共1967兲, the model is exactly soluble by the Bethe tions. As argued by Yang et al. 共2001兲 using bosoniza-
ansatz. For weak coupling, 兩␥兩 ⱗ 1, the spin gap ⌬s tion, this phase exhibits an oscillating superfluid order
⬅ 2⌬BCS, parameter similar to that predicted by Fulde and Ferrell
共1964兲 and Larkin and Ovchinnikov 共1965兲 in a narrow
⌬s共␥兲 = 共16F/兲冑兩␥兩/e−
2/2兩␥兩
, 共92兲 range above the Clogston-Chandrasekhar limit. In con-
trast to the 3D situation, nonconventional superfluid or-
has a form similar to that in BCS theory, except for an der is thus expected in a rather wide range of param-
interaction-dependent prefactor ⬃冑兩␥兩. Note, however, eters.
that the weak-coupling regime is reached at high densi-
ties n1兩a1兩 Ⰷ 1, in contrast to the situation in 3D, where
kF兩a兩 Ⰶ 1 in the BCS limit. At low densities, where 1 / ␥ VI. TWO-DIMENSIONAL BOSE GASES
→ 0−, the spin gap approaches the two-body bound-state
energy ⌬s → b, which was measured by rf spectroscopy The two-dimensional Bose gas is a system that pre-
共Moritz et al., 2005兲, as discussed above. In this regime, sents many interesting features from a many-body phys-
tightly bound fermion pairs behave like a hard-core ics perspective. The first question that arises concerns
Bose gas. The strong-coupling BEC limit of attractive the possibility of reaching Bose-Einstein condensation
fermions in 1D thus appears to be a Tonks-Girardeau in a uniform system. The answer to this question is nega-
gas, very different from the nearly ideal Bose gas ex- tive, for both the ideal and the interacting gas. Indeed,
pected in a 3D situation 共see Sec. VIII兲. However, in the as in one dimension long-range order is destroyed by
presence of a harmonic waveguide, the associated trans- thermal fluctuations at any finite temperature. However,
verse oscillator length ᐉ⬜ ⬅ 冑ប / M⬜ defines an addi- in an interacting 2D gas the destruction of order is only
tional length not present in a strictly 1D description. As marginal and superfluidity can still occur below a finite
shown in Sec. V.A, the exact solution of the scattering critical temperature Tc. Above Tc, quasi-long-range or-
der is destroyed via the mechanism that was elucidated n共x兲T2 = − ln共1 − e关−V共x兲兴/kBT兲. 共95兲
by Berezinskii 共1971兲 and Kosterlitz and Thouless 共1973兲
and that consists in the breaking of pairs of vortices with Taking → 0 to reach the condensation threshold and
opposite circulations. As shown by Nelson and Koster- integrating over x, we recover the result 共94兲. But we
litz 共1977兲, this scenario implies a jump in the superfluid also note that nmax共0兲 = ⬁, which means that the conden-
density17 from a finite and universal value ns共Tc兲 / kBTc sation in a 2D harmonic potential occurs only when the
= 2M / ប2 to zero, right at Tc. Equivalently, the thermal 2D spatial density at the center of the trap is infinite.
wavelength T obeys ns共Tc兲T2 = 4. This prediction has This should be contrasted with the result for a 3D har-
been experimentally tested using helium films 共Bishop monically trapped Bose gas, where condensation occurs
and Reppy, 1978, 1980兲. at a central density n3D,max共0兲 = 共3 / 2兲 / T3 , which is equal
Quantum atomic gases provide a system where this 共in the semiclassical approximation兲 to the threshold
concept of a quasi-long-range order can be experimen- density in a homogeneous system 关see, e.g., Pitaevskii
tally tested. However, the addition of a harmonic poten- and Stringari 共2003兲兴.
tial to confine the gas in the plane changes the problem
significantly. For example, conventional Bose-Einstein A. The uniform Bose gas in two dimensions
condensation of an ideal gas is possible in a 2D har-
monic potential. For an interacting gas, the situation is We now turn to the more realistic case of a system
more involved; a true BEC is still expected at extremely with repulsive interactions, and consider the case of a
low temperature. At slightly higher temperature, phase uniform gas. We restrict ourselves here to well-
fluctuations may destabilize it and turn it into a quasi- established results, since the main goal is to prepare the
condensate phase, which is turned into a normal gas discussion of the trapped gas case, which will be ad-
above the degeneracy temperature. We review the main dressed next. The first task is to model the atom inter-
features of atomic 2D gases, and discuss the experimen- action in a convenient way. As done for a 1D system, it
tal results obtained so far. is tempting to use a contact term g2␦共x兲, which leads to a
We start with an ideal gas of N bosons at temperature chemical potential = g2n in the mean-field approxima-
T, confined in a square box of size L2. Using the Bose- tion. However, two-dimensional scattering has peculiar
Einstein distribution and assuming a smooth variation of properties, and we explain that in general it is not pos-
the population of the various energy states, we take the sible to describe interactions in 2D by a coupling con-
thermodynamic limit N , L → ⬁ in such a way that the stant g2, and that one has to turn to an energy-
density n = N / L2 stays constant. We then find a relation dependent coefficient. We then discuss the many-body
between the density n, the thermal wavelength T state expected at low temperature, and present the
= h / 共2MkBT兲1/2, and the chemical potential , Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless transition.
We start by some considerations concerning quantum
nT2 = − ln共1 − e/kBT兲. 共93兲 scattering in two dimensions. Consider two particles of
mass M moving in the x , y plane, and we restrict our-
This relation allows one to derive the value of for any selves here to low-energy motion where the scattering is
isotropic. The scattering state can be written 共Adhikari,
degeneracy parameter nT2 value. It indicates that no
1986兲
condensation takes place in 2D, in contrast to the 3D
case. In the latter case, the relation between n3DT3 and k共x兲 ⬃ eik·x − 冑i/8f共k兲eikr/冑kr, 共96兲
ceases to admit a solution above the critical value
where k is the incident wave vector and f共k兲 is the di-
n3DT3 = 2.612, which is the signature for BEC.
mensionless scattering amplitude for the relative energy
Consider now N bosons confined by the potential
E = ប2k2 / M. At low energy, one gets for the scattering
V共r兲 = M2r2 / 2 in the x , y plane. The presence of a trap
amplitude the following variation:
modifies the density of states, and BEC is predicted to
occur for an ideal gas when the temperature is below the f共k兲 = 4/关− cot ␦0共k兲 + i兴 → 4/关2 ln共1/ka2兲 + i兴,
critical temperature T0 共Bagnato and Kleppner, 1991兲, 共97兲
N = 共2/6兲共kBT0/ប兲2 . 共94兲 which defines the 2D scattering length a2. Taking, for
instance, a square-well interaction potential of depth V0
and diameter b, it is equal to a2 = bF共k0b兲, with F共x兲
However, it should be pointed out that the condensation
remains a fragile phenomenon in a 2D harmonic poten- = exp关J0共x兲 / xJ1共x兲兴 and k0 = 冑2MV0 / ប. Note that, in con-
tial. To show this point, we calculate the spatial density trast to the situation in 3D, where limk→0f共k兲 = −a, in 2D
n共x兲 using the local-density and semiclassical approxima- f共k兲 tends to 0 when k → 0. The total cross section
tions, which amounts to replacing by − V共x兲 in Eq. = 兩f共k兲兩2 / 4k 共dimension of a length兲, however, tends to
共93兲, infinity.
Since the coupling coefficient g2 is directly related to
the scattering amplitude, it appears that 2D systems are
17 peculiar in the sense that the coupling coefficient is in-
Note that, unless indicated, all densities in this section are
areal and not volume densities. trinsically energy dependent, in contrast to 1D and 3D
tices with opposite circulation. For T slightly above Tc, strongly reduced at the transition point for the domain
free vortices proliferate and form a disordered gas of of coupling parameters relevant for atomic gases. These
phase defects, which are responsible for the exponential high-precision Monte Carlo methods also allow one to
decay of g共1兲. For higher temperatures, the gas eventu- study the fluctuation region around the transition point
ally exhibits strong density fluctuations and the notion of 共Prokof’ev and Svistunov, 2005兲.
vortices becomes irrelevant. The BKT mechanism has been the subject of several
The value given above for the transition temperature studies and has been confirmed in various branches of
can be recovered by evaluating the likelihood of having condensed-matter physics 关for a review, see Minnhagen
a free vortex appearing in a superfluid occupying a disk 共1987兲兴. In the context of Bose fluids, Bishop and Reppy
of radius R 共Kosterlitz and Thouless, 1973兲. One needs 共1978兲 performed an experiment with helium films ad-
to calculate the free energy F = E − TS of this state. The sorbed on an oscillating substrate. The change in the
energy E corresponds to the kinetic energy of the super- moment of inertia of the system gave access to the su-
fluid; assuming that the vortex is at the center of perfluid fraction and provided evidence for the BKT
the disk, the velocity field is v = ប / Mr, hence E transition. In an experiment performed with atomic hy-
= Mns 兰 v2共r兲r dr = 共ប2ns / M兲ln共R / 兲, where we set the drogen adsorbed on superfluid helium, Safonov et al.
lower bound of the integral equal to the healing length , 共1998兲 observed a rapid variation of the recombination
since it gives approximately the size of the vortex core. rate of the 2D hydrogen gas when the phase-space den-
The entropy associated with positioning the vortex core sity was approaching the critical value Eq. 共101兲. How-
of area 2 in the superfluid disk of area R2 is ever, it is still a matter of debate whether one can reach
kB ln共R2 / 2兲; hence the free energy is a quantitative agreement between these experimental
observations and the theoretical models 共Stoof, 1994;
Kagan et al., 2000; Andersen et al., 2002兲.
F/kBT = 21 共nsT2 − 4兲ln共R/兲. 共102兲
surements were essentially devoted to the size of the on the atom spin兲 has an energy minimum, and atoms
atom cloud after free ballistic expansion. For small num- prepared in this dressed state can form a 2D gas. This
bers of atoms 共below 105兲 it was observed that the z method was implemented experimentally for a thermal
motion was indeed frozen, with a release energy essen- gas by Colombe et al. 共2004兲, but no experiment has yet
tially equal to the kinetic energy of the ground state, been performed in the degenerate regime.
បz / 4. For larger atom numbers, the interaction energy Finally, a 1D optical lattice setup, formed by the su-
exceeded បz and the gas was approaching the 3D perposition of two running laser waves, is a convenient
Thomas-Fermi limit. way to prepare stacks of 2D gases 共Orzel et al., 2001;
Another way of implementing a 2D trap consists in Burger et al., 2002; Köhl et al., 2005b; Morsch and Ober-
using an evanescent wave propagating at the surface of a thaler, 2006; Spielman et al., 2007兲. The 1D lattice pro-
glass prism. In 2004, Grimm and co-workers in Inns- vides a periodic potential along z with an oscillation fre-
bruck loaded such a trap with a condensate of cesium quency z that can easily exceed the typical scale for
atoms 共Rychtarik et al., 2004兲. The light was blue de- chemical potential and temperature 共a few kilohertz兲.
tuned from resonance, so that atoms levitated above the The simplest lattice geometry is formed by two counter-
light sheet, at a distance ⬃4 m from the horizontal propagating laser waves, and it provides the largest z
glass surface 共z / 2 ⬃ 500 Hz兲. The confinement in the for a given laser intensity. One drawback of this geom-
horizontal x , y plane was provided by an additional hol- etry is that it provides a small lattice period 共 / 2 where
low laser beam, which was blue detuned from the atomic is the laser wavelength兲, so that many planes are simul-
resonance and propagating vertically. This provided an taneously populated. Therefore, practical measurements
isotropic trapping with a frequency ⬜ / 2 ⬃ 10 Hz. As provide only averaged quantities. Such a setup has been
in the MIT experiment, a time-of-flight technique re- successfully used to explore the transition between a su-
perfluid and a Mott insulator in a 2D geometry 共Köhl et
vealed that, for small atom numbers, the vertical expan-
al., 2005b; Spielman et al., 2007兲. Another geometry con-
sion energy was approximately equal to បz / 4, meaning
sists in forming a lattice with two beams crossing at an
that the z motion was frozen. The number of atoms was
angle smaller than 180° 共Hadzibabic et al., 2004兲. In
decreased together with temperature, and a rapid in-
this case, the distance / 关2 sin共 / 2兲兴 between adjacent
crease of the spatial density, causing an increase of losses
planes is adjustable, and each plane can be individually
due to three-body recombination, was observed when
addressable if this distance is large enough 共Schrader et
the gas approached quantum degeneracy. These data
al., 2004; Stock et al., 2005兲. Furthermore, the tunneling
were consistent with the formation of a condensate or a
matrix element between planes can be made completely
quasicondensate at the bottom of the trap. negligible, which is important if one wants to achieve a
A hybrid trap was investigated in Oxford, where a true 2D geometry and not a modulated 3D situation.
blue-detuned, single-node, Hermite Gaussian laser From 3D to 2D scattering. In Sec. VI.A, we discussed
beam trapped Rb atoms along the z direction, whereas the properties of a 2D gas consisting of hard disks. Cold
the confinement in the x , y plane was provided by a mag- atomic gases, however, interact through van der Waals
netic trap 共Smith et al., 2005兲. This allowed a very large forces, and one has to understand how to switch from
anisotropy factor 共⬃700兲 between the z axis and the the 3D coupling constant to the 2D case. The confining
transverse plane to be achieved. Here the 2D regime potential along z is V共z兲 = M2zz2 / 2, and we assume that
was also reached for a degenerate gas with ⬃105 atoms. , kBT Ⰶ បz such that the single-atom motion along the
Trapping potentials that are not based on light beams z direction is frozen into the Gaussian ground state.
have also been investigated. One possibility discussed by The scattering amplitude in this regime was calculated
Hinds et al. 共1998兲 consists in trapping paramagnetic at- by Petrov, Holzmann, and Shlyapnikov 共2000兲 and
oms just above the surface of a magnetized material, Petrov and Shlyapnikov 共2001兲. Quite generally, low-
producing an exponentially decaying field. The advan- energy scattering in 2D is described by a scattering am-
tage of this technique lies in the very large achievable plitude of the form Eq. 共97兲. Since f共k兲 has a pole at k
frequency z, typically in the megahertz range. One = i / a2, the relation between a2 and the basic scattering
drawback is that the optical access in the vicinity of the length a of the 3D pseudopotential may be determined
magnetic material is not as good as with optically gener- from the bound-state energy b = ប2 / 共2Mra22兲 in a 2D
ated trapping potentials. Another technique to produce confined geometry. This has been calculated in Sec. V.A
a single 2D sheet of atoms uses the so-called radio- for arbitrary values of the ratio between the 3D scatter-
frequency dressed-state potentials 共Zobay and Garr- ing length a and the confinement length ᐉz. Using Eq.
away, 2001兲. Atoms are placed in an inhomogeneous 共83兲 in the limit of small binding energies, the 2D scat-
static magnetic field, with a radio-frequency field super- tering length is related to its 3D counterpart and the
imposed, whose frequency is on the order of the energy confinement scale ᐉz = 共ប / Mz兲1/2 by
splitting between two consecutive Zeeman sublevels.
The dressed states are the eigenstates of the atomic
magnetic moment coupled to the static and radio- a2共a兲 = ᐉz 冑 冉冑 冊
B
exp −
ᐉz
2 a
共103兲
frequency fields. Since the magnetic field is not homoge-
neous, the exact resonance occurs on a 2D surface. with B = 0.905 共Petrov and Shlyapnikov, 2001兲. As in 1D,
There one dressed state 共or possibly several, depending the scattering length for particles in the continuum is
determined uniquely by the two-particle binding energy strong increase of the amplitude for a particular value of
in the limit b Ⰶ បz. The fact that a2共a兲 is positive, inde- ᐉz 共Petrov, Holzman, and Shlyapnikov, 2000兲, leading to
pendent of the sign of a, shows that for a 3D interaction a confinement-induced resonance similar to those en-
described by a pseudopotential, a two-particle bound countered in the 1D case.
state exists for an arbitrary sign and strength of the ratio Is there a true condensation in a trapped 2D Bose gas?
a / ᐉz as discussed in Sec. V.A. Note that, for realistic This question has been debated over the past decade as
parameters ᐉz ⬃ 100 nm and a of the order of a few na- two opposing lines of reasoning can be proposed. On the
nometers, the 2D scattering length is incredibly small. one hand, we recall that for an ideal gas the presence of
This is compensated for by the logarithmic dependence a trap modifies the density of states so that Bose-
of the scattering amplitude on a2共a兲. Indeed, from Eqs. Einstein condensation becomes possible in 2D. One
共97兲 and 共103兲, the effective low-energy scattering ampli- could thus expect that this remains valid in the presence
tude of a strongly confined 2D gas is given by of weak interactions. On the other hand, in the presence
of repulsive interactions, the extension of the 共quasi兲
f共k兲 = 4/关冑2ᐉz/a + ln共B/k2ᐉ2z兲 + i兴. 共104兲 condensate in the trap must increase with the number of
atoms N. When N is large, the local-density approxima-
When the binding along z is not very strong, ᐉz is much tion entails that the correlation function g共1兲共r兲 decays
larger than a so that the logarithm and the imaginary algebraically as in Eq. 共100兲 over a domain where the
term in Eq. 共104兲 are negligible. This weak-confinement density is approximately uniform. This prevents us from
limit corresponds to the relevant regime for experiments obtaining long-range order except for extremely low
to date. The resulting scattering amplitude temperatures. A related reasoning uses the fact that, for
f共k兲 ⯝ 冑8a/ᐉz ⬅ g̃2 Ⰶ 1
the ideal gas, condensation is reached when the spatial
共105兲
density calculated semiclassically becomes infinite 关see
is independent of energy, and the dimensionless cou- Eq. 共95兲兴, which cannot occur in the presence of repul-
pling parameter g̃2 = Mg2 / ប2 is much smaller than 1. This sive interactions. The fragility of the condensation of the
implies that the gas is weakly interacting in the sense ideal Bose gas in 2D is further illustrated by the exis-
that, in the degenerate regime where nT2 ⯝ 1, the chemi- tence at any temperature of a noncondensed Hartree-
Fock solution, for arbitrarily small repulsive interactions
cal potential ⯝ g2n is much smaller than the tempera-
共Bhaduri et al., 2000兲. However, for very low tempera-
ture 共 / kBT = g̃2 / 2兲. An important feature of the two-
ture, this solution is not the absolute minimizer of the
dimensional gas is that the criterion for distinguishing
free energy, as shown using the Hartree-Fock-
the weakly and strongly interacting regimes does not de-
Bogoliubov method by Fernández and Mullin 共2002兲,
pend on density. Indeed the analog of the ratio ␥ given Gies and Hutchinson 共2004兲, and Gies et al. 共2004兲.
in Eq. 共88兲 is equal to g̃2. In analogy to Eq. 共78兲 in the 1D Currently, the converging answer, though not yet fully
case, the result 共105兲 can be recovered by integrating the tested experimentally, is the following. At ultralow tem-
3D pseudopotential over the z oscillator ground state. perature, one expects a true BEC, i.e., a system that is
One often refers to a gas in this collisional regime as a phase coherent over its full extension. The ground-state
quasi-2D system in the sense that it can be considered as energy and density of a 2D Bose gas in the limit T = 0
a 2D system from the statistical physics point of view, can be obtained using the Gross-Pitaevskii equation, as
but the dynamics of binary collision remains governed shown by Lieb et al. 共2001兲 关see also Kim et al. 共2000兲,
by 3D properties; in particular, the 3D scattering length Cherny and Shanenko 共2001兲, Lee et al. 共2002兲, and
a remains a relevant parameter. Posazhennikova 共2006兲兴. The crossover from a three- to
More generally, since the relevant energy for relative a two-dimensional gas at T = 0 has been addressed by
motion is twice the chemical potential, the momentum Tanatar et al. 共2002兲 and Hechenblaikner et al. 共2005兲.
k = 冑2M / ប in Eq. 共104兲 is the inverse healing length . When the temperature increases, one encounters the
At very low energies therefore, the effective interaction quasicondensate superfluid regime, where phase fluctua-
in 2D is always repulsive, independent of the sign of the tions due to phonons dominate. The scenario is then
3D scattering length 共Petrov and Shlyapnikov, 2001兲. reminiscent of the uniform case, and has been analyzed
This result, however, is restricted to a regime where by Petrov, Gangardt, and Shlyapnikov 共2004兲. The func-
ln共 / ᐉz兲 Ⰷ ᐉz / a. The logarithmic correction in Eq. 共104兲 is tion g共1兲共r兲 decays algebraically and vortices are found
therefore significant in the case of a strongly confining only in the form of bound pairs. Finally, at larger tem-
potential, when ᐉz and a are comparable. One then re- perature these vortex pairs break and the system be-
covers a variation for f共k兲 that is formally similar to that comes normal. A BKT transition is still expected in the
of a pure 2D square well 共97兲 with scattering length a2 thermodynamic limit N → ⬁, → 0, N2 constant, but
⯝ ᐉz. This regime could be relevant in a situation in the jump in the total superfluid fraction is suppressed
which the 3D scattering length a is enhanced by a Fesh- because of the inhomogeneous atomic density profile
bach resonance 共Wouters et al., 2003; Rajagopal et al., 共Holzmann et al., 2007兲. Indeed, the energy for breaking
2004; Kestner and Duan, 2006兲. If the 3D scattering a vortex pair depends on the local density, and superflu-
length a is positive, the logarithmic correction in Eq. idity will probably be lost gradually from the edges of
共104兲 is a reduction of the scattering amplitude. On the the quasicondensate to the center as the temperature
other hand, for negative a, this correction can lead to a increases. Assuming that the atomic distribution is well
where the chemical potential and the radius of the ␦2共x兲 = 具关共0兲 − 共x兲兴2典 ⯝ 关2/ñ0共0兲T2 兴ln共r/兲. 共108兲
clouds R are This expression, which is reminiscent of the uniform re-
sult 共100兲, is valid for points x inside the quasiconden-
= ប共Ng̃2/兲1/2, R = 冑2a⬜共Ng̃2/兲1/4 , 共107兲 sate. The healing length = ប / 冑2M satisfies R = a⬜ 2
.
Therefore, it is only at a temperature much below the
with a⬜ = 冑ប / M. degeneracy temperature, such that ⌬共R兲 ⱗ , that one
The parabolic Thomas-Fermi profile appears on the recovers a quasiuniform phase over the whole sample,
top of a broader background formed by atoms out of the and hence a true condensate.
共quasi兲condensate. Such a profile was experimentally ob- Experimental investigations of phase fluctuations. A
served first by Görlitz et al. 共2001兲 and Rychtarik et al. convenient way to access experimentally the phase co-
共2004兲. A precise measurement of the onset at which a herence of quasi-2D gases is the matter-wave heterodyn-
pure thermal distribution turns into a bimodal 共Thomas- ing technique. It consists in studying the statistical prop-
Fermi ⫹ thermal兲 profile was performed by Krüger et al. erties of the matter-wave interference pattern that forms
共2007兲. The experiment was performed with a rubidium when two independent, parallel 2D Bose gases are re-
gas confined in a 1D optical lattice, such that g̃2 = 0.13. leased from the trap and overlap 关Fig. 24共a兲兴. A detailed
The phase-space density at which bimodality arises was analysis of these patterns was given by Polkovnikov et
found to be in good agreement with the prediction of al. 共2006兲 共see Sec. III.C for the 1D case兲. Assume that
Prokof’ev et al. 共2001兲 for the BKT threshold n共0兲T2 the two gases have the same uniform amplitude 0 and
= ln共C / g̃2兲 ⯝ 8.0, which is relevant here if the local- fluctuating phases a共x , y兲 and b共x , y兲. The interference
density approximation is valid at the center of the trap. signal S共x , z兲 is recorded by sending an imaging beam
At the critical point, the total number of atoms in each along the y direction, which integrates the atomic den-
plane significantly exceeded the result 共94兲 expected in sity over a length Ly,
the ideal case. In this experiment, two to three planar
gases were produced simultaneously, and they could in- S共x,z兲 ⬀ 220 + e2iz/Dc共x兲 + e−2iz/Dc*共x兲, 共109兲
terfere with each other when overlapping during time of with
flight, provided their spatial coherence was large
enough. It was observed that the onset of bimodality
coincides 共within experimental accuracy兲 with the onset
c共x兲 =
20
Ly
冕 Ly/2
−Ly/2
ei关a共x,y兲−b共x,y兲兴dy. 共110兲
of clearly visible interferences.
It is important to note that, since the expected The period D of the interference pattern is D
Thomas-Fermi profile is identical for a true and a qua- = 2បt / Md, where d is the initial distance between the
sicondensate, its observation cannot be used to discrimi- two planes and t is the expansion time. We now integrate
nate between the two situations. The phase fluctuations the coefficient c共x兲 appearing in Eq. 共109兲 over a vari-
have been calculated by Petrov and Shlyapnikov 共2001兲 able length Lx,
C共Lx兲 =
1
Lx
冕 Lx/2
−Lx/2
c共x兲dx, 共111兲
an isolated, free vortex, in good agreement with experi-
mental observation. The probability for observing a vor-
tex pair in a similar configuration was calculated by
and average 兩C共Lx兲兩2 over many images recorded in the Simula et al. 共2005兲.
The Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless mechanism was
same conditions. Using the fact that the phases a and
also investigated recently using a two-dimensional peri-
b are uncorrelated, we obtain, for Lx Ⰷ Ly,
odic array of ⬃200 Josephson coupled Bose-Einstein
具兩C共Lx兲兩2典 =
1
L2x
冕冕 具c共x兲c*共x⬘兲典dx dx⬘
condensates 共Schweikhard et al., 2007兲. Each tubelike
condensate contains a few thousand atoms, and has a
length ⬃35 m along the z direction. The condensates
=
1
Lx
冕 Lx/2
−Lx/2
兩g共1兲共x,0兲兩2dx ⬀ 冉 冊
1
Lx
2␣
, 共112兲
are localized at the sites of a 2D hexagonal optical lat-
tice of period 4.7 m in the x , y plane, and the coupling
J between adjacent sites can be tuned by varying the
where we have assumed that the two gases have the optical lattice intensity. The phase properties of the en-
same statistical properties. The long-range physics is semble are probed by ramping down the lattice and re-
then captured in a single parameter, the exponent ␣. It is cording the density profile in the x , y plane when wave
straightforward to understand the expected values of ␣ functions from the various sites overlap. Vortices appear
in some simple cases. In a system with true long-range as holes in the atomic density distribution, and the vor-
order, g共1兲 would be constant and the interference fringes tex surface density is measured as a function of the Jo-
would be perfectly straight. In this case ␣ = 0, corre- sephson coupling J and the temperature T. A universal
sponding to no decay of the contrast upon integration. vortex activation curve is obtained as a function of the
In the low-temperature regime, where g共1兲 decays alge- parameter J / T, showing vortex proliferation for J / T
braically 关see Eq. 共100兲兴, the exponent ␣ coincides with ⱗ 1, in good agreement with the predictions of the BKT
the exponent 共T兲, which describes the quasi-long-range mechanism.
order in g共1兲. In the high-temperature case, where g共1兲 Breathing mode of a 2D gas. In the preceding section,
decays exponentially on a length scale much shorter we were mostly interested in the static properties of 2D
than Lx, the integral in Eq. 共112兲 is independent of Lx. In Bose gases. Here we point out a remarkable dynamical
this case ␣ = 0.5, corresponding to adding up local inter- property of these systems in an isotropic harmonic po-
ference fringes with random phases. The BKT mecha- tential, when the interaction potential between particles
nism corresponds to a transition from a power law with is such that V共r兲 = V共r兲 / 2. Pitaevskii and Rosch 共1997兲
exponent 1 / nsT2 艋 0.25 to an exponential decay of g共1兲. It showed that, when the gas is prepared in an arbitrary
should thus manifest itself as a sudden jump of ␣ from out-of-equilibrium state, the quantity 具r2典 oscillates at
0.25 to 0.5 when the temperature varies around Tc. the frequency 2 without any damping, irrespective of
This method has been implemented at ENS with two the strength of the interaction. They also proved that
rubidium planar gases, forming two parallel, elongated this property originates from the presence of a hidden
strips 共Lx = 120 m, Ly = 10 m兲 共Hadzibabic et al., 2006兲 symmetry, described by the two-dimensional Lorentz
关Figs. 24共b兲–24共e兲兴. The experimental results confirm the group SO共2,1兲. In fact, precisely the same symmetry oc-
expected behavior, at least qualitatively. At relatively curs in the case of a unitary gas in 3D, as discussed in
large temperature, the fitted exponent ␣ is close to 0.5. Sec. VIII.B.
When the temperature decreases, a rapid transition oc- The Dirac distribution in 2D ␦共2兲共r兲 belongs to the
curs and ␣ drops to ⬃0.25. At the transition, the esti- class of functions satisfying V共r兲 = V共r兲 / 2. It makes this
mated phase-space density of the quasicondensate is SO共2,1兲 symmetry relevant for trapped neutral atoms at
ñ0共0兲T2 ⬃ 6. Note that, for a quantitative comparison be- low energies, when the range of interaction is small com-
tween experiments and theory, one should account for pared to all other scales. However, a true contact inter-
density fluctuations that are likely to play an important action is singular in 2D, and leads to logarithmic ultra-
point near the transition, in contrast to the situation in violet divergences that are cut off by the finite range of
superfluid liquid helium. Also the geometry effects in the real interatomic potential. Therefore, one cannot
these elongated samples 共Rx ⬃ 12Ry兲 may be significant. hope to observe a fully undamped breathing mode in
In addition to the rapid variation of the exponent atomic systems, but rather a very weakly damped dy-
characterizing the decay of g共1兲, these experiments gave namics. It was pointed out by Fedichev et al. 共2003兲 that
evidence for isolated vortices 共Stock et al., 2005; Hadzi- vortex pair nucleation could play a role in the residual
babic et al., 2006兲 关Figs. 24共d兲 and 24共e兲兴. A vortex expected damping of this breathing mode. Note that the
appears as a dislocation of the fringes in the interference difficulties with the contact interaction do not arise at
pattern 共Chevy et al., 2001b; Inouye et al., 2001兲, and the level of the Gross-Pitaevskii equation, where the
these dislocations indeed proliferate on the high- same property has been predicted 共Kagan et al., 1996;
temperature side of the transition. Using a theoretical Pitaevskii, 1996兲
analysis based on a classical field method, Simula and A precursor of this long-lived breathing mode was ob-
Blakie 共2006兲 obtained phase patterns of quasiconden- served in a 3D, quasicylindrical geometry by Chevy et al.
sates close to the critical temperature that indeed exhibit 共2001a兲. The transverse breathing mode of the cylinder
was found to oscillate at a frequency very close to 2 mean-field quantum Hall regime 共Ho, 2001; Fischer and
with an extremely small damping 共quality factor of the Baym, 2003兲. Second, when ⍀ tends to , the number of
mode ⬎2000兲. The damping and shift of the oscillation vortices reaches values comparable to the total number
frequency was calculated theoretically with a good pre- of atoms N. The description by a single macroscopic
cision by Jackson and Zaremba 共2002兲 关see also Guilleu- wave function breaks down, and one expects a strongly
mas and Pitaevskii 共2003兲兴. In this case, part of the correlated ground state, such as that of an electron gas
damping is due to the nucleation of pairs of phonons in the fractional quantum Hall regime 共Cooper et al.,
propagating along ±z 共Kagan and Maksimov, 2003兲, a 2001兲.
mechanism that is of course absent in a pure 2D geom- In this section, we start by setting the lowest Landau
etry. This breathing mode has also been observed in a level 共LLL兲 framework for the discussion of the fast-
fast rotating gas by Stock et al. 共2004兲. Its frequency was rotation regime, and discuss the main properties of a fast
also ⬃2, with a small correction due to the nonharmo- rotating condensate when the mean-field description re-
nicity of the trapping potential that was necessary to mains valid. We then present recent experimental results
stabilize the center-of-mass motion of the atom cloud in where the LLL regime has indeed been reached. Finally,
the fast rotating regime 共see Sec. VII.B兲. we review some theoretical proposals to reach beyond
mean-field physics that present a close analogy with the
physics of the fractional quantum Hall effect. We do not
VII. BOSE GASES IN FAST ROTATION discuss here the physics of a slowly rotating system,
where one or a few vortices are involved. We refer the
The investigation of rotating gases or liquids is a cen- reader to the review article of Fetter and Svidzinsky
tral issue in the study of superfluidity 共Donnelly, 1991兲. It 共2001兲 and to Aftalion 共2006兲. Note that a rigorous deri-
is relevant for the study of liquid helium, rotating nuclei, vation of the Gross-Pitaevskii energy functional in the
neutron stars, and pulsars, and for the behavior of super- slowly rotating case was given by Lieb and Seiringer
conductors in a magnetic field. During recent years, sev- 共2006兲.
eral experiments using rotating Bose-Einstein conden-
sates have provided a spectacular illustration of the
notion of quantized vortices 共Matthews et al., 1999; A. The lowest-Landau-level formalism
Madison et al., 2000; Abo-Shaeer et al., 2001; Hodby et
The Landau levels. We consider first a single particle
al., 2001兲. Depending on the rotation frequency ⍀ of the confined in a two-dimensional isotropic harmonic poten-
gas, a single vortex or several vortices can be observed
tial of frequency in the x , y plane. We are interested
experimentally. When the number of vortices is large
here in the energy level structure in the frame rotating
compared to 1, they form an Abrikosov lattice, i.e., a
at angular frequency ⍀ 共⬎0兲 around the z axis, perpen-
triangular array with a surface density nv = M⍀ / ប.
dicular to the x , y plane. The Hamiltonian of the particle
Since the circulation of the velocity around a single
is
charged vortex is h / M, this ensures that the velocity
field of the condensate, when calculated after coarse p 2 M 2r 2
graining over adjacent vortices, is equal to the orthora- H共1兲 = + − ⍀Lz
2M 2
dial, rigid-body velocity field v = ⍀r 共Feynman, 1955兲.
For a gas confined in a harmonic potential, the fast- 共p − A兲2 1
= + M共2 − ⍀2兲r2 共113兲
rotation regime corresponds to stirring frequencies ⍀ of 2M 2
the order of the trapping frequency in the plane per- with r2 = x2 + y2, A = M⍀ ∧ x; Lz is the z component of the
pendicular to the rotation axis 共hereafter denoted z兲. angular momentum. Equation 共113兲 is formally identical
From a classical point of view, the transverse trapping to the Hamiltonian of a particle of unit charge placed in
and centrifugal forces then compensate each other, and
a uniform magnetic field 2m⍀ẑ, and confined in a poten-
the motion of the particles in the x , y plane is only
tial with a spring constant M共2 − ⍀2兲. A common eigen-
driven by Coriolis and interatomic forces. This situation
basis of Lz and H is the set of 共not normalized兲 Hermite
is similar to that of an electron gas in a magnetic field,
functions
since Lorentz and Coriolis forces have the same math-
2/2a2 2/a2
ematical structure. The single-particle energy levels are j,k共x兲 = er ⬜ 共x + iy兲j共x − iy兲k共e−r ⬜ 兲, 共114兲
macroscopically degenerate, as the celebrated Landau
levels obtained for the quantum motion of a single where j and k are non-negative integers and a⬜
charge in a magnetic field. When interactions between = 冑ប / M. The eigenvalues are ប共j − k兲 for Lz and
atoms are taken into account, the fast-rotation regime Ej,k = ប + ប共 − ⍀兲j + ប共 + ⍀兲k 共115兲
presents a strong analogy with quantum Hall physics.
One can distinguish two limiting cases in this fast- for H. For ⍀ = , these energy levels group in series of
rotation regime. First, when the number of vortices in- states with a given k, corresponding to the well-known,
side the fluid Nv remains small compared to the number infinitely degenerate, Landau levels. For ⍀ slightly
of atoms N, the ground state of the system is still a Bose- smaller than , this structure in terms of Landau levels
Einstein condensate described by a macroscopic wave labeled by the index k remains relevant, as shown in Fig.
function 共x兲. This situation has been referred to as the 25. Two adjacent Landau levels are separated by ⬃2ប,
E
address the question of the distribution of particles and
5 k=2 vortices in the case of fast rotation, assuming that a
mean-field description is valid. We suppose that the mo-
tion along the rotation axis z is frozen in a way similar to
3 k=1
the preceding section devoted to static 2D gases.
Consider first the case of an ideal gas. At zero tem-
k=0 perature, all atoms accumulate in the j = k = 0 ground
1
state. At low but finite temperature 共kBT Ⰶ 2ប兲, the oc-
-2 0 2 4 j-k
cupied states belong to the LLL. The gas can be de-
scribed at any time by a Hartree wave function of the
FIG. 25. Single-particle energy spectrum for ⍀ = 0.9. The in- type 共116兲, where the coefficients cm of the polynomial
dex k labels the Landau levels. The energy is expressed in
P共u兲 = 兺cmum are random independent variables. This
units of ប. For ⍀ = , the Landau levels are infinitely degen-
fast-rotating ideal gas can be viewed as a physical real-
erate.
ization of a random polynomial 共Castin et al., 2006兲. A
measurement of the density distribution of the gas will
whereas the distance between two adjacent states in a reveal the presence of the vortices, i.e., the roots of P共u兲.
given Landau level is ប共 − ⍀兲 Ⰶ ប. It is clear from Although the gas is ideal, one can show that the posi-
these considerations that the rotation frequency ⍀ must tions of the vortices are correlated and exhibit a strong
be chosen smaller than the trapping frequency in the x , y antibunching phenomenon 关see Castin et al. 共2006兲, and
plane. Otherwise, the single-particle spectrum 共115兲 is references therein兴.
not bounded from below. Physically, this corresponds to The case of a fast-rotating condensate with repulsive
the requirement that the expelling centrifugal force interactions has been analyzed by Ho 共2001兲, Cooper et
M⍀2r must not exceed the trapping force in the x , y al. 共2004兲, Watanabe et al. 共2004兲, and Aftalion et al.
plane, −M2r. 共2005兲, and we review the main results. In this section,
We now consider an assembly of cold identical bosons we assume that the pairwise interaction between atoms i
rotating at a frequency ⍀ close to . Since the effective and j can be described by the contact term g2␦共xi − xj兲.
trapping potential in Eq. 共113兲 becomes weaker as ⍀ We furthermore assume that the 3D scattering length a
increases, we expect that, as ⍀ → , the equilibrium size is much smaller than the extension ᐉz of the ground state
of the atom cloud increases indefinitely, and the interac- of the motion along z, so that g2 ⯝ ប2g̃2 / M, with g̃2
tion energy and the chemical potential tend to zero. = 冑8a / ᐉz Ⰶ 1 关see Eq. 共105兲兴. Note that the restriction of
We define the lowest Landau level regime as the situa- the contact interaction to the LLL subspace is a regular
tion in which , kBT Ⰶ ប, so that the state of the system operator: it does not lead to the same mathematical dif-
can be accurately described in terms of Hermite func- ficulties as the ones encountered by considering the con-
tions j,k with k = 0 only. Each basis function j,0共x兲 is tact interaction in the whole Hilbert space of 2D wave
2 2
proportional to 共x + iy兲je−r /共2a⬜兲 and takes significant val- functions. In fact, quite generally, interactions in the
ues on a ring centered on 0 with an average radius 冑ja⬜ LLL are described by the Haldane pseudopotentials Vm
and a width ⬃a⬜. Any function 共x兲 of the LLL is a 共Haldane, 1983兲. For a pseudopotential with scattering
linear combination of the j,0’s and can be cast in the length a, the resulting 2D contact interaction has Vm
form = 冑2 / បa / ᐉz for m = 0 and zero otherwise. In the fermi-
2/2a2 onic case, where only odd values of m are allowed, the
共x兲 = e−r ⬜ P共u兲, 共116兲 analog of this interaction is a hard-core model, where
where u = x + iy and P共u兲 is a polynomial 共or an analytic Vm ⫽ 0 only for m = 1. The fact that the Laughlin states,
function兲 of u. When P共u兲 is a polynomial of degree n, discussed in Sec. VII.C, are exact eigenstates for such
an alternative form of 共x兲 is pseudopotentials was realized by Trugman and Kivelson
共1985兲.
n
We start with a gas rotating exactly at the trap fre-
兿
2/共2a2 兲
共x兲 = e−r ⬜ 共u − j兲, 共117兲 quency 共⍀ = 兲, with an infinite number of particles but a
j=1
finite spatial density. In this case, the numerical minimi-
where j 共j = 1 , . . . , n兲 are the n complex zeros of P共u兲. zation of the Gross-Pitaevskii energy functional indi-
Each j is the position of a single-charged, positive vor- cates that vortices form an infinite regular triangular lat-
tex, since the phase of 共x兲 changes by +2 along a tice. We turn now to a gas with a finite number of
closed contour encircling j. Therefore, in the LLL, particles, rotating at a frequency ⍀ slightly below . The
there is a one-to-one correspondence between atom and initial treatment of Ho 共2001兲 assumed an infinite, regu-
vortex distributions, contrary to what happens for lar triangular vortex lattice also in this case. The total
slower rotation frequencies. This has interesting conse- energy of the system was minimized by varying the spac-
quences for the hydrodynamics of the gas, which cannot ing of the vortex lattice. When substituted into Eq.
be described by conventional Bernoulli and continuity 共117兲, this led to the prediction of a Gaussian atom dis-
equations 共Bourne et al., 2006兲. tribution after coarse graining over the vortex lattice
Equilibrium shape of a fast rotating BEC. We now spacing. A more detailed analysis has been performed,
-8
-10
-10 -5
00 5
10
10
-8 0 8 Note that the total number of vortices, including those
x x outside the Thomas-Fermi radius, can be shown to be
infinite for the wave function that minimizes the energy
FIG. 26. 共Color online兲 Calculated structure of the ground in the LLL subspace 共Aftalion et al., 2006兲.
state of a rotating Bose-Einstein condensate described by a It is interesting to compare the behavior of a fast-
LLL wave function, showing 共a兲 vortex locations and 共b兲 rotating BEC with that of a fast-rotating bucket of su-
atomic density profile. The parameters of the calculation cor- perfluid liquid helium, or a type-II superconductor in a
respond to 1000 rubidium atoms confined in a trap with fre- large magnetic field 共Fischer and Baym, 2003兲. In the
quency / 共2兲 = 150 Hz and rotating at a frequency ⍀ = 0.99. latter cases, the size of the sample is constant and the
The unit for the positions x and y is 关ប / 共m兲兴1/2. From Aftal- vortex density increases as the rotation frequency 共or
ion et al., 2005. the magnetic field兲 increases. Since the size of a vortex
core ᐉc depends only on the spatial density of the fluid
共ᐉc ⬃ the healing length兲, it stays constant as ⍀ in-
where the position j of each vortex is taken as a varia-
creases and one eventually reaches a point where the
tional parameter 共Cooper et al., 2004; Watanabe et al.,
cores of adjacent vortices overlap. This corresponds to a
2004; Aftalion et al., 2005兲 关see also Anglin 共2002兲 and
loss of superfluidity or superconductivity. For superfluid
Sheehy and Radzihovsky 共2004a, 2004b兲 for the case of a
liquid helium, the rotation frequency ⍀c2 where this
slower rotation兴. One spans in this way the whole LLL
phenomenon should occur is beyond the reach of realis-
subspace. These studies have shown that the vortex dis-
tic experiments. For superconductors, on the contrary,
tribution that minimizes the total energy is nearly regu-
the critical field Hc2 where the superconductivity is lost
lar with the density M⍀ / ប close to the center of the
is a relevant experimental parameter. For fast-rotating,
condensate, but is strongly deformed on the edges, with
harmonically trapped gases, the scenario is very differ-
a rarefaction of vortices 共see Fig. 26兲. For large atom
ent: 共i兲 the vortex density saturates to a constant value
numbers, the predicted coarse-grained density distribu-
tion is not Gaussian as for a uniform vortex lattice, but nv = M / ប = 1 / a⬜
2
when ⍀ approaches ; and 共ii兲 the
approaches a Thomas-Fermi distribution n2共x兲 ⬀ R2 − r2 size ᐉc of the vortex core for a wave function of the type
similar to Eq. 共106兲, for the effective trapping potential 共117兲 is no longer dictated by interactions that would
M共2 − ⍀2兲r2 / 2. This Thomas-Fermi prediction is in lead to ᐉc ⬃ as for an incompressible fluid, but it is on
good agreement with results obtained in the experi- the order of the vortex spacing a⬜. Therefore, the frac-
ments described later in this section. The cloud radius is tional area ñ0ᐉ2c occupied by vortices tends to a finite
value, as the trapped BEC rotates faster and faster. The
R ⯝ a⬜ 冉 2b Ng̃2
1 − ⍀/
冊 1/4
共118兲
crossover between the standard to the LLL regime has
been studied by Baym and Pethick 共2003兲 and Cozzini et
al. 共2006兲.
and diverges for ⍀ → , as expected from the compen-
sation of the trapping force by the centrifugal one. The B. Experiments with fast-rotating gases
dimensionless coefficient b is the Abrikosov parameter
b = 1.1596 共Kleiner et al., 1964兲 for a triangular lattice. It The most intuitive way to rotate a trapped atomic gas
expresses the fact that, due to the restriction to the LLL is to superpose a rotating anisotropic potential onto the
and to the presence of vortices, the energy and size of axisymmetric trapping potential V共r兲 = M2r2 / 2. The
the condensate are actually slightly larger than one ex- stirring anisotropy can be written ␦V共x , t兲 = ⑀M2共X2
pects for a static trap with spring constant m共2 − ⍀2兲 − Y2兲 / 2, where the coordinates 共X , Y兲 are deduced from
and a smooth equilibrium distribution. The chemical po- the static ones 共x , y兲 by a rotation of angle ⍀t. The di-
tential is mensionless parameter ⑀ characterizes the strength of
the stirring potential with respect to the trapping one. In
⯝ ប关共2b/兲Ng̃2共1 − ⍀/兲兴1/2 , practice, because of experimental limitations, ⑀ has to be
on the order of at least a few percent. Indeed, it must
so that the condition Ⰶ ប for the validity of the LLL overcome by a significant factor the residual static aniso-
approach reads 1 − ⍀ / Ⰶ 1 / Ng̃2. It is also instructive to tropy of the trapping potential, which is typically in the
calculate the number Nv of “visible” vortices, i.e., those 10−3 – 10−2 range 共Guéry-Odelin, 2000兲.
that exist in the disk of area R2. Using ⍀ ⯝ so that The stirring potential can be created by a modulated
nv ⯝ m / ប, we get laser beam 共Madison et al., 2000; Abo-Shaeer et al.,
columnar pinning sites created by a two-dimensional, regime. Therefore, results obtained so far originate from
corotating optical lattice. For a sufficiently large laser an exact numerical diagonalization of the many-body
intensity, the optical lattice can impose its structure to Hamiltonian and from the connection with known fea-
the vortex lattice; Tung et al. 共2006兲 studied, in particular, tures of the fermionic FQH.
the transition from the usual triangular Abrikosov lat- Most studies are performed by considering states with
tice to a square configuration imposed by light. Theoret- a given total angular momentum Lz, so that the problem
ical investigations of this problem were carried out by essentially consists in finding the eigenstates of the inter-
Reijnders and Duine 共2004, 2005兲 and Pu et al. 共2005兲 action energy
who found that a rich variety of structural phases can
ប2g̃2
emerge in this geometry, from the competition between
vortex–vortex and vortex–optical lattice interactions.
Vint =
M i⬍j
兺 ␦共xi − xj兲. 共122兲
1985兲. Increasing Lz beyond this point cannot reduce first term in the brackets, Qn共u1 , . . . , uN兲, is a Slater de-
further E共Lz兲. The total angular momentum Lz / ប of this terminant giving the state of N fictitious fermions filling
state is equal to the degree N共N − 1兲 of each term of the exactly n Landau levels. The second term involving
polynomial PLau, and this state expands over all LLL products of ui − uj 共Jastrow factor兲 corresponds to the
single-particle wave functions j,0 from j = 0 to jmax attachment of a vortex to each fermion. Since both
= 2共N − 1兲, i.e., a filling factor = 1 / 2. The Laughlin state terms in the brackets are antisymmetric in the exchange
is incompressible and the gap to the first excited state is of two particles, their product is a symmetric wave func-
⬃0.1g̃2ប 共Regnault and Jolicoeur, 2003, 2004兲. The tion, suitable for the description of our N identical
Laughlin state is characterized by a quasiuniform den- bosons. Numerical evidence for such states was obtained
sity of particles over the circle of radius a⬜冑2N. The for = 2 / 3 and 3 / 4 by Regnault and Jolicoeur 共2003,
two-body correlation function for this state shows a 2004兲 and Chang et al. 共2004兲. The surface waves of vor-
strong antibunching g共2兲共r → 0兲 ⬃ r2. This correlation tex liquids whose wave functions can be described by the
function has been calculated numerically for a number composite fermion ansatz have been studied by Cazalilla
of bosons N up to 8 by Barberán et al. 共2006兲. 共2003兲, Regnault and Jolicoeur 共2004兲, and Cazalilla et al.
For Lz / ប ⬎ N共N − 1兲, any state P共u1 , . . . , uN兲 共2005兲.
= PLau共u1 , . . . , uN兲Q共u1 , . . . , uN兲, where Q is an arbitrary The Read-Moore state and the Read-Rezayi series. For
symmetric polynomial, is a ground state of the system the filling factor = 1, yet another type of approximate
with interaction energy 0. Depending on the total degree ground state has been identified 共Cooper et al., 2001兲,
dQ of Q, the physical interpretation of the state can be namely, the Moore-Read state, or Pfaffian. Assuming
共i兲 for dQ ⬃ 1, edge excitations of the Laughlin state that N is even, the expression of this state is
共Cazalilla, 2003; Cazalilla et al., 2005兲; 共ii兲 for dQ = N,
quasiholes at a given point U0 are obtained by taking
P共u1, . . . ,uN兲 = S 冋 兿
i⬍j艋N/2
共ui − uj兲2 兿
N/2⬍l⬍n
册
共ul − un兲2 ,
Q = 兿j共uj − U0兲 共Paredes et al., 2001, 2002兲; and 共iii兲 for
共126兲
dQ ⬃ N2, Laughlin-type wave functions with smaller fill-
ing factors, by replacing the exponent 2 by 4,6,… in Eq. where S indicates symmetrization over all indices. The
共124兲. total degree of each term of this polynomial is N共N
The composite fermion sequence. For filling factors be- − 2兲 / 2 and the state expands over single-particle LLL
tween the melting point ⬃ 10 and the Laughlin state wave functions from k = 0 up to kmax = N − 2, correspond-
= 1 / 2, it is not possible to give an exact analytical ex- ing to a filling factor = 1. For = 1 / 2, the ground state is
pression of the ground state at any given . One finds, incompressible with a gap ⬃0.05g̃2ប 共Chang et al.,
however, strong overlap between numerically deter- 2004兲. It is noteworthy that for this state the probability
mined ground states and some relevant states for the is zero to have three particles at the same location in
physics of the electronic fractional quantum Hall effect. space.
An example is the composite fermion sequence, which For even larger filling factors 共 between 1 and 10兲, an
presents strong analogies with the Jain principal se- analysis performed in a torus geometry suggested that
quence for fermions 共Jain, 1989兲. The first evidence for the system has incompressible ground states belonging
this sequence was found by Cooper and Wilkin 共1999兲, to a family containing clusters of k particles 共Cooper et
and was studied by Regnault and Jolicoeur 共2003, 2004兲. al., 2001兲 and corresponding to integer or half-integer
The physics at the origin of the states of this sequence is filling factors. This so-called Read-Rezayi series 共Read
reminiscent of that explored in the section on 1D gases, and Rezayi, 1999兲 is constructed by taking symmetrized
where the problem of bosonic particles with repulsive products of k Laughlin states of the type 兿i⬍j艋N/k共ui
interaction is mapped onto the properties of an assem- − uj兲2 共assuming that N is a multiple of k兲. The Laughlin
bly of noninteracting fermionic particles. Here one con- and Moore-Read states correspond to k = 1 and 2, re-
siders that the gas is formed with fermionic composite spectively. The filling factor associated with these states
entities, each resulting from the attachment of a fermi-
is k / 2 and the total angular momentum is Lz / ប ⬃ N2 / k.
onic particle with a vortex carrying one unit of statistical
Further calculations performed in the spherical geom-
flux. These composite fermions can be viewed as inde-
etry could not draw any conclusion concerning the sur-
pendent particles that occupy various Landau levels.
vival of the incompressibility of such states at the ther-
When they occupy exactly n Landau levels, they form an modynamic limit 共Regnault and Jolicoeur, 2004兲.
incompressible state. This occurs when the filling frac- Possible detection schemes for fractional quantum Hall
tion in the initial state is = n / 共n + 1兲. From a more quan- effects. We now review some possible ways to observe
titative point of view, the composite fermion ansatz cor- effects related to fractional quantum Hall physics ex-
responds to a wave function of the type perimentally. Note that it is unlikely that condensed-
冋
P共u1, . . . ,uN兲 = PLLL Qn共u1, . . . ,uN兲 兿 共ui − uj兲 .
i⬍j
册 matter-type techniques, based on transport properties
with specific conductance plateaus, can be implemented
with rotating atomic gases, at least in the near future.
共125兲
We also point out that the condition 共121兲 giving the
PLLL describe the projector onto the LLL subspace 关for threshold for the observation of mean-field effects
its precise definition, see, e.g., Chang et al. 共2004兲兴. The imposes de facto the requirement to work with very
small atomic samples. Consider, for example, a purely density drops to zero. The values of R1 and R2 can be
harmonic trap. Due to residual trap imperfections, it obtained from a simple energy minimization 共Cooper et
seems unlikely that one can achieve rotation frequencies al., 2005兲. For larger atom numbers, several plateaus,
⍀ larger than 0.999 关rotation frequencies ⬃0.99 have with decreasing densities corresponding to the various
been achieved by Schweikhard et al. 共2004兲兴. Taking g̃2 filling factors of the incompressible states, are expected.
⬃ 0.1, this sets an upper bound of ⬃100 on the atom The possibility of adding an optical lattice along the z
number. Working with such small atom numbers is not direction adds an interesting degree of freedom to the
intractable, but it immediately makes this type of experi- problem, and brings hope to experimentalists of working
ment challenging from a technical point of view. with a notably larger atom number. In this configuration,
A first possible experimental signature of the Laugh- one deals with a stack of Nd parallel disks, all rotating at
lin and Read-Moore states could lie in the fact that three the same frequency ⍀ along the z axis. Each disk is
particles can never be at the same location in space for coupled to its neighbors by tunneling across the lattice
these wave functions. As three-body recombination is barrier, with a strength that can be adjusted. For large
often the main source of atom losses, one can expect coupling, the situation is similar to a bulk 3D problem;
that the achievement of these states could be revealed when the coupling is reduced, the system evolves to the
by a strong increase of the lifetime of the gas, similar to quasi-2D regime. This raises interesting questions even
what has been observed in one dimension by Tolra et al. at the level of a single-vortex motion, as pointed out by
共2004兲, where g共3兲共0兲 is suppressed. Martikainen and Stoof 共2003兲. The melting of the vortex
We now turn to more quantitative studies of these lattice in a stack of Nd layers was investigated by Cooper
incompressible states. A “simple” experimental evi- et al. 共2005兲 and Snoek and Stoof 共2006a, 2006b兲. For
dence for a state such as the Laughlin wave function smaller filling factors, both the density profiles along z
could come from its specific density profile, which is uni- and in the xy plane should show the wedding-cake struc-
form over a disk of radius a⬜冑2N, and zero elsewhere. ture characteristic of incompressible states 共Cooper et
al., 2005兲.
This flat profile with density 1 / 共2a⬜ 2
兲 is notably differ-
More elaborate techniques have been proposed to test
ent from the parabolic density profile expected in the
the anyonic nature of the excitations of incompressible
mean-field regime, and its observation would constitute
states. Paredes et al. 共2001兲 investigated the possibility of
a clear signature of a beyond mean-field effect. Usually
creating anyons in a Laughlin state by digging a hole in
one does not measure directly the in-trap density profile,
the atomic gas with a tightly focused laser. If the hole is
because the relevant distances are on the order of a few
moved adiabatically inside the cloud, it should accumu-
micrometers only, which is too small to be detected with
late a phase that could be measured by an interference
good accuracy by optical means. The standard proce-
experiment. The accumulated phase should then reveal
dure to circumvent this problem is to use a time-of-flight
the anyonic structure of the hole-type excitation 关see
technique, where the potential confining the atoms is
also Paredes et al. 共2002兲兴.
suddenly switched off so that atoms fly away ballistically
during an adjustable time before being detected. For an
arbitrary initial state, the functional form of the density D. Artificial gauge fields for atomic gases
distribution is modified during the time of flight. For an
LLL wave function, this modification is scaling, at least As shown in Eq. 共113兲, rotating a neutral particle
when interactions between atoms are negligible during system is equivalent to giving these particles a unit
the time of flight 共Read and Cooper, 2003兲. In particular, charge and placing them in a magnetic field proportional
the disk-shaped structure associated with the Laughlin to the rotation vector ⍀ 关see Eq. 共113兲兴. Other possibili-
state should remain invariant in ballistic expansion. ties have been suggested for applying an artificial gauge
If the number of atoms is larger than that required to field on a neutral gas. The common idea in these pro-
form a Laughlin wave function at the particular fre- posals is to exploit the Berry’s phase 共Berry, 1984兲 that
quency ⍀ that is used, one expects a wedding-cake struc- arises when the atomic ground level is split 共e.g., by an
ture for the atomic density 共Cooper et al., 2005兲. This electromagnetic field兲 into several space-dependent
result is obtained within a local-density approximation sublevels, and the atoms follow one of them adiabati-
and is reminiscent of the structure appearing in an cally. We consider the one-body problem, and label
atomic Mott insulator confined in a harmonic trap. At 兵兩nx典其 the local energy basis of the atomic ground level,
the center of the trap where the density is the largest, with the associated energies En共x兲. The most general
atoms may form an incompressible fluid corresponding, state of the atom is a spinor 兺nn共x兲兩nx典, which evolves
for example, to the filling factor 2 / 3, which is one of the under the Hamiltonian p2 / 共2m兲 + 兺nEn共x兲 兩nx典具nx兩. Sup-
composite fermion states identified above. The atomic pose now that the atom is prepared in a given sublevel
density is then expected to be constant and equal to n, and that the motion of the atomic center of mass is
2 / 3a⬜ 2
over a central disk of radius R1. For r = R1, the slow enough to neglect transitions to other internal sub-
gas switches abruptly 共over a distance ⬃a⬜兲 to the levels n⬘. This is the case in particular in a magnetic trap
Laughlin state with filling factor 1 / 2 and the density where the index n simply labels the various Zeeman sub-
drops to the value 1 / 共2a⬜ 2
兲. It then stays constant over states. One can then write a Schrödinger equation for
a ring of outer radius R2 共R2 ⬎ R1兲, and for r ⬎ R2 the the component n共x兲, and the corresponding Hamil-
tonian reads H = 关p − An共x兲兴2 / 共2m兲 + Vn共x兲. The vector VIII. BCS-BEC CROSSOVER
potential An is related to the spatial variation of the
sublevel 兩n典, One of the basic many-body problems that has been
brought into focus by the study of ultracold atoms is that
of a two-component attractive Fermi gas near a reso-
An共x兲 = iប具nx兩nx典, 共127兲 nance of the s-wave scattering length. The ability to tune
the interaction through a Feshbach resonance allows
and the scalar potential Vn is one to explore the crossover from a BCS superfluid,
when the attraction is weak and pairing shows up only
in momentum space, to a Bose-Einstein condensate of
Vn共x兲 = En共x兲 + 共ប2/2m兲共具nx兩nx典 − 円具nx兩nx典円2兲. tightly bound pairs in real space. Here we discuss the
共128兲 problem in the spin-balanced case, which—in contrast to
the situation at finite imbalance—is now well under-
stood.
If the spatial variation of the sublevels 兩nx典 is such that
∧ An ⫽ 0, this gauge field can in principle have the
same effect as rotating the atomic gas. A. Molecular condensates and collisional stability
The simplest occurrence of an artificial gauge field
happens in a Ioffe-Pritchard magnetic trap 共Ho and The experimental study of the BCS-BEC crossover
Shenoy, 1996兲. The sublevels 兩nx典 are the various Zee- problem with ultracold atoms started with the realiza-
man substates, which are space dependent because the tion of Fermi gases in the regime of resonant interac-
direction of the trapping magnetic field is not constant tions kF兩a兩 Ⰷ 1 by O’Hara et al. 共2002兲. They observed an
over the trap volume. However, the gauge field An that anisotropic expansion, characteristic of hydrodynamic
is generated in this configuration is too small to initiate behavior. Typically, this is associated with superfluidity
the formation of vortices. The addition of a strong elec- because ultracold gases above the condensation tem-
tric field could increase the magnitude of the artificial perature are in the collisionless regime. Near a Feshbach
gauge field, as shown by Kailasvuori et al. 共2002兲. An resonance, however, a hydrodynamic expansion is ob-
alternative and promising line of research considers served both above and below the transition tempera-
the concept of dark states, where two sublevels of the ture. It is only through the observation of stable vortices
atomic ground state are coupled by two laser waves to that superfluid- and collision-dominated hydrodynamics
the same excited state. If the laser frequencies are prop- can be distinguished. The BEC side of the crossover was
erly chosen, there exists a linear combination of the two first reached by creating ultracold molecules. This may
sublevels that is not coupled to the light, and the spatial be done by direct evaporative cooling on the positive a
evolution of atoms prepared in this dark state involves side 共Jochim et al., 2003a兲, where the weakly bound mol-
the vector and scalar potentials given above 共Dum and ecules are formed by inelastic three-body collisions. Al-
Olshanii, 1996; Visser and Nienhuis, 1998; Dutta et al., ternatively, molecules can be generated in a reversible
1999兲. Possible spatial profiles of laser waves optimizing manner by using a slow ramp of the magnetic field
the resulting artificial rotation field have been discussed through a Feshbach resonance 共Cubizolles et al., 2003;
by Juzeliunas and Öhberg 共2004兲, Juzeliunas et al. 共2005, Regal et al., 2003兲. This allows a quasibound state of two
2006兲, and Zhang et al. 共2005兲. These proposals have not fermions at a ⬍ 0 to be converted into a true bound state
yet been implemented experimentally. at a ⬎ 0 关for a review of this technique, see Köhler et al.
Similar effects have also been predicted in a lattice 共2006兲兴. Subsequently, a BEC of those molecules was re-
geometry by Jaksch and Zoller 共2003兲, where atoms with alized both by direct evaporative cooling 共Jochim et al.,
two distinct internal ground-state sublevels are trapped 2003b; Zwierlein et al., 2003b兲 for a ⬎ 0, or by converting
in different columns of the lattice. Using a two-photon a sufficiently cold attractive Fermi gas at a ⬍ 0 to a mo-
transition between the sublevels, one can induce a non- lecular condensate, using an adiabatic ramp across the
vanishing phase of particles moving along a closed path Feshbach resonance 共Greiner et al., 2003兲. Experiments
on the lattice. Jaksch and Zoller 共2003兲 showed that one are done with an equal mixture of the two lowest hyper-
can reach a “high-magnetic-field” regime that is not ex- fine states of 6Li or of 40K confined optically in a dipole
perimentally accessible for electrons in metals, charac- trap. This allows the scattering length to be changed by
terized by a fractal band structure 共the Hofstadter but- a magnetically tunable Feshbach resonance at B0 = 835
terfly兲. The connection between the quantum Hall effect or 202 G, respectively. On the BEC side, the fact that
and the lattice geometry in the presence of an artificial molecules are condensed can be verified experimentally
gauge potential has been analyzed by Mueller 共2004兲 by observing a bimodal distribution in a time-of-flight
and Sørensen et al. 共2005兲. One can also generalize the experiment. Probing superfluidity in Fermi gases on the
Berry’s phase approach to the case in which several en- BCS side of the crossover, however, is more difficult. In
ergy states are degenerate 共Wilczek and Zee, 1984兲. particular, a time-of-flight analysis of the expanding
Non-Abelian gauge fields emerge in this case, and pos- cloud does not work here. Indeed, due to the factor
sible implementations on cold-atom systems have been exp关− / 共2kF兩a兩兲兴 in the critical temperature 关see Eq.
investigated theoretically by Osterloh et al. 共2005兲 and 共136兲 below兴, superfluidity is lost upon expansion at con-
Ruseckas et al. 共2005兲. stant phase-space density in contrast to the situation in
BEC’s.18 As discussed below, this problem may be cir- for a study of the BCS-BEC crossover, because it allows
cumvented by a rapid ramp back into the BEC regime one to reduce the physics near the resonance to an ide-
before the expansion. A major surprise in the study of alized, conservative many-body problem in which relax-
strongly interacting Fermi gases was the long lifetime of ational processes are negligible.
molecules near a Feshbach resonance 共Cubizolles et al. The issue of dimer-dimer collisions has an additional
2003; Jochim et al., 2003a; Strecker et al., 2003兲, in stark aspect, which is important for the stability of the
contrast to the situation encountered with bosonic atoms strongly attractive Fermi gas. Indeed, molecules con-
共Herbig et al., 2003; Dürr et al., 2004兲. The physics be- sisting of two bound fermions also undergo purely elas-
hind this was clarified by Petrov, Salomon, and Shlyap- tic scattering. It is obvious that a molecular conden-
nikov 共2004兲, who solved the problem of scattering and sate will be stable only if the interaction of these
relaxation into deeply bound states of two fermions in effectively bosonic dimers is repulsive. From an exact
the regime where the scattering length is much larger solution of the four-particle Schrödinger equation with
than the characteristic range of the interaction, re. As pseudopotential interactions, Petrov, Salomon, and
shown in Sec. I.A, this range is essentially the van der Shlyapnikov 共2004兲 have shown that in the limit where
Waals length Eq. 共2兲, which is much smaller than a in the the distance R 共denoted by R / 冑2 in their paper兲 between
vicinity of a Feshbach resonance. The basic physics that the centers of mass of two dimers is much larger than
underlies the stability of fermionic dimers in contrast to the dimer size a and at collision energies much smaller
their bosonic counterparts is the fact that relaxation into than their respective binding energies ប2 / 2Mra2, the
deep bound states is strongly suppressed by the Pauli wave function has the asymptotic form
principle. Indeed, the size of the weakly bound dimer
states is the scattering length a, while that of the deep ⌿共x1,x2,R兲 = 0共r1兲0共r2兲共1 − add/R兲, 共130兲
bound states is re Ⰶ a. By energy and momentum conser- with add ⯝ 0.60a. Here 0共r兲 ⬃ exp共−r / a兲 is the bound-
vation, a relaxation into a deep bound state requires that state wave function of an individual dimer and x1,2
at least three fermions are at a distance of order re. Since are the interparticle distances between the two distin-
two of them are necessarily in the same internal state guishable fermions of which they are composed. It fol-
and their typical momenta are of order k ⬇ 1 / a, the lows from Eq. 共130兲 that the effective dimer-dimer inter-
probability of a close three- 共or four-兲 body encounter is action at low energies is characterized by a positive
suppressed by a factor 共kre兲2 ⬃ 共re / a兲2 due to the anti- scattering length, which is proportional to the scattering
symmetrization of the corresponding wave function. length between its fermionic constituents. This guaran-
From a detailed calculation 共Petrov et al., 2005兲, the re- tees the stability of molecular condensates and also im-
laxation into deeply bound states has a rate constant 共in plies that there are no four-particle bound states for
units of cm3 / s兲 zero-range interactions.19 Experimentally, the dimer-
dimer scattering length can be inferred from the radius
␣rel = C共បre/M兲共re/a兲s , 共129兲
R = ᐉ0共15Nadd / ᐉ0兲1/5 of a molecular condensate with
which vanishes near a Feshbach resonance with a non- N dimers in a trap. The value found in fact agrees well
trivial power law. The exponent s = 2.55 or 3.33 and the with the prediction add = 0.60a 共Bartenstein et al., 2004a;
dimensionless prefactor C depend on whether the relax- Bourdel et al., 2004兲. Physically, the repulsion between
ation proceeds via dimer-dimer or dimer-atom collisions. dimers can be understood as a statistical interaction due
From experimental data, the coefficient of the dominant to the Pauli principle of its constituents. Within a phe-
dimer-dimer relaxation is C ⬇ 20 共Bourdel et al., 2004; nomenological Ginzburg-Landau description of the mo-
Regal et al., 2004b兲. Its value depends on short-range lecular condensate by a complex order parameter 共x兲,
physics on the scale re and thus cannot be calculated it is related to a positive coefficient of the 兩兩4 term. In
within a pseudopotential approximation. At a finite den- fact, the repulsive interaction between dimers was first
sity, the power-law dependence a−s holds only as long as derived from a coherent-state functional integral repre-
the scattering length is smaller than the average inter- sentation of the crossover problem 共Drechsler and
particle distance. The actual relaxation rate n␣rel, in fact, Zwerger, 1992; Sá de Melo et al., 1993兲. These results,
stays finite near a Feshbach resonance and is essentially however, were restricted to a Born approximation of the
共B兲
given by replacing the factor re / a in Eq. 共129兲 by kFre scattering problem, where add = 2a 共Sá de Melo et al.,
Ⰶ 1 共Petrov, Salomon, and Shlyapnikov, 2004兲. In prac- 1993兲. A derivation of the exact result add = 0.60a from
tice, the measured lifetimes are on the order of 0.1 s for diagrammatic many-body theory has been given by
40
K and up to about 30 s for 6Li. This long lifetime of Brodsky et al. 共2006兲 and Levinsen and Gurarie 共2006兲. It
fermionic atoms near a Feshbach resonance is essential is important to note that the stability of attractive fermi-
ons along the BCS-BEC crossover relies crucially on the
fact that the range of the attractive interaction is much
18
In this respect, the situation in two dimensions, where pair smaller than the interparticle spacing. For more general
binding appears for arbitrary values of the scattering length a,
is much more favorable because the two-particle binding en-
ergy 共83兲 is density-independent. Since Tc ⬃ 冑bF ⬃ n1/2, the 19
Such states are discussed in nuclear physics, where ␣ par-
superfluid transition can be reached by an adiabatic expansion ticles in a nucleus may appear due to pairing correlations; see,
at constant T / TF; see Petrov et al. 共2003兲. e.g., Röpke et al. 共1998兲.
interactions, where this is not the case, instabilities may Ⰶ 쐓, a single-channel description applies if F Ⰶ 쐓 or
arise, as discussed by Fregoso and Baym 共2006兲. kFr쐓 Ⰶ 1 共Bruun and Pethick, 2004; Diener and Ho,
2004兲. This is the condition for a “broad” Feshbach reso-
nance, which involves only the many-body parameter
B. Crossover theory and universality
kFr쐓. In quantitative terms, the Fermi wavelength F
For a description of the many-body physics of the = 2 / kF of dilute gases is on the order of micrometers,
BCS-BEC crossover, a natural starting point is a two- while r쐓 is typically on the order of or even smaller than
channel picture in which fermions in an open channel the effective range re of the interaction. The condition
couple resonantly to a closed-channel bound state. The kFr쐓 Ⰶ 1 is, therefore, satisfied unless one is dealing with
resulting Hamiltonian exceptionally narrow Feshbach resonances. Physically,
冕 冋 冉 冊 冉 冊
the assumption of a broad resonance implies that the
ប2 2 ˆ ប2 2
ĤBF = d 3x 兺 2M B 4M ⵜ + ˆ B
ˆ †
− ⵜ + ˆ
†
− bosonic field in Eq. 共131兲, which gives rise to the reso-
nant scattering, is so strongly coupled to the open chan-
+ g̃共ˆ B
† ˆ ˆ
册
↑↓ + H.c.兲 共131兲
nel that the relative phase between the two fields is per-
fectly locked, i.e., closed-channel molecules condense
simultaneously with particles in the open channel. In
defines the Bose-Fermi resonance model. It was intro- contrast to the two-particle problem, therefore, there is
duced in this context by Holland et al. 共2001兲 and by a finite Z factor precisely on resonance, as verified ex-
Timmermans et al. 共2001兲 and was used subsequently, perimentally by Partridge et al. 共2005兲. An important
by Ohashi and Griffin 共2002兲 and Drummond and point to realize is that this situation is opposite to that
encountered in conventional superconductors, where
Kheruntsyan 共2004兲, among others. Here ˆ 共x兲 are fer-
mionic field operators describing atoms in the open the role of 쐓 is played by the Debye energy បD. The
channel. The two different hyperfine states are labeled ratio បD / F is very small in this case, on the order of
by a formal spin variable = ↑ , ↓. The bound state in the the sound velocity divided by the Fermi velocity. Effec-
closed channel is denoted by the bosonic field operator tively, this corresponds to the case of narrow resonances,
where kFr쐓 Ⰷ 1. The effective Fermi-Fermi interaction is
ˆ . Its energy is detuned by with respect to the open-
B then retarded and the Bose field in Eq. 共131兲 is basically
channel continuum, and g̃ is the coupling constant for unaffected by the condensation of fermions. On a formal
the conversion of two atoms into a closed-channel state
level, this case can be treated by replacing the closed-
and vice versa. It is caused by the off-diagonal potential
channel field by a c number, giving rise to a reduced
W共r兲 in Eq. 共19兲 whose range is on the order of the
atomic dimension rc. As a result, the conversion is point- BCS model with a mean-field gap parameter ⌬ = g̃具ˆ B典
like on scales beyond re where a pseudopotential de- 共DePalo et al., 2005; Sheehy and Radzihovsky, 2006兲.
scription applies. The magnitude of g̃ = 具res兩W兩0典 is de- There is an essential simplification in describing the
termined by the matrix element of the off-diagonal crossover problem in the limit kFr쐓 Ⰶ 1. This is related to
potential between the closed- and open-channel states. the fact that the parameter r쐓 can be understood as an
Using Eq. 共26兲, its value is directly connected with the effective range for interactions induced by a Feshbach
characteristic scale r쐓 introduced in Eq. 共21兲, such that resonance. Indeed, consider the resonant phase shift for
共2Mrg̃ / ប2兲2 = 4 / r쐓 共Bruun and Pethick, 2004兲. For sim- two-body scattering as given in Eq. 共20兲. At zero detun-
plicity, the background scattering between fermions is ing = 0 and small k, the associated scattering amplitude
neglected, i.e., there is no direct term quartic in the fer- can be shown to be precisely of the form 共4兲 with an
mionic fields. This is justified close enough to resonance effective range re = −2r쐓. Therefore, in the limit kFr쐓 Ⰶ 1,
兩B − B0兩 Ⰶ 兩⌬B兩, where the scattering length is dominated the two-body interaction near resonance is described by
by its resonant contribution. the scattering amplitude Eq. 共6兲 of an ideal pseudopo-
Broad and narrow Feshbach resonances. As discussed tential even at k = kF. As a result, the Fermi energy is the
in Sec. I.C, the weakly bound state that appears at nega- only energy scale in the problem right at unitarity. As
tive detuning always has a vanishing closed-channel ad- pointed out by Ho 共2004兲, the thermodynamics of the
mixture near resonance. For the experimentally relevant unitary Fermi gas is then universal, depending only on
case 兩abg 兩 Ⰷ r쐓, the virtual or real bound states within the the dimensionless temperature = T / TF. In fact, as
range 兩兩 ⬍ 兩⌬B兩 of the detuning may therefore be ef- found by Nikolic and Sachdev 共2007兲, the universality is
fectively described as a single-channel zero-energy reso- much more general and is tied to the existence of an
nance. This criterion is based on two-body parameters unstable fixed point describing the unitary balanced gas
only. In order to justify a single-channel model for de- at zero density. As a result, by a proper rescaling, the
scribing the physics of the crossover at a finite density complete thermodynamics and phase diagram of low-
n = kF3 / 32 of fermions, it is necessary that the potential density Fermi gases with short-range attractive interac-
resonance description be valid in the relevant regime tions can be expressed in terms of universal functions
kF兩a兩 ⲏ 1 of the many-body problem. Now the range in of temperature T, detuning , chemical potential , and
the detuning where kF兩a兩 ⲏ 1 is given by 兩兩 ⱗ 冑F쐓. Since the external field h conjugate to a possible density im-
the closed-channel contribution is negligible as long as balance.
Universality. The universality provides considerable with k = −2 and the fact that the contribution 3pV of the
insight into the problem even without a specific solution external forces to the virial in the case of a box with
of the relevant microscopic Hamiltonian. For simplicity, volume V is replaced by 2具Ĥtrap典 in the presence of an
we focus on the so-called unitary Fermi gas right at the external harmonic potential. It is therefore valid for fi-
Feshbach resonance and the spin-balanced case of an nite temperature and arbitrary trap anisotropy. An alter-
equal mixture of both hyperfine states that undergo pair- native derivation of Eq. 共134兲 was given by Werner and
ing. This problem was in fact first discussed in nuclear Castin 共2006兲. They noted that the unitary Fermi gas in
physics as a parameter-free model of low-density neu- 3D exhibits a scale invariance that is related to a hidden
tron matter 共Baker, 1999; Heiselberg, 2001兲. By dimen- SO共2,1兲 symmetry. In fact, since the interaction potential
sional arguments, at a = ⬁, the particle density n and the at unitarity effectively obeys V共r兲 = V共r兲 / 2, the situa-
temperature T are the only variables on which the ther- tion is analogous to that discussed in Sec. VI for the 2D
modynamics depends. The free energy per particle, Bose gas with a pseudopotential interaction. In particu-
which has n and T as its natural variables, thus acquires lar, scale invariance implies a simple evolution of arbi-
a universal form trary initial states in a time-dependent trap and the ex-
istence of undamped breathing modes with frequency
F共T,V,N兲 = NFf共兲 共132兲
2 共Werner and Castin, 2006兲.
At zero temperature, the ground-state properties of
with F ⬃ n2/3 the bare Fermi energy and = T / TF the
the unitary gas are characterized by a single universal
dimensionless temperature. The function f共兲 is mono-
number 共0兲 = 5f共0兲 / 3, which is sometimes called the
tonically decreasing, because s = −f⬘共兲 is the entropy per
Bertsch parameter 关most experimental papers use 
particle. As shown below, the fact that the ground state
= −1 + 共0兲 instead兴. It is smaller than 1 共i.e.,  ⬍ 0兲, be-
is superfluid implies that f共0兲 − f共兲 vanishes like 4 as the
cause the attractive interaction leads to a reduction of
temperature approaches zero, in contrast to a Fermi gas
the chemical potential at unitarity from its noninteract-
共or liquid兲, where the behavior is ⬃2. Physically, this is
due to the fact that the low-lying excitations are sound ing value 共0兲 = F to = 共0兲F.20 Experimentally, the
modes and not fermionic quasiparticles. By standard most direct way of measuring the universal number 共0兲
thermodynamic relations, the function f determines both is obtained from in situ, absorption imaging of the den-
the dimensionless chemical potential according to sity distribution n共x兲 in a trap. Indeed, within the local-
density approximation Eq. 共12兲, free fermions in an iso-
/F = 关5f共兲 − 2f⬘共兲兴/3 ¬ 共兲 共133兲 tropic trap exhibit a density profile n共x兲 = n共0兲共1 − r2 /
共0兲
兲
2 3/2
RTF with a Thomas-Fermi radius RTF = 共24N兲1/6ᐉ0.
and the pressure via p / nF = / F − f共兲, consistent with Since ⬃ n at unitarity has the same dependence on
2/3
the Gibbs-Duhem relation N = F + pV for a homoge- density as noninteracting fermions, with a prefactor re-
neous system. Moreover, the fact that −f⬘共兲 is the en- duced just by 共0兲 ⬍ 1, the profile at unitarity is that of a
tropy per particle implies that 3pV = 2共F + TS兲. The inter- free Fermi gas with a rescaled size. For a given total
nal energy u per volume is therefore connected with particle number N and mean trap frequency ¯ , the re-
pressure and density by p = 2u / 3, valid at all tempera- sulting Thomas-Fermi radius at zero temperature, is
tures 共Ho, 2004兲. Naively, this appears like the connec- therefore reduced by a factor 1/4共0兲. Ideally, the value
共0兲
tion between pressure and energy density in a noninter- RTF would be measured by sweeping the magnetic field
acting quantum gas. In the present case, however, the to the zero crossing of the scattering length at B = B0
internal energy has a nonvanishing contribution 具Ĥ⬘典 + ⌬B, where an ideal Fermi gas is realized. In practice,
from interactions. A proper way of understanding the e.g., for 6Li, there is appreciable molecule formation
relation p = 2u / 3 is obtained by considering the quantum and subsequent decay processes at this field, and it is
virial theorem 2具Ĥ0典 − k具Ĥ⬘典 = 3pV for a two-body inter- more convenient to ramp the field to values far on the
BCS side, where the thermodynamics is again essentially
action V共xi − xj兲 ⬃ 兩xi − xj兩k, which is a homogeneous func-
that of an ideal Fermi gas. Results for the universal pa-
tion of the interparticle distance. It implies that p
rameter 共0兲 at the lowest attainable temperatures of
= 2u / 3 is valid for an interacting system if k = −2. The
around ⬇ 0.04 have been obtained from in situ mea-
pressure of fermions at unitarity is thus related to the
surements of the density profile by Bartenstein et al.
energy density as if the particles had a purely inverse
square interaction. An important consequence of this is 共2004a兲, with the result 共0兲 = 0.32± 0.1. More recent
the virial theorem 共Thomas et al., 2005兲 measurements by Partridge et al. 共2006兲 find a larger
value, 共0兲 = 0.46± 0.05. Alternatively, the parameter
2006兲. In the latter case, however, an appreciable tem- strength g 共see below兲. For attractive interactions g ⬍ 0,21
perature dependence is found, which makes extrapola- the Hamiltonian 共135兲 was first discussed by Gor’kov
tions to T = 0 difficult. In particular, at finite tempera- and Melik-Barkhudarov 共1961兲. In the weak-coupling re-
ture, the relation between the density distributions at a gime kF兩a兩 Ⰶ 1, where the magnitude of the scattering
= 0 and ⬁ involves the complete function 共兲 because length is much less than the average interparticle spac-
the Fermi temperature continuously decreases as one ing, they showed that a BCS instability to a state with
moves away from the trap center. bound pairs appears at the temperature
On the theoretical side, the ground-state properties of
a resonantly interacting Fermi gas have been obtained Tc = 关8eC/共4e兲1/3e2兴TF exp关− /共2kF兩a兩兲兴 共136兲
numerically by fixed-node Green’s function Monte Carlo
calculations. They provide quantitative results for the 共C = 0.577 is Euler’s constant兲. As expected for a weak-
equation of state 共Carlson et al., 2003; Astrakharchik et coupling BCS instability, the critical temperature van-
ishes with an essential singularity. The absence of an en-
al., 2004兲 at arbitrary values of a, and in particular at
ergy cutoff in the interaction leaves the Fermi
unitarity. The resulting values for 共0兲 are 0.43 共Carlson
temperature as the characteristic scale. For typical den-
et al., 2003兲 or 0.41 共Astrakharchik et al., 2004兲. Recently,
sities and off-resonant scattering lengths in cold gases,
the chemical potential and the gap of the unitary Fermi
the parameter kF兩a兩 ⬇ 0.02 is very small, so Eq. 共136兲 is
gas at zero temperature were calculated analytically
applicable in principle. In practice, however, fermionic
from an effective field theory using an ⑀ = 4 − d expansion
superfluidity in dilute gases, where TF is only of the or-
共Nishida and Son, 2006兲. The possibility of such an ex-
pansion is based on an observation made by Nussinov der of microkelvins, is unobservable unless kF兩a兩 be-
and Nussinov 共2006兲 that a unitary Fermi gas in four comes of order 1. In fact, the range of accessible cou-
pling strengths on the BCS side of the crossover is
dimensions is in fact an ideal Bose gas. Indeed, in d = 4, a
limited by the finite level spacing in the trap or, alterna-
two-particle bound state in a zero-range potential ap-
pears only at infinitely strong attraction. Thus, already at tively, by the trap size R, which must be larger than the
b = 0+, the resulting dimer size vanishes. At finite den- size b ⬇ បvF / kBTc of a Cooper pair 共Tinkham, 1996兲.
sity, therefore, one ends up with a noninteracting BEC, Using the local-density approximation, the condition
similar to the situation as a → 0+ in three dimensions. kBTc ⲏ ប on the BCS side is equivalent to b ⱗ R and
The expansion about the upper critical dimension d = 4 implies particle numbers N ⲏ N쐓 = exp关3 / 共2kF兩a兩兲兴.
may be complemented by an expansion around the Since N쐓 = 105 at kF兩a兩 = 0.4, this shows that with typical
lower critical dimension, which is 2 for the present prob- values for the particle numbers in a trap, the regime
lem 共Nishida and Son, 2007兲. Indeed, for d 艋 2 a bound kF兩a兩 Ⰶ 1 is no longer described by the theory of a locally
state at zero binding energy appears for an arbitrary homogeneous system. Instead, for N ⬍ N쐓 one reaches a
weak attractive interaction, as shown in Sec. V.A. A uni- regime that is similar to that of pairing in nuclei, where
tary Fermi gas in d 艋 2 thus coincides with the noninter- the resulting energy gap obeys ⌬0 Ⰶ ប; see, e.g., Heisel-
acting gas and 共0兲 ⬅ 1 for all d 艋 2 共Nussinov and Nussi- berg and Mottelson 共2002兲.
nov, 2006兲. The d − 2 expansion, however, only captures In the strong-coupling regime kF兩a兩 ⲏ 1 near the uni-
nonsuperfluid properties like the equation of state, while tarity limit, where the critical temperature lies in an ac-
all effects associated with superfluidity are nonperturba- cessible range of order TF itself, no analytical solution of
tive. Using a Borel-Padé method for the three-loop ex- the problem is available. In particular, the singular na-
pansion in ⑀ = 4 − d, the most precise field-theoretical re- ture of the two-particle scattering amplitude f共k兲 = i / k
sult for the Bertsch parameter is 共0兲 = 0.367± 0.009 right at unitarity rules out any perturbative approach. It
共Arnold et al., 2007兲. is only far on the BEC side of the problem that kFa Ⰶ 1
Critical temperature and pseudogap. Within a single- again provides a small parameter. In this regime, the
channel description, a zero-range interaction V共x − x⬘兲 binding energy b is much larger than the Fermi energy
= g0␦共x − x⬘兲 between fermions of opposite spin gives F. At temperatures kBT Ⰶ b, therefore, a purely
rise to an interaction Hamiltonian in momentum space, bosonic description applies for a dilute gas of strongly
bound pairs22 with density n / 2 and a repulsive interac-
tion described by the dimer-dimer scattering length of
g0
Ĥ = 兺 兺 c† c† c−k ,−ck⬘+Q, .
2V k,k ,Q k+Q, −k,− ⬘
共135兲
⬘ 21
Note that the model 共135兲 does not make sense in the re-
gime g ⬎ 0, where it describes repulsive fermions. However,
† with a proper pseudopotential, the two-particle interaction has
Here ck, are fermion creation operators with momen-
tum k and spin and V is the volume of the system. a bound state for positive scattering length. The Hamiltonian
Moreover, k − k⬘ is the momentum transfer due to the 共135兲 then describes fermions along this branch and not in their
continuum states, where the interaction would be repulsive
interaction and Q is the conserved total momentum in 22
Note that the pseudopotential bound state is strongly bound
the two-particle scattering process. The bare coupling in the BEC limit of the crossover only as far as the scales
strength g0 is determined by the s-wave scattering length relevant for the BCS-BEC crossover are concerned, while it is
a after a regularization in which the ␦ potential is a very weakly bound state on the scale of the actual inter-
replaced by the proper pseudopotential with finite atomic potential; see Sec. I.A.
Extended BCS description of the crossover. A simple an ideal BEC of dimers. In fact, antisymmetrization be-
approximation, which covers the complete range of cou- comes irrelevant in the limit where the occupation vk2 of
pling strengths analytically, is obtained by assuming that, all fermion states is much less than 1.24 The BCS wave
at least for the ground state, only zero-momentum pairs function has the gap ⌬ as a single variational parameter,
are relevant. In the subspace of states with only zero- which appears in the fermion momentum distribution
momentum pairs, all contributions in Eq. 共135兲 with Q
⫽ 0 vanish. The resulting Hamiltonian vk2 = 2 关1 − 共k − 兲/冑共k − 兲2 + ⌬2兴.
1
共140兲
g
⬘ = 0 兺 兺 ck,
ĤBCS † †
c−k,−c−k⬘,−ck⬘, 共137兲 With increasing strength of the attractive interaction,
2V k,k
⬘ this evolves continuously from a slightly smeared Fermi
thus involves only two momentum sums. Equation 共137兲 distribution to a rather broad distribution vk2 → ⌬2 / 4共k
is in fact the reduced BCS Hamiltonian, which is a stan- − 兲2 ⬃ 关1 + 共kb兲2兴−2 in the BEC limit, where the chemi-
dard model Hamiltonian to describe the phenomenon of cal potential is large and negative 共see below兲. Its width
superconductivity. It is usually solved by a variational b−1 increases as the pair size b = ប / 冑2M 兩 兩 approaches
ansatz zero. Experimentally the fermionic momentum distribu-
tion near the Feshbach resonance has been determined
⌿BCS共1,2, . . . ,N兲 = Â关共1,2兲共3,4兲 ¯ 共N − 1,N兲兴 from time-of-flight measurements by Regal et al. 共2005兲.
共138兲 Accounting for the additional smearing due to the trap,
the results are in good agreement with Monte Carlo cal-
in which an identical two-particle state 共1 , 2兲 is as- culations of the momentum distribution for the model
sumed for each pair. Here the arguments 1 = 共x1 , 1兲, etc., 共135兲 共Astrakharchik et al., 2005b兲. Analysis of the dis-
denote position and spin, Â is the operator that antisym- tribution at finite temperature allows determination of
metrizes the many-body wave function, and we have as- the decrease of the average fermionic excitation gap
sumed an even number of fermions for simplicity. The with temperature 共Chen et al., 2006b兲.
wave function 共138兲 is a simple example of a so-called Within the extended BCS description, the magnitude
Pfaffian state 共see Sec. VII.C兲 with 共N − 1兲!! terms, which of ⌬ is determined by the standard gap equation
is the square root of the determinant of the completely
antisymmetric N ⫻ N matrix 共i , j兲. In second quantiza- 1 1 1
tion, it can be written in the form 兩⌿BCS共1 , 2 , . . . , N兲典 − = 兺 冑
g0 2V k 共k − 兲2 + ⌬2
, 共141兲
= 共b̂†0兲N/2兩0典 of a Gross-Pitaevskii-like state. The operator
b̂†0 = 兺kkck,↑ where Ek = 冑共k − 兲2 + ⌬2 is the BCS quasiparticle en-
† †
c−k,↓ creates a pair with zero total momen-
tum, with k = V−1/2 兰 共x兲exp共−ik · x兲 the Fourier trans- ergy. In conventional superconductors, the momentum
form of the spatial part of the two-particle wave function sum in Eq. 共141兲 is restricted to a thin shell around the
共1 , 2兲 in Eq. 共138兲. It is important to note, however, that Fermi energy and the solution ⌬ ⬃ exp关−1 / 兩g0 兩 N共0兲兴 for
b̂†0 is not a Bose operator. It develops this character only g0 ⬍ 0 depends only on the density of states per spin
in the limit where the two-particle wave function 共1 , 2兲 N共0兲 in the normal state right at the Fermi energy. In
has a size much smaller than the interparticle spacing cold gases, however, there is no such cutoff as long as
共see below兲. To avoid the difficult task of working with a F Ⰶ 쐓. Moreover, the true dimensionless coupling con-
fixed particle number, it is standard practice to use a stant N共0兲 兩 g 兩 = 2kF 兩 a 兩 / is far from small, approaching
coherent state infinity at the Feshbach resonance. The pairing interac-
tion thus affects fermions deep in the Fermi sea and
兩BCS典 = CBCS exp共␣b̂†0兲兩0典 = 兿 共uk + vkck,↑
† †
c−k,↓ 兲兩0典. eventually completely melts the Fermi sphere. Within
k the pseudopotential approximation, the apparent diver-
共139兲 gence in Eq. 共141兲 can be regularized by the replacement
1 / g0 → 1 / g − 共1 / 2V兲兺k共1 / k兲. Physically, this amounts to
Since 具b̂†0b̂0典 = 兩兺kkukvk兩2 = 兩␣兩2 = N / 2 by the number integrating out the high-energy contributions in Eq.
equation 共see below兲, this state is characterized by a 共141兲, where the spectrum is unaffected by the pairing. A
macroscopic occupation of a single state, which is a general procedure for doing this, including the case of
bound fermion pair with zero total momentum. strong pairing in nonzero-angular-momentum states, has
The amplitudes uk , vk are connected to the two- been given by Randeria et al. 共1990兲. Converting the sum
particle wave function via vk / uk = ␣k. Since uk2 or vk2 are over k to an integral over the free-particle density of
the probabilities of a pair k ↑ , −k↓ being empty or occu- states, the renormalized gap equation at zero tempera-
pied, they obey the normalization uk2 + vk2 = 1. The overall ture can then be written in the form
normalization constant CBCS = exp关− 21 兺k ln共1 + 兩␣k兩2兲兴
→ exp共−兩␣兩2 / 2兲 approaches the standard result of a co- 24
Note that the wave function 共138兲 still contains 共N − 1兲!!
herent state of bosons in the strong-coupling limit,
terms even in the BEC limit. In practice, however, only a single
where 兩␣k兩2 ⬇ vk2 Ⰶ 1 for all k. In this limit, b̂†0 is indeed a term is relevant, unless one is probing correlations between
Bose operator and the wave function Eq. 共138兲 is that of fermions in different pairs.
⬘ =
ĤBCS
g0
兺
2V
冕冕x x⬘
ˆ † 共x兲ˆ −† 共x兲ˆ −共x⬘兲ˆ 共x⬘兲. 共145兲
crossover. As discussed in Sec. III.B, such measurements
provide information about the second-order correlation
function in momentum space
The associated nonstandard 共note the order of x and x⬘兲 G↑↓共k1,k2兲 = 具n̂↑共k1兲n̂↓共k2兲典 − 具n̂↑共k1兲典具n̂↓共k2兲典. 共146兲
“interaction” VBCS共x − x⬘兲 = g0 / V has infinite range, but is
The momenta k1,2 = Mx1,2 / បt are related to the positions
scaled with 1 / V to give a proper thermodynamic limit. It
is well known that models of this type are exactly x1,2 at which the correlations are determined after a
soluble and that their phase transitions are described by free-flight expansion for time t. While the formation of
mean-field theory. Moreover, while Eq. 共145兲 is invariant bound states shows up as a peak at k1 = −k2 as observed
under a global gauge transformation 共x兲 → ei共x兲 by Greiner et al. 共2005兲 in a molecular gas above con-
共particle number is conserved兲, this is no longer the case densation, the presence of pairs with nonzero momenta
if 共x兲 varies spatially. In the exactly soluble reduced gives rise to an additional contribution proportional to
BCS model, therefore, the change in energy associated 1 / 兩k1 + k2兩. This reflects the depletion of the condensate
with a slowly varying phase does not vanish like due to bosons at finite momentum as found in the Bo-
goliubov theory of an interacting Bose gas.
关ⵜ共x兲兴2, as it should for a superfluid 共see the Appen-
Crossover thermodynamics. As pointed out above, a
dix兲. Omission of pairs with finite momentum thus elimi-
complete description of the BCS-BEC crossover in-
nates the well-known Bogoliubov-Anderson mode
volves both bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom.
共q兲 = cq of a neutral superfluid 共Anderson, 1958b兲. A
Since the fermionic spectrum has a gap, only the bosonic
proper description of the crossover problem in a neutral
Bogoliubov-Anderson mode is relevant at low tempera-
system like a cold gas requires one to account for both
tures 共Liu, 2006兲. Similar to the situation in superfluid
the bosonic and fermionic excitations. By contrast, for 4
charged superconductors, the Bogoliubov-Anderson He, these sound modes determine the low-temperature
mode is pushed up to a high-frequency plasmon mode, thermodynamics along the full BCS-BEC crossover.
which is irrelevant for the description of superconductiv- They give rise to an entropy
ity. A reduced BCS model, in which they are omitted S共T兲 = V共22/45兲kB共kBT/បc兲3 + ¯ , 共147兲
anyway, is thus appropriate.
The absence of the collective Bogoliubov-Anderson which vanishes like T3 for arbitrary coupling strength.
mode implies that already the leading corrections to the The associated sound velocity c at zero temperature fol-
ground state in powers of kF 兩 a兩 are incorrect in a re- lows from the ground-state pressure or the chemical
duced BCS description. For weak interactions, one potential via the thermodynamic relation Mc2 = p / n
misses the Gorkov–Melik-Barkhudarov reduction of the = n / n. It was shown by Engelbrecht et al. 共1997兲
gap. Indeed, as shown by Heiselberg et al. 共2000兲, density that the sound velocity decreases monotonically from
fluctuations give rise to a screening of the attractive in- c = vF / 冑3 to zero on the BEC side. There, to lowest or-
teraction at finite density, changing the dimensionless der in kFa, it is given by the Gross-Pitaevskii result
coupling constant of the two-particle problem to geff = g 共c / vF兲2 = kFadd / 6 for the sound velocity of a dilute gas
FIG. 33. 共Color online兲 Condensate fraction as a function of FIG. 34. Normalized frequency r / ⬜ of the radial compres-
magnetic field and temperature. The highest condensate frac- sion mode as a function of dimensionless interaction param-
tions and onset temperatures are obtained on the BEC side, eter 1 / kFa on the BEC side of the crossover. The experimental
close to the resonance at B0 = 834 G. As a measure of tempera- data agree well with Monte Carlo calculations of the equation
ture, the condensate fraction at 820 G 共see arrow兲 is used as of state 共thick solid line兲 and the exact value 冑10/ 3 = 1.826 at
the vertical axis. From Zwierlein et al., 2004. unitarity. The BEC limit r / ⬜ = 2 is approached from above
due to the positive correction of the ground-state chemical po-
tential beyond the mean field, predicted by Lee, Huang, and
rium values n0 / n ⬇ 0.5 at unitarity. Apart from uncer- Yang. The thin monotonic line is the result of an extended
tainties inherent in the rapid transfer technique, a pos- BCS mean-field theory. From Altmeyer et al., 2007.
sible origin of this discrepancy may be the rather short
lifetime of 40K dimers near resonance, on the order of In particular, the radial compression mode frequency r
is r = 冑10/ 3⬜ in the BCS limit and at unitarity, while it
100 ms. Yet the qualitative features of the phase dia-
gram agree with an analysis based on an equilibrium
approaches r = 2⬜ in the BEC limit, where ␥ = 1. These
theory 共Chen et al., 2006a兲. For 6Li, in turn, the conden-
predictions were confirmed experimentally by Barten-
sate fractions determined via the rapid transfer tech-
stein et al. 共2004b兲 and by Kinast et al. 共2004兲, providing
nique turned out to be much larger, with a maximum
direct evidence for superfluid hydrodynamics. The fact
value 0.8 at B ⬇ 820 G, on the BEC side of the reso- that the chemical potential Eq. 共9兲 of a dilute repulsive
nance 共Zwierlein et al., 2004兲 共see Fig. 33兲. The observa-
Bose gas is larger than its mean-field limit Bose ⬃ n im-
tion 共Zwierlein et al., 2004兲 that the condensate fraction
plies ␥ ⬎ 1, i.e., the BEC limit is reached from above.
decreases to zero on the BEC side 共see Fig. 33兲 instead
The expected nonmonotonic behavior of r as a func-
of approaching 1 is probably caused by fast vibrational
tion of 1 / kFa has been observed by Altmeyer et al.
relaxation into deeply bound states further away from
共2007兲. It provides the first quantitative test of the Lee-
the resonance.
Huang-Yang correction to the chemical potential Eq. 共9兲
Collective modes. Collective modes in a harmonic trap
of a dilute repulsive Bose gas 共of dimers兲 共see Fig. 34兲.
have been a major tool for studying cold gases in the
The issue of damping of the collective modes in the
BEC regime, where the dynamics is determined by su-
BCS-BEC crossover has raised a number of questions,
perfluid hydrodynamics. For a mixture of fermions with
which are connected with recent developments in QCD
an adjustable attractive interaction, the corresponding
and field theory. As pointed out by Gelman et al. 共2004兲,
eigenfrequencies have been worked out by Heiselberg
not only the thermodynamics but also dynamical prop-
共2004兲 and by Stringari 共2004兲. For a highly elongated
erties like the kinetic coefficients are described by uni-
trap, where the axial trap frequency z is much smaller
versal scaling functions at the unitarity point. An ex-
than the radial confinement frequency ⬜, two impor-
ample is the shear viscosity , which determines the
tant eigenmodes are the axial and radial compression
damping of sound and collective oscillations in trapped
modes, with respective frequencies 共Heiselberg, 2004;
gases. At unitarity, its dependence on density n and
Stringari, 2004兲
temperature T is fixed by dimensional arguments to
B = z冑3 − 1/共␥ + 1兲 and r = ⬜冑2共␥ + 1兲. = បn␣共T / 兲, where is the chemical potential and
共148兲 ␣共x兲 is a dimensionless universal function. At zero tem-
perature, in particular, 共T = 0兲 = ␣បn is linear in the
They are determined by the effective polytropic index density, which defines a quantum viscosity coefficient ␣.
␥ = d ln p / d ln n − 1 and thus give information about the From a simple fluctuation-dissipation-type argument in
equation of state p共n兲 through the crossover. Since ␥ the normal phase, a lower bound ␣ 艌 1 / 6 was derived
= 2 / 3 exactly for the unitary Fermi gas, one obtains uni- by Gelman et al. 共2004兲. Assuming that a hydrodynamic
versal numbers for these frequencies precisely at the description applies, the effective shear viscosity can be
Feshbach resonance, as pointed out by Stringari 共2004兲. inferred from the damping rate of the collective modes.
of the superfluid order parameter 共Kinnunen et al., 2004; Magnetic Field [G]
He et al., 2005兲 or the gap ⌬. 730 833 935
The models discussed above rely on the assumption
that interactions with the final state 兩3典 are negligible.
When this is not the case, the results can change signifi-
cantly. For instance, when the interaction constants g⬘
between the states 兩 = 1 , 2 , 3典 which are involved are
identical, neither mean-field 共“clock”兲 shifts nor the ef-
fects of pairing show up in the long-wavelength rf spec-
trum 共Yu and Baym, 2006兲. A theory for the average 1.6 0 -0.7
frequency shift of the rf spectra of homogeneous gases BEC Interaction parameter 1/kF a BCS
at zero temperature, which takes into account both
many-body correlations and the interactions with the fi- FIG. 36. Vortex lattice in a rotating gas of 6Li precisely at the
nal state 兩3典, was given by Baym et al. 共2007兲 and Punk Feshbach resonance and on the BEC and BCS side. From Zwi-
and Zwerger 共2007兲. Near T = 0, where only a single peak erlein et al., 2005.
is observed in the rf spectrum, its position can be deter-
mined from a sum-rule approach. Introducing the detun-
ing = L − 23 of the rf field from the bare 兩2典-兩3典 tran- sured by Shin et al. 共2007兲, the predicted average shift in
sition, the average clock shift the case of 6Li is almost twice the observed peak posi-
tion. This is probably due to the fact that ¯ has a con-
ប
¯= 冉 1
− 冊
1 1 共− u兲
g12 g13 n2 g12
−1 共149兲
siderable contribution from the higher-frequency part of
the spectrum. An unexpected prediction of Eq. 共149兲 is
the linear dependence of the shift on the Fermi wave
can be expressed in terms of the derivative of the vector kF at unitarity. Experimentally, this might be dis-
ground-state energy density u with respect to the inverse tinguished from the naive scaling proportional to F by
of the renormalized coupling constant g12 = 4ប2a12 / M spatially resolved rf spectra 共Shin et al., 2007兲.
共Baym et al., 2007兲. The expression is finite for all cou- Vortices. As noted above, the appearance of shifts in
the rf spectrum is not a proof of superfluidity. Indeed,
pling strengths g12 and evolves smoothly from the BCS
to the BEC limit. In particular, the average clock shift pairing effects appear in the normal state above Tc as a
precursor to superfluidity, or may be present even at
vanishes if g12 = g13 共Zwierlein et al., 2003a兲. This is di-
zero temperature in unbalanced Fermi gases above the
rectly connected with the result mentioned above, be-
Clogston-Chandrasekhar limit, as observed by Schunck
cause the interaction between states 兩2典 and 兩3典 drops out
et al. 共2007兲. Beyond the evidence for superfluidity from
for the average shift ¯ . For negligible populations of the
the collective mode frequencies 共Bartenstein et al.,
state 兩3典, 共−u兲 / g12
−1
= ប4C / M2 can be expressed in terms 2004b; Kinast et al., 2004兲 a crucial step which verifies
of the constant C, which characterizes the asymptotic the existence of a fermionic superfluid, was the observa-
behavior lim nk = C / k4 of the momentum distribution at tion of triangular vortex lattices in rotating Fermi gases
large momenta of the crossover problem in the 兩1典-兩2典 near unitarity by Zwierlein et al. 共2005兲 共see Fig. 36兲.
channel 共Punk and Zwerger, 2007兲. Within an extended Vortex lattices require conservation of vorticity, which is
BCS description of the ground-state wave function, the a consequence of superfluid hydrodynamics. The regu-
constant ប4CBCS / M2 ⬅ ⌬2 is precisely the square of the larity of the lattice shows that all vortices have the same
gap parameter. In the BCS limit, Eq. 共149兲 thus repro- vorticity. Since it is a superfluid of fermionic pairs, the
duces the weak-coupling result obtained by Yu and expected circulation per vortex is h / 2M. This is indeed
Baym 共2006兲. In the BEC limit, where the BCS ground the value found from equating the total circulation at a
state becomes exact again, the asymptotic behavior given stirring frequency with the number of vortices and
⌬BEC = 4F / 冑3kFa12 gives ប ¯ = 2b共1 − a12 / a13兲, with b the transverse area of the cloud.
= ប / Ma12 the two-particle binding energy. This agrees
2 2
multiply reflected waves. Qualitatively, this happens be- Š共⑀R − 具⑀R典兲共⑀R⬘ − 具⑀R⬘典兲‹ = ⌬␦R,R⬘ , 共152兲
low a “mobility edge,” where the mean free path ᐉ 共cal-
culated, e.g., in a Born approximation treatment of the where ⌬ is a measure of the strength of the disorder. It
scattering by the disorder potential兲 becomes smaller has been shown by Fisher et al. 共1989兲 that, even at weak
than the wavelength . This so-called Ioffe-Regel crite- disorder ⌬ ⬍ U / 2, a novel so-called Bose glass phase ap-
rion applies in a 3D situation with short-range disorder pears, which separates the SF and MI states.27 At strong
and in the absence of interactions.26 In the interacting disorder ⌬ ⬎ U / 2, the MI states are destroyed com-
case, in which localization due to both disorder 共Ander- pletely. The Bose glass is characterized by a vanishing
son兲 and interactions 共Mott兲 is possible, the problem is superfluid and condensate density. It will thus show no
still not well understood 关see, e.g., Belitz and Kirk- sharp interference peaks in a time-of-flight experiment
after release from an optical lattice 共see Sec. IV.B兲. In
patrick 共1994兲 and Basko et al. 共2006兲兴. Cold atoms thus
contrast to the MI phase, the Bose glass has both a finite
provide a novel tool to investigate the localization prob-
compressibility 共i.e., there is no shell structure in a trap兲
lem, in particular since interactions are tunable over a
and a continuous excitation spectrum.
wide range. A concrete proposal for studying localization effects
For noninteracting bosons, the ground state in the with cold atoms was made by Damski et al. 共2003兲, who
presence of disorder is obtained by putting all particles suggested using laser speckle patterns as a means to re-
in the lowest single-particle level of the random poten- alize frozen disorder. Such patterns have been employed
tial. On adding weak repulsive interactions, a finite num- by groups in Florence 共Lye et al., 2005兲 and Orsay 共Clé-
ber of localized states in the so-called Lifschitz tails of ment et al., 2005兲. They are produced by a laser beam
the single-particle spectrum 共Lifschitz et al., 1988兲 will be that is scattered from a ground glass diffuser 共Clément et
occupied. As long as the chemical potential is in this al., 2006兲. The speckle pattern has a random intensity I,
low-energy range, these states have negligible spatial which is exponentially distributed P共I兲 ⬃ exp共−I / 具I典兲.
overlap. For very low densities, repulsive bosons are The rms intensity fluctuation I is thus equal to the av-
therefore expected to form a “Lifshitz glass” of frag- erage intensity 具I典. Fluctuations in the intensity give rise
mented, local condensates 共Lugan et al., 2007兲. With in- to a random value of the optical dipole potential in Eq.
creasing densities, these local condensates will be 共31兲, which is experienced by the atoms. An important
coupled by Josephson tunneling and eventually form a parameter characterizing the speckle pattern is the spa-
superfluid, where coherence is established over the tial correlation length R, which is the scale over which
whole sample. A quantitative analysis of this transition 具I共x兲I共0兲典 decays to 具I典2. When the optical setup is dif-
was first given by Giamarchi and Schulz 共1988兲 in the fraction limited, the smallest achievable R’s can take
particular case of one dimension. Using a quantum hy- values down to 1 m 共Clément et al., 2006兲, which is
drodynamic Luttinger-liquid description, they found that comparable to typical healing lengths in dilute gases.
weak interaction tends to suppress the effect of Ander- Reaching this limit is important, since smooth disorder
son localization. This effect also appears for a commen- potentials with R Ⰷ are not suitable to study Anderson
surate filling in an optical lattice; see Rapsch et al. localization in expanding BEC’s. Indeed, the typical
共1999兲. Specifically, weak disorder does not destroy the range of momenta after expansion reaches up to kmax
superfluid, provided the Luttinger exponent K intro- ⬇ 1 / . For R Ⰷ , therefore, the spectral range of the
duced in Sec. V.B is larger than 3 / 2. Within the Lieb- disorder is much smaller than the momenta of matter
Liniger model with an effective coupling constant ␥ de- waves. Even speckle patterns with long correlation
fined in Eq. 共88兲, this requires ␥ ⱗ 8. In the opposite lengths, however, can lead to a strong suppression of the
axial expansion of an elongated BEC. This was observed
regime K ⬍ 3 / 2 of low densities or strong interactions
experimentally by Clément et al. 共2005兲, Fort et al.
near the Tonks-Girardeau limit, even weak disorder de-
共2005兲, and Schulte et al. 共2005兲. The effect is not due to
stroys the superfluid. The ground state then lacks long-
Anderson localization, however. Instead, it is caused by
range phase coherence, consistent with the Lifshitz glass
classical total reflection, because during expansion the
discussed above. Exact results for the momentum distri- density and chemical potential of the gas decrease.
bution and the local density of states have been obtained Eventually, therefore, matter waves have energies below
by DeMartino et al. 共2005兲 in the special limit of the the typical disorder potentials and the gas undergoes
Tonks-Girardeau gas, where the problem is equivalent fragmentation. A suggestion for realizing Anderson lo-
to noninteracting fermions 共see Sec. V.B兲. Interacting calization of noninteracting particles in 1D has recently
bosons in higher dimensions were studied by Fisher et al. been made by Sanchez-Palencia et al. 共2007兲. It is based
共1989兲 using the Bose-Hubbard model Eq. 共65兲. To ac- on a 1D BEC, which after expansion is transformed into
count for disorder, the on-site energies ⑀R are assumed a distribution of free matter waves with momenta up to
to have a random component, with zero average and 1 / . For short-range disorder with R ⬍ , these waves
finite variance will all be localized, even for quite weak disorder.
26 27
In 1D and 2D, arbitrary weak disorder leads to localization, The Lifshitz glass may be thought of as the low-density or
i.e., even waves with Ⰶ ᐉ are localized. strong-disorder limit of the Bose glass.
A rather direct approach to study the interplay be- evolve into a state in which at least one- and two-
tween disorder and strong interactions makes use of particle correlations are stationary and the information
bichromatic optical lattices 共Fallani et al., 2007兲. Such about the precise initial conditions is hidden in some—in
lattices provide a pseudorandom potential if the lattice practice unobservable—high-order correlations. The
periods are incommensurate. On adding the incommen- nonequilibrium dynamics for the integrable case of
surate lattice in the superfluid state, strong suppression bosons in 1D was addressed recently by Rigol et al.
of the interference pattern is found. Starting from a MI 共2007兲. Taking as a model a Tonks-Girardeau gas on a
phase, the sharp excitation spectrum is smeared out with lattice, they showed numerically that the momentum
increasing amplitude of the incommensurate lattice. distribution at large times is well described by that of an
Both observations are consistent with the presence of a equilibrium state with a density matrix of the form ˆ
Bose glass phase for a strong incommensurate lattice
⬃ exp共−兺mmÂm兲. Here Âm denote the full set of con-
potential 共Fallani et al., 2007兲. A different method for
served quantities, which are known explicitly for the
realizing short-range disorder in cold gases was sug-
Tonks-Girardeau gas because it is equivalent to free fer-
gested by Gavish and Castin 共2005兲. It employs a two-
mions. The Lagrange multipliers m are fixed by the ini-
species mixture of atoms in an optical lattice. Because of
a finite interspecies scattering length, the component tial conditions of given expectation values 具Âm典 at t = 0.
that is free to move around in the lattice experiences an This is the standard procedure in statistical physics,
on-site random potential of the type 共152兲, provided at- where equilibrium is described microscopically as a state
oms of the different species or spin state are frozen at of maximum entropy consistent with the given “macro-
random sites. The interplay between disorder and inter- scopic” data 具Âm典 共Balian, 1991兲. In particular, an ini-
actions is, of course, also an intriguing problem for fer- tially double-peaked momentum distribution is pre-
mions. A quantitative phase diagram for short-range dis- served in the stationary state described by the maximum
order plus repulsive interactions has been determined by entropy density operator ˆ 共Rigol et al., 2007兲. The hy-
Byczuk et al. 共2005兲. So far, however, no experiments pothesis that the absence of momentum relaxation is re-
have been done in this direction. lated to the integrability of the 1D Bose gas could be
tested by going to higher momenta k, where the 1D scat-
C. Nonequilibrium dynamics tering amplitude is no longer given by the low-energy
form of Eq. 共85兲. For such a case, the pseudopotential
A unique feature of many-body physics with cold at- approximation breaks down and three-body collisions or
oms is the possibility to modify both the interactions and longer-ranged interactions can become relevant. For the
external potentials dynamically. In the context of the extreme case of two free 3D colliding BECs, equilibra-
SF-MI transition, this has been discussed in Sec. IV.C. tion has indeed been observed to set in after a few col-
Below, we give an outline of recent developments in this lisions 共Kinoshita et al., 2006兲.
area. In nonintegrable systems like the 1D Bose-Hubbard
The basic question about the efficiency of collisions in model, where no conserved quantities exist beyond the
establishing a new equilibrium from an initial out-of- energy, the standard reasoning of statistical physics gives
equilibrium state was adressed by Kinoshita et al. 共2006兲 rise to a microcanonical density operator, whose equiva-
for Bose gases in one dimension. An array of several lent “temperature” is set by the energy of the initial
thousand 1D tubes created by a strong 2D optical lattice
state.28 Note that the microstate exp共−iĤt / ប兲兩共0兲典,
共see Sec. V.B兲 was subject to a pulsed optical lattice
which evolves from the initial state by the unitary time
along the axial direction. The zero-momentum state is
evolution of a closed system, remains time dependent.
depleted and essentially all atoms are transferred to mo-
Its statistical 共von Neumann兲 entropy vanishes. By con-
menta ±2បk, where k is the wave vector of the pulsed
trast, the microcanonical density operator describes a
axial optical lattice. The two wave packets in each tube
stationary situation, with a nonzero thermodynamic en-
separate and then recollide again after a time / 0,
tropy. It is determined by the number of energy eigen-
which is half the oscillation period in the harmonic axial
states near the exact initial energy that are accessible in
trap with frequency 0. The associated collision energy
an energy range much smaller than the microscopic
共2បk兲2 / M was around 0.45ប⬜, i.e., much smaller than scale set by the one-or two-body terms in the Hamil-
the minimum energy 2ប⬜ necessary to excite higher tonian but much larger that the inverse of the recurrence
transverse modes. The system thus remains strictly 1D time. For 1D problems, the hypothesis that simple mac-
during its time evolution. It was found that, even after roscopic observables are eventually well described by
several hundred oscillation periods, the initial nonequi- such a stationary density operator can be tested quanti-
librium momentum distribution was preserved. tatively using the adaptive time-dependent density-
This striking observation raises a number of ques- matrix renormalization group 共Daley et al., 2004; White
tions. Specifically, is the absence of a broadening of the and Feiguin, 2004兲. In the case of the 1D BHM, an
momentum distribution connected with the integrability
of the 1D Bose gas? More generally, one can ask
whether, and under what conditions, the unitary time 28
In the semiclassical limit, this eigenstate thermalization hy-
evolution of a nonequilibrium initial state in a strongly pothesis can be derived under relatively weak assumptions, see
interacting but nonintegrable quantum system will Srednicki 共1994兲.
effectively “thermal” stationary state arises for long time APPENDIX: BEC AND SUPERFLUIDITY
dynamics after a quench from the SF to the MI 共Kollath
et al., 2007兲 共see Sec. IV.C兲. Apparently, however, the Following the early suggestion of London that super-
description by a stationary thermal density operator is fluidity 共SF兲 in 4He has its origin in Bose-Einstein con-
valid only for not too large values of the final repulsion densation 共BEC兲, the relation between both phenomena
U f. has been a subject of considerable debate. In the follow-
A different aspect of the nonequilibrium dynamics of ing, we outline their basic definitions and show that SF is
1D Bose gases was studied by Hofferberth et al. 共2007兲. the more general phenomenon, which is both necessary
A single 1D condensate formed in a magnetic microtrap and sufficient for the existence of either standard BEC
on an atom chip 共Folman et al., 2002兲 is split into two or of quasicondensates in low-dimensional systems. For
parts by applying rf potentials 共Schumm et al., 2005兲 The a further discussion of the connections between BEC
splitting process is done in a phase-coherent manner, and superfluidity, see Leggett 共2006兲.
such that at time t = 0 the two condensates have a van- The definition of BEC in an interacting system of
ishing relative phase. They are kept in a double-well po- bosons is based on the properties of the one-particle
tential for a time t and then released from the trap. As density matrix ˆ 1, which is defined by its matrix elements
discussed in Sec. III.C, the resulting interfence pattern
provides information about the statistics of the interfer- G共1兲共x,x⬘兲 = 具x⬘兩ˆ 1兩x典 = 具ˆ †共x兲ˆ 共x⬘兲典 共A1兲
ence amplitude. In the nonequilibrium situation dis- in position space.29 As a Hermitian operator with Tr ˆ 1
cussed here, the relevant observable analogous to Eq.
= 兰n共x兲 = N, ˆ 1 has a complete set 兩n典 of eigenstates with
共62兲 is the operator exp关iˆ 共z , t兲兴 integrated along the positive eigenvalues n共1兲 which sum up to N. As realized
axial z direction of the two condensates. Here ˆ 共z , t兲 is by Penrose and Onsager 共1956兲, the criterion for BEC is
the time-dependent phase difference between the two that there is precisely one eigenvalue 共1兲 0 = N0 of order
independently fluctuating condensates. Using the quan- N while all other eigenvalues are nonextensive.30 The
tum hydrodynamic Hamiltonian Eq. 共91兲, it has been separation between extensive and nonextensive eigen-
shown by Burkov et al. 共2007兲 that the expectation value values n共1兲 is well defined only in the thermodynamic
of this operator decays subexponentially for large times limit N → ⬁. In practice, however, the distinction be-
t Ⰷ ប / kBT where phase fluctuations can be described tween the BEC and the normal phase above Tc is rather
classically. This behavior is in good agreement with ex- sharp even for the typical particle numbers N
periments 共Hofferberth et al., 2007兲. In particular, it al- ⬇ 104 – 107 of cold atoms in a trap. This is true in spite of
lows one to determine the temperature of the 1D gas the fact that the nonextensive eigenvalues are still rather
precisely. large 共see below兲. The macroscopic eigenvalue N0 deter-
The dynamics of the superfluid gap parameter in mines the number of particles in the condensate. In
attractive Fermi gases after a sudden change of the terms of the single-particle eigenfunctions n共x兲 = 具x 兩 n典
coupling constant was investigated by Barankov et al.
associated with the eigenstates 兩n典 of ˆ 1, the existence
共2004兲, Barankov and Levitov 共2006兲, and Yuzbashyan et
of a condensate is equivalent to a macroscopic occupa-
al. 共2006兲 using the exactly integrable BCS Hamiltonian.
Such changes in the coupling constant are experimen- tion of a single state created by the operator b̂†0
tally feasible by simply changing the magnetic field in a = 兰 共x兲ˆ †共x兲. In a translation invariant situation, the
0
Feshbach resonance. Depending on the initial condi- eigenfunctions are plane waves. The eigenvalues k共1兲
tions, different regimes have been found where the gap
then coincide with the occupation numbers 具b̂k† b̂k典 in
parameter may oscillate without damping, approaches
momentum space. In the thermodynamic limit N , V
an “equilibrium” value different from that associated
→ ⬁ at constant density n, the one-particle density ma-
with the coupling constant after the quench, or decays to
trix
zero monotonically if the coupling constant is reduced to
very small values.
具x⬘兩ˆ 1兩x典 = n0 + 冕
k
ñ共k兲e−ik·共x−x⬘兲 → n0 共A2兲
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
approaches a finite value n0 = lim N0 / V as r = 兩x − x⬘兩 → ⬁.
Over the past several years, a great number of people This property is called off-diagonal long-range order
have contributed to our understanding of many-body 共ODLRO兲. Physically, the existence of ODLRO implies
phenomena in cold gases, too numerous to be listed in- that the states in which a boson is removed from an
dividually. In particular, however, we acknowledge E.
Demler, F. Gerbier, Z. Hadzibabic, N. Nygaard, A. Polk- 29
In an inhomogeneous situation, it is convenient to define
ovnikov, D. Petrov, C. Salomon, R. Seiringer, and M. a reduced one-particle density matrix g共1兲 by G共1兲共x , x⬘兲
Zwierlein for valuable comments. Laboratoire Kastler = 冑n共x兲n共x⬘兲g共1兲共x , x⬘兲.
Brossel is a research unit of Ecole Normale Supérieure, 30
In principle, it is also possible that more than one eigen-
Universite Pierre et Marie Curie and CNRS. I.B. and value is extensive. This leads to so-called fragmented BEC’s
J.D. would like to thank the EU IP-Network SCALA which may appear, e.g., in multicomponent spinor condensates
for support. as shown by Ho 共1998兲.
N-particle system at positions x and x⬘ have a finite over- tems. The basic idea of how to define superfluidity in
lap even in the limit when the separation between two general terms goes back to Fisher et al. 共1973兲 and Leg-
points is taken to infinity.31 For cold gases, the presence gett 共1973兲. It is based on considering the sensitivity of
of ODLRO below Tc, at least over a scale of the order the many-body wave function with respect to a change
of micrometers, was observed experimentally by mea- in the boundary condition 共bc兲. Specifically, consider N
suring the decay of the interference contrast between bosons in a volume V = L3 and choose boundary condi-
atomic beams outcoupled from two points at a distance r tions where the many-body wave function
from a BEC in a trap 共Bloch et al., 2000兲. The momen- ⌿⌰共x1,x2, . . . ,xi, . . . ,xN兲 共A3兲
tum distribution ñ共k兲 of noncondensate particles is sin-
gular at small momenta. In the limit k → 0, it behaves is multiplied by a pure phase factor ei⌰ if xi → xi + Le for
like ñ共k兲 ⬃ c / k at zero and ñ共k兲 ⬃ T / k2 at finite tempera- all i = 1 , . . . , N and with e a unit vector in one of the
ture, respectively 共Lifshitz and Pitaevskii, 1980兲. Since directions.32 The dependence of the many-body energy
kmin ⬃ N−1/3 in a finite system, the lowest nonextensive eigenvalues En共⌰兲 on ⌰ leads to a phase-dependent
eigenvalues of the one-particle density matrix are still equilibrium free energy F共⌰兲. The difference ⌬F共⌰兲
very large, scaling like n共1兲 ⬃ N1/3 at zero and n共1兲 ⬃ N2/3 = F共⌰兲 − F共⌰ = 0兲 is thus a measure for the sensitivity of
at finite temperature. the many-body system in a thermal equilibrium state to
The definition of BEC via the existence of ODLRO a change in the bc’s. Since the eigenstates of a time re-
共A2兲 is closely related with Feynman’s intuitive picture versal invariant Hamiltonian can always be chosen real,
of Bose-Einstein condensation as a transition, below the energies En共⌰兲 and the resulting ⌬F共⌰兲 must be
which bosons are involved in exchange cycles of infinite even in ⌰. For small deviations ⌰ Ⰶ 1 from periodic bc’s,
size 共Feynman, 1953兲. In fact, a precise connection exists the expected leading behavior is therefore quadratic.
with the superfluid density defined in Eq. 共A4兲 below, The superfluid density ns共T兲 is then defined by the free-
which can be expressed in terms of the square of the energy difference per volume,
winding number in a Feynman path representation of ⌬F共⌰兲/V = 共ប2/2M兲ns共T兲共⌰/L兲2 + ¯ , 共A4兲
the equilibrium density matrix 共Pollock and Ceperley,
1987兲. As discussed by Ceperley 共1995兲 and Holzmann to leading order in ⌰. In a superfluid, therefore, a small
and Krauth 共1999兲, the connection between the conden- change in the bc’s leads to a change in the free energy
sate density and infinite cycles is also suggestive in terms per volume, which scales like ␥ / 2共⌰ / L兲2. The associated
of the path-integral representation of the one-particle proportionality constant ␥ = ប2ns / M is the helicity modu-
density matrix. It is difficult, however, to put this on a lus. The definition 共A4兲 for superfluidity, which is based
rigorous footing beyond the simple case of an ideal Bose only on equilibrium properties and also applies to finite
gas 共Ueltschi, 2006; Chevallier and Krauth, 2007兲. systems, is quite different from that for the existence of
While a microscopic definition of BEC is straightfor- BEC. Yet it turns out that the two phenomena are inti-
ward, at least in principle, the notion of superfluidity is mately connected in the sense that a finite superfluid
more subtle. On a phenomenological level, the basic density is both necessary and sufficient for either stan-
properties of superfluids may be explained by introduc- dard BEC or the existence of quasicondensates in lower
ing a complex order parameter 共x兲 = 兩共x兲兩exp i共x兲, dimensions.
Following Leggett 共1973兲, the physical meaning of the
whose magnitude squared gives the superfluid density
phase ⌰ and the associated definition of ns can be un-
ns, while the phase 共x兲 determines the superfluid veloc-
derstood by considering bosons 共gas or liquid兲 in a su-
ity via vs = 共ប / M兲 ⵜ 共x兲 共Pitaevskii and Stringari, 2003兲.
perfluid state, which are enclosed between two concen-
The latter equation immediately implies that superfluid
tric cylinders with almost equal radii R, corotating
flow is irrotational and that the circulation ⌫ = 养 vsds is
with an angular frequency ⍀ = ⍀ez.33 In the rotating
quantized in an integer number of circulation quanta
frame, the problem is stationary, however it acquires
h / M. Note that these conclusions require a finite value
an effective gauge potential A = M⍀ ∧ x, as shown in
ns ⫽ 0, yet are independent of its magnitude. In order to
Eq. 共113兲. Formally, A can be eliminated by a gauge
connect this phenomenological picture of SF with the transformation at the expense of a many-body wave
microscopic definition of BEC, the most obvious as- function, which is no longer single valued. It changes
sumption is to identify the order parameter 共x兲 with by a factor ei⌰ under changes i → i + 2 of the angular
the eigenfunction 0共x兲 of ˆ 1 associated with the single coordinate of each particle i, precisely as in Eq.
extensive eigenvalue, usually choosing a normalization 共A3兲, where ⌰ = −2MR2⍀ / ប is linear in the angular
such that 共x兲 = 冑N00共x兲. Within this assumption, BEC frequency. The presence of a phase-dependent free-
and SF appear as essentially identical phenomena. This
simple identification is not valid, however, beyond a
Gross-Pitaevskii description or for low-dimensional sys- 32
For simplicity, we assume isotropy in space. More generally,
the sensitivity with respect to changes in the bc’s may depend
on the direction, in which case the superfluid density becomes
31
For a discussion on the topological properties of the many- a tensor.
33
body wave function that are required to give ODLRO, see The walls are assumed to violate perfect cylindrical symme-
Leggett 共1973兲. try to allow for the transfer of angular momentum to the fluid.
冕
separations is determined by the mean-square fluctua-
␥共T兲 tions
⌬F共⌰兲 = d3x关共x兲兴2 共A5兲
冉 冊
2
associated with a change in the boundary conditions is
therefore the kinetic energy 共M / 2兲 兰 ns共vs兲2 of superfluid
␦2共x兲 =
1
ប
冕 ddq 1 − cos q · x
共2兲 d
cq
coth
បcq
2kBT
共A8兲
flow with velocity vs and density ns. An immediate con- of the phase difference between points separated by x.
sequence of Eq. 共A5兲 is the quite general form of the Equation 共A7兲 and the notion of a quasicondensate
excitation spectrum of superfluids at low energies. In- require the existence of a finite superfluid density at
deed, considering the fact that phase and particle num- least at T = 0, but not that of BEC. From Eq. 共A8兲,
ber are conjugate variables, the operator ␦n̂共x兲 for small it is straightforward to see that plain BEC in the
fluctuations of the density obeys the canonical commu- sense of a nonvanishing condensate density n0 = ñ0
tation relation 关␦n̂共x兲 ,
ˆ 共x⬘兲兴 = i␦共x − x⬘兲 with the quan- ⫻exp− 关␦2共⬁兲 / 2兴 at nonzero temperatures only exists
tized phase operator ˆ 共x兲. For any Bose gas 共or liquid兲 in 3D. In two dimensions, the logarithmic divergence of
with a finite compressibility = n / ⫽ 0 at zero ␦2共x兲 → 2 ln兩 x兩 at large distances leads to an algebraic
temperature,34 the energy of small density fluctuations is decay g共1兲共x兲 ⬃ 兩x兩−, consistent with the Mermin-
兰关␦n共x兲兴2 / 2. Combining this with Eq. 共A5兲, the effec- Wagner-Hohenberg theorem. Since c2 = ns共T兲 / M, the
tive Hamiltonian for low-lying excitations of an arbitrary exponent 共T兲 = 关ns共T兲T2 兴−1 is related to the exact value
superfluid is of the quantum hydrodynamic form of the superfluid density as pointed out in Eq. 共100兲. A
similar behavior, due to quantum rather than thermal
34
This condition rules out the singular case of an ideal Bose
gas, where = ⬁ and thus c = 0. The ideal gas is therefore not a 35
The short-range decay from G共1兲共0兲 = n to ñ0 is due fluctua-
SF, even though it has a finite superfluid density that coincides tions at scales smaller than , which require a microscopic cal-
with the condensate density 共Fisher et al., 1973兲. culation. The integral 共A8兲 is therefore cutoff at qmax ⬇ 1 / .
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