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An Annotated Reproduction of 

NAVFAC Design Manual 7.2 
Foundations and Earth Structures 
 

PLEASE NOTE 

This is the second volume of an extraordinary document, published in 1982, that is now considerably 
out‐of‐date and is no longer a sanctioned publication of the US Government.  NAVFAC DM 7.2  is 
provided here as a reference because of the incredible density of highly practical geotechnical design 
guidance it contains.  It is also of significant historical interest, and when combined with DM 7.1, it 
represents perhaps THE principle compendium of geotechnical knowledge used by designers between 
1982 and around the turn of the century.  The importance of the Federal labs (particularly FHWA, 
Bureau of Reclamation, Army and Navy labs) in pushing the practice of geotechnical engineering forward 
between 1930 and around the time of the publication of this manual cannot be overstated, and this 
manual is a testament to that heritage.  Thus, you are holding in your hands (or in your computer 
memory) a great reference for preliminary design guidance and a knowledge artifact that will be 
recognized by nearly every senior practicing geotechnical engineer. 

This copy of NAVFAC DM 7.2 (1982) has been updated to comply in spirit with NAVFAC DM 7.02 (1986).  
DM 7.02 was actually a very minor update of DM 7.2 made mostly to correct some out‐of‐date numbers 
that referenced relatively obscure Federal publications.  This reproduction has considerable advantages 
over the widely‐distributed and much‐appreciated PDF version that has been floating around the net.  
That version was hosted at Vulcan Hammer’s site (many thanks!) for years.  The asterisks and 
parentheses that were the artifact of an early PDF conversion have been replaced in this version with 
the lines originally intended.  Further, Greek symbols and the size of the figures are as per the original 
paper publication of 1982 rather than the shrunken versions.  The resulting file size is much bigger, of 
course, but I believe the improved quality is worth it. 

 Enjoy this historic document, but please use it with caution. 

J Ledlie Klosky 

  
 ABSTRACT

Design guidance i s presented for use by experienced engineers. The c o n t e n t s

include: excavations; compaction, earthwork, and hydraulic f i l l s ; a n a l y s i s
of walls and retaining structures; shallow foundations; and deep foundations.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Of6e.e

Washington. D.C. 20402
 FOREWORD

This design manual for Foundations and Earth Structures is one of a series
that has been developed from an extensive re-evaluation of the relevant
portions of Soil ~echanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures, NAVFAC D W 7
of March 1971, from surveys of available new materials and construction
methods, and from selection of the best design practices of the Naval
Facilities Engineering Command, other Government agencies, and private
industry. This manual includes a modernization of the former criteria and
the maximum use of national professional society, association and institute
codes. Deviations from these criteria should not be ma$e without the prior
approval of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters (NAVFAC
HQ).
Design cannot remain static any more than can the naval functions it serves,
or the technologies it uses. Accordingly, this design manual, Foundations
and Earth Structures, NAVFAC DM-7.2, along with the companion manuals, Soil
Mechanics NAVFAC DM-7.1 and Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization, and Special
Geotechnical Construction, NAVFAC DM-7.3, cancel and supersede -
Soil
Mechanics. Foundations. and Earth Structures. NAVFAC DM-7 of March 1971 in
its entirety, and all changes issued.

!;zot",~:A
'Commander \
CEC, U. S. Navy

Naval Facilities Engineering Command

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 PREFAC

This manual c o v e r s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of b a s i c e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s of s o i l
mechanics i n t h e d e s i g n of f o u n d a t i o n s and e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s f o r naval s h o r e
f a c i l i t i e s . Companion manuals (NAVFAC DM-7.1 and DM-7.3) cover t h e p r i n c i -
p l e s of s o i l mechanics and s p e c i a l a s p e c t s of g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g . These
c r i t e r i a , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i v e d e s i g n s and g u i d e l i n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering Command, c o n s t i t u t e t h e Command's d e s i g n
guidance. These s t a n d a r d s a r e based on f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , e n g i n e e r i n g
judgment, knowledge of m a t e r i a l s and equipment, and t h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d by
t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering Command and o t h e r commands and bureaus of
t h e Navy i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n , and maintenance of n a v a l
shore f a c i l i t i e s .

The d e s i g n manual s e r i e s p r e s e n t s c r i t e r i a t h a t s h a l l be used i n t h e d e s i g n

of f a c i l i t i e s under t h e cognizance of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering
Command. The d i r e c t i o n and s t a n d a r d s f o r procedures, methods, d i m e n s i o n s ,
m a t e r i a l s , l o a d s and s t r e s s e s w i l l be included. Design manuals a r e n o t t e x t -
books, but a r e f o r t h e use of experienced a r c h i t e c t s and e n g i n e e r s . Many
c r i t e r i a and s t a n d a r d s appearing i n t e c h n i c a l t e x t s i s s u e d by Government
a g e n c i e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l and e n g i n e e r i n g groups, and t r a d e a n d
i n d u s t r y groups a r e s u i t a b l e f o r , and have been made i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f , t h i s
s e r i e s . The l a t e s t e d i t i o n of e a c h p u b l i c a t i o n s o u r c e s h a l l be used.

B i b l i o g r a p h i e s of p u b l i c a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g background i n f o r m a t i o n and a d d i -
t i o n a l r e a d i n g on t h e v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e manuals. T h i s
m a t e r i a l , however, i s n o t a p a r t of t h e c r i t e r i a , nor i s a r e a d i n g of t h e s e
s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e u s e of t h e c r i t e r i a p r e s e n t e d i n t h e manuals.

To avoid d u p l i c a t i o n and t o f a c i l i t a t e f u t u r e r e v i s i o n s , c r i t e r i a a r e p r e -
s e n t e d o n l y once i n t h i s s e r i e s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . C r i t e r i a having g e n e r a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s appear i n t h e b a s i c manuals numbered DM-1 t h r o u g h DM-10 (numbers
DM-1 1 through DM-20 were unassigned i n t h e o r i g i n a l i s s u e s ) . Manuals num-
bered DM-21 and above c o n t a i n c r i t e r i a t h a t u s u a l l y a r e a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o
t h e s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t y c l a s s covered by each manual. When c r i t e r i a f o r o n e
f a c i l i t y a l s o have an a p p l i c a t i o n i n a n o t h e r f a c i l i t y c l a s s , . t h e b a s i c r u l e
has been t o p r e s e n t s u c h c r i t e r i a i n t h e b a s i c , o r l o w e s t numbered, manual
and c i t e i t by r e f e r e n c e where r e q u i r e d i n l a t e r manuals.

The s p e c i f i c d e s i g n manuals (DM-21 and above), w i t h b u t t h r e e e x c e p t i o n s ,

l i s t d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e o r d e r of t h e c a t e g o r y
codes. The e x c e p t i o n s a r e :

(1) Drydocking F a c i l i t i e s , NAVFAC DM-29, which i n c l u d e s both Category

Codes 213 and 223.

( 2 ) C r i t e r i a f o r f a c i l i t y c l a s s 800, U t i l i t i e s and Ground Improvements,

which have been included i n t h e b a s i c manuals on mechanical,
e l e c t r i c a l , and c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g .
 ( 3 ) Weight Handling Equipment and S e r v i c e C r a f t , NAVFAC DM-38, which
i n c l u d e s t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s under t h e cogni-
zance of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering Command t h a t a r e n o t c l a s -
s i f i e d a s r e a l property. These i n c l u d e weight and l i n e h a n d l i n g
equipment, d r e d g e s , yard c r a f t , and p i l e d r i v i n g equipment.

F o r t h e e f f e c t i v e u s e of t h e s e c r i t e r i a , t h e d e s i g n e r must have a c c e s s t o :

(1) The b a s i c and s p e c i f i c d e s i g n manuals a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r o j e c t .

See l i s t on page ix.

( 2 ) Published c r i t e r i a sources.

( 3 ) Applicable d e f i n i t i v e d e s i g n s , D e f i n i t i v e Designs f o r Naval Shore

F a c i l i t i e s , NAVFAC P-272.

( 4 ) Command g u i d e l i n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
 LIST OF DESIGN MANUALS

BASIC MANUALS I UUL of Date I

Title Number

Architecture..................................................
Civil Engineering.............................................
NAVFAC DM-1
NAVFAC DM-5
Cold Regions Engineering......................................
Cost Data for Military Construction...........................
NAVFAC DM-9
NAVFAC DM-10
Drawings and Specifications
Electrical Engineering
................................... NAVFAC
........................................
DM-6
NAVFAC DM-4
Foundations and Earth Structures
Fire Protection Engineering
.............................. NAVFAC
...................................
NAVFAC DM-7.2
DM-8
Mechanical Engineering........................................ NAVFAC DM-3
Soil Dynamics. Deep Stabilization and
Special Geotechnical Construction
Soil Mechanics
........................... NAVFAC
................................................ NAVFAC DM-7.3
DM-7.1
Structural Engineering........................................ NAVFAC DM-2
SPECIFIC MANUALS

Administrative Facilities
Airfield Pavements
..................................... NAVFAC
............................................ NAVFAC DM-3 4
DM-21
Communications. Navigational Aids. and Airfield Lighting
Community Facilities
......
.......................................... NAVFAC DM-23
NAVFAC DM-37
Drydocking Facilities
Family Housing
.........................................
................................................ NAVFAC DM-29
NAVFAC DM-35
Harbor and Coastal Facilities.................................
Hospital and Medical Facilities............................... NAVFAC DM-26
NAVFAC DM-33
Land Operational Facilities...................................
Liquid Fueling and Dispensing Facilities...................... NAVFAC DM-24
NAVFAC DM-22
Maintenance Facilities
Production Facilities
........................................ NAVFAC
......................................... NAVFAC DM-28
DM-30
Research. Development. and Test Facilities
Supply Facilities
....................
............................................. NAVFAC DM-31
NAVFAC DM-32
Training Facilities
Troop Housing
...........................................
................................................. NAVFAC DM-27
NAVFAC DM-36
Waterfront Operational Facilities.............................
Weight Handling Equipment and Service Craft
NAVFAC DM-25
................... NAVFAC DM-38

INDEX MANUAL

Cumulative Index.......................................... NAVFAC DM-50

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 . EXCAVATIONS

Section
Section
1
2 ... Introduction........................................7.
.
Open Cuts...........................................7.
2-1
2-1
Section
Section
3
4 .. Trenching .........................................7.
Braced Excavations..................................7.
2-2
2-13
Section
Section
Section
5
6
7
.
.
Rock Brcavation.....................................7.
Groundwater Control.................................7.
Excavation Stabilization. Monitoring. and Safety ....
2-19
2-27
7. 2-27

CHAPTER 2 . COMPACTION. EARTHWORK. AND HYDRAULIC FILLS

Section 1 .. Introduction. ......................................7. 2-37

Secfion
Section
Section
2
3
4
.. Compaction Requirements and Procedures ..............
Embankment Cross-Section Design.....................7.
Embankment Compaction Control.......................7.
2-38
7. 2-45
2-50
Section
Section
5
6
.. Borrow Excavation...................................7.
Hydraulic and Underwater Fills ......................7.2
2-52
-54

CHAPTER 3 . ANALYSIS OF WALLS AND RETAINING STRUCTURES

Section 1.. Introduction.......................................7.
....................... 2-59
Section
Section
2
3 .. Computation of Wall Pressures
Rigid Retaining Walls ............................... 7. 2-59
7. 2-82

5.
Section 4 Design of Flexible Walls ............................7. 2-85
Section Cofferdams..........................................7. 2-116

CHAPTER 4 . SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Section
Section
1
2... Bearing Capacity Analysis ...........................
Introduction........................................7.
................
2-129
7.
2-129
Section
Section
3
4.
5.
Spread Footing Design Considerations
Mat and Continuous Beam Foundations ................. 7.
2-146

...................... 2-159
7.
2-150
Section
Section 6.
7.
Foundations on Engineered Fill
Foundations on Expansive Soils ...................... 7.
2-159
7.

8.
Section Foundation Waterproofing............................7. 2-163
Section . Uplift Resistance...................................7. 2-169
 Page

CHAPTER 5 . DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Section
Section
Section
1
2
3
... I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................7.2.177
Foundation Types and D e s i g n Criteria ................7 -2-178

Section 4 .. P i l e I n s t a l l a t i o n and Load T e s t s .................... 7 0 2-213

Bearing Capacity and S e t t l e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . 2-191

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Loads on P i l e Groups ................7 . 2-230

Section
Section
Section
5
6
7
.
. Deep Foundations o n Rock ............................7.2-232
L a t e r a l Load Capacity ...............................7 -2-234

..............BIBLIOGRAPHY
.............. 1

APPENDIX A - Listing .............................7.2- A-1

o f Computer Programs

GLOSSARY*. ...........................................................
m7.2- G-1

SYMBOLS.*............~~.~~~..... ..moo -7-2-s-1

....................ooe~.-.~

..
INDEX***.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o 1
 FIGURES

Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 1

..........................................
S l i d i n g Trench Shield
................................................ 7. 2-7
Skeleton Shoring
...........................................
.....................................................
Close (Tight) Sheeting
7. 2-10
7. 2-11
BOX Shoring
Telescopic Shoring ..............................................
Support System - Walled Excavation .............................
7. 2-12
7. 2-12

General Guidance f o r Underpinning ............................... 7. 2-15

7. 2-20

Seismic Velocity f o r a Heavy Duty Ripper (Tractor-Mounted)

Suggested Guide f o r Ease of Excavation
...
R i p p a b i l i t y of Subsurface M a t e r i a l s Related t o Longitudinal

.......................... .7.2-22
7. 2-23
Cube Root Scaling Versus Maximum P a r t i c l e Velocity ..............7.2-24
Guideline f o r Assessing P o t e n t i a l f o r Damage Induced by
B l a s t i n g Vibration t o R e s i d e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e Founded on
............................................
Dense S o i l o r ~ o c k 7. 2-25

Blasting Effects ..............................................

Guide f o r P r e d i c t i n g Human Response t o Vibrations and

Methods of Construction Dewatering ............................ ...... 7. 2-26

.7. 2-31
Limits of Dewatering Methods Applicable t o D i f f e r e n t S o i l s 7. 2-33

CHAPTER 2

1 Resistance of E a r t h D m Bnbankment M a t e r i a l s t o Piping and

Cracking ...................................................... 7. 2-42

CHAPTER 3

.......................
E f f e c t of W a l l Movement on Wall P r e s s u r e s
Computation of Simple Active and Passive P r e s s u r e s ..............7.
7. 2-60
2-62

............................................. .
Active and Passive C o e f f i c i e n t s . Sloping B a c k f i l l
(Granular S o i l s ) - 7 2-64

.............................................
P o s i t i o n of F a i l u r e Surface f o r Active and Passive Wedges
(Granular S o i l s )
Active and Passive C o e f f i c i e n t s with W a l l F r i c t i o n
.7. 2-65

(Sloping Wall) ................................................ 7. 2-66

.......................
Active and Passive C o e f f i c i e n t s with W a l l F r i c t i o n
( Sloping B a c k f i l l ) ....................
.........................
Computation of General Active P r e s s u r e s
.7. 2-67
7. 2-68

...............................
C o e f f i c i e n t s KA and Kp f o r Walls with Sloping Wall and
F r i c t i o n . and Sloping B a c k f i l l
........................ 7. 2-69
Computation of General Passive P r e s s u r e s
E f f e c t of Groundwater Conditions on Wall Pressures .............
Horizontal P r e s s u r e s on Rigid Wall from Surface Load............
7. 2-71
.7. 2-72
7. 2-74

Rectangular Surface Load ......................................

L a t e r a l P r e s s u r e on a n Unyielding Wall Due t o Uniform
7. 2-75
Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 3 (continued)

Horizontal P r e s s u r e on Walls from Compaction E f f o r t

Values of F f o r Determination of Dynamic L a t e r a l Pressure
............. 7. 2-77

Coefficients .... ..............................................7.

Example C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r Dynamic Loading on Walls ............... 2-79
7. 2-80
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Rigid Retaining Walls .7 . 2-83
Design Loads f o r Low Retaining Walls ( S t r a i g h t Slope B a c k f i l l ) ..7. 2-86
Design Loads f o r Low Retaining Walls (Broken Slope B a c k f i l l )
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Anchored Bulkhead ( F r e e E a r t h Support)
....
...... 7. 2-87
7. 2-88
Reduction i n Bending Moments i n Anchored Bulkhead from Wall
F l e x i b i l i t y ...................................................7.
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Deadman Anchorage
Example of Analysis of Anchored Bulkhead
........................... .7........
2-89
7.2-91
2-93
Sand Dike Scheme f o r C o n t r o l l i n g Active P r e s s u r e ................
Analysis f o r C a n t i l e v e r Wall ....................................7.
7. 2-94
2-95
C a n t i l e v e r S t e e l Sheet P i l e Wall i n Homogeneous Granular S o i l
C a n t i l e v e r S t e e l Sheet P i l e Wall i n Cohesive S o i l with
... 7. 2-97

Granular B a c k f i l l .............................................7. 2-98

Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Brace Loads i n I n t e r n a l l y Braced
F l e x i b l e Walls ................................................7. 2-100
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Braced F l e x i b l e Walls ....................... 7. 2-102
S t a b i l i t y of Base f o r Braced Cut ................7
P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Tied-Back W a l l s .......................
Example of Analysis of P r e s s u r e s on F l e x i b l e Wall of Narrow
. 2-104
7. 2-105

Cut i n Clay - Undrained Conditions ..............7. 2-107

Example of Excavation i n Stages .................................7. 2-108
Culmann Method f o r Determining Passive R e s i s t a n c e of Earth
Berm (Granular S o i l ) ..........................................7. 2-113
Passive Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r S o l d i e r P i l e s .................7. 2-114
Gabion Wall ...........................7. 2-115
Reinforced E a r t h ................................................7. 2-117
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Crib and Bin Walls ..........................7. 2-118
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams ............. 7. 2-119

CHAPTER 4

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Footings w i t h Concentric

b a d s ............ 7 2-131
Ultimate Bearing Capacity with Groundwater E f f e c t ...............7. 2-132
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Continuous Footings w i t h I n c l i n e d
Load ............................7
.
E c c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Footings ...
U l t i m a t e Bearing Capacity f o r Shallow Footing Placed on o r
................7.
2-133
2-134

Near a Slope ................. 7 2-135

Bearing Capacity Factors f o r Shallow Footing Placed on o r
Near a Slope ..................................................7. 2-136
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Two Layer Cohesive S o i l (@PO)
Examples of Computation of Allowable Bearing Capacity Shallow
......
7. 2-137

Footings on Cohesive.7....S ...o.... i.l..s... 2-139

Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 4 (continued)

....................................
Examples of Computation of Allowable Bearing Capacity Shallow
Footings on Granular S o i l s 7. 2-140

Penetration Tests .............................................

Allowable Bearing P r e s s u r e f o r Sand from S t a t i c Cone

Example of Proportioning Footing S i z e t o Equalize Settlements... 7. 2-147

7. 2-148

............................................
Computation of Shear. Moment. and Deflection. B e r m s on
E l a s t i c Foundation 7. 2-153

'Foundations ...................................................
Functions f o r Shear. Moment. and Deflection. Beams on Elastic
7. 2-154

Foundations ...................................................
Functions f o r Shear. Moment. and Deflections. Mats on Elastic

..... 7. 2-157

.........................
Limits of Compaction Beneath Square and Continuous Footings
Construction Details f o r Swelling S o i l s
...................
7. 2-160
7. 2-162

.......................
Typical Foundation Drainage and Waterproofing
Capacity of Anchor Rods i n Fractured Rock
7. 2-167
7. 2-170

Loads .........................................................
Resistance of Footings and Anchorages t o Combined T r a n s i e n t

.................
Tower Guy Anchorage i n S o i l by Concrete Deadman
7. 2-171
7. 2-172

CHAPTER 5

.........
Load Carrying Capacity of Single P i l e i n Granular S o i l s 7. 2-193

Soils.........................................................
U l t i m a t e h a d Capacity of S i n g l e P i l e o r P i e r i n Cohesive

Bearing Capacity of P i l e Groups i n Cohesive S o i l s ............

7. 2-196
..A
.......................................
Settlement of P i l e Groups
.........................
2-206
7. 2-210

................................
P r i n c i p l e s of Operation of P i l e Drivers
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P i l e Load Test
.................
7. 2-222
7. 2-229

Example Problem ..........

h a d Test Analysis Where Downdrag A c t s on P i l e s
-
...................
Batter P i l e Group a s Guy Anchorage
7. 2-231
-7. 2-233

.....................
C o e f f i c i e n t of Variation of Subgrade Reaction
Design Procedure f o r L a t e r a l l y Loaded P i l e s
7. 2-236
7. 2-237

Moment (Case I . . ........

Influence Values f o r P i l e with Applied L a t e r a l Load and
F l e x i b l e Cap o r Hinged End Condition) 7. 2-238

...........................
Influence Values f o r L a t e r a l l y U a d e d P i l e (Case I1 Fixed
Against R o t a t i o n a t Ground Surface)
..........
Slope C o e f f i c i e n t f o r P i l e with L a t e r a l Load o r Moment
7. 2-239
7. 2-240
 TABLES

Table Title Page

CHAPTER 1

1 Factors Controlling Stability of Sloped Cut in Some

2
Problem Soils .................................................
Factors Controlling Excavation Stability ........................ 7 . 2-3
7.2-4
3
4
OSHA Requirements (Minimum) for Trench Shoring ..................
Types of Walls ..................................................7.
7.2-8
2-14
5 Factors Involved in Choice of a Support System For a Deep

6
Excavation (> 20 feet) ........................................
Design Considerations for Braced and Tieback Walls .............. 7 . 2-16
7 . 2-17
7 Methods of Groundwater Control .................................. 7 . 2-28

CHAPTER 2

1
2
Typical Properties of Compacted Soils ...
........................7.
Relative Desirability of Soils as Compacted Fill ................ 2-39
7.2-40
3
4
Clay Dispersion Potential
Compaction Requirements
.......................................
....................................... 7 . 2-44
..7. 2-46
5
6
Compaction Equipment and Methods
Methods of Fill Placement Underwater
.................................
............................7.2-48
7 . 2-55

CHAPTER 3

1 Friction Factors and Adhesion for Dissimilar Materials ..........7 . 2-63

CHAPTER 4

1 Presumptive Values of Allowable Bearing Pressure for Spread

2
Foundations ...................................................
Selection of Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread
7 . 2-142

3
Foundations ...................................................
Definitions and Procedures. Analysis of Beams on Elastic
7 . 2-144

4
Foundation ....................................................
Definitions and Procedures. Mats on Elastic Foundations ......... 7 . 2-151
7 . 2-155
5 Requirements for Foundation Waterproofing and Dampproofing ...... 7.2-164

CHAPTER 5

1 Design Criteria for Bearing Piles...............................7. 2-179

2
3
Characteristics of Common ExcavatedIDrilled Foundations
Design Parameters for Side Friction for Drilled Piers in
......... 7 . 2-184

4
Cohesive Soils ................................................
Application of Pile Driving Resistance Formulas ................. 7 . 2-198
7 . 2-203
Table Title Page

CHAPTEK 5 ( c o n t i n u e d )

5 Typical Values of C o e f f i c i e n t Cp f o r E s t i m a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t
of a S i n g l e P i l e ..............................................7. 2-208

7
6
Supplementary Procedures and Appurtenances Used i n P i l e
........... 7. 2-214
General Criteria f o r I n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l e Foundations

Driving ......................................................
........................... 7.2-218
8
9
10
Impact and V i b r a t o r y Pile-Driver Data
.....7. 2-219

..........................7. 2-227
Treatment of F i e l d Problems Encountered During P i l e D r i v i n g
D r i l l e d P i e r s : C o n s t r u c t i o n Problems.
7. 2-226
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Figure or Table Acknowledgement

Figure 13, Mazurkiewicz, D.K., Design and Construction of Dry Docks,

Chapter 1 Trans Tech Publications, Rockport, MA., 1980.

Figure 1, Sherard, J.L., Influence of Soil Properties and

Chapter 2 Construction Methods on the Performance of Homogeneous
Earth Dams, Technical Memorandum 645, U.S. Department of
~~~~~ -

the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.

Figures 5, 6 & Caquot, A., and Kerisel, J., Tables for the Calculation of
7, Chapter 3 Passive Pressure, Active Pressure and Bearing Capacity of
Foundations, Gauthier-Villars, Paris.

Figure 16 & 17 Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B., Soil Mechanics in Engineering

Chapter 3 Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

Figures 23, 24 U.S. Steel, Sheet Piling Design Manual, July, 1975.
& 25, Chapter 3

Figure 36, Portland Cement Association, Concrete Crib Retaining

Chapter 3 Walls, Concrete Information No. St. 46, Chicago, IL., May,
1952.
Figures 10 & Hetenyi, M., Beams on Elastic Foundation, The University
11, Chapter 4 of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.

Figure 14, Parcher, J.V., and Means, R.E., Soil Mechanics and
Chapter 4 Foundations, Charles E. Merril Publishing Company,
Columbus, OH., 1968.
Figw-e 2,
5
C1' 3cl8.i?r Skempton, A.W., The Bearing Capacity of Clays,
( d.;p f panel , Proceedings, Building Research Congress, London, 1951.
rignt)
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 1. EXCAVATIONS

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. This chapter covers t h e methods of e v a l u a t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y of

shallow and deep excavations. There a r e two b a s i c types of excavations: ( a )
"open excavations" where s t a b i l i t y i s achieved by providing s t a b l e s i d e
slopes, and (b) "braced excavations" where v e r t i c a l o r sloped s i d e s a r e main-
t a i n e d w i t h p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l systems t h a t can be r e s t r a i n e d l a t e r a l l y by
i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l s t r u c t u r a l elements. Guidance on performance monitoring
i s given i n DM-7.1, Chapter 2.

2. METHODOLOGY. I n s e l e c t i n g and designing t h e excavation system, t h e p r i -

mary c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s w i l l include: ( a ) s o i l type and s o i l s t r e n g t h
parameters; (b) groundwater c o n d i t i o n s ; ( c ) s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n ; (d) s i d e and
bottom s t a b i l i t y ; and ( e ) v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l movements of a d j a c e n t a r e a s ,
and e f f e c t s on e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s .

3. RELATED CRITERIA. For a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a on excavations, s e e t h e f o l -

lowing source :

Subject Source

Dewatering and Groundwater Control of Deep Excavations....NAVFAC P-418

S e c t i o n 2. OPEN CUTS

1. SLOPED CUTS.

a. General. The depth and slope of an excavation, and groundwater con-

d i t i o n s c o n t r o l t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y and movements of open excavations. I n
granular s o i l s , i n s t a b i l i t y u s u a l l y does not extend s i g n i f i c a n t l y below t h e
excavation provided seepage f o r c e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d . I n rock, s t a b i l i t y i s
c o n t r o l l e d by depths and slopes of excavation, p a r t i c u l a r j o i n t p a t t e r n s , i n
s i t u s t r e s s e s , and groundwater conditions. I n cohesive s o i l s , i n s t a b i l i t y
t y p i c a l l y involves s i d e slopes but may a l s o i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l s w e l l below t h e
base of t h e excavation. I n s t a b i l i t y below t h e base of excavation, o f t e n
r e f e r r e d t o as bottom heave, i s a f f e c t e d by s o i l type and s t r e n g t h , d e p t h of
c u t , s i d e s l o p e and/or berm geometry, groundwater c o n d i t i o n s , and construc-
t i o h procedures. Methods f o r c o n t r o l l i n g bottom heave a r e given i n DM-7.1,
Chapter 6.

b. Evaluation. Methods described i n DM-7.1, Chapter 7 may be used t o

evaluate t h e s t a b i l i t y of open excavations i n s o i l s where behavior of such
s o i l s can be reasonably determined by f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n , l a b o r a t o r y test-
i n g , and a n a l y s i s . In c e r t a i n geologic formations ( s t i f f c l a y s , s h a l e s ,
s e n s i t i v e c l a y s , c l a y t i l l s , e t c . ) s t a b i l i t y i s c o n t r o l l e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n
procedures, s i d e e f f e c t s during and a f t e r excavation, and i n h e r e n t geologic
planes of weaknesses. Table 1 (modified from Reference 1, E f f e c t s of Con-
s t r u c t i o n on Geotechnical Engineering, by Clough and Davidson) p r e s e n t s a
summary of t h e primary f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g e x c a v a t i o n s l o p e s i n some problem
s o i l s . Table 2 (modified from Reference 1 and Reference 2, S o i l s and
Geology, Procedures f o r Foundation Design of B u i l d i n g s and Other S t r u c t u r e s ,
Departments of Army and A i r Force) summarizes measures t h a t can be used f o r
e x c a v a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n f o r b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and problem s o i l s .

2. VERTICAL CUTS. Many c u t s i n c l a y s w i l l s t a n d w i t h v e r t i c a l s l o p e s f o r a

period of time b e f o r e f a i l u r e occurs. However, changes i n t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h
of t h e c l a y w i t h time and s t r e s s r e l e a s e r e s u l t i n g from t h e e x c a v a t i o n c a n
l e a d t o p r o g r e s s i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n s t a b i l i t y . This p r o c e s s c a n be r a p i d i n
s t i f f , h i g h l y f i s s u r e d c l a y s , b u t r e l a t i v e l y slow i n s o f t e r c l a y s . (See
DM-7.1, Chapter 7 f o r c r i t i c a l h e i g h t s f o r v e r t i c a l c u t s i n c o h e s i v e s o i l s . )
For c u t s i n hard unweathered r o c k , s t a b i l i t y i s m o s t l y c o n t r o l l e d by s t r e n g t h
along bedding p l a n e s , groundwater c o n d i t i o n , and o t h e r f a c t o r s ( s e e DM-7.1,
Chapter 6 and Reference 3 , S t a b i l i t y of S t e e p S l o p e s on Hard Unweathered ~ o c k ,
by Terzaghi f o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n on t h e e f f e c t s of r o c k d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ) .
Cuts i n rock can s t a n d v e r t i c a l without b o l t i n g o r anchoring depending on r o c k
q u a l i t y and j o i n t p a t t e r n .

Section 3. TRENCHING

1. SITE EXPLORATION. I n d i v i d u a l t r e n c h i n g p r o j e c t s f r e q u e n t l y extend o v e r

long d i s t a n c e s . A n e x p l o r a t i o n program should be performed t o d e f i n e t h e s o i l
and groundwater c o n d i t i o n s over t h e f u l l e x t e n t of t h e p r o j e c t , so t h a t t h e
d e s i g n of t h e s h o r i n g system can be a d j u s t e d t o s a t i s f y t h e v a r y i n g s i t e con-
d it ions.

2. TRENCH STABILITY. P r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t r e n c h s t a b i l i t y a r e t h e
l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e s on t h e w a l l s u p p o r t system, bottom heave, and t h e
p r e s s u r e and e r o s i v e e f f e c t s of i n f i l t r a t i n g groundwater ( s e e Chapter 3 and
DM-7.1, Chapter 6 ) . E x t e r n a l f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e t r e n c h s t a b i l i t y
include :

a. S u r f a c e Surcharge. The a p p l i c a t i o n of any a d d i t i o n a l l o a d between

t h e edge of t h e e x c a v a t i o n and t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e ground s u r f a c e w i t h t h e
p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e plane must be considered i n t h e s t a b i i i t y a n a l y s e s f o r t h e
excavation.

b. V i b r a t i o n Loads. The e f f e c t s of v i b r a t i n g machinery, b l a s t i n g o r

o t h e r dynamic l o a d s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e e x c a v a t i o n must be considered. The
e f f e c t s of v i b r a t i o n s a r e cumu1ati;e over p e r i o d s of time and can be p a r t i c u -
l a r l y dangerous i n b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s such a s c l a y e y sand o r g r a v e l .

c. Groundwater Seepage. Improperly dewatered t r e n c h e s i n g r a n u l a r s o i l s

c a n r e s u l t i n q u i c k c o n d i t i o n s and a complete l o s s of s o i l s t r e n g t h o r bottom
heave. (See DM-7.1, Chapter 6.)

d. S u r f a c e Water Flow. T h i s c a n r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d l o a d s on t h e w a l l
s u p p o r t system and r e d u c t i o n of t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l . S i t e d r a i n a g e
should be designed t o d i v e r t water away from trenches.
 TABLE 1
Factors C o n t r o l l i n g S t a b i l i t y of Sloped Cut i n Some Problem S o i l s

SOIL TYPE PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR SLOPE DESIGN

S t i f f - f i s s u r e d Clays F i e l d shear r e s i s t a n c e may be l e s s than suggested by

and Shales l a b o r a t o r y tests. Slope f a i l u r e s may occur progres-
s i v e l y and s h e a r s t r e n g t h s reduced t o r e s i d u a l v a l u e s
compatible with r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e deformations. Some
c a s e h i s t o r i e s suggest t h a t t h e long-term performance
i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e r e s i d u a l f r i c t i o n a n g l e which f o r
some s h a l e s may be a s low a s 12'. The most r e l i a b l e
design procedure would involve t h e use of l o c a l
experience and recorded observations.

Loess and Other Strong p o t e n t i a l f o r c o l l a p s e and e r o s i o n of r e l a t i v e -

Collapsible S o i l s
l y d r y m a t e r i a l upon wetting. Slopes i n l o e s s a r e
f r e q u e n t l y more s t a b l e when c u t v e r t i c a l t o p r e v e n t
i n f i l t r a t i o n . Benches a t i n t e r v a l s can be used t o
reduce e f f e c t i v e s l o p e angles. Evaluate p o t e n t i a l f o r
c o l l a p s e a s described i n DM 7.1, Chapter 1. (See
DM-7.3, Chapter 3 f o r f u r t h e r guidance.)

Residual S o i l s S i g n i f i c a n t l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n p r o p e r t i e s can be
expected depending on t h e w a t h e r i n g p r o f i l e from
p a r e n t rock. Guidance based on recorded o b s e r v a t i o n
provides prudent b a s i s f o r design.

S e n s i t i v e Clays Considerable l o s s of s t r e n g t h upon remolding g e n e r a t e d

by n a t u r a l o r man-made d i s t u r b a n c e . Use a n a l y s e s
based on unconsolidated undrained tests o r f i e l d vane
tests.

Talus Talus i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o o s e a g g r e g a t i o n of rock

t h a t accumulates a t t h e f o o t of rock c l i f f s . Stable
s l o p e s a r e commonly between 1-114 t o 1-314 h o r i z o n t a l
t o 1 vertical. I n s t a b i l i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d with abun-
dance of water, mostly when snow i s melting.

Loose Sands May s e t t l e under b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n , o r l i q u i f y ,

s e t t l e , and l o s e s t r e n g t h i f s a t u r a t e d . Also prone t o
e r o s i o n and piping.
i

Construction Activity
Dewatering
Excavation and Grading
Excavation Wall C o n s t r u c t i o n
>
TABLE 2
F a c t o r s C o n t r o l l i n g Excavation S t a b i l i t y
Objectives
To prevent b o i l i n g , s o f t e n i n g ,
o r heave i n e x c a v a t i o n bottom,
reduce l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s on
s h e e t i n g , reduce seepage pres-
s u r e s on f a c e of open c u t ,
e l i m i n a t e p i p i n g of f i n e s
through s h e e t i n g .
Pipe t r e n c h i n g , basement
e x c a v a t i o n , s i t e grading.
To s u p p o r t v e r t i c a l e x c a v a t i o n
walls, t o s t a b i l i z e trenching
i n l i m i t e d space.
Comments
I n v e s t i g a t e s o i l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and
e f f e c t of dewatering on s e t t l e m e n t of
nearby s t r u c t u r e s ; c o n s i d e r r e c h a r g i n g
o r s l u r r y w a l l c u t o f f . Examine f o r
presence of lower a q u i f e r and need t o
dewater. I n s t a l l piezometer i f needed.
Consider e f f e c t s of dewatering i n
c a v i t y - l a d e n l i m e s t o n e . Dewater i n
advance of excavation.
Analyze s a f e s l o p e s ( s e e DM-7.1, Chapter
7 ) o r b r a c i n g requirement ( s e e Chapter
3 ) , e f f e c t s of s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n on over-
c o n s o l i d a t e d , s o f t o r s w e l l i n g s o i l s and
shales . Consider hor i zont a 1 and v e r t i-
c a l movements i n a d j a c e n t a r e a s due t o
e x c a v a t i o n and e f f e c t on nearby s t r u c -
t u r e s . Keep equipment and s t o c k p i l e s a
s a f e d i s t a n c e from t o p of excavation.
See Chapter 3 f o r w a l l design. Reduce
e a r t h movements and b r a c i n g s t r e s s e s ,
where n e c e s s a r y , by i n s t a l l i n g l a g g i n g
on f r o n t f l a n g e of s o l d i e r p i l e . Con-
s i d e r e f f e c t of v i b r a t i o n s due t o d r i v -
i n g s h e e t p i l e s o r s o l d i e r p i l e s . Con-
s i d e r dewatering r e q u i r e m e n t s a s w e l l a s
wall s t a b i l i t y i n calculating sheeting
depth. Movement monitoring may be
warranted.
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Factors C o n t r o l l i n g Excavation S t a b i l i t y

Construction A c t i v i t y Objectives Comments

Blasting To remove o r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e Consider e f f e c t of v i b r a t i o n s on s e t t l e -

removal of rock i n the excava- ment o r damage t o a d j a c e n t a r e a s . Design
tion. and monitor o r r e q u i r e t h e c o n t r a c t o r t o
design and monitor b l a s t i n g i n c r i t i c a l
a r e a s ; r e q u i r e a pre-construction survey
of nearby s t r u c t u r e s .

Anchor o r S t r u t I n s t a l l a - To o b t a i n support system Major excavations r e q u i r e c a r e f u l i n s t a l -

t i o n , Wedging of S t r u t s , s t i f f n e s s and i n t e r a c t i o n . l a t i o n and monitoring, e.g., c a s e anchor
Pre-stressing Ties h o l e s i n c o l l a p s i b l e s o i l s ; measure
stress i n ties and s t r u t s ; wedging, e t c .

-- -
3. SUPPORT SYSTEMS. Excavation s u p p o r t systems commonly used a r e a s f o l -
lows :
- -
a. Trench S h i e l d . A r i g i d p r e f a b r i c a t e d s t e e l u n i t used i n l i e u o f
s h o r i n g , which e x t e n d s from t h e bottom of t h e e x c a v a t i o n t o w i t h i n a few f e e t
of t h e t o p of t h e c u t . Pipes a r e l a i d w i t h i n t h e s h i e l d , which i s p u l l e d
ahead, a s t r e n c h i n g proceeds, a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 (from Reference 4 ,
Cave-In! by P e t e r s e n ) . T y p i c a l l y , t h i s system i s u s e f u l i n l o o s e g r a n u l a r o r
s o f t cohesive s o i l s where e x c a v a t i o n d e p t h does n o t exceed 1 2 f e e t . S p e c i a l
s h i e l d s have been used t o d e p t h s of 30 f e e t .

b. Trench Timber Shoring. Table 3 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e Occup&tional S a f e t y

and H e a l t h A c t ' s minimum requirements f o r t r e n c h shoring. Braces and s h o r i n g
of t r e n c h a r e c a r r i e d a l o n g w i t h t h e excavation.. Braces and d i a g o n a l s h o r e s
of timber should n o t be s u b j e c t e d t o compressive s t r e s s e s i n e x c e s s o f :

where : L = unsupported l e n g t h ( i n c h e s )

D = l e a s t s i d e of t h e timber ( i n c h e s )

S = a l l o w a b l e compressive s t r e s s i n pounds per s q u a r e

i n c h of c r o s s s e c t i o n

Maximum R a t i o LID= 50

( 1 ) S k e l e t o n Shoring. Used i n s o i l s where cave-ins a r e expected.

A p p l i c a b l e t o most s o i l s t o d e p t h up t o 20 f e e t . See F i g u r e 2 (from Refer-
e n c e 4 ) f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n and guidance f o r s k e l e t o n shoring. S t r u c t u r a l com-
ponents should be designed t o s a f e l y w i t h s t a n d e a r t h p r e s s u r e s .

( 2 ) Close ( T i g h t ) Sheeting. Used i n g r a n u l a r o r o t h e r running

s o i l s , compared t o s k e l e t o n s h o r i n g , i t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o g r e a t e r depths. S e e
i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g u r e 3 (from Reference 4).

( 3 ) Box Shoring. Applicable t o t r e n c h i n g i n any s o i l . Depth l i m i t -

ed by s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h and s i z e of timber. Usually l i m i t e d t o 40 f e e t .
See i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g u r e 4 (from Reference 4 ) .

( 4 ) T e l e s c o p i c Shoring. Used f o r e x c e s s i v e l y deep t r e n c h e s . See

i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g u r e 5 (Reference 4).

c. S t e e l S h e e t i n g and Bracing. S t e e l s h e e t i n g and b r a c i n g can be used

i n l i e u of timber shoring. S t r u c t u r a l members should s a f e l y w i t h s t a n d water
and l a t e r a l e a r t h S t e e l s h e e t i n g w i t h timber wales and s t r u t s have
a l s o been used.
 TABLE 3
C6HA Requirents (Minjmum) hr Trench Sbring
J

Size a d Spacirg of Menbers

Uprights Stringers cross &aces1

Maxinnm Spacing
Width of Trench

Depth of Kd or Condition f i i m u n
i MPcirmm Minimun Maxhuu
Trench of Earth Dimmion Spcing Dimension Spacing
Upto 4 t o 6 7 t o 9 lot012 13to15 Ibri-
3 feet feet feet feet feet Vertical zontal

Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet Incks Inches I n c k s Inches Incks Feet Feet

5 to 10 Hard, canpact 3x4 or 2x6 6 ......... ........ 2 x 6 4 x 4 4x6 6 x 5 6 x 8 4 6

Likely to crack 3x4 or 2x6 3 4x6 4 2x6 4 x 4 4 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 8 4 6

Soft, s d y , or 3x4 or 2xfj Close 4 x 6 4 4 x 4 4x6 6x6 6 x 8 8 x 8 4 6

filled sktirlg

Hydrostatic 3x4 o r 2x6 Close 6 x 8 4 4 x 4 4 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 8 8 x 8 4 6

pressure sheeting

11 t o 15 Hard 3x4 or 2x6 4 4x6 4 4 x 4 4x6 6 x 6 6 x 8 8 x 8 4 6

Likely to crack 3x4 or 2x6 2 4x 6 4 4 x 4 4x6 6 x 6 6 x 8 8 x 8 6

Soft , s a d y or 3x4 or 2x6 Close 4 x 6 4 4x6 6 x 6 6 x 8 8 x 8 8x10 4 6

f illed skting

Hydrostatic 3x6 Close 8 x 10 4 4 x 6 6 x 6 6 x 8 8 x 8 8x10 4 6

pressure sheeting
v

Trench jacks may be used i n lieu of, or i n canbination d t h , cross braces.

Where desirable, steel s k t piling a d bracirg of equal strength may be substituted for mod.
 - Requirements f o r S k e l e t o n S h o r i n g
TRENCH UPRIGHTS -s s m
brizontal Vert id brizontal
Width Ikpth Size SPC~% Size Spacis Size Spacis

Up t o 42" 4' t o 10' 2" x 6" 3' cc 2" x 6" (a) 2"x61'(b) 6'c-c

Over 42" 4' t o 10' 2" x 6" 3' c-c 4" x 6" 4' c-c 4" x 6"(b) 6' c c

Up t o 42" 10' t o 15' 2" x 6" 3' c-c 2" x 6" (c) 2" x 6"(d) 6' crc

Up t o 42" Over 15' 2" x 6" (XEE 4"x12" 4'cc 4"x12" 6' c c
NOlES:
CLOSE: Close u p r i g h t s up t i g h t .
c-c: Center-to-Center
( a ) Minimum: Two s t r i n g e r s , one on top and one on bottom.
( b ) Minimum: Two s t r u t s t o 7' depth and t h r e e t o 10'.
( c ) Minimum: Three s t r i n g e r s , placed top, bottom and center.
(d) Minimum: Three s t r u t s t o 13' depth and four t o 15'.
FIGURE 2
Skeleton Shoring
7.2-10
 Requirements f o r Close S h e e t i n g
r
mENQI mGI
.
rJ
s sTmmRs SIRUrS

Ibrizuntal Vertical Ibrinmtal

Width Depth Size s@% size s@% Size s@%
-
Up t o 42" 4' to 10' 2" x 6" UDSE 4"x6" (a) 4" x 6" 6' c-c

O\Rr 42" 4' t o 10' 2" x 6" UDSE Vx6' (a) 4" x 6" 6' cc
/
7

Up t o 42" 10' t o 15' 2" x 6" UX33 4"x6" (b) Vx6" 6' c c

Up to 42" Over 15' 2" x 6" UDSE 4"x12" 4'- 4"x12" 6' e c

-
N(7IES:
CLOSE: Close uprights up tight.
c-c: Center-toanter
( a ) Minimum: Two s t r i n g e r s , one on top and one on bottom.
(b) Minimum: Two s t r u t s t o 7' depth and three t o 10'.
( c ) Minimum: Three stringers, placed top, bottom and center.
(d) Minimum: Three s t r u t s t o 13' depth and four t o 15'.
FIGURE 3
Close ( T i g h t ) Sheeting
 FIGURE 4
Box Shoring

FIGURE 5
Telescopic Shoring
 Section 4. BRACED EXCAVATIONS

1. WALL TYPES. Commonly used wall types and l i m i t a t i o n s t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n

selection a r e given i n Table 4. Schematics of support systems a r e shoyn on
Figure 6. A d e s c r i p t i o n of w a l l types l i s t e d i n Table 4 is presented i n
Reference 5, L a t e r a l Support Systems and Underpinning, by Goldberg, e t al.

2. SELECTION OF SUPPORT SYSTEM. F a c t o r s t o be considered i n s e l e c t i n g types

of support systems a r e given i n Table 5.

3. EARTH PRESSURES. The tm l i m i t i n g pressures which may act on the w a l l

, a r e t h e s t a t e s of a c t i v e pressure and passive pressure. D e f i n i t i o n s and
methods f o r computing e a r t h pressures a r e presented i n Chapter 3.

For most p r a c t i c a l c a s e s , c r i t e r i a f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e s do not e x a c t l y conform

t o t h e s t a t e of a c t i v e , passive o r a t rest pressure. Actual e a r t h p r e s s u r e
depends on w a l l deformation and t h i s i n t u r n depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s .
Among t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s a r e : (1) s t i f f n e s s of w a l l and support systems;
(2) s t a b i l i t y of t h e excavation; and (3) depth of excavation and w a l l
deflection.

The e f f e c t s of w a l l d e f l e c t i o n on p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and d i f f e r e n c e s be-

tween s t r u t l o a d s computed from a c t i v e e a r t h pressure theory and those a c t u a l -
l y measured f o r deep excavation i n s o f t c l a y , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Reference 6 ,
s t a b i l i t y of ~ l e x i b l eS t r u c t u r e s by Bjerrum, e t a l . A s many d i f f e r e n t v a r i a -
b l e s a f f e c t p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on w a l l s , many types of a n a l y s e s a r e a v a i l a b l e
f o r s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . ( D e t a i l s concerning t h e s e a r e given i n Reference 7,
Braced Excavation by Lambe.) Examples of e a r t h p r e s s u r e computations are
given i n Chapter 3.

4. OTHER DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS. Several f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n

e a r t h p r e s s u r e s a f f e c t t h e s e l e c t i o n , d e s i g n and t h e performance of braced
excavations. See Table 6 f o r a summary of t h e s e f a c t o r s .

5. LATERAL MOVEMENTS. For w e l l constructed s t r u t t e d excavations i n d e n s e

sands and till, maximum l a t e r a l w a l l movements a r e o f t e n less than 0.2% of
excavation depth. L a t e r a l movements a r e u s u a l l y less f o r t i e d back w a l l s . In
s t i f f f i s s u r e d c l a y s , l a t e r a l movements may reach 0.5% o r higher depending on
q u a l i t y of c o n s t r u c t i o n . In s o f t c l a y s , a major p o r t i o n of movement o c c u r s
below excavation bottom. L a t e r a l movement may be i n t h e range of 0.5% t o 2%
of excavation depth, depending on the f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t b o t t a n i n s t a -
b i l i t y . Higher movements a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lesser f a c t o r s of s a f e t y .

6. SOIL SETTLEMENTS BEHIND WALLS. Reference 8, Deep Excavations and Tunnel-

,

i n g i n S o f t Ground by Peck, provides guidance based on e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n

of s e t t l e m e n t behind wall. Settlements up t o about 1%of t h e e x c a v a t i o n d e p t h
have been measured behind w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d w a l l s f o r c u t s i n sand and i n medi-
um s t i f f c l a y s . In s o f t e r c l a y s , t h i s may be a s high a s 2% and c o n s i d e r a b l y
more i n very s o f t clays.
 TABLE 4
Types of Walls

Typical E I Values
Name P e r Foot ( k s f ) Comments

(1) S t e e l Sheeting 900 - 90,000 - Can be impervious

- Easy t o h a n d l e and c o n s t r u c t

(2) S o l d i e r P i l e and 2,000 - 120,000 - Easy t o handle and c o n s t r u c t

Lagging - Permits drainage
- Can be d r i v e n o r augered

(3) Cas t-in-place 288,000 - 2,300,000 - Can be impervious

o r Pre-cast Con- - Relatively high s t i f f n e s s
c r e t e Slurry - Can be p a r t of permanent
Wall (diaphragm structure
w a l l s , s e e DM- - Can be p r e s t r e s s e d
7.3, Chapter 3 ) - R e l a t i v e l y less l a t e r a l w a l l
movement pe mi t t ed compared
t o ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
- High i n i t i a l c o s t
- Specialty contractor
required t o construct
- Very l a r g e and heavy w a l l
must be used f o r deep
systems
- Permits y i e l d i n g of sub-
s o i l s , but precast concrete
u s u a l l y shows l e s s y i e l d i n g
than s t e e l sheeting o r
s o l d i e r p i l e procedures.

(4) Cylinder P i l e 115,000 - 1,000,000 - Secant p i l e s impervious

Wall - Relatively high s t i f f n e s s
- Highly s p e c i a l i z e d equipment
n o t needed f o r t a n g e n t p i l e s
- S l u r r y n o t needed
A. CANTILEVER WALL B. CROSS-LOT BRACED WALL

F;DUNDATION SLAB

C. RAKER SYSTEM D. ANCHOR OR TIEBKK WALL

E. EARTH BERM SUPPORT

FIGURE 6
-
Support S y s t e m Walled Excavation
 TABLE 5
F a c t o r s Involved i n Choice of A Support System
For A Deep Excavation (> 20 f e e t )

Requirements Lends I t s e l f t o Use Of Comment s

1. Open excavation Tiebacks o r r a k e r s o r -

area c a n t i l e v e r w a l l s (shallow
excavation)

2. Low i n i t i a l c o s t Soldier p i l e o r s h e e t p i l e -
walls; combined s o i l slope
with wall

3. Use a s p a r t of Diaphragm ( s e e DM 7.3 Diaphragm w a l l most

permanent Chapter 3 ) o r c y l i n d e r common a s permanent w a l l .
structure p i l e walls

4. Deep, s o f t c l a y Strutted o r raker Tieback c a p a c i t y n o t

subsurface con- supported diaphragm o r adequate i n s o f t c l a y s .
ditions cylinder p i l e walls
S h e e t p i l e s may l o s e
5. Dense, g r a v e l l y S o l d i e r p i l e , diaphragm i n t e r l o c k on hard d r i v i n g .
sand o r c l a y o r cylinder p i l e
subsoils

6. Deep, overcon- S t r u t s , long t i e b a c k s o r High i n s i t u l a t e r a l

solidated clays combination t i e b a c k s and stresses a r e relieved i n
struts. overconsolidated s o i l s .
L a t e r a l movements may b e
l a r g e and extend deep i n t o
soil.

7. Avoid dewatering Diaphragm w a l l s , p o s s i b l y S o l d i e r p i l e wall i s

sheetpile walls i n soft pervious.
subsoils

8. Minimize High preloads on s t i f f Analyze f o r s t a b i l i t y o f

movements s t r u t t e d o r tied-back w a l l bottom of excavation.

9. Wide excavation Tiebacks o r r a k e r s Tiebacks p r e f e r a b l e except

( g r e a t e r than i n very s o f t c l a y sub-
65 f e e t wide) soils.

10. Narrow excava- Crosslot s t r u t s S t r u t s more economical but

t i o n ( l e s s than t i e b a c k s s t i l l may be
65 f e e t wide) p r e f e r r e d t o keep exca-
v a t i o n open.
 TABLE 6
Design C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r Braced and Tieback Walls

?
Design F a c t o r Comments

1. Water Loads Often g r e a t e r t h a n e a r t h l o a d on impervious wall. Recommended piezometers

d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o monitor water l e v e l s . Should c o n s i d e r p o s s i b l e
lower water p r e s s u r e s a s a r e s u l t of seepage through o r under w a l l .
Dewatering can be used t o reduce water l o a d s . Seepage under w a l l r e d u c e s
passive r e s i s t a n c e .

2. Stability Consider p o s s i b l e i n s t a b i l i t y i n any berm o r exposed slope. S l i d i n g poten-

t i a l beneath t h e w a l l o r behind t i e b a c k s should be e v a l u a t e d . Deep s e a t e d
b e a r i n g f a i l u r e under weight of s u p p o r t e d s o i l t o be checked i n weak s o i l s .
S t a b i l i t y should c o n s i d e r weight of s u r c h a r g e o r t h e weight of o t h e r
f a c i l i t i e s i n c l o s e proximity t o e x c a v a t i o n .

3. Piping Loss of ground caused by h i g h groundwater t a b l e and s i l t y and f i n e sand

s o i l s . D i f f i c u l t i e s occur due t o flow b e n e a t h w a l l , through bad j o i n t s i n
w a l l s , o r through unsealed s h e e t p i l e h a n d l i n g h o l e s . Dewatering may b e
required.

4. Movements Movements can be minimized through use of s t i f f w a l l supported by preloaded

t i e b a c k o r braced system.

5. Dewatering - recharge Dewatering r e d u c e s l o a d s on w a l l systems and minimizes p o s s i b l e l o s s of

ground due t o piping. May cause s e t t l e m e n t s and w i l l t h e n need t o r e c h a r g e
o u t s i d e of s u p p o r t system.

6. Surcharge C o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s u s u a l l y s t o r e d n e a r w a l l systems. Allowance should

always be made f o r surcharge.

7. P r e s t r e s s i n g of t i e Useful t o remove s l a c k from system and minimize s o i l movements.

backs o r s t r u t s

d
 TABLE 6 (continued)
Design Considerations f o r Braced and Tieback Walls

Design F a c t o r Comments

8. Construction Sequence The amount of wall movement i s dependent on t h e depth of excavation. The
amount of load on t h e t i e backs i s dependent on t h e amount of w a l l movement
which occurs b e f o r e t h e y a r e i n s t a l l e d . Movements of wall should be
checked a t every major c o n s t r u c t i o n stage. Upper s t r u t s should be
i n s t a l l e d early.

9, Temperature S t r u t s s u b j e c t t o load f l u c t u a t i o n due t o temperature l o a d s ; may b e

important f o r long s t r u t s .

10. Frost Penetration I n very c o l d c l i m a t e s , f r o s t p e n e t r a t i o n can cause s i g n i f i c a n t loading on

wall system. Design of upper p o r t i o n of system should be conservative.
Anchors may have t o be heated. Freezing temperatures a l s o can cause
blockage of flow and t h u s unexpected buildup of water pressure.

11. Earthquakes Seismic l o a d s may be induted during earthquake, See DM-7.3, Chapter 1.

12. F a c t o r s of S a f e t y Suggested Minimum Design Factor of S a f e t y

f o r Overall S t a b i l i t y
I

Item Permanent Temporary

E a r t h Berms 2.0 1.5

Cut Slopes 1.5 1.3
Bottom heave above founda- 1.5 1.5
tion level
General s t a b i l i t y 1.5 1.3
Bottan heave a t foundation 2.0 1.5
level

Note: These v a l u e s a r e suggested g u i d e l i n e s only. Design s a f e t y

f a c t o r depends on p r o j e c t requirements.
7. PROTECTION OF ADJACENT STRUCTURES. E v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t s of b r a c e d exca-
v a t i o n s on a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s t o determine whether e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g founda-
t i o n s a r e t o be p r o t e c t e d . See DM-7.3, Chapters 2 and 3 on s t a b i l i z i n g foun-
d a t i o n s o i l s and methods of underpinning. F i g u r e 7 (modified from R e f e r e n c e
9, Damage t o B r i c k Bearing Wall ~ t r u c t u ; e s ~ a i s e dby Adjacent Braced C u t s and
Tunnels. bv O'Rourke. e t a l . ) i l l u s t r a t e s a r e a s behind a braced w a i l where
s .

underpinning i s o r may be r e q u i r e d .

F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e type of b r a c i n g used and t h e need f o r u n d e r p i n n i n g

include :

( a ) L a t e r a l d i s t a n c e of e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e from t h e braced e x c a v a t i o n .
E m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s can be found i n Reference 8.

( b ) Lowering groundwater can cause s o i l c o n s o l i d a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t of

structures.

( c ) Dewatering should be p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d t o e n s u r e t h e r e i s n o
removal of f o u n d a t i o n s o i l s o u t s i d e t h e e x c a v a t i o n .

( d ) T o l e r a n c e of s t r u c t u r e s t o movement. See DM-7.1, Chapter 5 f o r

e v a l u a t i o n of t o l e r a n c e of s t r u c t u r e t o v e r t i c a l movements. V e r t i c a l and
l a t e r a l movements produce h o r i z o n t a l s t r a i n s i n s t r u c t u r e . Guidance o n
p e r m i s s i b l e h o r i z o n t a l s t r a i n s f o r s t r u c t u r e s i s g i v e n i n Reference 9.

S e c t i o n 5. ROCK EXCAVATION

1. OBJECTIVE. Primary o b j e c t i v e i s t o conduct work i n such a manner t h a t a

s t a b l e e x c a v a t i o n w i l l be maintained and t h a t rock o u t s i d e t h e e x c a v a t i o n
prism w i l l n o t be a d v e r s e l y d i s t u r b e d .

2. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. Rock e x c a v a t i o n planning must be b a s e d o n

d e t a i l e d g e o l o g i c a l d a t a a t t h e s i t e . To t h e e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , s t r u c t u r e s t o
be c o n s t r u c t e d i n rock should be o r i e n t e d f a v o r a b l y w i t h t h e g e o l o g i c a l s e t -
ting. For example, t u n n e l s should be a l i g n e d w i t h a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
s t r i k e of f a u l t s o r major f r a c t u r e s . Downslope d i p of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t o a n
open c u t should be avoided.

I n g e n e r a l , f a c t o r s t h a t must be c o n s i d e r e d i n p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n i n g and con-

s t r u c t i n g a r o c k e x c a v a t i o n a r e a s follows: ( 1 ) presence of s t r i k e , d i p o f
f a u l t s , f o l d s , f r a c t u r e s , and o t h e r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ; ( 2 ) i n s i t u stresses; ( 3 )
groundwater c o n d i t i o n s ; ( 4 ) n a t u r e of m a t e r i a l f i l l i n g j o i n t s ; (5) d e p t h and
s l o p e of c u t ; ( 6 ) s t r e s s e s and d i r e c t i o n of p o t e n t i a l s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s ; ( 7 )
dynamic l o a d i n g , i f any; ( 8 ) d e s i g n l i f e of c u t a s compared t o w e a t h e r i n g o r
d e t e r i o r a t i o n r a t e of r o c k f a c e ; ( 9 ) r i p p a b i l i t y a n d / o r t h e need f o r b l a s t i n g ;
and (10) e f f e c t of e x c a v a t i o n a n d / o r b l a s t i n g on a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s .

The i n f l u e n c e of most of t h e s e f a c t o r s on e x c a v a t i o n s i n rock i s similar t o

t h a t of e x c a v a t i o n s i n s o i l , s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 7.
 \
\ -
\
\
TIGHTLY BRACED/ T I E
EXCAVATION WALL

BASE OF STABLE AND DEWATORED

EXCAVATION

ZONE A:

FOUNDATIONS WITHIN T H I S ZONE GENERALLY REQUIRE UNDERPINNING.

ZONE B:

FOUNDATIONS WITHIN T H I S ZONE GENERALLY MAY NOT REQUIRE UNDERPINNING

DEPENDING ON TYPE OF STRUCTURE AND LOADING CONDITIONS.

ZONE C:

UNDERPINNING I F USED MUST BE FOUNDED I N T H I S ZONE TO APPROPRIATE DEPTHS

ESTABLISHED BY EXPLORATION AND ANALYSIS.

Note: A d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s on underpinning m a y be found i n DM-7.3, C h a p t e r 3.

FIGURE 7
G e n e r a l G u i d a n c e for U n d e r p i n n i n g
3. RIPPABILITY. Excavation e a s e o r r i p p a b i l i t y can be a s s e s s e d a p p r o x i m a t e -
l y from f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n i n s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s o r by u s i n g s e i s m i c v e l o c i t y ,
f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g , o r p o i n t l o a d s t r e n g t h index. F i g u r e 8 (from R e f e r e n c e 10,
Handbook of Ripping, by C a t e r p i l l a r T r a c t o r Co.) shows an example of charts
f o r heavy d u t y r i p p e r performance ( r i p p e r mounted on t r a c k e d b u l l d o z e r ) as
r e l a t e d t o s e i s m i c wave v e l o c i t y . Charts s i m i l a r t o Figure 8 a r e a v a i l a b l e
from v a r i o u s equipment manufacturers. F i g u r e 8 i s f o r guidance and r e s t r i c t e d
i n a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o l a r g e t r a c t o r s h e a v i e r t h a n 50 t o n s w i t h engine h o r s e p o w e r
g r e a t e r than 350 Hp. Ripper performance i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o c o n f i g u r a t i o n of
r i p p e r t e e t h , equipment c o n d i t i o n and s i z e , and f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n .

Another t e c h n i q u e of r e l a t i n g p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of r o c k t o e x c a v a t i o n e a s e
i s shown on F i g u r e 9 (from Reference 11, Logging t h e Mechanical C h a r a c t e r of
Rock, by F r a n k l i n , e t a l . ) where f r a c t u r e frequency ( o r s p a c i n g ) i s p l o t t e d
a g a i n s t t h e p o i n t l o a d s t r e n g t h index c o r r e c t e d t o a r e f e r e n c e d i a m e t e r of 50
mm. (See Reference 12, The Point-Load S t r e n g t h T e s t , by Broch and F r a n k l i n . )

A t h i r d and u s e f u l technique i s e x p l o r a t i o n t r e n c h i n g i n which t h e d e p t h o f

u n r i p p a b l e r o c k can be e s t a b l i s h e d by d i g g i n g t e s t t r e n c h e s i n rock u s i n g
r i p p e r s ( o r o t h e r e x c a v a t i o n equipment) a n t i c i p a t e d t o be used f o r t h e pro-
ject. The s i z e and shape of t h e a r e a t o be excavated i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r
i n determining t h e need f o r b l a s t i n g , o r t h e equipment needed t o remove t h e
rock.

4. BLASTING. Of major concern i s t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e b l a s t i n g on a d j a c e n t

s t r u c t u r e s . The maximum p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y ( t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l v e l o c i t y o f a
p a r t i c l e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e wave t h a t i s g e n e r a t e d by t h e b l a s t ) i s
accepted a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r s t r u c t u r a l damage
induced by b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n . The c r i t i c a l l e v e l of t h e p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y
depends on t h e frequency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t r u c t u r e , frequency of ground
and rock motion, n a t u r e of t h e overburden, and c a p a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e t o
withstand dynamic s t r e s s . F i g u r e 10 can be used f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e maximum
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , which can then be used i n F i g u r e 11 (from R e f e r e n c e 1 3 ,
B l a s t i n g V i b r a t i o n s and T h e i r E f f e c t s on S t r u c t u r e s , by Bureau of M i n e s ) t o
e s t i m a t e p o t e n t i a l damage t o r e s i d e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e s . Guidance f o r human
response t o b l a s t i n g v i b r a t i o n s i s g i v e n i n Figure 12 (from Reference 1 4 ,
~ n g i n e d r i n gof Rock B l a s t i n g on C i v i l P r o j e c t s , by Hendron).

Once i t has been determined t h a t b l a s t i n g i s r e q u i r e d , a p r e - b l a s t i n g s u r v e y

should be performed. As a minimum, t h i s should i n c l u d e : ( a ) e x a m i n a t i o n of
t h e s i t e ; ( b ) d e t a i l e d examination and perhaps photographic r e c o r d s o f a d j a -
c e n t s t r u c t u r e s ; and ( c ) e s t a b l i s h m e n t of h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l s u r v e y con-
t r o l points. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of v i b r a t i o n monitoring s h o u l d b e
c o n s i d e r e d , and monitoring s t a t i o n s and s c h e d u l e s should be e s t a b l i s h e d .
During c o n s t r u c t i o n , d e t a i l e d r e c o r d s should be k e p t o f : ( a ) charge w e i g h t ,
( b ) l o c a t i o n of b l a s t p o i n t and d i s t a n c e from e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s , ( c ) d e l a y s ,
and ( d ) r e s p o n s e a s i n d i c a t e d by v i b r a t i o n monitoring. For s a f e t y , s m a l l
c h a r g e s should be used i n i t i a l l y t o e s t a b l i s h a s i t e s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p
between c h a r g e weight, d i s t a n c e , and response.
 ,

TOPS01L I

CLAY
GLACIAL TILL
IGNEOUS ROCKS
--.---a

--.-- . a* -
SEDl MENTARY ROCKS

CONGWMERATE

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

RIPPABLE
MARGINAL
-
------
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN FT. PER SEC.
1011 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

NON-RIPPABLE --- (THOUSANDS)

FIGURE 8
Rippability of Subsurface Materials Related to Longitudinal
Seismic Velocity for a Heavy Duty Ripper (Tractor-Mounted)
 A

LL

* POINT LOAD STRENGTH 1, (50)TONSIFT *

POINT LOAD STRENGTH CORRECTED TO A REFERENCE DIAMETER OF 5 0 MM.

FIGURE 9
suggested Guide for Ease of Excavation
 I 2 3 5 7 0 2 0 3 0 5070100 200
R/(w)I)S, FT./LR@
SCALED RANGE

EXAMPLE :

Weight of Explosive Charge = 8 l b s . = W

Distance from Blast Point = 100 f t. = R

~ / ( w i 1 / 3 = 50

Peak Vr = 0.5 i n / s e c from chart

L

FIGURE 10
Cube Root Scaling Versus Maximum P a r t i c l e Velocity
 f

10.0 -
9.0- --
MAJOR DAMAGE
(FALL OF PLASTER,

cj
-
8.0 SERIOUS CRACKING)
W
q 7.0-
-
z
1 6.0 -
MINOR DAMAGE
> (FINE PLASTER
k 5.0- CRACKS,OPENING
0 OF OLD CRACKS)
S 4.0-
>
W
J
3.0 - CAUTION
0

5 '"1 1 .O SAFE

0 ,

FIGURE 11
Guideline f o r Assessing P o t e n t i a l f o r Damage Induced by
B l a s t i n g V i b r a t i o n t o R e s i d e n t i a l S t r u c t u r e Founded on
Dense S o i l o r Rock
 4

10.0 b 1 10.0

DAMAGE DAMAGE

4.0 4O
.
CAUTION CAUTION
2.o 2.0
n SEVERE
d 1.2
1.0 - 1.0
-
DISTURBING
-I SEVERE.
-
k COMPLAINTS
0 04 LIKELY
3W
>
W 0.2
4
-
0
k

0
0.1 - 0.1 -
NOT ICEABLE
0.06 NOT lCEAeCE

COMPLAINTS
POSSlBLE
0.02 .

0.01 L
0.01 A
TRANSIENT MOTION. BLAST1NG VIBRATIONS
NO SOWD EFFECTS. ACOOMe#NIED BY SOUND
lMPARTIAL OBSERVER. EFFECTS.
B lASEO OBSERVER.

FIGURE 12
Guide for Predicting Human Response t o Vibrations and Blasting E f f e c t s
 S e c t i o n 6. GROUNDWATER CONTROL

1. APPLICATION. Excavations below t h e groundwater t a b l e r e q u i r e ground-

w a t e r c o n t r o l t o permit c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e d r y and m a i n t a i n t h e s t a b i l i t y of
e x c a v a t i o n base and s i d e s . T h i s i s accomplished by c o n t r o l l i n g s e e p a g e i n t o
t h e e x c a v a t i o n and c o n t r o l l i n g a r t e s i a n water p r e s s u r e s below t h e b o t t o m of
t h e excavation.

2. METHOD. See Table 7 (modified from Reference 15, C o n t r o l of Groundwater

by Water Lowering, by Cashman and H a r r i s ) f o r methods of c o n t r o l l i n g ground-
w a t e r , t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y- ,- and l i m i t a t i o n s . W e l l p o i n t s , deep w e l l s , a n d
sumps a r e most- commonly used. F i g u r e s 13(A) (from- ~ e f e r e n c e and 1 3 ( ~ ) i)
(from Reference 16, Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n of Dry Docks, by Mazurkiewbcz)
show a dewatering system u s i n g deep w e l l s , and a two s t a g e w e l l p o i n t system.
F i g u r e s 13(C) and 13(D) (from Reference 16) shows d e t a i l s of a w e l l p o i n t
system, and a deep w e l l w i t h e l e c t r i c submersible pump. See F i g u r e 1 4 (from
Reference 2 ) f o r a p p l i c a b l e limits of dewatering methods.

3. DESIGN PROCEDURE. See DM-7.1, Chapter 6 f o r d e s c r i p t i o n of d e s i g n . p r o c e -

d u r e s f o r groundwater c o n t r o l . For a d d i t i o n a l guidance on groundwater c o n t r o l
s e e NAVFAC P-418.

S e c t i o n 7. EXCAVATION STABILIZATION, MONITORING, AND SAFETY

1. STABILIZATION. During t h e planning and d e s i g n s t a g e , i f a n a l y s e s i n d i -

c a t e p o t e n t i a l s l o p e i n s t a b i l i t y , means f o r s l o p e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o r r e t e n t i o n
should be c o n s i d e r e d . Some methods f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n are g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 3.

On o c c a s i o n , t h e complexity of a s i t u a t i o n may d i c t a t e u s i n g v e r y s p e c i a l i z e d
s t a b i l i z a t i o n methods. These may i n c l u d e g r o u t i n g and i n j e c t i o n , g r o u n d
f r e e z i n g , deep d r a i n a g e and s t a b i l i z a t i o n , such as vacuum w e l l s o r e l e c t r o -
osmosis ( s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 2 ) , and diaphragm w a l l s ( s e e DM-7.3, C h a p t e r 3 ) .

2. MONITORING. During e x c a v a t i o n , p o t e n t i a l bottom heave, l a t e r a l w a l l o r

s l o p e movement, and s e t t l e m e n t of a r e a s behind t h e w a l l o r s l o p e s h o u l d b e
i n s p e c t e d c a r e f u l l y and monitored i f c r i t i c a l . Monitoring can be a c c o m p l i s h e d
by c o n v e n t i o n a l s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s , o r by more s o p h i s t i c a t e d means s u c h as
heave p o i n t s , s e t t l e m e n t p l a t e s , extensometers o r i n c l i n o m e t e r s , and a v a r i e t y
of o t h e r d e v i c e s . See DM-7.1, Chapter 2.

3. SAFETY. D e t a i l e d s a f e t y requirements vary from p r o j e c t t o p r o j e c t . As a

g u i d e , s a f e t y requirements a r e s p e c i f i e d by OSHA, see Reference 17, P u b l i c Law
91-596. A summary of t h e 1980 requirements follows:

a. OSHA Rules.

( 1 ) Banks more t h a n 4 f e e t high s h a l l be shored o r sloped t o t h e

a n g l e of r e p o s e where a danger of s l i d e s o r cave-ins e x i s t s a s a r e s u l t of
excavation.
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 TABLE 7 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Methods of Groundwater C o n t r o l

Soils Suitable
Method For Treatment Uses Comments

5. Sheet p i l i n g c u t - A l l t y p e s of s o i l P r a c t i c a 1l y unr e- Well-understood method u s i n g

off ( e x c e p t b o u l d e r beds).
Tongue and groove wood
sheeting u t i l i z e d f o r
shallow excavations i n
s o f t and medium s o i l s .
6. Slurry trench cut- S i l t s , sands, gravels,
o f f ( s e e DM-7.3, and c o b b l e s .
Chapter 3 and
DM-7.1, Chapter 6 )
s t r i c t e d use.
P r a c t i c a l l y unre-
s t r i c t e d . Extensive
c u r t a i n w a l l s around
open e x c a v a t i o n s .
readily available plant.
Rapid i n s t a l l a t i o n . Steel
can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n perma-
n e n t works o r r e c o v e r e d .
Sump pumping may be r e q u i r e d .
E s t i m a t e seepage flow based
on 0.01 gpmlsq f t of w a l l per
f o o t of d i f f e r e n t i a l head.
Decrease i n t e r l o c k l e a k a g e by
f i l l i n g i n t e r l o c k w i t h saw-
d u s t , b e n t o n i t e , cement
grout, o r similar materials.
- -
Rapidly i n s t a l l e d . Can b e
keyed i n t o impermeable s t r a t a
such a s c l a y s o r s o f t shales.
May be i m p r a c t i c a l t o key in-
t o h a r d o r i r r e g u l a r bedrock
s u r f a c e s , o r i n open g r a v e l s .

7. Freezing ( s e e
DM-7.3, Chapter 2 )

a. Ammonium/brine A l l t y p e s of s a t u r a t e d Formation of i c e i n Treatment e f f e c t i v e from

refrigerator s o i l s and rock. the voids stops working s u r f a c e outwards.
water. Better f o r l a r g e a p p l i c a t i o n s
of long d u r a t i o n . Treatment
takes longer t i m e t o
develops.
 TABLE 7 (continued)
Methods of Groundwater Control

,
Soils Suitable
Method For Treatment Uses Comments

b. Liquid n i t r o - A l l types of s a t u r a t e d Formation of ice i n B e t t e r f o r small a p p l i c a t i o n s

gen r e f r i g e r - s o i l s and rock. the voids stops of s h o r t d u r a t i o n where quick
ant water. f r e e z i n g i s required. Liquid
n i t r o g e n i s expensive.
Requires s t r i c t s i t e c o n t r o l .
Some ground heave occurs.

8. Diaphragm
structural walls

a. Diaphragm A l l s o i l types includ- Deep basements, Can be designed t o form p a r t

walls (struc- ing those c o n t a i n i n g underground con- of a permanent foundation.
t u r a l con- boulders. struction, shafts. Particularly efficient for
c r e t e ) (see c i r c u l a r excavations. Can be
DM-7.3, C h a p keyed i n t o rock. Minimum
ter 3 ) v i b r a t i o n and noise. Can be
used i n r e s t r i c t e d space.
Can be put down v e r y c l o s e t o
e x i s t i n g foundation.

b. Contiguous A l l s o i l types but Deep basements, A r a p i d l y i n s t a l l e d , form of

bored p i l e p e n e t r a t i o n through underground con- diaphragm wall. Can be keyed
walls o r b o u l d e r s may be struction, shafts. i n t o impermeable s t r a t a such
impervious w a l l d i f f i c u l t and c o s t l y a s clays o r s o f t shales.
of mixed i n
place p i l e s
 FIRST STAGE
GROUND

__----
FINE SILTY SAND
------__ -------------
. . .

NOTE: PUMPING FROM FIRST- STAGE SYSTEM LOWERS WATER TABLE APPROXIMATELY 15 FEET WHICH WILL
PERMIT EXCAVATION FOR INSTALLATIONOFSECOND-STACiE SYSTEM.
DEWATERING USING TWO STAGE WELLPOINT SYSTEM WATER LEVEL AFTER FIRST S T A G E @ m M OFEXCAVATION
@WATER LEVEL AFTER SECOND STAGE

@ TWO STAGE -WELLPOINT SYSTEM

+ 22 + 22

I. PI EZOMETER 4. CLAY
2. GROUNDWATER LEVEL 5. DEEP WELLS
3. SAND 6. ARTESIAN WATER PRESSURE REDUCED
TO -36 FEET (HORIZONTAL SCALE/VERTlCAL
SCALE = 2/51
7 DOWNWARD PRESSURE (TCTAL WEIGHT OFSOIL)
DEWATERING SYSTEM OF A DRY DOCK PIT
@ COMBlNE WELLPOINT AND DEEPWELL SYSTEM
FIGURE 13
Methods of Construction Dewatering
r

WATER TABLE

GRAVEL FILTER

JETTING HOLES

(C) DETAILS OF W E W T !WSfW

I. PERFORATED WELL LINER

2. DELIVERY PIPE
3 FILTER MEMA
4. ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
(Dl DETAILS OF DEEP WELL WITH SUBMERSIBLE PUMP

FIGURE 13 (continued)
Methods of Construction Dewatering
 ( 2 ) S i d e s of t r e n c h e s i n u n s t a b l e o r s o f t m a t e r i a l , 4 f e e t o r more
i n d e p t h , s h a l l be s h o r e d , s h e e t e d , b r a c e d , s l o p e d , o r o t h e r w i s e s u p p o r t e d by
ineans of sufficient s t r e n g t h t o p r o t e c t t h e employee working w i t h i n them.

( 3 ) S i d e s of t r e n c h e s i n hard o r compact s o i l , i n c l u d i n g embank-

ments, s h a l l be shored o r o t h e r w i s e s u p p o r t e d when t h e t r e n c h i s more t h a n 4
f e e t i n d e p t h and 8 f e e t o r more i n l e n g t h . I n l i e u of s h o r i n g , t h e s i d e s of
t h e t r e n c h above t h e & f o o t l e v e l may be sloped t o p r e c l u d e c o l l a p s e , b u t
s h a l l n o t be s t e e p e r than a 1-foot r i s e t o each 112-foot h o r i z o n t a l . When t h e
o u t s i d e diameter of a pipe i s g r e a t e r t h a n 6 f e e t , a bench of 4-foot minimum
s h a l l be provided a t t h e t o e of t h e sloped p o r t i o n .

( 4 ) M a t e r i a l s used f o r s h e e t i n g and s h e e t p i l i n g , b r a c i n g , s h o r i n g ,
and underpinning s h a l l be i n good s e r v i c e a b l e c o n d i t i o n . Timbers used s h a l l
be sound and f r e e from l a r g e o r l o o s e k n o t s , and s h a l l be designed and
i n s t a l l e d so a s t o be e f f e c t i v e t o t h e bottom of t h e e x c a v a t i o n .

( 5 ) A d d i t i o n a l p r e c a u t i o n s by way of s h o r i n g and b r a c i n g s h a l l . b e
t a k e n t o p r e v e n t s l i d e s o r cave-ins when ( a ) e x c a v a t i o n s o r t r e n c h e s a r e made
i n l o c a t i o n s a d j a c e n t t o b a c k f i l l e d e x c a v a t i o n s ; o r ( b ) where e x c a v a t i o n s a r e
s u b j e c t e d t o v i b r a t i o n s from r a i l r o a d o r highway t r a f f i c , o p e r a t i o n of
machinery, o r any o t h e r source.

( 6 ) Employees e n t e r i n g bell-bottom p i e r h o l e s s h a l l be p r o t e c t e d by
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of a removable-type c a s i n g of s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o r e s i s t
s h i f t i n g of t h e surrounding e a r t h . Such temporary p r o t e c t i o n s h a l l be provid-
ed f o r t h e f u l l d e p t h of t h a t p a r t of each p i e r h o l e which i s above t h e b e l l .
A l i f e l i n e , s u i t a b l e f o r i n s t a n t r e s c u e and s e c u r e l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e s h a f t s ,
s h a l l be provided. This l i f e l i n e s h a l l be i n d i v i d u a l l y manned and s e p a r a t e
from any l i n e used t o remove m a t e r i a l s excavated from t h e b e l l f o o t i n g .

( 7 ) Minimum requirements f o r t r e n c h t i m b e r i n g s h a l l be i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h Table 3.

(8) Where employees a r e r e q u i r e d t o be i n t r e n c h e s 3 f e e t deep o r

more, l a d d e r s s h a l l be provided which extend from t h e f l o o r of t h e t r e n c h
e x c a v a t i o n t o a t l e a s t 3 f e e t above t h e t o p of t h e e x c a v a t i o n . They s h a l l be
l o c a t e d t o provide means of e x i t without more t h a n 2 5 f e e t of l a t e r a l t r a v e l .

(9) Bracing o r shoring of t r e n c h e s s h a l l be c a r r i e d a l o n g w i t h t h e

excavation.

( 1 0 ) Cross b r a c e s o r t r e n c h jacks s h a l l be placed i n t r u e h o r i z o n t a l

p o s i t i o n , spaced v e r t i c a l l y , and secured t o prevent s l i d i n g , f a l l i n g , o r k i c k -
outs.

( 1 1 ) P o r t a b l e t r e n c h boxes o r s l i d i n g t r e n c h s h i e l d s may be used f o r

t h e p r o t e c t i o n of employees only. Trench boxes o r s h i e l d s s h a l l be d e s i g n e d ,
c o n s t r u c t e d , and maintained t o meet a c c e p t a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g s t a n d a r d s .

( 1 2 ) B a c k f i l l i n g and removal of t r e n c h s u p p o r t s s h a l l p r o g r e s s
t o g e t h e r from t h e bottom of t h e trench. J a c k s o r b r a c e s s h a l l be r e l e a s e d
s l o w l y , and i n u n s t a b l e s o i l , r o p e s s h a l l be used t o p u l l o u t t h e j a c k s o r
b r a c e s from above a f t e r employees have c l e a r e d t h e t r e n c h .
 REFERENCES

1. Clough, G.W. and Davidson, R.R., E f f e c t s of Construction on

Geotechnical Engineering, S p e c i a l t y Session No. 3, R e l a t i o n s h i p Between
Design and Construction i n S o i l Engineering, Ninth I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, 1977.

2. Departments of t h e Army and the Air Force, S o i l s and Geology,

Procedures f o r Foundation Design of Buildings and Other S t r u c t u r e s
(Except Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s ) , TM 5/818-1/AFM 88-3, Chapter 7,
Washington, D.C., 1979.

3. Terzaghi, K., S t a b i l i t y of Steep Slopes on Hard Unweathered Rock,

Norwegian Geotechnical I n s t i t u t e , P u b l i c a t i o n No. 50, 1963.

4. Petersen, E.V., Cave-In!, Roads and Engineering Construction, November

1963, December 1963, January 1964.

5. Goldberg, D.T., Jaworkski, W.E., and Gordon, M.D., L a t e r a l Support

Systems and Underpinning, Vol. 11, Design Fundamentals, Vol. 111.
Construction Methods, Federal Highway Administration, Report Nos.
FWA-RD-75-129, 130, 1976.

6. Bjerrum, L., Clausen, J.F. and Duncan, J.M., S t a b i l i t y of F l e x i b l e

S t r u c t u r e s , General Report, Proceedings, F i f t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l European
Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 11, 1977'.

7. Lambe, T.W., Braced Excavation, 1970 S p e c i a l t y Conference, L a t e r a l

S t r e s s e s i n t h e Ground and Design of Earth R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s , J u n e
22-24, Cornell University, ASCE, 1971.

8. Peck, R.B., Deep Excavations and Tunneling i n S o f t Ground, Proceedings,

Seventh I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Engi-
n e e r i n g , State-of-the-Art Vol. 1, 1969.

9. O'Rourke, T.P., Cording, E.J. and Boscardin, M., Damage t o Brick

Bearing Wall S t r u c t u r e s Caused by Adjacent Braced Cuts and Tunnels,
Large Ground Movements, John Wiley & Sons, 1977.

10. C a t e r p i l l a r T r a c t o r Co., Handbook of Ripping, F i f t h E d i t i o n , P e o r i a ,

IL., 1975.

11. F r a n k l i n , J.A., Broch, E. and Walton, G., Logging t h e Mechanical

Character of Rock, Transactions, I n s t i t u t i o n of Mining and Metallurgy,
January 1971.

12. Broch, E. and Franklin, J.A., The Point-load S t r e n g t h T e s t , I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l Rock Mechanics and Mining Science, Vol. 9 , 1972.

13. Bureau of Mines, B l a s t i n g Vibrations and Their E f f e c t on S t r u c t u r e s ,

United S t a t e s Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , 1971.
14. Hendron, A.J., Engineering of Rock Blasting on Civil Projects, Rock
Excavation Seminar Lectures, ASCE, New York, October, 1976.

15. Cashman, P.M. and Harris, E.T., Control of Groundwater by Water

Lowering, Conference on Ground Engineering, Institute of Civil
Engineers, London, 1970.

16. Mazurkiewicz, B.K., Design and Construction of Dry Docks, Trans Tech
Publications, Rockport, MA, 1980.

17. Public Law 91-596 (Williams-Steiger Act), Occupational Safety and

Health Act (OSHA) of 1970, Dec. 29, 1970.

18 Naval Facilities Command P-Publication, P-418, Dewatering

and Groundwater Control.
 CHAPTER 2. COMPACTION, EARTHWORK, AND HYDRAULIC FILLS

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r concerns d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of compacted f i l l s

and performance of compacted m a t e r i a l s . Compaction r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e g i v e n f o r
v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s and equipment. Earthwork c o n t r o l procedures and a n a l y s i s
of c o n t r o l t e s t d a t a a r e d i s c u s s e d . Guidance on h y d r a u l i c f i l l s i s a l s o
included.

2. RELATED CRITERIA. For a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a concerned w i t h compaction and

earthwork o p e r a t i o n s , c o n s u l t t h e following s o u r c e s :

Subject Source

Pavements...............................................NAVFAC DM-5.4
S o i l Conservation.......................................NAVFAC DM-5.11
F l e x i b l e Pavement Design f o r Airfield...................NAVFAC DM-21.3
Dredging ...............................................F
Types of Dredging Equipment.............................NA
A DM-26
DM-38

PURPOSE OF COMPACTION.

(1) Reduce m a t e r i a l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y .
(2) Increase material strength.
(3) Reduce p e r m e a b i l i t y .
(4) C o n t r o l expansion.
(5) Control f r o s t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y .

4. APPLICATIONS. The p r i n c i p a l u s e s of compacted f i l l i n c l u d e s u p p o r t o f

s t r u c t u r e s o r pavements, embankments f o r water r e t e n t i o n o r f o r l i n i n g r e s e r -
v o i r s and c a n a l s , and b a c k f i l l surrounding s t r u c t u r e s o r b u r i e d u t i l i t i e s .

TYPES OF FILL.

a. C o n t r o l l e d Compacted F i l l s . P r o p e r l y placed compacted f i l l w i l l b e

more r i g i d and uniform and have g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h t h a n most n a t u r a l s o i l s .

b. H y d r a u l i c F i l l s . Hydraulic f i l l s cannot be compacted d u r i n g place-

ment and t h e r e f o r e i t i s important t h a t t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s be s e l e c t e d c a r e -
fully.

c. U n c o n t r o l l e d F i l l s . These c o n s i s t of s o i l s o r i n d u s t r i a l and domes-

t i c wastes, s u c h a s a s h e s , s l a g , chemical w a s t e s , b u i l d i n g r u b b l e , and r e f u s e .
Use of a s h , s l a g , and chemical waste i s s t r i n g e n t l y c o n t r o l l e d and c u r r e n t
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency o r o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e r e g u l a t i o n s must be con-
sidered.
 Section 2. EMBANKMENT CROSS-SECTION DESIGN

1. INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL TYPE. Table 1 lists some typical properties of

compacted soils which may be used for preliminary analysis. For final analy-
sis engineering property tests are necessary.

a. Utilization. See Table 2 for relative desirability of various soil

types in earth fill dams, canals, roadways and foundations. Although practi-
cally any nonorganic insoluble soil may be incorporated in an embankment when
modern compaction equipment and control standards are employed, the following
soils may be difficult to use economically:

( 1 ) Fine-grained soils may have insufficient shear strength or ex-

cessive compressibility.

(2) Clays of medium to high plasticity may expand if placed under

low confining pressures and/or at low moisture contents. See DM-7.1, Chapter
1 for identification of soils susceptible to volume expansion.

(3) Plastic soils with high natural moisture are difficult to pro-
cess for proper moisture for compaction.

(4) Stratified soils may require extensive mixing of borrow.

2. EMBANKMENTS ON STABLE FOUNDATION. The side slopes of fills not subjected

to seepage forces ordinarily vary between 1 on 1-1/2 and 1 on 3. The geometry
of the slope and berms are governed by requirements for erosion control and
maintenance. See DM-7.1, Chapter 7 for procedures to calculate stability of
embankments.

3. EMBANKMENTS ON WEAK FOUNDATIONS. Weak foundation soils may require par-

tial or complete removal, flattening of embankment slopes, or densification.
Analyze cross-section stability by methods of DM-7.1, Chapter 7. See DM-7.3,
Chapter 2 for methods of deep stabilization, and Chapter 3 for special prob-
lem soils.

4. EMBANKMENT SETTLEMENT. Settlement of an embankment is caused by founda-

tion consolidation, consolidation of the embankment material itself, and
secondary compression in the embankment after its completion.

a. Foundation Settlement. See DM-7.1, Chapter 5 for procedures to

decrease foundation settlement or to accelerate consolidation. See DM-7.3,
Chapter 1 for guidance on settlement potential under seismic conditions.

b. Embankment Consolidation. Significant excess pore pressures can

develop during construction of fills exceeding about 80 feet in height or for
lower fills of plastic materials placed wet of optimum moisture. ~issi~ation
of these excess pore pressures after construction results in settlement. For
earth dams and other high fills where settlement is critical, construction
pore pressures should be monitored by the methods of DM-7.1, Chapter 2.
 LABIZ 1
Typical P r o p e r t i e s of Compacted S o i l s
Typical Value of Typical StrenRth Characterimtics
Compresaion
Ranpe of 0 Typical Range of
Maximu Range of Cohesion ( I f f a c t iva Coefficient Subgr.de
Dry Unit Optimum At 1.4 At 3.6 (an c w Cohesion Streaa of P e r m e r Hodulum
croup Weight, PIolature, tmf taf patted) (maturated) Envelop. billty ' Range of k
Symbol S o i l Type pcf Parcant (20 p s i ) (50 pmi) paf paf Dcgreaa) Tao 9 ft./min. CBR Valuam l b l c u in.
Percent of Original
Height
CU Well graded clean gravelm.
gravel-nand mixtures.
125 - 135 11 -8 0.3 0.6 0 0 >38 >0.79 5 x 40 - 80 300 - 500
CP Poorly graded clean
gravels. gravel-sand mix
115 - 125 14 - 11 0.4 0.9 0 0 >37 >0.74 10-1 30 - 60 250 - 400

CH S i l t y gravels, poorly
graded gravel-sand-silt.
120 - 135 12 -8 0.5 1.1 ..... ..... >34 >0.67 >lo-( 20 - 60 100 - 400

CC Clayey gravela. poorly

graded gravel-aand-clay.
115 - 130 14 -9 0.7 1.6 ..... ..... >31 >0.60 >lo-? 20 - 40 100 - 300

SU Well graded clean aands, 110 - 130 16 -9 0.6 1.2 0 0 38 0.79 >lo-3 20 - 40 200 - 300
gravelly aands.

SP Poorly graded clean mandm. 100 - 120 21 - 12 0.8 1.4 0 0 37 0.74 >lo-3 10 - 40 200 - 300
sand-gravel mlx.
SH S i l t y sands. poorly graded
sand-silt mix.
110 - 125 16 - I1 0.8 1.6 1050 420 34 0.67 5 x >lO-5 10 - 40 100 - 300

SH-SC Sand~iltclaymixuith 110-130 15-11 0.8 1.4 I050 300 33 0.66 2 x >lo-( 5 - 30 100 - 300
a l i g h t l y p l a s t i c fines.
SC Clayey aandm, poorly
graded sand-clay-mix.
105 - 125 19 - 11 1.1 2.2 1550 2 30 31 0.60 5x>10-7 5-20 100-300

HI. Inorganic a i l t a and clayey 95 - 120 24 - 12 0.9 1.7 1400 190 32 0.62 >10-5 15 o r lema 100 - 200
ailts.
PIL-CL Mixture of inorganic a i l t
and clay.
100 - 120 22 - 12 1.0 2.2 1350 460 32 0.62 5 x >LO-7 .....
CL Inorganic claya of la, t o 95 - 120 24 - 12 1.3 2.5 1800 . 270 28 0.54 >lo-7 15 o r lea. 50 - 200
medium p l a s t i c i t y .

OL Organic s i l t a and m i l t -
claya. l w plasticity.
80 - 100 33 - 21 ..... ............... ..... .......... 5 or less 50 - 100

W Inorganic clayey s i l t s . 70 - 95 40 - 24 2.0 3.8 1500 4 20 25 0.47 5 x >lo-7 10 o r lemm 50 - 100

elastic silts.

Cll Inorganic clays of high 75 - 105 36 - 19 2.6 3.9 2150 230 19 0.35 >10-7 15 o r Isam 50 - 150
plasticity

OH Organic clays and s i l t y

clays
65 - 100 45 - 21 ..... ..... .......... ..... .......... 5 o r leas 25 - 100

Notes:

1. A l l propertiea a r e For condition of "Standard Proctor" mximun 3. Compresaion values a r e f o r v e r t i c a l loading with complete
deosity, except v r l w a of k and CBR which a r e f o r "modified l a t e r a l con€inement.
Proctor. maximum dmsity.
4. 0)indicate. t h a t typical property i s greater than the value
2. Typical mtength characteriaticm a r e f o r e f f e c t i v e atrength mhovn.
envelopes and a r e obtained from USBR data. (..)i n d i c a t e s insufficient data available f o r an estimate.
 TABLE 2
R e l a t i v e D e s i r a b i l i t y of S o i l s a s Compacted F i l l
-- - --- --
RELATIVE DESIRABILITY FOR VARIOUS USES
(No. 1 i s Considered t h e Best. No. 14 Least D e s i r a b l e )

Rolled E a r t h F i l l Dams Canal S e c t i o n s Foundations Roadways

Fills
Group
Symbol S o i l Type u
m 2 Url U
2 0
g w c U u
C
%5 % m
0
c U :2 c
.,
I 0r 1
O WU
e U m
85 ,-,
rl
c
o
m
0 u
1 ms
n u
m u
m u
2 ,2
x r l
4 3 a .A
U
*m
x u
e
0
C
m
U4 . . 10
* U
wDL
I:
LI w mO : r( 2 El
U
s
m
Well graded g r a v e l s , gravel-
GW sand m i x t u r e s , l i t t l e o r no - - 1 1 - - 1 1 1 3
fines

Poorly-graded g r a v e l s ,
GP gravel-sand mixtures, l i t t l e - - 2 2 - - 3 3 3 -
o r no f i n e s

GM S i l t y g r a v e l s , poorly graded 2 4 - 4 4 1 4 4 9 5
g r a v e l - s a n d - s i l t mixtures

CC Clayey g r a v e l s , poorly graded 1 I - 3 I 2 6 5 5 1

gravel-sand-clay mixtures

SW Well-graded sands, g r a v e l l y - - 3 6 - - 2 2 2 4
s a n d s , l i t t l e o r no f i n e s if
gravelly

SP Poorly-graded sands, g r a v e l l y - - 4 7 - - 5 6 4 -
s a n d s , l i t t l e o r no f i n e s if if
gravelly gravelly

St4 S i l t y sands, poorly graded 4 5 - 8 5 3 7 6 10 6

s a n d - s i l t mixtures if erosion
gravelly critical

SC Clayey sands, poorly graded 3 2 - 5 2 4 8 7 6 2

sand-clay mixtures

Inorganic s i l t s and very f i n e

ML sands, rock f l o u r , s i l t y o r 6 6 - - 6 6 9 10 11 -
clayey f i n e sands with s l i g h t erosion
plasticity critical

I n o r g a n i c c l a y s of low t o
CL medium p l a s t i c i t y , g r a v e l l y 5 3 - 9 3 5 10 9 7 7
c l a y s , sandy c l a y s , s i l t y
clays, lean c l a y s

OL Organic S i l t s and o r g a n i c 8 8 - - 7 7 11 11 12 -
s i l t - c l a y s of low p l a s t i c i t y erosion
critical

MN Inorganic s i l t s , micaceous o r 9 9 - - 8 12 12 13 -
diatomaceous f ~ n esandy o r
s i l t y soils, elastic s i l t s

CH I n o r g a n i c c l a y s of high 7 7 - 10 8-vol 9 13 13 8 -
plasticity, f a t clays change
critical

OH Organic c l a y s of medium high

plasticity
10 10 - - - 10 14 14 14 -

- Not a p p r o p r l a c e f o r t h i s type of use.

 c. Secondary Compression. Even f o r well-compacted embankments, second-
a r y compression and s h e a r s t r a i n c a n cause s l i g h t s e t t l e m e n t s a f t e r comple-
- t i o n . Normally t h i s i s o n l y of s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h i g h embankments, and c a n
amount t o between 0.1 and 0.2 p e r c e n t of f i l l h e i g h t i n t h r e e t o f o u r y e a r s o r
between 0.3 and 0.6 p e r c e n t i n 15 t o 20 y e a r s . The l a r g e r v a l u e s a r e f o r
fine-grained p l a s t i c s o i l s .

5. EARTH DAM EMBANKMENTS. E v a l u a t e s t a b i l i t y a t t h r e e c r i t i c a l stages; t h e

end of c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e , s t e a d y s t a t e seepage s t a g e , and r a p i d drawdown
s t a g e . See DM-7.1, Chapter 7 f o r pore p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e s e s t a g e s .
Seismic f o r c e s must be included i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n . Requirements f o r s e e p a g e
c u t o f f . and s t a b i l i t y d i c t a t e d e s i g n of c r o s s s e c t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f borrow
materials.

a. Seepage Control. Normally t h e earthwork of an e a r t h dam i s zoned

w i t h t h e l e a s t p e r v i o u s , f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s i n t h e c e n t r a l zone and c o a r s e s t ,
most s t a b l e m a t e r i a l i n t h e s h e l l . Analyze seepage by t h e methods of DM-7.1,
Chapter 6.

( 1 ) Cutoff Trench. Consider t h e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of a p o s i t i v e c u t -

o f f t r e n c h e x t e n d i n g t o impervious s t r a t a b e n e a t h t h e embankment and i n t o t h e
abutments.

( 2 ) I n t e r c e p t i n g Seepage. For a p r o p e r l y designed and c o n s t r u c t e d

zoned e a r t h dam, t h e r e i s l i t t l e danger from seepage through t h e embankment.
Drainage d e s i g n g e n e r a l l y i s d i c t a t e d by n e c e s s i t y f o r i n t e r c e p t i n g s e e p a g e
through t h e f o u n d a t i o n o r abutments. Downstream seepage c o n d i t i o n s a r e more
c r i t i c a l f o r homogeneous f i l l s . See DM-7.1, Chapter 6 f o r d r a i n a g e a n d f i l -
t e r requirements.

b. P i p i n g and Cracking. A g r e a t danger t o e a r t h dams, p a r t i c u l a r l y

t h o s e of zoned c o n s t r u c t i o n , i s t h e t h r e a t of c r a c k i n g and piping. Serious
c r a c k i n g may r e s u l t from t e n s i o n zones caused by d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s - s t r a i n
p r o p e r t i e s of zoned m a t e r i a l . See F i g u r e 1 (Reference 1, I n f l u e n c e of S o i l
P r o p e r t i e s and C o n s t r u c t i o n Methods on t h e Performance of Homogeneous E a r t h
Dams, by S h e r a r d ) f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s a c c o r d i n g t o r e s i s t a n c e t o
p i p i n g o r c r a c k i n g . Analyze t h e embankment s e c t i o n f o r p o t e n t i a l t e n s i o n zone
development. P l a c e an i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e l a y e r immediately downstream o f t h e
c o r e t o c o n t r o l seepage from p o s s i b l e c r a c k i n g i f f o u n d a t i o n s e t t l e m e n t s a r e
expected t o be high.

c. D i s p e r s i v e S o i l . D i s p e r s i v e c l a y s should n o t be used i n dam embank-

ments. Determine t h e d i s p e r s i o n p o t e n t i a l u s i n g Table 3 o r t h e method o u t l i n -
ed i n Reference 2, P i n h o l e T e s t f o r I d e n t i f y i n g D i s p e r s i v e S o i l s , by S h e r a r d ,
e t a l . A h o l e through a d i s p e r s i v e c l a y w i l l i n c r e a s e i n s i z e as water f l o w s
t h r o u g h (due t o t h e breakdown of t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e ) , whereas t h e s i z e of a
h o l e i n a non-dispersive c l a y would remain e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t . T h e r e f o r e ,
dams c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h d i s p e r s i v e c l a y s a r e extremely s u s c e p t i b l e t o p i p i n g .
.
US STANDARD SIEVE NUMBERS-
2 HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

+ an n 83898 8

GRAIN SIZE MILLIMETERS

COeeLES
COARSE

CATEGORY
GRAVEL
1
FINE -1
I
MATERIAL
MEDIUM
SAND
I 1 s I L T r n a * I ( ~ m c o ~NON-MK:)

PIPING RESISTANCE:
0 CL AND CH WITH PI ) IS, WELL
GRADED SC WITH PI ) 15.
CL AND ML WlTH PI( 15, WELL
GRADED sc AND GC w r r ~
15 ) PI )7.
SP AND UNIFORM SM AND ML
WITH PI ( 7.
FIGURE 1
Resistance of Earth Dam Embankment Materials To Piping and Cracking
CHARACTERISTICS
I
GRENEST RESISTANCE TO PIPING,SMALL AND MEDIUM CON-
CENTRATED LEAKS W l U HEALTHEMSELVES.EMBANKMENT
MAY Fi4lL AS A RESULT OF SLOWLY PROGRESSIVE PIPING
CAUSED BY LEAK OF ABOUT V2 CFS.
INTERMEDINE RESISTANCE TO PIPING. SMLY RESISTS
SATURATION OF LOWER PWION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE
INDEFINITELY MAY M I L EVENTUALLY AS A RESULT OF
EROSION CAUSED BYA SMALL CWCENTRATED LEAK OR BY
PROGRESSIVE SLOUGHING. IF A LARGE LEAK DEVELOPS,
PIPING CAUSES MIWRE IN A SHORT TIME.
LEAST RESISTANCE TO PIPING.USUAUY FAILS IN A FEW YEARS
AFTER FIRST RESERVOlR FILLING IF S E E M ISABLE TO
BREAK OUT ON DOWNSTREAM S I D E . SMALL CONCENTRATED
LEAK ON DOWNSTREAM SWPE CAN CWSE FAILURE IN A
SHORT PERIOD OF TIME. HIGH DENSITY FROM COM-
PACTION INCREASES RESISTANCE SIGNIFICANTLY.
.
 CATBGORY MATERIAL CHARACTERlSllCS
CRACKING RESISTC\NCE
@ CH WITH &(OXnMM
PI )M
AND HIGH POSTCONSTRUCTlON SETTLEMENT, PARTICULARLY IF
COMWCTED DRY. HAS SUFFICIENT DEFORMABILITY
TO UNDERGO LARGE SHEAR STRAINS FROM DIFFERENTIAL
SETTLEMENT WITHOUT -KING.
@ GC, SC,SM, SP WITH SMALL POSTCWSTRUCTlON SETTLEMENT. LITTLE
osO) 01.5 MM CHANCE FOR CRACKING UNLESS POORtY COMP#CTED
AND LARGE SETTLEMENT IS IMPOSED ON EMBANK-
MENT BY GONSOLlDATlON OF W E FOUNDATION.
0 CL, ML AND SM WITH PI< 20, MEDIUM TO HIGH POSTCONSTRUCTION SETTLEMENT
0.15 MM ) D 5 )~0.02 MM. AND VULNERABLE TO CRCICKING. SHOULD BE
COMPACTED AS WET AS POSSIBLE CONSISTENT WITH
STRENGTH REWIREMENTS.

FIGURE 1 (continued)
Resistance of Earth Dam Embankment Materials To Piping and Cracking
 TABLE 3
Clay Dispersion P o t e n t i a l

*Percent Dispersion D i s p e r s i v e Tendency

Over 40' Highly D i s p e r s i v e (do not u s e )

15 t o 40 Moderately D i s p e r s i v e

0 t o 15 Resistant t o Dispersion

*The r a t i o between t h e f r a c t i o n f i n e r t h a n 0.005 mm i n a soil-water suspension

t h a t has been subjected t o a minimum of mechanical a g i t a t i o n , and t h e t o t a l
f r a c t i o n f i n e r t h a n 0.005 mm determined from a r e g u l a r hydrometer t e s t x 100.
 S e c t i o n 3. COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES

1. COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS.

a. Summary. See Table 4 f o r a summary of compaction requirements o f

f i l l s f o r v a r i o u s purposes. Modify t h e s e t o meet c o n d i t i o n s and m a t e r i a l s f o r
s p e c i f i c projects.

b. S p e c i f i c a t i o n Provisions. Specify t h e d e s i r e d compaction r e s u l t .

S t a t e t h e r e q u i r e d d e n s i t y , moisture l i m i t s , and maximum l i f t t h i c k n e s s ,
allowing t h e - c o n t r a c t o r freedom i n s e l e c t i o n of compaction methods and e q u i p -
ment. Specify s p e c i a l equipment t o be used i f l o c a l experience and a v a i l a b l e
m a t e r i a l s so d i c t a t e .

2. COMPACTION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT. Table 5 l i s t s commonly used c o m p a c t i o n

equipment with t y p i c a l s i z e s and weights and guidance on use and a p p l i c a b i l i -
ty

3. INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL TYPE.

a. S o i l s ~ n s e n s i t i v et o Compaction Moisture. Coarse-grained, g r a n u l a r

well-graded s o i l s w i t h less than 4 p e r c e n t passing No. 200 s i e v e (8 p e r c e n t
f o r s o i l of uniform g r a d a t i o n ) a r e i n s e n s i t i v e t o compaction moisture. (These
s o i l s have a p e r m e a b i l i t y g r e a t e r than about 2 x 10-3 fpm.) P l a c e t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s a t t h e h i g h e s t p r a c t i c a l moisture c o n t e n t , p r e f e r a b l y s a t u r a t e d .
Vibratory compaction g e n e r a l l y i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e procedure. I n t h e s e
m a t e r i a l s , 70 t o 75 percent r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y can be obtained by proper compac-
t i o n procedures. I f t h i s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher than Standard P r o c t o r maxi-
mum d e n s i t y , u s e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y f o r c o n t r o l . Gravel, cobbles and b o u l d e r s
a r e i n s e n s i t i v e t o compaction moisture. Compaction w i t h smooth wheel v i b r a t -
ing r o l l e r s i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e procedure. Use l a r g e s c a l e tests, a s o u t -
l i n e d i n Reference 3, Control of E a r t h R o c k f i l l f o r O r o v i l l e Dam, by Gordon
and Miller.

b. S o i l s S e n s i t i v e t o Compaction Moisture. S i l t s and some s i l t y s a n d s

have s t e e ~moisture-density curves, and f i e l d moisture must be c o n t r o l l e d
within nairow limits f o r e i f e c t i v e -compaction. Clays a r e s e n s i t i v e t o mois-
t u r e i n that i f they a r e too w e t they a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d r y t o optimum m o i s -
ture, and i f t h e y a r e d r y i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o m i x t h e water i n uniformly.
S e n s i t i v e c l a y s do not respond t o compaction because they l o s e s t r e n g t h upon
remolding o r manipulation.

c. E f f e c t of Oversize. Oversize r e f e r s t o p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r than t h e

maximum s i z e allowed using a given mold (i.e. No. 4 f o r 4-inch mold, 3 / 4 i n c h
f o r 6-inch mold, 2-inch f o r a-12-inch mold). Large s i z e p a r t i c l e s i n t e r f e r e
w i t h compaction of t h e f i n e r s o i l f r a c t i o n . For normal embankment c o m p a c t i o n
t h e maximum s i z e cobble should not exceed 3 inches o r 50 percent of t h e com-
pacted l a y e r thickness. Where economic borrow s o u r c e s c o n t a i n l a r g e r s i z e s ,
compaction trials should be run before approval.
 TABLE 4
Compaction Requirements

Tolerable Range Maximum

Required Density, of Moisture Permissible L i f t
F i l l Utilized Percentof AboutOptimum, Thickness,
for: Modified Proctor Percent Compacted in. Special Requirements

Support of 95 -2 t o +2 12 F i l l should be uniform. Blending o r processing of borrow may be

structure required. For p l a s t i c c l a y s , i n v e s t i g a t e expansion under s a t u r a t i o n
f o r v a r i o u s compaction moisture and d e n s i t i e s a t l o a d s equal t o those
applied by s t r u c t u r e , t o determine c o n d i t i o n t o minimize expansion.
Clays t h a t show expansive tendencies g e n e r a l l y should be compacted a t
o r above optimum moisture t o a d e n s i t y c o n s i s t e n t with s t r e n g t h
and i n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y required of the f i l l .

Lining f o r 90 -2 t o +2 6 For t h i c k l i n i n g s , GW-GC, GC, SC a r e p r e f e r a b l e f o r s t a b i l i t y and t o

canal o r small r e s i s t e r o s i v e forces. Single s i z e s i l t y sands with PI l e s s than f i v e
reservoir g e n e r a l l y a r e not s u i t a b l e . Remove fragments l a r g e r than 6 inches
before compaction.

Earth dam 95 -1 t o +2 12 (+I U t i l i z e l e a s t pervious m a t e r i a l s a s c e n t r a l core and c o a r e s t m a t e r i a l s

g r e a t e r than 50 i n o u t e r s h e l l s . Core should be f r e e of l e n s e s , pockets, o r l a y e r s of
f t . high pervious m a t e r i a l and successive l i f t s well bonded t o each o t h e r .
Amounts of o v e r s i z e exceeding 1 percent of t o t a l m a t e r i a l should be
removed from t h e borrow p r i o r t o a r r i v a l on t h e embankment.

Earth dam l e s s 92 -1 t o +3 12(+) In small dams t h a t lack e l a b o r a t e zoning, m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e t h e most

than 50 f t . vulnerable t o cracking and piping should be compacted t o 98 percent
high d e n s i t y a t moisture content from optimum t o 3 percent i n excess of
optimum.
Support of
pavements: Place c o a r e s t borrow m a t e r i a l s a t top of f i l l . I n v e s t i g a t e expansion
of p l a s t i c c l a y s placed near pavement subgrade t o determine compaction
Highways..... See NAVFAC DM-5 -2.t o +2 a(+) moisture and d e n s i t y t h a t w i l l minimize expansion and provide required
soaked CBR values.
Airfields.... See NAVFAC DM-21 -2 t o +2 a(+)
Backfill 90 -2 t o +2 a(+) Where b a c k f i l l i s t o be drained, provide pervious coarse-grained
surrounding s o i l s . For low w a l l s , do not permit heavy r o l l i n g compaction
structure equipment t o o p e r a t e c l o s e r t o t h e wall than a d i s t a n c e equal t o about
213 t h e unbalanced height of f i l l a t any time. For highwalls or w a l l s
of s p e c i a l design, e v a l u a t e the surcharge produced by heavy compaction
equipment by t h e methods of Chapter 3 and s p e c i f y s a f e d i s t a n c e s back
of the wall f o r i t s operations.
 TABLE 4 (continued)
Compaction Requirements
- ---- - - --
Tolerable Range Ihxipum
Required Density, of Moisture Permissible L i f t
F i l l Utilized Percent of About Optimum, Thickness,
for: Hodif l e d Proctor Percent Compacted in. Special Requirements

Backfill i n 90 -2 t o +2 a(+) Material excavated from trench generally is s u i t a b l e f o r b a c k f i l l i f

pipe or u t i l i t y i t does not contain organic matter o r refuse. If backfill is fine
trenchbs grained, a cradle f o r the pipe is formed i n natural s o i l and b a c k f i l l
placed by tamping to provide the proper bedding. Where f r e e draining
sand and gravel i s u t i l i z e d , the trench bottom may be finished f l a t
and the granular material placed saturated under and around the pipe
and compacted by vibration.

Drainage 90 Thoroughly 8 Ordinarily vibratory compaction e q u i h e n t i s u t i l i z e d . Blending of

blanket or wetted materials may be required for homogeneity. Segregation must be pre-
filter vented i n placing and compaction. For compaction adjacent t o and
above drainage pipe, use hand tamping or l i g h t t r a v e l l i n g vibrators.

Subgrade of 95 -2 t o +2 - For rmifoxm bearing o r to break up pockets of f r o s t sueceptible mate-

excavation f o r r i a l , s c a r i f y the upper 8 t o 12 in. of the subgrade, dry or moisten a s
structure necessary and recompact. Certain materiaps, such a s heavily precon-
solidated clays which w i l l not benefit by compaction, o r saturated
silts and s i l t y f i n e sands that become quick during compaction, should
be blanketed with a working mat of lean concrete or coarse grained
material to prevent disturbance or softening. Depending on foundation
conditions revealed i n exploration, a substantial thickness of loose
s o i l s may have to be removed below subgrade and recompacted, o r
compacted i n place by vibration, o r p i l e driving.

For f i l l containing s i z e s no l a r g e r than ft., place i n layers not

Rock f i l l Thoroughly 2 to 3 ft. exceeding 24 in., thoroughly wetted and compacted by t r a v e l or heavy
wetted crawler t r a c t o r s i n spreading. Material with s i z e s up t o 2 f t . may be
placed i n 3 f t l i f t s . Placing should be such t h a t the maximun s i z e of
rock increases toward the outer slopes. Bocks l a r g e r than 1 cu yd i n
volume should be embedded on the slope.

Notes:
1. Density and moisture content refer to "Modified
Proctor" test values (ASTM D 1557)
2. Generally, a f i l l compacted dry of OMC w i l l have higher
strength and a lower compreesibility even a f t e r saturation.
3. Cornpaction of "Coarse-grained, granular s o i l " i s not sensi-
t i v e to moisture content so long a s bulking moisture i s
avoided. Where practicable, they should be placed saturated
and compacted by vibratory methods.
 TABLE 5
Compaction Equipment and Methods
s
Requirements f o r Compaction of 95 t o 100 P e r c e n t Standard P r o c t o r
Maximum Density

Equipment
Type Applicability Compacted Possible Variations i n
Lift Passes o r Equipment
~ h i ~ k coverages
~ ~ ~ ~ ,Dimensions and Weight of Equipment
in.

Sheepsfoot For f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s o r 6 Foot Foot For e a r t h dam, highway and

Rollers d i r t y coarse-grained s o i l s Contact Contact a i r f i e l d work, a r t i c u l a t e d
with more t h a n 20 p e r c e n t Area Pressures s e l f propelled r o l l e r s a r e
p a s s i n g No. 200 s i e v e . Not sq. f t . psi commonly used. For s m a l l e r
s u i t a b l e f o r c l e a n coarse- S o i l Type p r o j e c t s , towed 40 t o 60
grained soils. Particularly i n c h drums a r e used. Foot
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r compaction of 4 t o 6 passes Fine-grained 5 t o 12 250 t o 500 c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e should be
impervious zone f o r e a r t h dam f o r fine- s o i l P1>30 r e g u l a t e d s o a s t o avoid
o r l i n i n g s where bonding of grained s o i l . Fine-grained 7 t o 14 200 t o 400 s h e a r i n g t h e s o i l on t h e
l i f t s i s important. s o i l PI<30 t h i r d o r f o u r t h pass.
6 t o 8 passes Coarse-grained 10 t o 14 150 t o 250
f o r coarse- soil
grained s o i l . E f f i c i e n t compaction of s o i l s wet of
optimum r e q u i r e s l e s s c o n t a c t pres-
s u r e t h a n t h e same s o i l s a t lower
moisture contents.

Rubber T i r e For c l e a n , coarse-grained 10 3 to 5 T i r e i n f l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s of 35 t o 130 Wide v a r i e t y of rubber t i r e

Roller s o i l s with 4 t o 8 percent coverages p s i f o r clean granular material o r compaction equipment i s
p a s s i n g t h e No. 200 s i e v e . base c o u r s e and subgrade compac- available. For c o h e s i v e
t i o n . Wheel l o a d 18,000 t o 25,000 s o i l s , light-wheel l o a d s ,
lbs. such a s provided by wobble-
Do....... For f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s o r w e l l 6 to 8 4 to 6 T i r e i n f l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s i n excess of wheel equipment, may be
graded, d i r t y coarse-grained coverages 65 p s i , f o r fine-grained s o i l s of s u b s t i t u t e d f o r heavy-wheel
s o i l s w i t h more t h a n 8 high p l a s t i c i t y . For uniform c l e a n load i f l i f t t h i c k n e s s i s
p e r c e n t p a s s i n g t h e No. 200 sands o r s i l t y f i n e s a n d s , u s e decreased. For g r a n u l a r
sieve. l a r g e s i z e t i r e s w i t h p r e s s u r e s of s o i l s , large-size t i r e s a r e
40 t o 50 p s i . d e s i r a b l e t o avoid s h e a r
and r u t t i n g .

Smooth Wheel Appropriate f o r subgrade o r 8 t o 12 4 coverages Tandem t y p e r o l l e r s f o r base c o u r s e 3-wheel r o l l e r s o b t a i n a b l e

Rollers base c o u r s e compaction of 1 o r subgrade compaction 10 t o 15 t o n i n wide range of s i z e s .
we1 1-graded sand-gr a v e l weight, 300 t o 500 l b s per l i n e a l 2-wheel tandem r o l l e r s a r e
mixtures. in. of width of r e a r r o l l e r . a v a i l a b e i n t h e range of 1
Do.... May be used f o r f i n e - g r a i n e d 6 to 8 6 coverages 3-wheel r o l l e r f o r compaction of t o 20 ton weight. 3-Axle
s o i l s o t h e r than i n e a r t h fine-grained s o i l ; w e i g h t s from 5 tandem r o l l e r s a r e gener-
dams. Not s u i t a b l e f o r t o 6 t o n s f o r m a t e r i a l s of low a l l y used i n t h e range of
c l e a n well-graded sands o r p l a s t i c i t y t o 10 t o n s f o r m a t e r i a l s 10 t o 20 t o n s weight. Very
s i l t y uniform sands. of h i g h p l a s t i c i t y . heavy r o l l e r s a r e used f o r
proof r o l l i n g of subgrade
o r base course.
 TABLE 5 (continued)
Compaction Equipment and Methods

Requirements f o r Compaction of 95 t o 100 P e r c e n t Standard P r o c t o r

Maximum D e n s i t y

Equipment
TYpe Applicability Compacted Possible Variations i n
Lift Passes o r Equipment
Thickness, coverages Dimensions and Weight of Equipment
in.

Vibrating For coarse-grained s o i l s 8 t o 12 3 to 5 1 t o 20 t o n s b a l l a s t e d weight. May have e i t h e r f i x e d o r

Sheetsfoot sand-gravel m i x t u r e s Dynamic f o r c e up t o 20 tons. v a r i a b l e c y c l i c frequency.
Rollers

Vibrating For coarse-grained s o i l s 6 t o 12 3 to 5

Smooth Drum sand-gravel m i x t u r e s rock - (soil)
Rollers fills to - do - - do -
36 ( r o c k ) 4 to 6

Vibrating For coarse-grained s o i l s w i t h 8 t o 10 3 coverages S i n g l e pads o r p l a t e s should weigh V i b r a t i n g pads o r p l a t e s

Baseplate l e s s t h a n about 12 p e r c e n t no l e s s t h a n 200 l b s . May be used i n a r e a v a i l a b l e , hand-
Compactors p a s s i n g No. 200 s i e v e . Best tandem where working space is a v a i l - propelled, single or i n
s u i t e d f o r materials with 4 t o able. For c l e a n coarse-grained s o i l , gangs, with width of cover-
8 p e r c e n t p a s s i n g No.200 sieve, v i b r a t i o n frequency should be no less age from 1-112 t o 15 f t .
placed thoroughly wet. t h a n 1,600 c y c l e s per minute. Various t y p e s of v i b r a t i n g -
drum equipment should be
c o n s i d e r e d f o r compaction
i n l a r g e areas.

Crawler Best s u i t e d f o r coarse-grained 6 t o 10 3 to 4 Vehicle w i t h "Standard" t r a c k s having Tractor weight up to 85 tons

Tractor s o i l s with l e s s t h a n 4 t o 8 coverages c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e n o t l e s s t h a n 10
p e r c e n t p a s s i n g No. 200 s i e v e , psi.
placed thoroughly wet.

Power Tamper For d i f f i c u l t a c c e s s , t r e n c h 4 t o 6 in. 2 coverages 30-lb minimum weight. Considerable Weights up t o 250 l b s . ,
o r Rammer backfill. Suitable f o r a l l for silt range i s t o l e r a b l e , depending on f o o t diameter 4 t o 10 in.
inorganic soils. o r clay, 6 m a t e r i a l s and c o n d i t i o n s .
in. f o r
coarse-
grained
~0118.
 Adjust l a b o r a t o r y maximum s t a n d a r d d e n s i t y (from moisture-density
r e l a t i o n s t e s t , see DM-7.1, Chapter 3 ) t o provide a r e f e r e n c e d e n s i t y t o which
f i e l d d e n s i t y test r e s u l t s (with o v e r s i z e ) can be compared. U s e t h e f o l l o w i n g
equations t o a d j u s t t h e l a b o r a t o r y maximum d r y d e n s i t y and optimum moisture
content t o v a l u e s t o which f i e l d test d a t a (with o v e r s i z e p a r t i c l e s ) may be
compared.

where : ymax = a d j u s t e d maximum dry d e n s i t y pcf

= l a b o r a t o r y maximum dry d e n s i t y without

o v e r s i z e , pcf

F = f r a c t i o n of o v e r s i z e p a r t i c l e s by weight
(from f i e l d d e n s i t y t e s t )

where : w j = a d j u s t e d optimum mositure content

wg = moisture content of o v e r s i z e (from f i e l d d a t a )

wo = l a b o r a t o r y optimum moisture content without o v e r s i z e

The d e n s i t y of o v e r s i z e material is assumed a s 162 p c f , obtained from

bulk s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y 2.60, m u l t i p l i e d by 62.4.

This method i s considered s u i t a b l e when t h e weight of o v e r s i z e i s

less than 60% by weight, f o r well-graded m a t e r i a l s . For poorly graded mate-
r i a l s , f u r t h e r adjustment may be appropriate. This method i s modified a f t e r
t h a t described i n Reference 4, Suggested Method f o r Correcting Maxim1Im Densi-
t y and Optimum Moisture Content of Compacted S o i l s f o r Oversize P a r t i c l e s , by
McLeod; a l s o s e e Reference 5, Scalping and Replacement E f f e c t s on t h e Compac-
t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Earth-Rock Mixtures, by Donaghe and Townsend.

Section 4. EMBANKMENT COMPACTION CONTROL

1 GROUND PREPARATION

( 1 ) S t r i p a l l organics and any o t h e r d e t r i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e s u r -

face. In p r a i r i e s o i l s t h i s may amount t o removal of 2 o r 3 i n c h e s of top-
s o i l , and i n f o r e s t covered land between 2 and 5 o r more f e e t . Only t h e heavy
r o o t m a t and t h e stumps need be removed, not t h e h a i r - l i k e r o o t s .

( 2 ) Remove subsurface s t r u c t u r e s o r d e b r i s which w i l l i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e

compaction o r t h e s p e c i f i e d a r e a use.

(3) S c a r i f y t h e s o i l , and bring i t t o optimum moisture c o n t e n t .

7.2-50
 (4) Compact t h e s c a r i f i e d s o i l t o t h e s p e c i f i e d d e n s i t y .
- 2. FIELD TEST SECTION. By t r i a l , develop a d e f i n i t e compaction p r o c e d u r e
(equipment, l i f t t h i c k n e s s , m o i s t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n , and number of p a s s e s ) which
w i l l produce t h e s p e c i f i e d d e n s i t y . Compaction cannot be c o n t r o l l e d a d e q u a t e -
l y by s p o t t e s t i n g u n l e s s a w e l l d e f i n e d procedure i s followed.

3. REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL TESTS. Perform i n - p l a c e f i e l d d e n s i t y t e s t s

p l u s s u f f i c i e n t l a b o r a t o r y m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y t e s t s t o e v a l u a t e compaction. For
,
h i g h embankments i n v o l v i n g seepage, s e t t l e m e n t o r s t a b i l i t y , per form p e r i o d i c
t e s t s f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of d e n s i t y t e s t samples, e.g., p e r m e a b i l i t y
t e s t s , shear s t r e n g t h t e s t s . See DM-7.1, Chapter 3 f o r l a b o r a t o r y m o i s t u r e
d e n s i t y t e s t procedures and DM-7.1, Chapter 2 f o r f i e l d d e n s i t y t e s t methods.

a. Number of F i e l d D e n s i t y T e s t s . S p e c i f y t h e f o l l o w i n g minimum t e s t
schedule :

( 1 ) One t e s t f o r e v e r y 500 cu yd of m a t e r i a l placed f o r embankment

construction.

( 2 ) One t e s t f o r every 500 t o 1,000 c u yd of m a t e r i a l f o r c a n a l o r

reservoir linings o r other r e l a t i v e l y t h i n f i l l sections.

( 3 ) One t e s t f o r every 100 t o 200 cu yd of b a c k f i l l i n t r e n c h e s o r

around s t r u c t u r e s , depending upon t o t a l q u a n t i t y of m a t e r i a l involved.

( 4 ) A t l e a s t one t e s t f o r e v e r y f u l l s h i f t of compaction o p e r a t i o n s
on mass earthwork.

(5) One t e s t whenever t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e s u s p i c i o n of a c h a n g e i n

t h e q u a l i t y of m o i s t u r e c o n t r o l o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s of compaction.

b. F i e l d D e n s i t y T e s t Methods. See DM-7.1, Chapter 2, f o r f i e l d d e n s i t y

t e s t methods.

Proofrolling ( s p o t t i n g s o f t s p o t s with a rubber-tired r o l l e r o r any

loaded earth-moving equipment) may be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h d e n s i t y test-
i n g , but i s p r a c t i c a l o n l y f o r e x t e n s i v e earthwork o r pavement c o u r s e s .

c. L a b o r a t o r y Compaction Tests. P r i o r t o important earthwork o p e r a -

t i o n s , o b t a i n a f a m i l y of compaction c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t y p i c a l m a t e r i a l s .
I d e a l l y , t h i s f a m i l y w i l l form a group of p a r a l l e l c u r v e s and e a c h f i e l d
d e n s i t y t e s t w i l l correspond t o a s p e c i f i c compaction curve.

During c o n s t r u c t i o n o b t a i n supplementary compaction c u r v e s on f i e l d

d e n s i t y t e s t samples, approximately one f o r e v e r y 10 o r 20 f i e l d t e s t s ,
depending on t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of m a t e r i a l s .

4. ANALYSIS OF CONTROL TEST DATA. Compare each f i e l d d e t e r m i n a t i o n of mois-

t m e and d e n s i t y with a p p r o p r i a t e compaction curve t o e v a l u a t e conformance t o
requirements.
 a. S t a t i s t i c a l Study. Overall a n a l y s i s of c o n t r o l t e s t d a t a w i l l r e v e a l
g e n e r a l t r e n d s i n compaction and n e c e s s i t y f o r a l t e r i n g methods. Inevitably,
a c e r t a i n number of f i e l d determinations w i l l f a l l below s p e c i f i e d d e n s i t y o r
o u t s i d e s p e c i f i e d moisture range. Tabulate f i e l d tests, n o t i n g t h e percentage
d i f f e r e n c e between f i e l d d e n s i t y and l a b o r a t o r y maximum d e n s i t y and between
f i e l d moisture and optimum.

b. Moisture Control. Close moisture c o n t r o l is evidenced i f two-thirds

of a l l f i e l d v a l u e s f a l l i n a range f. 1 p e r c e n t about t h e median moisture
c o n t e n t s p e c i f i e d . E r r a t i c moisture c o n t r o l i s evidenced i f approximately
two-thirds of a l l f i e l d values f a l l i n a range f. 3 percent about t h e median
moisture c o n t e n t s p e c i f i e d . To improve moisture c o n t r o l , blend m a t e r i a l s from
w e t and dry s e c t i o n s of borrow area.

c. Compactive E f f o r t . S u i t a b l e compaction methods a r e being u t i l i z e d i f

approximately two-thirds of a l l f i e l d d e n s i t i e s f a l l i n a range of 5 3
p e r c e n t about t h e percent maximum d e n s i t y required. ~ n s u f f i c i e n to r e r r a t i c
compaction i s evidenced i f approximately two-thirds of a l l f i e l d v a l u e s f a l l
i n a range of f. 5 percent about t h e percent maximum d e n s i t y required. To
improve compaction, consider methods f o r more uniform moisture c o n t r o l , a l t e r
t h e number of coverages, weights, o r p r e s s u r e s of compaction equipment.

d. Overcompaction. A given compactive e f f o r t y i e l d s a maximum d r y

d e n s i t y and a corresponding optimum moisture content. I f t h e compactive e f -
f o r t i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e maximum dry d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s but t h e corresponding
optimum moisture c o n t e n t decreases. Thus, i f t h e compactive e f f o r t used i n
t h e f i e l d i s higher than t h a t used i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e
moisture d e n s i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e s o i l i n t h e f i e l d may be compacted above
i t s optimum moisture c o n t e n t , and t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l may be lower even
though i t has been compacted t o h i g h e r density. This i s of p a r t i c u l a r concern
f o r high embankments and e a r t h dams. For f u r t h e r guidance see Reference 6,
S t a b i l i z a t i o n of M a t e r i a l s by Compaction, by Turnbull and F o s t e r .

5. INDIRECT EVALUATION OF COMPACTION I N DEEP FILLS. The e x t e n t of compac-

t i o n accomplished is determined by comparing t h e r e s u l t s from s t a n d a r d pene-
t r a t i o n t e s t s and cone p e n e t r a t i o n tests b e f o r e and a f t e r t r e a t m e n t (DM-7.1,
Chapter 2).

6. PROBLEM SOILS. The compaction of high volume change s o i l s r e q u i r e s

s p e c i a l treatment. See DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

S e c t i o n 5. BORROW EXCAVATION

1. BORROW PIT EXPLORATION

a. Extent. The number and spacing of borings o r test p i t s f o r borrow

e x p l o r a t i o n must be s u f f i c i e n t t o determine t h e approximate q u a n t i t y and
q u a l i t y of c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n a n economical haul d i s t a n c e from t h e
p r o j e c t . For mass earthwork, i n i t i a l e x p l o r a t i o n should be on a 200-foot
g r i d . I f v a r i a b l e c o n d i t i o n s a r e found during t h e i n i t i a l e x p l o r a t i o n s ,
i n t e r m e d i a t e borings o r test p i t s should be done. Explorations should develop
t h e following information:
 ( 1 ) A reasonably a c c u r a t e s u b s u r f a c e p r o f i l e t o t h e a n t i c i p a t e d
depth of excavation.

(2) Engineering p r o p e r t i e s of each m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e .

(3) Approximate volume of each m a t e r i a l considered f o r use.

(4) Water l e v e l .

(5) Presence of s a l t s , gypsums, o r u n d e s i r a b l e m i n e r a l s .

( 6 ) Extent of o r g a n i c o r contaminated s o i l s , i f encountered.

2. EXCAVATION METHODS.

a. Equipment. Design and e f f i c i e n c y of excavation equipment improves

each year. Check v a r i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r s p e c i f i c a -
t ions.

b. Ripping and Blasting. Determine r i p p a b i l i t y of s o i l o r rock by bor-

i n g s (RQD and c o r e recovery, s e e DM-7.1, Chapters 1 and 2), g e o p h y s i c a l
e x p l o r a t i o n , and/or t r i a l excavation.

3. UTILIZATION OF EXCAVATED MATERIALS. I n t h e process of earthmoving t h e r e

may be a r e d u c t i o n of the volume ("shrinkage") because of waste and d e n s i f i c a -
t i o n , o r an i n c r e a s e of volume ("swell") i n t h e c a s e of rock o r dense s o i l s ,
because t h e f i n a l d e n s i t y i s l e s s than i t s o r i g i n a l d e n s i t y .

a. Borrow Volume. Determine t o t a l borrow volume, VB r e q u i r e d f o r com-

pacted f i l l a s follows:

YF WL
VB = (% vF) + g Should be Gamma Sub B

where: YF = d r y u n i t weight of f i l l

YB = d r y u n i t weight of borrow

VF = r e q u i r e d f i l l volume

WL = weight l o s t i n s t r i p p i n g , waste, o v e r s i z e and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

( 1 ) Compacted Volume. The volume of borrow s o i l r e q u i r e d s h o u l d be

i n c r e a s e d according t o t h e volume change i n d i c a t e d above. A "shrinkage" f a c -
t o r of 10 t o 15 p e r c e n t may be used f o r e s t i m a t i n g purposes.

( 2 ) Exclusions. A l a r g e percentage of cobble s i z e m a t e r i a l w i l l

i n c r e a s e t h e waste, because s i z e s l a r g e r than 3 inches a r e g e n e r a l l y e x c l u d e d
from compacted f i l l .

b. Rock F i l l .

(1) Maximum Expansion. Maximum expansion ( " s w e l l " ) from i n s i t u

c o n d i t i o n s t o f i l l occurs i n dense, hard rock with f i n e f r a c t u r e systems t h a t
b r e a k s i n t o uniform s i z e s . Unit volume i n a q u a r r y w i l l produce approxi-
mately 1.5 volumes i n f i l l .

( 2 ) Minimum Expansion. Minimum expansion o c c u r s i n porous, f r i a b l e

r o c k t h a t breaks i n t o b r o a d l y graded s i z e s w i t h numerous s p a l l s and f i n e s .
Unit volume i n quarry w i l l produce a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.1 volumes i n f i l l .

Section 6 . HYDRAULIC AND UNDERWATER FILLS

1. GENERAL. Where l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of s o i l must be t r a n s p o r t e d and ample

w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e , h y d r a u l i c methods a r e economical. The c h o i c e of methods
f o r p l a c i n g h y d r a u l i c f i l l i s governed by t h e type of equipment a v a i l a b l e ,
a c c e s s i b i l i t y of borrow, and environmental r e g u l a t i o n s ; s e e Table 6 (Refer-
ence 7, C o n t r o l f o r Underwater C o n s t r u c t i o n , by Johnson, e t a l . ) . Removal o r
placement of s o i l by h y d r a u l i c methods must conform t o a p p l i c a b l e water
pollution control regulations.

2. PLACEMENT METHODS. Placement, e i t h e r under water o r on l a n d , should b e

done i n a manner t h a t produces a u s a b l e a r e a w i t h minimum environmental im-
pact .
a. Deep Water Placement ( o v e r 75 f e e t ) . Most deep water placement i s by
bottom dump scows and i s unconfined, w i t h no c o n t r o l on t u r b i d i t y , e x c e p t by
t h e r a t e of dumping.

b. Shallow Water Placement. Placement by ~ i ~ e l i n by e , mechanical equip-

ment, o r by s i d e dumping from deck scows a r e t h e most common methods i n s h a l -
low water. Sheet p i l e containment, s i l t " c u r t a i n s " , o r d i k e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o
minimize l a t e r a l spreading and environmental impact. Where l a t e r a l s p r e a d i n g
i s n o t d e s i r e d and s t e e p e r s i d e s l o p e s a r e needed, c o n t r o l t h e method o f
placement o r use a mixed sand and g r a v e l f i l l m a t e r i a l . With borrow c o n t a i n -
i n g about e q u a l amounts of sand and g r a v e l , underwater s l o p e s a s s t e e p a s 1:3
o r 1:2-314 may be achieved by c a r e f u l placement. To c o n f i n e t h e f i l l , p r o v i d e
berms o r d i k e s of t h e c o a r s e s t a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l o r s t o n e on t h e f i l l perime-
t e r . Where r o c k i s placed underwater, s l u i c e v o i d s w i t h sand t o reduce com-
p r e s s i b i l i t y and p o s s i b l e l o s s of m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e rock.

c. Land Placement. On l a n d , h y d r a u l i c f i l l s a r e commonly placed by

p i p e l i n e o r by mechanical procedures ( i . e . clam s h e l l , d r a g l i n e , e t c . ) . Dikes
with a d j u s t a b l e weirs o r drop i n l e t s t o c o n t r o l t h e q u a l i t y of r e t u r n water
a r e used f o r containment.

3. PERFORMANCE OF HYDRAULIC FILLS.

a . Coarse-Grained F i l l s . The most s a t i s f a c t o r y h y d r a u l i c a l l y placed

f i l l s a r e t h o s e having l e s s t h a n 15 p e r c e n t n o n - p l a s t i c f.ines o r 1 0 p e r c e n t
p l a s t i c f i n e s because they cause t h e l e a s t t u r b i d i t y d u r i n g placement, d r a i n
f a s t e r , and a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t t h a n f i n e - g r a i n e d mate-
r i a l . R e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s of 50 t o 60 p e r c e n t can be o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t compac-
tion. Bearing v a l u e s a r e i n t h e range of 500 t o 2000 pounds per s q u a r e f o o t
depending on t h e l e v e l of p e r m i s s i b l e s e t t l e m e n t . Density, b e a r i n g and
 TABLE 6
Methods of F i l l Placement Underwater

Methods Characteristics

Bot t om-dump scows 1. Limited t o minimum d e p t h s of about 15 f t.

because of scow and tug d r a f t s .

2. Rapid; q u i c k d i s c h a r g e e n t r a p s a i r and mini-

mizes s e g r e g a t i o n .

Deck scows 1. Usable i n shallow water.

2. Unloading i s slow, by d o z e r , c l a m s h e l l , o r
hydraulic jets.

3. I n s p e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l being placed may b e

difficult.

Dumping a t land edge of 1. F i n e s i n m a t e r i a l placed below water t e n d t o

f i l l and pushing mate- s e p a r a t e and accumulate i n f r o n t of a d v a n c i n g
rial i n t o water by fill.
bulldozer
2. Work arrangement should r e s u l t i n c e n t r a l
p o r t i o n being i n advance of s i d e p o r t i o n s t o
d i s p l a c e sideways any s o f t bottom m a t e r i a l s .

3. I n shallow w a t e r , b u l l d o z e r blade can s h o v e

m a t e r i a l s downward t o a s s i s t d i s p l a c e m e n t of
s o f t materials.
r e s i s t a n c e t o s e i s m i c l i q u e f a c t i o n may be i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y by v i b r o -
probe methods. See DM-7.3, Chapter 2.

b. Fine-Grained F i l l s . H y d r a u l i c a l l y placed, bottom s i l t s and c l a y s

such as produced by maintenance dredging w i l l i n i t i a l l y be a t v e r y h i g h w a t e r
contents. Depending on measures taken t o induce s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , i t w i l l
t a k e approximately 2 y e a r s b e f o r e a c r u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t l i g h t equip-
ment i s formed and t h e water c o n t e n t of t h e u n d e r l y i n g m a t e r i a l s approaches
the liquid l i m i t . P l a c i n g 1 t o 3 f e e t of a d d i t i o n a l g r a n u l a r borrow w i l l
improve t h e s e a r e a s r a p i d l y so t h a t t h e y can s u p p o r t s u r c h a r g e f i l l s , w i t h o r
w i t h o u t v e r t i c a l sand d r a i n s t o a c c e l e r a t e c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Care must b e exer-
c i s e d i n applying t h e s u r c h a r g e so t h a t t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l i s n o t
exceeded.

4. CONSOLIDATION OF HYDRAULIC FILLS. I f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y of

a h y d r a u l i c f i l l i s l e s s t h a n 0.002 f e e t per minute, t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n t i m e
f o r t h e f i l l w i l l be long and p r e d i c t i o n of t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e completed f i l l
w i l l be d i f f i c u l t . For coarse-grained m a t e r i a l s , f i l l c o n s o l i d a t i o n and
s t r e n g t h build-up w i l l be r a p i d and r e a s o n a b l e s t r e n g t h e s t i m a t e s can be made.
Where f i l l and/or foundation s o i l s a r e f i n e - g r a i n e d , i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o
monitor s e t t l e m e n t and pore water p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n i f s t r u c t u r e s a r e
planned. S e t t l e m e n t p l a t e s may be placed b o t h on t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l and
w i t h i n t h e f i l l t o observe s e t t l e m e n t r a t e s and amounts.
 REFERENCES

1. Sherard, J.L., I n f l u e n c e of S o i l P r o p e r t i e s and C o n s t r u c t i o n Methods on

t h e Performance of Homogeneous E a r t h Dams, T e c h n i c a l Memorandum 6 4 5 ,
U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Reclamation.

2. Sherard, J.L., Dunnigan, L. P., Becker, R. S., and S t e e l e , E. S., P i n h o l e

T e s t f o r I d e n t i f y i n g D i s p e r s i v e S o i l s , J o u r n a l of t h e G e o t e c h n i c a l
Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT1, 1976.

3. Gordon, B.B., M i l l e r , R.K., C o n t r o l of E a r t h and R o c k f i l l f o r O r o v i l l e

-
Dam, J o u r n a l of t h e Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 9 2 , No.
SM3, 1966.

4. McLeod, N.W., Suggested Method f o r C o r r e c t i n g Maximum Density and

Optimum Moisture Content of Compacted S o i l s f o r O v e r s i z e P a r t i c l e s ,
S p e c i a l Procedures f o r T e s t i n g S o i l and Rock f o r Engineering P u r p o s e s ,
ASTM STP 479, ASTM, 1970.

5. Donaghe, R.T. , and Townsend, F.C. , S c a l p i n g and Replacement E f f e c t s on

.
t h e C o m ~-a c t i o nC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Earth-Rock Mixtures. S o i l S ~ e c i m e n
P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Laboratory T e s t i n g , ASTM STP 599, AS^, 1976.-

6. T u r n b u l l , W.J. and F o s t e r , C.R. S t a b i l i z a t i o n of M a t e r i a l s by Compaction,

J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Foundation D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 8 2 ,
No. SM2, 1956.

7. Johnson, S. J., Compton, J. R., and Ling, S. C., C o n t r o l f o r Underwater

C o n s t r u c t i o n , Underwater Sampling, T e s t i n g , and C o n s t r u c t i o n C o n t r o l ,
ASTM STP 501, ASTM, 1972.
 CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF WALLS AND RETAINING STRUCTURES

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. Methods of determining e a r t h p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on w a l l s a n d

r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s a r e summarized i n t h i s c h a p t e r . Types of w a l l s
c o n s i d e r e d i n c l u d e c o n c r e t e r e t a i n i n g w a l l s and g r a v i t y w a l l s t h a t move
r i g i d l y a s a u n i t , braced o r t i e d bulkheads of t h i n s h e e t i n g t h a t d e f l e c t
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b r a c i n g arrangement, and double-wall cofferdams of t h i n
s h e e t i n g t o c o n f i n e e a r t h o r rock f i l l .

2. RELATED CRITERIA. A d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a r e l a t i n g t o t h e d e s i g n a n d
u t i l i z a t i o n of w a l l s appear i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s :

Subject Source

A p p l i c a t i o n of Bulkheads and Cofferdams t o

Waterfront Construction............................NAVFAC DM-?';

S t r u c t u r a l Design of R e t a i n i n g Walls...................NAVFAC DM-2

S e c t i o n 2. COMPUTATION OF WALL PRESSURES

1. CONDITIONS. The p r e s s u r e on r e t a i n i n g w a l l s , bulkheads, o r b u r i e d

anchorages i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e movement between t h e s t r u c t u r e and
t h e surrounding s o i l .

a. A c t i v e S t a t e . Active e a r t h p r e s s u r e o c c u r s when t h e w a l l moves away

from t h e s o i l and t h e s o i l mass s t r e t c h e s h o r i z o n t a l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o m o b i l i z e
i t s s h e a r s t r e n g t h f u l l y , and a c o n d i t i o n of p l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m i s r e a c h e d .
(See F i g u r e 1 from Reference 1 , Excavations and R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s , by t h e
Canadian G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y . ) The r a t i o of t h e h o r i z o n t a l component o r
a c t i v e p r e s s u r e t o t h e v e r t i c a l stress caused by t h e weight of s o i l i s t h e
a c t i v e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t (K,). The a c t i v e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a s
d e f i n e d above a p p l i e s o n l y t o c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l s .

b. P a s s i v e S t a t e . P a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e o c c u r s when a s o i l mass i s
compressed h o r i z o n t a l l y , m o b i l i z i n g i t s s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e f u l l y ( s e e F i g u r e 1).
The r a t i o of t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e t o t h e v e r t i c a l
s t r e s s caused by t h e weight of t h e s o i l i s t h e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
(Kp). The p a s s i v e c o e f f i c i e n t , a s d e f i n e d h e r e , a p p l i e s o n l y t o c o h e s i o n -
l e s s s o i l . A s o i l mass t h a t i s n e i t h e r s t r e t c h e d n o r compressed i s s a i d t o b e
i n an a t - r e s t s t a t e . The r a t i o of l a t e r a l s t r e s s t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i s c a l l e d
t h e a t - r e s t c o e f f i c i e n t (KO).
 6 -
5 -
a

\
\
E
w 1.0-
J
0.8 -
-I ry g 0.6 -
2

g 0.5 - K~ KA
0.4 -
m 5
IL
0
T
y ~ 2
0.3 - \-

;
6 Os2
\ MEDIUM SAND

,,,
S
0.1
0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0.002 OD04
WALL ROTATION, Y/H

MMNITUDES OF WALL RUTATION TO REACH WILURE

ROTATION Y/H*
SOIL TYPE
AND CONDITION
ACTIVE WSIVE

DENSE COHESIONLESS .oOO5 .002

LOOSE COHESIONLESS .002 -006
STIFF COHESIVE .O 1 .02
SOFT COHESIVE .02 .04
Y = HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
H = HEIGHT OF THE WALL

FIGURE 1
Effect of Wall Movement on Wall Pressures
 2. COMPUTATION OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURES. See F i g u r e 2' f o r f o r m u l a s
f o r a c t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e s i m p l e c a s e on a f r i c t i o n l e s s v e r t i -
- c a l f a c e with h o r i z o n t a l ground s u r f a c e . Three b a s i c c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r
v a l i d i t y of t h e formulas a r e l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 2. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e
f a i l u r e s u r f a c e i s a p l a n e and t h e formulas r e p r e s e n t p r e s s u r e s r e q u i r e d f o r
e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e wedge shaped f a i l u r e mass.

The i n t e n s i t y of p r e s s u r e s a p p l i e d depends on w a l l movements, as t h e s e con-

t r o l t h e degree of s h e a r s t r e n g t h m o b i l i z a t i o n i n s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l . (See
Figure 1 f o r t h e magnitude of t h e movement n e c e s s a r y f o r a c t i v e c o n d i t i o n t o
e x i s t . ) Wall f r i c t i o n and w a l l v e r t i c a l movements a l s o a f f e c t t h e p a s s i v e and
a c t i v e pressures.

The e f f e c t of w a l l f r i c t i o n on a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s i s small and o r d i n a r i l y i s

d i s r e g a r d e d e x c e p t i n c a s e of a s e t t l i n g w a l l where i t c a n be very s i g n i f i -
c a n t . The e f f e c t of w a l l f r i c t i o n on p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s i s l a r g e , b u t d e f i -
n i t e movement i s n e c e s s a r y f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n of w a l l f r i c t i o n . (See T a b l e 1
f o r t y p i c a l u l t i m a t e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s and adhesion between w a l l and b a c k f i l l . )
I n t h e absence of s p e c i f i c t e s t d a t a , u s e t h e s e v a l u e s i n c o m p u t a t i o n s t h a t
i n c l u d e e f f e c t s of w a l l f r i c t i o n .

Unless a w a l l i s s e t t l i n g , f r i c t i o n on i t s back a c t s upward on t h e a c t i v e

wedge ( a n g l e 6 i s p o s i t i v e , s e e F i g u r e 5 ) , r e d u c i n g a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s .
Generally, w a l l f r i c t i o n a c t s downward a g a i n s t t h e p a s s i v e wedge ( a n g l e 6 i s
n e g a t i v e ) , r e s i s t i n g i t s upward movement and i n c r e a s i n g p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s .

a. Uniform B a c k f i l l , No Groundwater. Compute a c - t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s -

s u r e s by methods from F i g u r e 2.

b. S l o p i n g B a c k f i l l , No Groundwater, G r a n u l a r S o i l , Smooth Wall. Com-

p u t e a c t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s by methods from F i g u r e 3. Use F i g u r e 4 t o
determine t h e p o s i t i o n of f a i l u r e s u r f a c e f o r a c t i v e and p a s s i v e wedge.

c. S l o p i n g Wall, Granular S o i l With Wall F r i c t i o n . Use F i g u r e 5 ( R e f e r -

ence 2, T a b l e s f o r t h e C a l u l a t i o n of t h e P a s s i v e P r e s s u r e , A c t i v e P r e s s u r e
and Bearing C a p a c i t y of Foundations, by Caquot and K e r i s e l ) t o compute a c t i v e
and p a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s .

d. S l o p i n g B a c k f i l l , Granular S o i l w i t h Wall F r i c t i o n . Use F i g u r e 6

(Reference 2 ) t o compute a c t i v e and p a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t .

e. Uniform B a c k f i l l , S t a t i c Groundwater. Compute a c t i v e e a r t h and w a t e r

p r e s s u r e s by formulas i n Figure 7.

f . General Formula f o r C o e f f i c i e n t s of P a s s i v e and A c t i v e E a r t h P r e s -

sure. Use F i g u r e 8 f o r s l o p i n g w a l l w i t h f r i c t i o n and s l o p i n g b a c k f i l l .

g. S t r a t i f i e d B a c k f i l l , Sloping Groundwater Level. When c o n d i t i o n s

i n c l u d e l a y e r e d s o i l , i r r e g u l a r s u r c h a r g e , w a l l f r i c t i o n , and s l o p i n g ground-
water l e v e l , determine a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s by t r i a l f a i l u r e wedge. (See F i g u r e
7.) T r i a l wedge i s bounded by a s t r a i g h t f a i l u r e p l a n e o r a s e r i e s of
s t r a i g h t segments a t d i f f e r e n t i n c l i n a t i o n i n each stratum. Commence t h e
a n a l y s i s w i t h f a i l u r e p l a n e o r i e n t e d a t t h e a n g l e shown i n F i g u r e 4.
 PASSIVEWEDGE

I. MATERIALS ARE HOMOGENEOUS.

2. SUFFlClENT MOVEWENT HAS OCCURRED SO SHEAR STRENGTH ON RUPTURE SURFACE IS (MPLETELY MOBILIZED.
3. WALL IS VERTICAL.NO SHEAR FORCES ARE PRESENT ON BACK OF WALL.RESULTANT FORCES ARE HORIZONTAL.

FIGURE 2
Computation of Simple Active and P a s s i v e P r e s s u r e s
 TABLE 1
Ultimate F r i c t i o n F a c t o r s and Adhesion f o r D i s s i m i l a r M a t e r i a l s

Friction Friction
Interface Materials factor, angle, 8
tan 8 degrees

Mass c o n c r e t e on t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l s :
Clean sound rock.................................. 0.70 35
Clean g r a v e l , gravel-sand m i x t u r e s , c o a r s e sand... 0.55 t o 0.60 29 t o 3 1
Clean f i n e t o medium s a n d , s i l t y medium t o c o a r s e
s a n d , s i l t y o r c l a y e y gravel.................... 0.45 t o 0.55 24 t o 29
Clean f i n e s a n d , s i l t y o r c l a y e y f i n e t o medium
sand.......................................... 0.35 t o 0.45 19 t o 24
Fine sandy s i l t , n o n p l a s t i c silt.................. 0.30 t o 0.35 17 t o 1 9
Very s t i f f and hard r e s i d u a l o r p r e c o n s o l i d a t e d
clay......................................... 0.40 t o 0.50 22 t o 26
Medium s t i f f and s t i f f c l a y and s i l t y clay........ 0.30 t o 0.35 17 t o 19
(Masonry on f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l s h a s same f r i c t i o n
factors.)
S t e e l sheet p i l e s a g a i n s t the following s o i l s :
Clean g r a v e l , gravel-sand m i x t u r e s , well-graded
rock f i l l w i t h s p a l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 22
Clean sand, s i l t y sand-gravel m i x t u r e , s i n g l e s i z e
hard rock fill.................................. 0.30 17
S i l t y sand, g r a v e l o r sand mixed w i t h s i l t o r c l a y 0.25 14
Fine sandy s i l t , n o n p l a s t i c silt.................. 0.20 11
Formed c o n c r e t e o r c o n c r e t e s h e e t p i l i n g a g a i n s t t h e
following s o i l s :
Clean g r a v e l , gravel-sand m i x t u r e , well-graded
rock f i l l w i t h s p a l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 t o 0.50 22 t o 26
Clean sand, s i l t y sand-gravel m i x t u r e , s i n g l e s i z e
hard r o c k fill.................................. 0.30 t o 0.40 17 t o 22
S i l t y sand, g r a v e l o r sand mixed w i t h s i l t o r c l a y 0.30 17
F i n e sandy s i l t , n o n p l a s t i c silt.................. 0.25 14
Various s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s :
Masonry o n masonry, igneous and metamorphic r o c k s :
Dressed s o f t rock on d r e s s e d s o f t rock.......... 0.70 35
Dressed h a r d rock on d r e s s e d s o f t rock.......... 0.65 33
Dressed h a r d rock on d r e s s e d hard rock.......... 0.55 29
Masonry on wood ( c r o s s grain)..................... 0.50 26
S t e e l on s t e e l a t s h e e t p i l e interlocks........... 0.30 17

I n t e r f a c e M a t e r i a l s (Cohesion) Adhesion Ca ( p s f )

Very s o f t c o h e s i v e s o i l ( 0 - 250 p s f ) 0 - 250

S o f t c o h e s i v e s o i l (250 - 500 p s f ) 250 - 500
Medium s t i f f c o h e s i v e s o i l (500 - 1000 p s f ) 500 - 750
S t i f f c o h e s i v e s o i l (1000 - 2000 p s f ) 750 - 950
Very s t i f f c o h e s i v e s o i l (2000 - 4000 p s f ) 950 - 1,300
 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, 4, DEGREES

Pp=K XT
F~ KA8 Kp=COEFFICIENTS FOR COULOMB'S EQUATION FOR RRTIVE AND
PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (NO SHEAR STRESS ON
VERTICAL PLANES).
-
3 PA = ACTIVE RESULTANT 4 =ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
PASSIVE PRESSURE ACTIVE PRESSURE Pp =PASSIVE RESULTANT i3 =SLOPE ANGLE
Y = UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL
<
-
H = HEIGHT OF WALL

FIGURE 3
-
A c t i v e and P a s s i v e C o e f f i c i e n t s , Sloping B a c k f i l l
(Granular S o i l s )
I ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, 4 ,DEGREES
I

TAN
COTap=-~~~++fi+~~N2+-

a ~a 8
p =ANGLE BETWEEN CRITICAL FAILURE PLANE AND VERTICAL

FA1LURE =ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION

PLANE = SLOPE ANGLE
ACTIVE PRESSURE
THE ANGLES SHOWN CORRESPOND TO THE COEFFICIENTS
OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURE GIVEN IN FIGURE 3.
PASSIVE PRESSURE

FIGURE 4
P o s i t i o n of F a i l u r e S u r f a c e f o r A c t i v e and P a s s i v e Wedges
(Granular S o i l s )
A c t i v e and P a s s i v e C o e f f i c i e n t s with Wall F r i c t i o n
(Sloping Wall)
7.2-66
 FIGURE 6
Active and Passive C o e f f i c i e n t s with Wall F r i c t i o n
(Sloping B a c k f i l l )
-7.2-%7
 HORIZONTALBACKFILL
UNIFORM SURCHARGE
WALL FRICTION NEGLIGIBLE

ACTIVE EARTH

PREssURE AT ANY HEIGHT =(EFFECTIVE uZ)X F A N ~ ~ S - ~ / ~ ~ - ~ (45-4/21

CTAN

NEGATIVE PRESSURE BE

BROKEN SLOPE BACKFILL

IRREGULAR SURCHARGE
WALL FRICTION lNCWDED
SLOPING GROUND WATER LEVEL

RE ON FiL\ILURE

FIGURE 7
Computation of General Active Pressures
7.2-68
 PA = y
!& KA

KA = c o ~ ~ ( g - 8 ) - -

K~ = cos2 B a s ( @ - 8 ) [ I ~ I ~ * + ~ ) S ~ N ( C P + B ~ ~ -
cos ( 8 - 8 ) cos(8-B) 1
K~ VALUES ARE SATISFACTORY FOR 8 4 +/3 BUT ARE UNCONSERVATIVE RM 8 ) +/3 AND
THEREFORE SHOULD NOf BE USED.

FIGURE 8
C o e f f i c i e n t s KA and Kp for Walls with Sloping Wall and
Friction, and Sloping B a c k f i l l
 Compute r e s u l t a n t p a s s i v e f o r c e by t r i a l f a i l u r e wedge a n a l y s i s .
(See F i g u r e 9). When w a l l f r i c t i o n i s i n c l u d e d , compute p r e s s u r e s from a
f a i l i n g mass bounded by a c i r c u l a r a r c and s t r a i g h t plane. Determine l o c a t i o n
of p a s s i v e r e s u l t a n t by summing moments about t o e of w a l l of a l l f o r c e s on
t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e f a i l i n g mass above t h e c i r c u l a r a r c . Depending on com-
p l e x i t y of c r o s s s e c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s t o conform t o l o c a t i o n
of r e s u l t a n t , o r analyze t r i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s a t i n t e r m e d i a t e h e i g h t s i n t h e
p a s s i v e zone. When wall f r i c t i o n i s n e g l e c t e d , t h e t r i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e i s a
s t r a i g h t plane. See Figure 2.

( 1 ) Simple Cross Section. For a simple c r o s s s e c t i o n behind a w a l l ,

analyze t h e t r i a l f a i l u r e plane extending upward from t h e lowest p o i n t of t h e
a c t i v e zone on t h e wall. Determine t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e a c t i v e r e s u l t a n t by
summing moments of a l l f o r c e s on t h e wedge about t o e of wedge. D i s t r i b u t e
a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s t o conform t o t h e l o c a t i o n of r e s u l t a n t .

( 2 ) Complicated Cross Section. For complicated c r o s s s e c t i o n s ,

analyze t r i a l wedges a t i n t e r m e d i a t e h e i g h t s above t h e base of t h e a c t i v e zone
t o determine p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n more d e t a i l . Force a c t i n g on an
increment of wall h e i g h t equals d i f f e r e n c e i n r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s f o r wedges'
taken from t h e top and bottom of t h a t increment.

3. EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS. Include i n p r e s s u r e computations t h e

e f f e c t of t h e g r e a t e s t unbalanced water head a n t i c i p a t e d t o a c t a c r o s s t h e
wall.

a. General Conditions. For a major s t r u c t u r e , analyze seepage and

d r a i n a g e e f f e c t by flow n e t procedures. U p l i f t p r e s s u r e s i n f l u e n c i n g w a l l
f o r c e s a r e those a c t i n g on f a i l u r e s u r f a c e of a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e wedge.
R e s u l t a n t u p l i f t f o r c e on f a i l u r e s u r f a c e determined from flow n e t i s a p p l i e d
i n f o r c e diagram of t h e f a i l u r e wedge. See v e c t o r U , t h e r e s u l t a n t water
f o r c e , i n Figures 7 and 9.

b. S t a t i c D i f f e r e n t i a l Head. Compute water p r e s s u r e s on w a l l s a s shown

i n t o p panel of Figure 10.

c. R a i n f a l l on Drained Walls. For c o h e s i o n l e s s m a t e r i a l s , s u s t a i n e d

r a i n f a l l i n c r e a s e s l a t e r a l f o r c e on w a l l 20 t o 40 percent over d r y b a c k f i l l ,
depending on b a c k f i l l f r i c t i o n angle. The c e n t e r panel of F i g u r e 10 (Refer-
ence 3, C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Analysis of Seepage E f f e c t s i n B a c k f i l l s , by Gray)
shows flow n e t s e t up by r a i n f a l l behind a w a l l w i t h v e r t i c a l d r a i n . This
panel g i v e s t h e magnitude of r e s u l t a n t u p l i f t f o r c e on f a i l u r e wedge f o r

.
v a r i o u s i n c l i n a t i o n s of f a i l u r e plane t o be used i n a n a l y s i s of t h e a c t i v e
wedge

d. Seepage Beneath Wall. See bottom panel of F i g u r e 10 (Reference 4 ,

The E f f e c t of Seepage on t h e S t a b i l i t y of Sea Walls, by R i c h a r t and Schmert-
mann) f o r c o r r e c t i o n t o be applied t o a c t i v e and passive p r e s s u r e s i n cohe-
s i o n l e s s m a t e r i a l f o r s t e a d y seepage beneath a wall.

4. SURCHARGE LOADING. For t h e e f f e c t s of surcharge l o a d i n g , see F i g u r e s 7

and 9.
 VECTOR DIAGRAMS :

FIGURE 9
Computation of General Passive Pressures
 NO F W . A%,APp ARE
CORRECTIONS FOR SEE-.

FIGURE 10
E f f e c t of Groundwater Conditions on Wall Pressures
 a. P o i n t Load and Live Load. Use F i g u r e 11 ( R e f e r e n c e 5, Anchored Bulk-
heads, based on t h e work by T e r z a g h i ) t o compute l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e on w a l l due
t o p o i n t l o a d and l i n e l o a d s ; t h i s assumes an u n y i e l d i n g r i g i d w a l l a n d t h e
- l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s a r e approximately double t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d by e l a s t i c
equations. The assumption of a n u n y i e l d i n g r i g i d w a l l i s c o n s e r v a t i v e and i t s
a p p l i c a b i l i t y should be e v a l u a t e d f o r e a c h s p e c i f i c w a l l .

b. Uniform Loading Area. For uniform s u r c h a r g e l o a d i n g l a t e r a l stress

can be computed by t r e a t i n g t h e s u r c h a r g e a s i f i t were b a c k f i l l and m u l t i p l y -
ing t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s a t - a n y depth by-the appropriate e a r t h p r e s s u r e coef--
f icient.

c. Uniform Rectangular Surcharge Loading. For t h e e f f e c t of t h i s load-

i n g s e e Figure 12 ( s e e Reference 6, L a t e r a l Support Systems and U n d e r p i n n i n g ,
Volume 1, Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n (Summary), by Goldberg, e t a l . ) . I f the
c o n s t r u c t i o n procedures a r e s u c h t h a t t h e w a l l w i l l move d u r i n g t h e a p p l i c a -
t i o n of l i v e l o a d s , t h e n t h e p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d from F i g u r e 12 w i l l b e
conservative.

d. P r a c t i c a l Considerations. For d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , i t i s common t o con-

s i d e r a d i s t r i b u t e d s u r f a c e l o a d s u r c h a r g e on t h e o r d e r of 300 p s f t o a c c o u n t
f o r s t o r a g e of c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s and equipment. T h i s s u r c h a r g e i s u s u a l -
l y a p p l i e d w i t h i n a r a t h e r l i m i t e d work a r e a of about 20 f e e t t o 30 f e e t from
t h e w a l l and i s a l s o intended t o account f o r c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s from h e a v y
equipment ( c o n c r e t e t r u c k s , c r a n e s , e t c . ) l o c a t e d more t h a n about 20 f e e t
away. I f such equipment i s a n t i c i p a t e d w i t h i n a few f e e t of t h e w a l l , i t must
b e accounted f o r s e p a r a t e l y .

5. WALL MOVEMENT. For t h e e f f e c t of w a l l movement on t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e

c o e f f i c i e n t s , s e e F i g u r e 1.

a. Wall R o t a t i o n . When t h e a c t u a l e s t i m a t e d w a l l r o t a t i o n i s less t h a n

the value required t o f u l l y mobilize a c t i v e o r passive conditions, a d i u s t t h e
e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s by u s i n g t h e diagram on t h e upper r i g h t hand c o r -
n e r of Figure 1. R e l a t i v e l y l a r g e movements a r e r e q u i r e d t o m o b i l i z e t h e
passive resistance. A s a f e t y f a c t o r must be a p p l i e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e p a s s i v e
r e s i s t a n c e i n o r d e r t o l i m i t movements.

b. Wall T r a n s l a t i o n . Wall uniform t r a n s l a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o m o b i l i z e

u l t i m a t e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e o r a c t i v e p r e s s u r e i s approximately e q u i v a l e n t t o
movement of t o p of w a l l based on r o t a t i o n c r i t e r i a g i v e n i n F i g u r e 1.

c . I n t e r n a l l y Braced F l e x i b l e Wall. Sheeting on c u t s r i g i d l y b r a c e d a t

t h e t o p undergoes i n s u f f i c i e n t movement t o produce f u l l y a c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s .
H o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e s a r e assumed t o be d i s t r i b u t e d i n a- t r a p e z o i d a l diagram.
(See S e c t i o n 4.) The r e s u l t a n t f o r c e i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e o r e t i c a l a c t i v e f o r c e .
For c l a y s , t h e i n t e n s i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e s depend on
t h e s t a b i l i t y number No = Y H/c. (See S e c t i o n 4.)

d. Tied Back Walls. S o i l movement a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d t i e d b a c k

w a l l s i s u s u a l l y l e s s than w i t h i n t e r n a l l y braced f l e x i b l e w a l l s , and d e s i g n
pressures a r e higher. (See S e c t i o n 4.)
 VALUE OF UH (g)
L
VAWE OF UH (-1 H2

FOR m >0.4:

PRESSURES FROM LINE LOAD QL J

(BOUSSINESQ EQUATlOFl MODIFIED BY EXPERIMENT) f

SECTON A-A
PRESSURES FROM POlNT WAD Qp
(BWSSINESQ EQUATION
MODIFIED BY EXPERIMENT)

FIGURE 11
H o r i z o n t a l P r e s s u r e s on Rigid Wall from Sur-face Load
 -
i
f
p = 0.5
q =SURCHARGE
L = LENGTH RPRALLELTDWALL
m=-B n = -Lp = q x I p B = LENGTH PERPENDICULAR
Z ' Z TO WALL

0 I 2 3 4 5.8

n =-
L ------
z

FIGURE 12
Lateral Pressure on an Unyielding Wall due to
Uniform Rectangular Surface Load
 e. R e s t r a i n e d Walls. I f a w a l l i s prevented from even s l i g h t movement,
t h e n t h e e a r t h remains a t o r n e a r t h e v a l u e of at-rest c o n d i t i o n s . The c o e f -
f i c i e n t of e a r t h p r e s s u r e a t - r e s t , KO, f o r normally c o n s o l i d a t e d c o h e s i v e o r
g r a n u l a r s o i l s i s approximately:

where : 9' = e f f e c t i v e f r i c t i o n angle

Thus f o r 8' = 30°, KO = 0.5.

For over-consolidated s o i l s and compacted s o i l s t h e r a n g e of KO may

b e on t h e o r d e r of 1.0. In cohesionless s o i l s , f u l l a t - r e s t pressure w i l l
occur o n l y w i t h t h e most r i g i d l y s u p p o r t e d wall. In highly p l a s t i c c l a y s ,
s o i l may c r e e p , and i f w a l l movement i s p r e v e n t e d , a t - r e s t c o n d i t i o n s may
redevelop even a f t e r a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d .

f. Basement and Other Below Grade Walls. P r e s s u r e on w a l l s below g r a d e

may be computed based on r e s t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l , t y p e of back-
f i l l , and t h e amount of compaction.

6. EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES.

a. Staged Construction. A s e a r t h p r e s s u r e s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by w a l l move-

ment, i t i s important t o c o n s i d e r each s t a g e of c o n s t r u c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h
r e g a r d t o b r a c e placement and i t s e f f e c t s .

b. Compaction. Compaction of b a c k f i l l i n a c o n f i n e d wedge behind t h e

w a l l t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e s beyond t h o s e r e p r e s e n t e d by a c t i v e
o r a t - r e s t values. For guidance on h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e computations a s s o c i -
a t e d w i t h t h e compaction of g r a n u l a r s o i l , s e e F i g u r e 13 ( a f t e r Reference 7 ,
R e t a i n i n g Wall Performance During B a c k f i l l i n g , by I n g o l d ) .

Clays and o t h e r fine-grained s o i l s , a s w e l l a s g r a n u l a r s o i l s , w i t h

c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of c l a y and s i l t 0 1 5 % ) a r e n o t normally used a s b a c k f i l l
m a t e r i a l . Where t h e y must be used, t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e should be c a l c u l a t e d on
t h e b a s i s of " a t - r e s t " c o n d i t i o n s o r h i g h e r p r e s s u r e w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o
p o t e n t i a l poor d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s , s w e l l i n g , and f r o s t a c t i o n .

c. H y d r a u l i c F i l l s . Active p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r l o o s e h y d r a u l i c
f i l l m a t e r i a l s r a n g e from about 0.35 f o r c l e a n sands t o 0.50 f o r s i l t y f i n e
sands. P l a c e h y d r a u l i c f i l l by procedures which permit r u n o f f of wash w a t e r
and p r e v e n t b u i l d i n g up l a r g e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s . For f u r t h e r guidance s e e
d i s c u s s i o n on dredging i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

7. EARTHQUAKE LOADING. The p r e s s u r e d u r i n g e a r t h q u a k e l o a d i n g c a n be com-

puted by t h e Coulomb t h e o r y w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g from ground
a c c e l e r a t i o n . For f u r t h e r guidance on t h e s u b j e c t s e e Reference 8, Design of
E a r t h R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s f o r Dynamic Loads, by Seed and Whitman. A s y n o p s i s
of some m a t e r i a l from t h i s Reference f o l l o w s :
 Y

- -- -- - -
a --
q P
--

FOR Z c L Z i d

FOR Z > d
Fh= K~ y ' z

-
i

@h
P (ROLLER LOAD) = DEAD W7: OF ROLLER +CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
WIDTH OF ROLLER
a : DISTANCE OF ROLLER FROM WALL
L: LENGTH OF ROLLER
USE FIGURES 2 , 3 , 5 OR 6 FOR KA

FIGURE 13
Horizontal Pressure on Walls from Compaction Effort
 ( 1 ) A simple procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e due t o an
earthquake i s t o compute t h e i n i t i a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e and add t o i t t h e
i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e from ground motion. For a v e r t i c a l w a l l , w i t h horizon-
t a l b a c k f i l l s l o p e , and 8 of 35O, (which may be assumed f o r most p r a c t i c a l
c a s e s i n v o l v i n g g r a n u l a r f i l l ) , t h e e a r t h p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r dynamic
i n c r e a s e i n l a t e r a l f o r c e can be approximated a s 314 kh, kh b e i n g t h e
horizontal a c c e l e r a t i o n i n g's. The combined e f f e c t of s t a t i c and dynamic
force is:

Assume t h e dynamic l a t e r a l f o r c e PE = 318 7 H2kh acts a t

0.6 H above t h e w a l l base. E f f e c t of l i q u e f a c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d i n DM-7.3,
Chapter 1.

( 2 ) For o t h e r s o i l and w a l l p r o p e r t i e s , t h e combined r e s u l t a n t a c t i v e

force:

where : @ *= P +$J = modified s l o p e of b a c k f i l l

8* = 8 + JI = modified s l o p e of w a l l back

~ 0 ~ *2 8
F =
cos JI cos 28
kv = v e r t i c a l ground a c c e l e r a t i o n i n g ' s .

*
For modifed s l o p e @ and 8 *, o b t a i n K A ( ~ *8, *) from t h e
a p p l i c a b l e F i g u r e s 3 through 8. Determine F from F i g u r e 14. Dynamic p r e s s u r e
increment A P E c a n be obtained by s u b t r a c t i n g PA ( a l s o t o be determined
from F i g u r e s 3 , 7, o r 8 f o r given P and 8 v a l u e s ) from PAE. The r e s u l t a n t
f o r c e w i l l v a r y i n i t s l o c a t i o n depending on w a l l movement, ground
a c c e l e r a t i o n , and w a l l b a t t e r . For p r a c t i c a l purposes i t may b e a p p l i e d a t
0.6 H above t h e base.

( 3 ) Unless t h e w a l l moves o r r o t a t e s s u f f i c i e n t l y , p r e s s u r e s g r e a t e r t h a n
a c t i v e c a s e w i l l e x i s t and the a c t u a l l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s may be as l a r g e as
t h r e e times t h e v a l u e d e r i v e d from Figure 14. I n such s i t u a t i o n s , d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s u s i n g numerical t e c h n i q u e s may be d e s i r a b l e .

( 4 ) Under t h e combined e f f e c t of s t a t i c and earthquake l o a d a f a c t o r of

s a f e t y between 1.1 and 1.2 i s a c c e p t a b l e .

( 5 ) I n c a s e s where s o i l i s below water, add t h e hydrodynamic p r e s s u r e

computed based on:
 (A) WALL CONFIGURATION

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Q5

TAN $

FIGURE 14(a)
Values of F for Determination of Dynamic Lateral Pressure C o e f f i c i e n t s
 /rF
EXAMPLES:
CASE I - VERTICAL WALL WlTH HORIZONTAL BACKflLL

COMBINED EFFECT OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC

FORCE.

PAE = Fl +F2
H= 20' KA =0.27(FROM FIGURE 2 FOR t$ =35O)
F1= 1/2 y ~ KA=
2
(0.27)= 6480 L B
1/2 (120)(20)~
RESULTANT ACTING ATA DISTANCE OF
H/3 = 6.7' FROM BASE OF WALL
F~ = 3/8 y ~ Kh 2=
318 (120) (2012 (0.2) = 3600 LB.
H/3 -6.7'
ACTING AT 12FT. (0.6H) FROM BASEOFWALL

CASE 2 - SLOPING WALL WlTH SLOPING BACKFILL

JI zTAN-l '.2-= 120

1-0.05
TAN J/ = 0.21
9 = K)O
8 Kvz.05
p = 15.
F =0.9 (FROM FIGURE 140)
0.6 x 20 =12.01 ASSUME A S M WALL,^~ =O
9*= e++ = IOt12.22O
p*=p+J/ = 15+I2 = 2 7 O
FROM THE EQUATION IN FIGURE8
**
KA (P,8 ) = =Q71

KA (p,81=0.41,P ~ = I / ~ x ( I ~ o ) x ( ~ o ) ~ x o . ~ I = ~ ~ o L B .
PAE = 1/2 y~~KA ( I-KV) F
= 1/2 (120) (20)2 (0.71 ) (1-0.05) (0.9)=I4569 LB.
A PE = 14569 -9840 = 4729 LB.

FIGURE 14(b)
Example Calculations for Dynamic Loading on Walls .
where : pw = hydrodynamic p r e s s u r e a t d e p t h z below w a t e r s u r f a c e

Yw = u n i t weight of water

h = d e p t h of w a t e r

z = d e p t h below t h e water s u r f a c e

( 6 ) Add t h e o t h e r i n e r t i a e f f e c t of t h e s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f f o r c a l c u l a t -
i n g t h e r e q u i r e d s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h . An optimum d e s i g n i s t o s e l e c t t h e
t h i n n e s t s e c t i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e s t bending and s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e ( i . e . most
flexible).

( 7 ) When a p p l y i n g t h i s e a r t h q u a k e l o a d i n g a n a l y s i s t o e x i s t i n g e a r t h re-
t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y where h i g h groundwater l e v e l s e x i s t , i t may
be found t h a t r e s u l t i n g s a f e t y f a c t o r i s l e s s t h a n 1.1. In such c a s e s ,
proposed c o r r e c t i v e measures must be submitted t o NAVFAC HQ f o r r e v i e w and
approval.

8. FROST ACTION. L a t e r a l f o r c e s due t o f r o s t a c t i o n a r e d i f f i c u l t t o pre-

d i c t and may a c h i e v e high v a l u e s .

B a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l s such a s s i l t s and c l a y e y s i l t s (CL, MH, ML, OL) a r e f r o s t

s u s c e p t i b l e , and w i l l e x e r t e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e on w a l l i f proper p r e c a u t i o n s
a r e n o t taken t o c u r b f r o s t . Swelling p r e s s u r e s may be e x e r t e d by c l a y s of
high p l a s t i c i t y (CH). Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , d e s i g n f o r a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s i s
i n a d e q u a t e , even f o r y i e l d i n g w a l l s , a s r e s u l t i n g w a l l movement i s l i k e l y t o
be e x c e s s i v e and continuous. S t r u c t u r e s u s u a l l y a r e n o t designed t o with-
stand f r o s t generated s t r e s s e s . I n s t e a d , p r o v i s i o n s should be made s o t h a t
f r o s t r e l a t e d s t r e s s e s w i l l n o t develop o r be k e p t t o a minimum. Use of one
o r more of t h e f o l l o w i n g may be n e c e s s a r y :

( i ) Permanently i s o l a t e t h e b a c k f i l l from s o u r c e s of w a t e r e i t h e r by
providing a very permeable d r a i n o r a very impermeable b a r r i e r .

( i i ) Provide pervious b a c k f i l l and weep h o l e s . (See DM-7.1, Chapter 6

f o r t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n on complete d r a i n a g e and p r e v e n t i o n of f r o s t t h r u s t . )

( i i i ) P r o v i d e impermeable s o i l l a y e r n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , and g r a d e t o
d r a i n s u r f a c e water away from t h e wall.

9. SWELLING ACTION. Expansion of c l a y s o i l s can c a u s e v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e s

on t h e back of a r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e . Clay b a c k f i l l s should be avoided when-
ever p o s s i b l e . Swelling p r e s s u r e s may be e v a l u a t e d based on l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
and w a l l designed t o w i t h s t a n d s w e l l i n g p r e s s u r e s . Providing g r a n u l a r non-
expansive f i l t e r between t h e c l a y f i l l and back of w a l l d i m i n i s h e s s w e l l i n g
p r e s s u r e s and s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i m i t s a c c e s s t o moisture. Guidance on s o i l sta-
b i l i z a t i o n methods f o r c o n t r o l of heave a r e given i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3. Com-

.
p l e t e d r a i n a g e ( s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 6 ) i s one of t h e t e c h n i q u e s t o c o n t r o l
heave

10. SELECTION OF STRENGTH PARAMETERS. The c h o i c e of s t r e n g t h parameters is

governed by t h e s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , boundary d r a i n a g e and
l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , and time.
 a. S a t u r a t e d Cohesive S o i l s . For s a t u r a t e d cohesive s o i l s of low perme-
a b i l i t y , where s u f f i c i e n t t i e i s not a v a i l a b l e f o r complete drainage, u s e
undrained shear s t r e n g t h , and t o t a l stress f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e computations.
Such condition w i l l e x i s t during and immediately a f t e r completion of
construction.

b. Coarse-grained S o i l s . In coarse-grained s o i l s such a s sand, which

have high - permeability,
- - - use e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s s t r e n g t h parameter 6' , f o r
e a r t h pressure computations. Also, where s u f f i c i e n t t i m e is a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e
d i s s i p a t i o n of pore pressure i n l e s s than pervious s o i l , use e f f e c t i v e stress
s t r e n g t h parameters c 1 and 8'. In t h i s c a s e , pore p r e s s u r e i s h y d r o s t a t i c
and can be estimated f a i r l y accurately.

In s o i l s such a s s i l t and clayey sand, where p a r t i a l drainage o c c u r s

during the time of c o n s t r u c t i o n , perform a n a l y s i s f o r l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,
i.e. e f f e c t i v e stress with 6' only, t o t a l s t r e s s with c , and design f o r t h e
worst case.

Section 3. R I G I D RETAINING WALLS

1. GENERAL CRITERIA. Rigid r e t a i n i n g walls a r e those t h a t develop t h e i r

l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e primarily from t h e i r own weight. Examples of r i g i d s'truc-
t u r e s a r e concrete g r a v i t y walls, t h i c k c o n c r e t e s l u r r y w a l l s , gabion walls,
and some r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h w a l l s r e i n f o r c e d f o r l i m i t e d movements. T h e o r e t i c a l
w a l l p r e s s u r e s a r e discussed i n Section 2. Requirements f o r r e s i s t a n c e
a g a i n s t overturning and s l i d i n g of four p r i n c i p a l wall types a r e given i n
Figure 15. Evaluate o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t deep foundation f a i l u r e . (See
DM-7.1, Chapter 7.) Determine allowable bearing pressures on the base of t h e
w a l l ( s e e Chapter 4).

a. S l i d i n g S t a b i l i t y . Place t h e base a t l e a s t 3 f t below ground sur-

f a c e i n f r o n t of t h e w a l l and below depth of f r o s t a c t i o n , zone of s e a s o n a l
volume change, and depth of scour. s l i d i n g s t a b i l i t y must be adequate with-
out i n c l u d i n g passive pressure a t t h e toe. I f i n s u f f i c i e n t s l i d i n g resis-
tance i s a v a i l a b l e , i n c r e a s e base width, provide p i l e foundation o r , lower
base of wall and consider passive r e s i s t a n c e below f r o s t depth. I f the wall
i s supported by rock o r very s t i f f c l a y , a key may be i n s t a l l e d below t h e
foundation t o provide a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o s l i d i n g (see Figure 15).

b. Settlement and Overturning. For w a l l s on r e l a t i v e l y incompressible

foundations,- apply - - - overturning c r i t e r i a of Figure 15. I f foundation i s com-
p r e s s i b l e , compute settlement-by methods of DM-7.1, Chapter 5 and e s t i m a t e
t i l t of r i g i d w a l l from the settlement. I f t h e consequent t i l t w i l l exceed
acceptable limits, proportion t h e wall t o keep the r e s u l t a n t f o r c e a t t h e
middle t h i r d of base. I f a w a l l settles such t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g movement
f o r c e s i t i n t o t h e s o i l which i t supports, then t h e l a t e r a l pressure on t h e
active side increases substantially.

c. Overall S t a b i l i t y . Where r e t a i n i n g w a l l s a r e u n d e r l a i n by weak

s o i l s , t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of the s o i l mass containing t h e r e t a i n i n g w a l l
should be checked w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e most c r i t i c a l s u r f a c e of s l i d i n g ( s e e
DM-7.1, Chapter 7). A minimum f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 2.0 i s d e s i r a b l e .
 LOCATION OF RESULTANT

MOMENTS ABOUT TOE:

ASSUMING g=O

OVERTURNING

MOMENTS ABOUT m E :

IGNOREWERTI.R?NIffi IF R IS WITHIN MIDDLE

THIRD (SOIL), MIDDLE HALF (ROCK).
CHECK R AT DlFFERENT HORIZONTAL PLANES
FOR GRAVITY WALLS.
SEMKiRAVlTY RESISTANCE ffiAINST SLIDING

----_F=(W+\)
- TAN 8 +ca B -- ,

FOR COEFFICIENTSOF FRICTION BETWEEN

BASE AND SOlL SEE TABLE- I

C q =ADHESION BETWEEN SOlL AND BASE

TAN 8 = FRICTION =TOR BETWEEN SOIL

WINCWDES WEIGHT OF WALL AND SOlL IN FRONT

FOR GRAVITY AND SEMIGRAVITY WALLS.
lN U D E S WEIGHT OF WALL AND SOlL ABOVE
FOOTING, FOR CANTILEVER AND COUNTERFORT

CONTACT PRESSURE ON FOUNDATION

FOR ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE FOR INCLINED
LOAD ON STRIP FOUNDATION,SEE CHAPTER 4.
COUNTERFORT FOR ANALYSIS OF PILE LOADS BENEATH STRIP
FOUNDATION, SEE CHAPTER 7.

OVERALL STABILITY

SECTION A-A

FIGURE 1 5
Design Criteria for ~ i g i dRetaining Walls
 51

b
:.;
:. .
.. . .
::, -...
- . .,'.'.A
*
.:.- .*
'
A .-.
. .-...
:6
b.'.
- . ....
' .
. . . . 4? C = SHEAR STRENGTH OF
"'-4
-. . '. . -...
-_
-a
- -&'... , .r--.;.
I / / / / / ' =
b
FOUNDATION SO1L
d
~

PP :: INTACT *.; Fs= FACTOR OF SAFETY

-- -
a,-
, A -
/ / / / I / -- CQ= ADHESION -CONCRETE
ON SOIL
Pp= PASSIVE RESISTANCE
FRICTION ANGLE- 8:
CONCRETE ON SOlL
RESISTANCE AGAl NST SLl DlNG ON KEYED FWNDATKINS
COMWESOILS F = (w+PV)TAN 8 + c a ( e - a ~ ) t c ( a 7 ) + p p
GRANULAR WLS F = (W +PV ) TAN 8 +pP
Fs =E
PH

FIGURE 15 (continued)
Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls
 d. Drainage. P o s i t i v e d r a i n a g e of b a c k f i l l i s d e s i r a b l e . ( S e e DM-7.1,
- Chapter 6 f o r d r a i n a g e d e s i g n . ) A s a minimum, provide weep h o l e s w i t h p o c k e t s
of coarse-grained m a t e r i a l a t t h e back of t h e w a l l . An impervious s u r f a c e
l a y e r should cover t h e b a c k f i l l , and a g u t t e r should be provided f o r c o l l e c t -
ing runoff.

2. LOW WALLS. It h a s been t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Command t o c o n s i d e r w a l l s l e s s t h a n 12 f e e t i n h e i g h t "low walls." For t h e s e ,
knowledge of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s could be a d e q u a t e f o r d e s i g n , and d e t a i l e d t e s t -
i n g and e l a b o r a t e p r e s s u r e computations may n o t be j u s t i f i e d economically.

a. E q u i v a l e n t F l u i d P r e s s u r e s . Use e q u i v a l e n t f l u i d p r e s s u r e s of F i g u r e
16 (Reference 9 , S o i l Mechanics i n E n g i n e e r i n g P r a c t i c e , by T e r z a g h i and Peck)
f o r s t r a i g h t s l o p e b a c k f i l l and of F i g u r e 17 (Reference 9 ) f o r broken s l o p e
b a c k f i l l . I n c l u d e dead l o a d s u r c h a r g e a s a n e q u i v a l e n t weight of b a c k f i l l .
For r e s u l t a n t f o r c e of l i n e l o a d s u r c h a r g e , s e e bottom l e f t p a n e l of F i g u r e
11. I f a w a l l r e s t s on a compressible f o u n d a t i o n and moves downward w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e b a c k f i l l , i n c r e a s e p r e s s u r e s by 50 p e r c e n t .

b. Drainage. The e q u i v a l e n t f l u i d . p r e s s u r e s i n c l u d e e f f e c t s of s e e p a g e
and time c o n d i t i o n e d changes i n t h e b a c k f i l l . However, p r o v i s i o n s should be
made t o prevent accumulation of water behind t h e wall. A s a minimum, p r o v i d e
weep h o l e s f o r drainage. Cover b a c k f i l l of s o i l t y p e s 2 and 3 ( F i g u r e 1 6 )
w i t h a s u r f a c e l a y e r of impervious s o i l .

S e c t i o n 4. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE WALLS

1. ANCHORED BULKHEADS. Anchored bulkheads a r e formed of f l e x i b l e s h e e t i n g

r e s t r a i n e d by t i e b a c k and by p e n e t r a t i o n of s h e e t i n g below dredge l i n e . See
Figure 18 f o r d e s i g n procedures f o r t h r e e common p e n e t r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .

a. Wall P r e s s u r e s . Compute a c t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s u s i n g t h e

a p p r o p r i a t e F i g u r e s 2 through 7. Determine r e q u i r e d d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n of
s h e e t i n g and anchor p u l l from t h e s e p r e s s u r e s . See F i g u r e 18 f o r guidance.

b. Wall Movements. Active p r e s s u r e s a r e r e d i s t r i b u t e d on t h e w a l l by

d e f l e c t i o n , moving away from t h e p o s i t i o n of maximum moment. Reduce t h e com-
puted maximum moment t o a l l o w f o r - f l e x i b i l i t y of s h e e t i n g . Moment r e d u c t i o n
i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e w a l l f l e x i b i l i t y number. See F i g u r e 19 (Reference 10,
Anchored S h e e t P i l e Walls, by Rowe). S e l e c t s h e e t i n g s i z e by s u c c e s s i v e
approximations so t h a t s h e e t i n g s t i f f n e s s i s compatible w i t h reduced design
moment .
c. Drainage. Include t h e e f f e c t of probable maximum d i f f e r e n t i a l head
i n computing w a l l p r e s s u r e s . Where p r a c t i c a b l e , provide weep h o l e s o r s p e c i a l
d r a i n a g e a t a l e v e l above mean water t o l i m i t d i f f e r e n t i a l water p r e s s u r e s .
 ,
VALUES OF SLOPE ANGLE B DEGREES

CIRCLED NUMBERS INDICATE THE FOLLOWING SOIL TYPES :

a CLEAN SAND AND GRAVEL: GW, GP, SW, SP.
-
@ DIRTY SAND AND GRAVEL OF RESTRICTED PERMEABILITY GM,GM-GP, SM-SP,SM.
@ STIFF RESIDUAL SILTS AND CLAYS, SILTY FINE SANDS, CLAYEY SANDS AND
GRAVELS: CL,ML,CH,MH,SM,SC,GC.

FIGURE 16
Design Loads f o r Low Retaining Walls (Straight Slope ~ a c k f i l l )
.

SOIL TYPE I SOIL TYPE 2 SOIL T Y P E 3

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

VALUES OF RATIO HI/H

FOR DESCRIPTION OF SOILTYPE SEE flGURE I6

.
FIGURE 17
Design Loads f o r Low Retaining Walls (Broken Slope B a c k f i l l )
 I. COMPUTE PRESSURES BY METHODS OF FIGURES 2 TO 7
PASSIVE PRESSURES FOR CLEAN OARSE GRAIN SOILS
INCLUDE WALL FRICTION (%).TABLE I. FOR ACTIVE OR
PASSIVE PRESSURES IN ALLOTHER SOILTYPES,
IGNORE WALL FRICTION.

FS = 2TO3 FWI COARSE GRAINED SOILS

FS = 1.5 TO 2 FQR FINE GRAINED SOILS
3. ANCHOR PULL: Ap PA^ PA^ - Pp/FS] d l d=ANCHORM N G
4. MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT (MMAx.) IN SHEETING
COMPUTED BY THE FREE EARTH SUPPORT MEMOD AND
APPLYING PA^ AP. FOR SHEETING IN SAND
APPLY MOMENT REDUCTION FOR FLEXIBILITY OF FIGURE 19.
FREE EARTH SUPPORT - GENERAL CASE

DESIGN STEPS I, 2, AND 3 SAME AS ABOVE

EARTH SUPPORT.
4. COMPUTE MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT ( M ~ x . IN 1
SHEETING BY FREE EARTH SUPPORT METHOD
APPLYING PA ,Pp/FS AND Ap.
2
5. COMPUTEP KCORDINGTO FtGURE 19. IF P 20, M DESIGN
IS COMPUTED FOR THE SWN @@ ASSMNG SIMPLE
SUPPORT AT POINT @
IF P ( 20 OBTAIN MOMENT REDUCTION FOR FLEXIBILITY
FROM FIGURE B.
6. INCREASE PENETRATIOW COMPUTED (D) BY =%TO
ALLOW FOR DREDGING, SCOUR, ETC.

I. COMPUTE PRESSURES AS ABOVE.

EXCEPT THAT PASSIVE PRESSURE DECREASES TO
ZERO AT TOP OF HARD STRATUM.
2: PENETRATION IN HARD STRATUM :
TAKE MOMENTSABOUT POINT@AND SOLVE FOR P ~ :

ESTIMATE IF REACTION PB CAN BE PROVIDW BY

4. MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT IN SHEETING COMPUTED BY

APPLYING PA, Pp AND Ap TO SPAN @@ASSUMING
SIMPLE SUPPORTAT@. NO REDUCTION FOR FLEXIBILITY.

--
FIGURE 18
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Anchored Bulkhead (Free Earth Support)
 1.o

.9

.8

x
a .7
I
I
\
z .6
'3
8
P .5
I

E 4
2
.3

.2

VALUE O F p = (H*')~ IN [g] PER RUNNING FOOT OF WALL

rn EXAMPLE: PENETRATION IN VERY COMPACT SAND

MMAX = 950,000 IN. LB/FT.
H=33FT, D=15FT.
fS = 25,000 PSI, E=30,000,000 PSI
TRY Z P 32,1=385.7IN.4,~=38.3 IN.^
(33+15)4 x 124 IN.^
p ' 30,000,000 -
x 3857 = 9'5 LB.

MDES'~N2 0.68, ME ~ =645,000

~ G ~ IN. LB/ FT

- 4 MMAX.
- 645000 = 16,800 PSI
fs IC=
3a.'3j
16,800 ( 25,000 PSI
TRY A SMALLER SECTION.

LOAD DIAGRAM MOMENT DIAGRAM

LEGEND
MMAX = MAXIMUM POSITIVE MOMENT IN SHEETING COMPUTED BY METHODS OF FIGURE 18.
M DESIGN = MAXIMUM POSITIVE MOMENT FOR DESIGN OF SHEETING.

P = FLEXIBILITY NUMBER : -
+
(H
'
E I
E = SHEETING MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, PSI
I= SHEETING MOMENT OF INERTIA, IN.^ PER RUNNING
FOOT OF WALL.
NOTES
I. MDES~GNIS OBTAINED BY SUCCESSIVE TRIALS OF SHEETING SIZE UNTIL MAX. BENDING
STRESS IN SHEETING EQUALS ALLOWABLE BENDING STRESS.
2. NO REDUCTION IN M ~ x IS. PERMITTEDFOR PENETRATION IN FINE GRAINED SOILS OR LOOSE
OR VERY LOOSE COARSE GRAINED SOILS.
3. FLEXIBILITY NUMBER IS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF LUBRICATED INTERLOCKS.

FIGURE 19
Reduction i n Bending Moments i n Anchored Bulkhead from Wall F l e x i b i l i t y
 d. Anchorage System. Most of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h anchored bulkheads
a r e caused by t h e i r anchorage. - A t i e b a c k may be c a r r i e d t o a buried deadman
anchorage, t o p i l e anchorage, p a r a l l e l w a l l anchorage, o r i t may be a d r i l l e d
and grouted anchor ( s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 3). See Figure 20 f o r criteria f o r
design of deadman anchorage. I f a deadman must be positioned c l o s e t o a w a l l ,
anchorage r e s i s t a n c e i s decreased and an a d d i t i o n a l passive r e a c t i o n i s re-
quired f o r s t a b i l i t y a t the wall base. P r o t e c t t i e rods by m a p p i n g ,
p a i n t i n g , o r encasement t o r e s i s t corrosion. Where b a c k f i l l w i l l s e t t l e
s i g n i f i c a n t l y o r unevenly, t o avoid loading by overburden, e n c l o s e t i e rod i n
a r i g i d tube, providing v e r t i c a l support i f needed t o e l i m i n a t e sag.

e. Example of Computation. See Figure 21 f o r example of a n a l y s i s of

anchored bulkhead.

f . Construction Precautions. Precautions during c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a s

f 011ows :

( 1 ) Removal of s o f t material, o r placement of f i l l i n the "passive"

zone should precede t h e d r i v i n g of s h e e t p i l e s .

( 2 ) Deposit b a c k f i l l by working away from t h e wall r a t h e r than

toward i t t o avoid trapping s o f t m a t e r i a l adjacent t o sheeting.

( 3 ) Before anchorage i s placed, s h e e t i n g i s loaded a s a c a n t i l e v e r

w a l l , and s a f e t y during c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e s should be checked.

g. Sand Dike B a c k f i l l . When g r a n u l a r b a c k f i l l i s s c a r c e , a sand d i k e

may be placed t o form a plug a c r o s s t h e p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e of t h e
a c t i v e wedge a s shown i n Figure 22. Where such a d i k e r e s t s on f i r m founda-
t i o n s o i l , t h e l a t e r a l pressure on t h e bulkhead w i l l be only the a c t i v e pres-
s u r e of t h e dike m a t e r i a l . For f u r t h e r guidance, s e e Reference 11, Founda-
t i o n s , Retaining and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s , by Tschebotarioff.

2. CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS. A c a n t i l e v e r wall d e r i v e s support from t h e

p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e below t h e dredge l i n e t o support t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e from
t h e s o i l above t h e dredge l i n e without an anchorage. This type of w a l l i s
s u i t a b l e only f o r h e i g h t s up t o about 15 f e e t and can be used only i n granu-
l a r s o i l s o r s t i f f clays. See Figure 23 f o r a method of a n a l y s i s ( a f t e r
Reference 12, S t e e l s h e e t P i l i n g Design Manual, by U.S. S t e e l Corporation).
For cohesive s o i l s consider no n e g a t i v e pressure i n t e n s i o n zone. Figures 24
and 25 (Reference 12) may be used f o r simple cases.

3. INTERNALLY BRACED FLEXIBLE WALLS. To r e s t r a i n foundation o r t r e n c h exca-

v a t i o n s , f l e x i b l e w a l l s can be braced l a t e r a l l y a s the excavation proceeds.
This r e s t r a i n s l a t e r a l movement of t h e s o i l and cause l o a d s on t h e braces
which exceed those expected from a c t i v e e a r t h pressure. Braces may be e i t h e r
long raking braces o r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s braces between t r e n c h
walls. Design e a r t h pressure diagram f o r i n t e r n a l l y braced f l e x i b l e w a l l s a r e
shown i n Figure 26 ( a f t e r Reference 6 ) f o r excavations i n sand, s o f t c l a y , o r
s t i f f clay.
 EFFECT OF ANCHOR WCATION
RELATIVE TO THE WALL

ANCHOR BUXm LEFT OF b~ PROVIDES NO RESISTANCE.

ANCHOR BLOCK RIGHT OF bf PROVIDES FULL
RESISTANCE WITH NO LOAD TRANSFERRED TO WALL.
HOR B W K BETWEEN b~ AND bf PROVIDES
PARTIAL RESISTANCE AND TRANSFERS LOAD aPp
TO BASE OF WALL.

FOR FREE BODY ab ed

ERE PA =ACTIVE FORCE ON BACK OF de AT

CONTINWUS ANCHOR WALL LOCATE0

BETWEEN RUPTURE S U R F . AND
S L O E AT FRICTION ANGLE

Kp OeTAlNED FROM FIGURE 5

USING - b# 0.5 KA IS OBTAINED FROM FldURE 3

FIGURE 20
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Deadman Anchorage
 J

EFFECT OF DEPTH AND S W I N G

OF ANCHOR BUCKS
i

M a R ESISTANCE FOR hl 2
L CONTINUOUS WALL:
ULTIMATE ApC/d Z P ~ - P A ~ H E RApc/d
E IS ANCHOR RESISTANCE AND PO ,@
L TAKEN PER LINEAL FOOT OF WALL.
T 2. INDIVIDUAL ANCHORS:
~F~~~+~,ULTIMATEA~=~(P~-P~)+~P~TAN(~WHEREP~=RESULTNT
A-A A-A FORCE OF SOIL AT REST ON VERTICAL AREA c d e OR c"de.
CONTINUOUS
WALL 'NwlwAL
ANCHORS IF d = h + b , ~ ~ /sm%w~pdd
d R R ~ ~ T I N U X ~ WALL.
S
L FOR THIS CONDITION IS AND L'=h.
=~d - %(.3 ~ p d d )c=h.
IF d< h+b,Ap/d
N C H R RESISTANCE FOR hl ( a ,

ULTIMATE Ap/d OR Apc/d EQUALS B E A R M CAWCITY OF STRIP FO(mNG OF

WIDTH hl AND SUCHCRE UYD Y ( h - +),SEEFIGURE I CHAPTER^
USE FRICTON ANGLE f :WHERE TAN @ =0.6TAN 6.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:
I. ALUlWABLE VALUE OF Ap AND A ~ =ULTIMATE
c VALUE/2, FAGTOR OF SAFETY OF 2 AGAlNST FAILURE.
2. V U E S OF KA AND Kp ARE FOR COHESIONLESS MATERIALS. IF BACKFILL HAS BOTH #AND C STRENGTHS,COMPUTE
kMlVE AND M I V E FORCES ACCORDING TO FIGURES 7 AND9 FINE GRAINED SOILS OF MOMUM TO HIGH
PLASTICITY SHOULD NOT BE USED AT THE ANCHORAGE.
3. SOILS WITHIN PASSIVE WEDGE OF ANCHORAGE SHALL 8E C O M M E D TO NO LESS THCIN 90%OF MAX. UNIT
WEIGHT ( ASTM D698 TEST).
4. TIE ROD IS DESlGNEll FOR ALLOWABLE Ap OR A ~ c .TIE ROD CONNECTWS TO WALL AND ANCHORAGE ARE =NED
FOR 1.2 (ALUDWABLE Ap OR Apc).
5. TIE ROD CONNETION TO ANCHORAGE IS MADE AT THE LOCATION OF THE RESULTANT EARTH PRESSURES
KTING ON THE VERTICAL FACE OF THE ANCHORAGE.

FIGURE 20 (continued)
Design Criteria f o r Deadman Anchorage
 t.3'4 QL 5,000 PLF ~q =so0 PSF

.23 KSF

.TY.=
+l; a =I
25? C1=100PSF
yT= 115 PCF
-An r

PH=2.75 KIP

I
21.09~
KA (FROM FIGURE 3) z.41
PA^ = 10.4 KIP
24' ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DIAGRAM
77 -1 -,A1 I NET WATER PRESSURE DIAGRAM

= 4.05 KIP

+2 = 3s0, C2=50 PSF

yT= 1% W F
9 ~ =410.9 KIP
KA (FROM FIGURE5 )=.n

5-94 Kp (FROM FIGURE 5)=6.0

+ 1.a3
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE (SEE FIGURE 2) SAFETY FACMR AGAINST TOE FAILURE :
INCWDING UNIFORM SURCHARGE q TAKE .. - .. -. .. - ABOUT
.... - MOMENTS . -- -

U H = y Z K -2C
~ ll(A - p MOMENTS OF W ~ V E FORCES
C MOMENTS OF ACTIVE FORCES
,UH z.30x.41-2x.O W=O
,uH=(.m+5~.115).41-2x.10 m z . 2 3 KSF
,UH=(.30+5~.115+19~.053).41-2
%.I0 s.65 KSF
Wz.46 M
=(.30+5x.115+19x.053).27-2~.~
=.46+6~.068~.27=.57KSF ANCHOR PULL
@,a~( = .46+(6+14)rD68~.27=.83KSF AP =CpA-CPp/FS
1 = 155 +2.75+0.4+4.05 +10.9- %!@ = 12.37 KIPS
PRESSURE OF LINE LWD SURCHARGE -
(SEE FIGURE II) MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT IN SHEETING
m = +=&=o.I POINT OF ZERO SHEAR:
x2
12.37-1.55 -2.75-45X -.022 x -0
PH= 0.55 QL=0.55 ~5 ~ 2 . 7 5KIP
X z l 3 . 6 ' ~ OUTSIDE
~ ~ ) ~ WATER LEVEL
U)CATION OF RESULTANT :
R=.60H =.60x30=18'
NET WATER PRESSURE MOMENT REDUCTION:
ASSUME:^^ =~T,OOOPSI, E=JO,O,OOO PSI
TRY ZP 32, I=MS.? IN^, s = 3 a 3 IN^
PASSIVE PRESSURE + 4
P =(FROM FWRE 19 = ILLD)
UH'YZ K ~ + ~ c6
@,uH
= o + ~ x D s ~ = . ~ ~ K s F
= .83; Y ON z.83 x 669 ~72.1FT-KIPS
@, UHz . 0 6 8 x 14~6.0+2x . 0 5 W = 5.94 KSF MMAx

TRY A SMALLER SECTION

FIGURE 21
Example of Analysis of Anchored Bulkhead
' l'~b60.1~
RETAlN1NG
rnlJCTURE%
/I
STABLE DREDGE SLOP€
-
'
I

H . SAND DIKE .
. .
I

...-.. ...;...-::.:: :.:-:::. :-..- . . . . ...... .::.. . . . . . . . . . .

:. :;.:-:.....: .....:.:........
........... .-.:....
':......
... .: :.... .:. '..-:-:'..::'..-.-;DENSE ..:....
. . : ..:. . . . . . . . ...........
.
.:::.a;.
. . . .;.SAND
........
.
FIGURE 22
Sand Dike Scheme f o r Controlling Active Pressure
NOTE: WATER LEVELS CAN
BE D1FFEREb.F C:;';
?-SITE
SIDES DUE TO PUMPING,TlDAL
FLUCTUATIONS AND OTHER
REASONS.

E'

1. Assume a t r i a l d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n , D. T h i s may be e s t i m a t e d from

t h e f o l l o w i n g approximate c o r r e l a t i o n .

Standard P e n e t r a t i o n
Resistance, N
Blows/foot Depth of P e n e t r a t i o n *

0 - 4 2.OH
5 - 10 1.5H
11 -
30 1.25H
31 -
50 1.OH
+5 0 0.75H

* H = h e i g h t of p i l i n g above dredge l i n e
2. Determine t h e a c t i v e and p a s s i v e l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e
c o e f f i c i e n t s of l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e . I f t h e Coulomb method i s
used, i t should be used c o n s e r v a t i v e l y f o r t h e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e .
3. S a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m : t h e sum of t h e
f o r c e s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n must be z e r o and t h e sum of t h e
moments about any p o i n t must be zero.

- The sum of t h e h o r i z o n t a l
f o r c e s may be w r i t t e n i n terms of p r e s s u r e a r e a s :
_C

A(EA1A2) - A ( F B A ~ - ) ~ ( E C J )= 0
Solve t h e above e q u a t i o n f o r t h e d i s t a n c e , 2. For a uniform
granular s o i l ,
K~ ~ 2 -
KA ( H + D ) ~
z =
(Kp - KA) (H+2D)

FIGURE 23
Analysis f o r C a n t i l e v e r Wall
4. Take moments about p o i n t F. I f sum of moments i s o t h e r t h a n zero,
r e a d j u s t D and r e p e a t c a l c u l a t i o n s u n t i l sum of moments around F i s
zero.

5. Compute maximum moment a t point of zero s h e a r .

6. I n c r e a s e D by 20%.- 40% t o r e s u l t i n approximate f a c t o r of s a f e t y of

1.5 t o 2.

FIGURE 23 (continued)
Analysis f o r C a n t i l e v e r Wall
c HVM.A/xw w ' HIOIM.ld t13d OllVt1 I N 3 WOW
 EXAMPLE

Backfill: fi = 30° Underlying Cohesive Stratum: C = 750 p s f

Y = 120 pcf y a w 60 p s f
Y ' = 60 pcf

Depth H t o mud l i n e = 20 f t

Depth t o water = 5 f t

a = 5/20 = 0.25

Wall f r i c t i o n = 0.3 (Table 1 )

KA = 0.31 ( F i g u r e 5)

YEH = 120 x 5 + 15 x 60 = 1,500 psf

qu = 2C = 1,500 p s f

USING FIGURE 25:

2 q " - ~ ~ - 3000- I5O0 = 4.03

Y'KAH 6 0 X 0.31 X 2 0

Depth r a t i o , !. = 0.69
H

D c a l c u l a t e d = 0.69 x 20 = 13.8 f t

D d e s i g n = 13.8 x 1.3 = 17.9 f t

Moment r a t i o = 0.33

= 0.33 x 60 x 0.31 x (2013 = 49,104 f t - l b / f t of w a l l

FIGURE 25 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C a n t i l e v e r S t e e l Sheet P i l e Wall i n Cohesive S o i l w i t h Granular B a c k f i l l
 -

;I
CI
F2 I1
12
F3

13 (a) SAND
Fq
u h = 0 . 6 5 KA.YH
WHERE K A - T A N ~(45-+/2)

e-+
FI

F2
4 -- I
(b) SOFT TO MEDIUM CLAY
(No>6
- For c l a y s b a s e t h e s e l e c t i o n o n
12
5 -_ - d
0.75H No = Y H/c
u h = ~ A - y . ~
13
F4 - KA = I - m - 4 C ;
YH
m = 1 except where c u t i s
%
& u n d e r l a i n by deep s o f t
I I
$'(+++)Q~ normally c o n s o l i d a t e d
c l a y , t h e n m = 0. hFSB
ASSUME HINGES AT STRUT
LOCATIONS FOR CALCULATING See F i g u r e 28 f o r F a c t o r of S a f e t y
STRUT FORCES a g a i n s t bottom i n s t a b i l i t y ,
(FSB): 1LFS~L1.5
F- l
11 - Om2SH ( STIFF CLAY
F2 -

12
.- A
I (N0<4
For 4<No<6, u s e l a r g e r o f
F3 L diagrams ( b ) and ( c ) .
0.50H
l3 - I
uh1=0.2 y H ; U h 2 = 0 . 4 y H
U s e lower v a l u e when movements
F4 a r e minimal and s h o r t
c o n s t r u c t i o n period.

FIGURE 26
P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Brace Loads i n I n t e r n a l l y Braced F l e x i b l e Walls
 a. Wall w i t h Raking Braces. When s u b s t a n t i a l excavation i s made b e f o r e
placing an upper b r a c e , movement of t h e w a l l i s g r e a t e s t a t t h e top and pres-
- s u r e s approach a c t i v e values. See Figure 27 f o r d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .

b. Braced Narrow Cuts. When a narrow c u t i s braced s t i f f l y a s excava-

t i o n proceeds, s h e e t i n g i s r e s t r a i n e d a t t h e top and t h e w a l l d e f l e c t s inward
a t t h e base. Design t h e wall employing t h e following s t e p s :

(1) Compute f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t bottom i n s t a b i l i t y ( F i g u r e

28).

(2) Compute s t r u t f o r c e s u t i l i z i n g t h e method i n upper p a n e l of

Figure 27.

( 3 ) Compute required s e c t i o n f o r wall and wale using method i n upper

panel of Figure 27. I n computing t h e r e q u i r e d wall s e c t i o n s , a r c h i n g could b e
accounted f o r by reducing t h e s e p r e s s u r e s somewhat i n a l l but t h e upper span.
A r e d u c t i o n of 80% of t h e values shown would be a p p r o p r i a t e .

( 4 ) Re-compute s t r u t f o r c e s and t h e r e q u i r e d s e c t i o n s of w a l e s and

w a l l using t h e p r e s s u r e diagram of lower panel of Figure 27 f o r each construc-
t i o n stage.

(5) Compare s t r u t f o r c e s , and required s e c t i o n s computed i n S t e p ( 4 )

t o those computed i n S t e p ( 3 ) and s e l e c t t h e l a r g e r f o r c e o r s e c t i o n f o r
design. See example i n Figure 31.

4. TIED BACK FLEXIBLE WALL. Depending on t h e width of excavation and o t h e r

f a c t o r s ( s e e Chapter 1 ) i t may be economical t o r e s t r a i n excavation w a l l s by
t i e backs. The use of t i e backs depends on t h e e x i s t a n c e of s u b s o i l s adequate
t o provide r e q u i r e d anchorage. For multi-level t i e back systems, d r i l l e d i n
t i e backs (i.e. anchors) a r e u s u a l l y used. For a s i n g l e l e v e l t i e back (e-g.,
bulkheads), a deadman anchorage, b a t t e r p i l e anchorage o r a p a r a l l e l w a l l
anchorage a r e u s u a l l y considered. For d e t a i l s on t h e d r i l l e d a n c h o r s -
process and hardware, s e e Reference 6. For d e t a i l s on o t h e r anchorage systems
s e e Reference 12 and Reference 13, Foundation Construction, by Carson. .

a. P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n . For s o f t t o medium c l a y use a t r i a n g u l a r

d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g l i n e a r l y w i t h depth. For a l l o t h e r s o i l s u s e a
uniform pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n . See Figure 29.

b. Design Procedures. Apply a design procedure s i m i l a r t o i n t e r n a l l y

braced excavation a s shown i n Figure 27.

5. EXAMPLE OF COMPUTATION. See Figure 30 f o r example of a n a l y s i s o f braced

wall of narrow c u t , and Figure 31 f o r an example of excavation i n s t a g e s .

6. STABILIZING BERMS. On occasion i t i s p r a c t i c a l t o i n c r e a s e t h e resis-

t a n c e of f l e x i b l e walls by using s t a b i l i z i n g berms. The l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e of
a s t a b i l i z i n g berm w i l l be less than t h a t f o r an e a r t h mass bounded by a
h o r i z o n t a l plane a t t h e top e l e v a t i o n of t h e berm.
w

SOLDIER BEAM
WITH LAGGING

FLEXIBLE WALL OF NARROW CUT

I. COMPUTE PRESSURES ON WALL ABOVE BASE OF CUT BY METHODS OF FIGURE 26. FOR WATER
AT BACKFILL SURFACES USE Y'YSUB AND ADD PRESSURES R)R UNBALANCED WATER
LEVEL. FOR WATER AT BASE OF CUT USE Y 'YT. INTERPOLATE BETWEEN THESE PRESSURE
DIAGRAMS FOR AN INTERMEDIATE WATER LEVEL.

2. DETERMINE STABILITY OF BASE OFCUT BY METHODS OF FIGURE 28. IF BASE IS STABLE,SHEETING

TOES IN SEVERAL FEET AND NO FORCE ACTS ON BURIED LENGTH. IF BASE IS UNSTABLE,SHEETING
PENETRATES AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 28 AND UNBALANCED FORCE PC1 ACTS ON BURIED LENGTH. IN
ANY CASE, PENETRATION MAY BE CONTROLLED BY REQUIREMENT FOR CUT-OFF OF UNDERSEEME.

3. MOMENTS IN SHEETING BETWEEN BRACES = 0.8 x (SI MPLE SPAN MOMENTS 1, EXCEPT FOR UPPER
SPAN WHERE MOMENT = 1.0 x (SIMPLE SPAN MOMENT). MOMENTS IN SHEETING AT POINT @ IS
COMPUTED FOR CANTILEVER SPAN BEWW@, INCLUDING UNBALANCED FORCE ~ j l .

4. REACTION AT BRACES COMPUTED ASSUMING SIMPLE SPAN BETWEEN BRACES.

-
FIGURE 27
Des ign Criteria for Braced Flexible Walls \
I
 SHEETING OR SOLDIER
BEAMS WITH LAGGING

PA = RESULTANT ACTIVE PRESSURE

=RESULTANT BELOW FLEXIBLE WALL WlTH RAKING BRACES
POINT @

1. COMPUTE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURES BY METHODS IN SECTION 2. PASSIVE

PRESSURES FOR CLEAN,COARSE-GRAINED SOILS INCLUDE WALL FRICTION (%),TABLE I.
IGNORE WALL FRICTW FOR M I V E PRESSURES IN OTHER SOILTYPES AND FOR
ACTIVE PRESSURES IN ALL SOILS.

2 MAXIMUM MOMENlS IN SHEETING AND MAXIMUM LOADS IN BRACES ARE U S W OBTAINED

AT A CONSTRUCTION STME WHEN EXCAVATION FOR A BRACE AND WALE IS COMPLETE
AND JUST PRIOR TO PLACING THE BRACE. FOR EACH SUCCESSIVE STAOE OF EXCAVATm
COMPUTE SHEETING MOMENTS AND BRACE LOADS BY ASSUMING SIMPLE SPAN BETWEEN
WWEST BRACE THEN IN PLACE AND POINT OF ZERO NET PRESSURE BuOW EXCAWTION.

3. FOR TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION CONMTDNS,APPLY FACTOR OF SAFETY OF 1.5 Tt) COMPUTE

PASSIVE PRESSURES. TO ALLOW R)R POSSIBLE CONSTRUCTION SURCHARGE AND RIGIDITY
OF UPPER BRACE POINT, INCREASE LOAD ON UPPER WALE AND BRACE BY ISO/'OF COMPUTED
VALUE.

4. REQUIRED PENETRATION OF SHEETING BEUIW FINAL SUBGRADE GENERALLY IS CONTROCLED

BY CONDITIONS AT COMPLETION OF EXCAVATION. PENETRATION REQUIRED IS DETERMINED BY
EQUILIBRIUM OF FREE ENDED SPAN BEUW POINT @. ASSUMING FIXITY AT POINT@:

p ~ - *~k ' 2 4- ~ g = ~
MS =ALLOWABLE MOMENT IN SHEETING

5. CHECK POSITIVE MOMENTS IN SPAN BEIDW POINT @ FOR THIS FINAL W I N G CONDITION.
% A

FIGURE 27 (continued)
Design Criteria for Braced Flexible Walls
 CUT IN COHESIONLESS SOIL

STABILITY IS INDEPENDENT OF H AND B, BUT VARIES

#
WITH 71 AND SEEPAGE CONDITION.
SAFETY FACTOR, Fs = 2Ny2 (%) KA TAN 9
N ~ =2BEARING CAPACITY FACTOR, FIGURE I,CHAPTER 4
IF GROUNDWATER IS AT A DEPTH OF (8) OR MORE BELOW
BASE OF CUT:
3 AND Y2 ARE TAKEN AS MOIST UNlT WEIGHT
IF GROUNDWATER IS STATIC AT BASE OF CUT :
TI = MOIST WEIGHT, Y2 =SUBMERGED WEIGHT.
IF SEEPME IS MOVING UPWARD TO BASE OF CUT :
-
Y2 = (SATURATED UNlT WIGHT 1 (UPLIFT PRESSURE)

CUT IN CLAY, DEPTH OF CLAY UNLIMITED (T ) 0.78 )

L :LENGTH OF CUT IF SHEETING TERMINATES AT BASE OF CUT :

NC C
SAFETY =TOR, FS =
YTH+~
NC = BEARING CAPACITY FETOR, FIGURE 2, CHAPTER 5
WHICH DEPENDS ON DIMENSIONS OF THE
EXCAVATION : B ,L AND H (USE H = Z 1.
C = UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH OF CLAY IN
FAILURE ZONE BENEATH AND SURROUNDING
BASE OF CUT.
q = SURFACE SURCHARGE.
IF SAFETY FACTOR IS LESS THAN 1.5, SHEETING MUST BE
CARRIED BELOW BASE OF CUT TD INSURE STABILITY.
FORCE ON BURIED LENGTH:
IF HI ) - - PH z.7
3 m 1
(yTH8-I.4CH-rCB)

:8
I F HI( - - , P ~ = I ~ ) H ~ ( Y ~ H - * ~ - ~ ~ )

CUT IN CLAY, DEPTH OF CLAY LIMITED BY HARD STRATUM ( ~ $ 0 . 7 ~ )

SHEETING TERMINATES AT BASE OF CUT. SAFETY F m :

CONTlNUOlE EXCAVATION ;FS = N
cD YTH+q
CI
RECTANGULAR EXCAVATION; Fs = NCR
YTH+~
NCD AND NCR=BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS.
FIGURE 5 CHAPTER4, WHICH DEPEND ON DIMENSIONS OF THE
EXCAVATION : B ,L AND H ,(USE H =Z

HARD STRATUM

NOTE: IN EACH CASE FRICTION AND ADHESION ON BACK OF SHEETING IS DISREGARDED.

. CLAY IS ASSUM ED TO HAVE A UNIFORM SHEAR STRENGTH = C THROUGHOUT FA1WRE ZONE.

FIGURE 28
S t a b i l i t y of Base for Braced Cut
 7

SOFT TO MEDIUM CLAY

Compute p r e s s u r e based on a t - r e s t
c o n d i t i o n s w i t h KO from 0.5 t o
0.6. I n normally c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y s
e x c e s s i v e p r e s t r e s s i n g should n o t be
p e r m i t t e d because of t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r induced c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Use
d e s i g n procedure a s i n F i g u r e 26.

ELEVATION PLAN

FIGURE 29
P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Tied-Back Walls
SANDS

:i u
0 4 KoYH TO Q5KoyH
.

STIFF TO VERY STIFF CLAY

Where d e f o r m a t i o n s a r e c r i t i c a l and
tie-backs a r e p r e s t r e s s e d t o 100% o f
d e s i g l o a d , compute p r e s s u r e based
on a t - r e s t c o n d i t i o n s . Use KO = 0.4
f o r dense sand, and KO = 0.5 f o r
l o o s e sand.

Use p r e s s u r e o r d i n a t e t o produce t h e

fi H
same f o r c e a s f o r braced e x c a v a t i o n .
0.3 i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r s t a b i l i t y number
of about 4, and 0.15 i s a p p l i c a b l e when
s t a b i l i t y number i s l e s s t h a n 4. Use
d e s i g n procedure a s i n Figure 26.

TO
0.3 Y H

FIGURE 29 ( c o n t i n u e d )
P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Tied-Back Walls
 GIVEN CONDITIONS :

EXCAVATION IN SILTY CLAY.

c =400PSF,# =O,yT =I20 PCF
LENGTH OF EXCAVATION ,L = 80'

DETERMINE : PRESSURES ON WALL. FORCE ON BURIED

LENGTH OF SHEETING AND STABILITY OF BASE OF CUT.

-
-
1I llhl 1 STABILITY OF BASE OF CUT(SEE FIGURE 28)

F ~K, ~ = =0(NO UNIFORM SURCHARGE )

Y .T H +- ~
FOR NC ,(FIGURE 2 ,CHAPTER 5 )
H
r=
--
2-20
-4.67,
i p H 3 L=
B w=Q15,NCC
12 ~6.9 B 12

N C R = N ~ ~ ( IB/L)z6.9(l+Q2(Q15))=7.1
+Q~
7.1 400
Fs = 120x20+0 ~1.18(1.5
DRIVE SHEETING BELOW BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION
PRESSURE ON WALL FROM SURROUNDING SOIL (SEE F W R E 26)

ch = KA YH = 0.69 x 0.12 x 20 -1.66 KSF

LOCATION OF RESULTANT:
1.66~Y2~(15+~3)+1.66~15~15/2
R~ = 29.05
=8.81t

PRESSURES ON WALL FROM SURCHARGE (SEE FIGURE II)

PH2 = .78
a z . 7 8 %=.39 KIP
-f
LOCATION OF RESULTANT:
Rs.59H =.59x20=11.8'
FORCE ON BURIED LENGTH OF SHEETING : ( SEE FIGURE 28)
ASSUME HI = 5 < k-- ,FOR T ) 0.78 RESULTANT K)RCE P H :~
3 -

P H '1~
.5 x 5(0.12x20-
O4 x20 -3.14 x 4 ) = 1.6 KIP
12
NOTE : ALL COMPUTATIONS ARE PER LINEAR FOOT OF WALL.

FIGURE 30
Example of Analysis of Pressures on Flexible Wall of Narrow Cut
In Clay - Undrained Conditions
 ,

ASSUMPTIONS
I. NO SURCHARGE LOAD. 2. NO WALL FRICTION
PROPERTIES
# = 30° y ~0.125KCF y' = 0.0625 KCF
c =O DEPTH OF EXCAVATK)N 40'
GWL =lo1 BELOW
GROUND LEVEL

--I-

rv rC/

STAGE I STAGE It FINAL STAGE

COMPUTATIONS
FROM FIGURE 2
KA '1/3, Kp = 3

A. STAGE I
( PRIOR TO INSTALLATION OF B R K E 1 )
SHEETING ACTS AS CANTILEVER WALL.
USE FIGURE 24
a =o Kp/KA=9

D/H = 0.95 :. REQUIRED 0 = 0.95 x 8 x 1.4 = 10.64 < 40'

M M A X / ~ 'KA. ~ ~ ~ 0 . 3 7 MMAX = 3.946 FT-KIP
A
-
FIGURE 31
Example of Excavation in Stages
-
B. STAGE II:

I. ACTIVE PRESSURE
AT WATER LEVEL,UA (10) = 1/3 x 0.125 x 10 = 0.417 KSF
AT EXCAVATION LEVEL,uA (18) = 0.417+ 1/3 x 0.0625 x 8 = 0.583 KSF
WATER PRESSURE ON ACTIVE SIDE
PW (18)=0.0625 x 8 = 0.500 KSF
TOTAL PRESSURE (18) = UA(18) + PW(18) = 1.083 KSF

2. POINT OF ZERO NET PRESSURE

APPLY FS = 1.5 TO Kp
SLOPE OF THE NET PRESSURE DIAGRAM = (3/15 - 1/31 0.0625 -0.104
DISTANCE TO (A) = d.1 083
104 = 10.41 FT

3. REACTION AT (I) AND (A) PER LINEAR FOOT OF WALL

ASSUME HINGE (ZERO BENDING MOMENT) AT (A)
R (1) = b1.083 x 10.41 x V2 x (2/3 x 10.41) +(1.083-0.4171~8x 1/2 x(10.41+8/3) +0.417 x 8 x
(10.41+8/2)+0.417x10x1/2x(10.41+8+10/3)1x I
(10.41+11)

R ( I ) = 7.817 K,USE R(1) ~1.15x7.817 =8.99K N-9.OK

R (A) = 5.905 K N- 5.9 K

4. POINT OF ZERO SHEAR

TRY A WWTION BETWEEN BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (DEPTH 18') AND (1)
7.817-(112 XIO X O . ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ X O . ~ I ~ ~ - so=zn'
~ I ~ ~ X ~ ~ X ~ S ~ ~ = O ,

5. MAXIMUM MOMENT
M w X . zk8I7 x(7.75e3g - E l 2 xlOx4417)x(275+ Fg -~275x0.4R)x~]

-[a x r ~ 7 !8 5 ~xE]x 3~ ) ~41.9FT-KP

C. FINAL STAGE
I. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
USE PRESSURE DIAGRAM FROM FIGURE 26
Yav = 0.25 x 0.125 + 0.75 x 0.0625 =O.mI = I KSF
q,= 0.65 x 1/3 x 0.0781 x 40 =0.677 KSF
PW (30) = 0.0625 x 3 0 = 1.875 KSF

FIGURE 3 1 (continued)
Example of Excavation in Stages
. w

2. STRUT LOADS PER LINEAR FOOT OF WALL

RII) zP.677 x 112/2 c0.0625 x 12/2 x 7 / d I/K)=l0.14 K,FOR DESIGN R 1:1.15 xf0.14 :11.66K

R O ) = ( E ~ . ~ ~ ~ X I ~ ) + ( I / ~ X ( I x7)-10.14a
. I I ~ - O . ~ ~~1 . 1 1 5 ~ 1 0 ~ 1 0 / 2 ) +
(1/2 ~(1.740-1.115)x10 xl0/31) 1/10 S9.52K

-
R(3)=(b.677 x 27) + ( V2 ~(1.740-0.677) x 17 1 10.14 -9.54 +( 1.740 x9 x 9/21 +
( l/2 x (2.302- l.740) x 9 x9/3)) 1/9 = 16.33 K

~(4):&6 x 0.677) +(1/2 ~(2.302-0.677)x 26 1-10.14-9.52-16.3a +( 2.302 x 4 x 4/21 +

1 1/2 x ( 2.550 - 2.302 ) x 4 x 4/31) l/4 = 14.27 K

3. MOMENT

MAXIMUM MOMENT IS LIKELY TO OCCUR BETWEEN (3) AND (4).

POINT OF ZERO SHEAR FROM (3).
86
,7
-
1.74 x 9 x 9/22) + l/2 x (2.302 1.74) x 9 x 9/37 x 1/9 = 1.74 W+(I/2) (
2.302-1.74
) (x) (i)

X = 4.61 FT.,U=2.027 KSF

M M (8.67~4.61)-
~ (l.74~4.61x %)-112 4 61
x (2027-1.74) x 4.6 1 x f
= 20.5 FT KIP; MDESIGN '0.8 x 20.5 = 16.4 FT- KIP.

D. SUMMARY

CONSTRUCTION STRUT LOADS MOMENTS

STAGE KIP FT - KIP
I - 3.95
I1 R(1) = 8.99 41.9 BETWEEN (I) AND (4)

R(1) = 11.66; R(2) = 9.52 16.4 BETWEEN (3) AND (4)

FINAL
R(3) = 16.33; R(4) = 14.27

NOTE: 0 THE MOMENT AT STAGE II IS GREATER THAN THE FINAL MOMENT.

INTERMEDIATE STAGES MUST ALSO BE CHECKED AS PER PROCEDURE IN FIGURE 27.

(B) IF SIMPLE AREA METHOD IS SELECTED FOR THE COMPUTATIONS OF LOADS

IN STRUTS (1) AND (21, THEN LOAD IN ( I ) WlLL DECREASE AND (2)
WlLL INCREASE.

FIGURE 31 (continued)
Example of Excavation in Stages
E. PENETRATION BELOW SUBGRADE

I. PRESSURE COMPUTATION
ACTIVE U, (10') = 1/3 x 0.125 x 10 = 0.417 KSF

UA(36') =1/3 x 0.125 x 10 + 1/3 x 0.0625 ~ 2 10958

6 KSF
= 1/3 x 0.125 x 10 + 1/3 x 0.0625 x 30 = 1.042 KSF
QA (dl

WATER PRESSURE (UNBALANCED HEAD) PASSIVE PRESSURE

PW(36')~0.0625x 26 = 1.625KSF 3.
u p (Dl = 13~0.0625xD=O.I25D
pW(40') = 0.0625 x 30 5: 1.875 KSF (APPLY FS 4.5 TO PASSIVE PRL3SURE)

2583 -0.958 + 1.625

+
2.917 = 1.042 1.875

2. DEPTH REQUIREMENT TO LIMIT MOMENT IN SHEETING

( SEE FIGURE 27 (CONTINUED), 4. )
USE PZ 27 S = 30.2 IN~/FT OF WALL
USE u a = 27,000 PSI
ALLOWABLE MOMENT = 30.2l2 27 = 67.95 FT-KIP = MS

TAKE MOMENTS ABOUT (4) TO DETERMINE D.

+ -
67.95 (/2 x 0.125D x D x (4+ 2/3 D,) 2.583 x 4 x 4/2- V2 x (2.917-2.583 r 4 x 2/3 x 4
-2.917xDx(4+D/2)- 1/2 x(1/3x0.0625) DxDx(4+2/3D)=O
03 -35.3 02 -332.5 D +1296.6 SO
DQ3FT.

3. DEPTH REQUIREMENT FOR CONTROL OF PIPING. ( DM -7.1, CHAPTER 6)

ASSUME W/HW = 1.5 ( I.E., WIDE EXCAVATION)
Fs = 1.2
D/HW = 0.65
OR D = 30 x 0.65 = 19.5 FT
HENCE PIPING GOVERNS THE DEPTH OF PENETRATION FOR THE SHEETING.

FIGURE 31 (continued)
Example of Excavation in Stages
 a. Method of Analysis. Perform wedge f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m f o r s e v e r a l
t r i a l f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s , and p l o t corresponding v a l u e s of h o r i z o n t a l r e s i s -
t a n c e f o r each t r i a l f a i l u r e - s u r f a c e . The minimum value of h o r i z o n t a l r e s i s -
tance obtained from t h e curve i s t h e t o t a l p a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e f o r t h e
berm. An approximate method of a n a l y s i s i s t o r e p l a c e t h e berm w i t h an
e q u i v a l e n t sloping plane, and a s s i g n an a p p r o p r i a t e p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e coef f i-
cient.

b. Graphic Procedure. A g r a p h i c procedure (Culmann ~ethod) f o r evalu-

a t i n g t h e l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r g r a n u l a r s o i l s i s given i n F i g u r e 32.

7. SOLDIER PILES. A f r e q u e n t l y used i n t e r n a l b r a c i n g system c o n s i s t s o f

s o l d i e r p i l e s with lagging. The p a s s i v e e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e a c t i n g on i n d i -
v i d u a l s o l d i e r p i l e s may be computed a s shown i n Figure 33. For c o h e s i v e
s o i l s use uniform r e s i s t a n c e of 2c n e g l e c t i n g t h e s o i l r e s i s t a n c e t o a d e p t h
of 1.5 t i m e s t h e p i l e width b from t h e bottom of t h e excavation. For granu-
l a r s o i l s , determine K without w a l l f r i c t i o n and n e g l e c t t h e s o i l r e s i s -
P
tance t o a depth equal t o b below t h e bottom of t h e excavation. Total r e s i s t -
i n g f o r c e i s computed by assuming t h e p i l e t o have an e f f e c t i v e width of 3b,
f o r a l l types of s o i l s . This i s because t h e f a i l u r e i n s o i l due t o i n d i v i d u a l
p i l e elements i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of continuous w a l l s f o r which p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e derived.

8. GABION STRUCTURES. A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 34, gabions a r e compartment-

e d , r e c t a n g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s made of h e a v i l y galvanized s t e e l o r polyvinyl-
c h l o r i d e (PVC) coated w i r e , f i l l e d with s t o n e from 4 t o 8 i n c h e s i n s i z e , and
a r e used f o r c o n t r o l of bank e r o s i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n . When water q u a l i t y i s
i n doubt (12<pH<6) o r where high c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o r g a n i c a c i d may be p r e s e n t ,
PVC coated gabions a r e necessary. A t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l
gabion u n i t s a r e l a c e d t o g e t h e r and f i l l e d with stone.

a. Design. Gabions a r e designed a s mass g r a v i t y s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e F i g u r e

15). When designing a v e r t i c a l f a c e w a l l i t should be b a t t e r e d a t an a n g l e of
about 6' t o keep t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e toward t h e back of t h e wall. The coef-
f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n between t h e base of a gabion w a l l and a c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l
can be taken a s t a n 0 f o r t h e s o i l . The a n g l e of w a l l f r i c t i o n , 8 , may be
taken a s 0.9@. Where t h e r e t a i n e d m a t e r i a l i s mostly sand, a f i l t e r c l o t h
o r g r a n u l a r f i l t e r i s recommended t o prevent any l e a c h i n g of t h e s o i l . Deter-
mine t h e u n i t weight of gabions by assuming t h e p o r o s i t y t o be 0.3. Specific
g r a v i t y of common m a t e r i a l ranges between 2.2 ( s a n d s t o n e ) and 3.0 ( b a s a l t ) .
Along a l l exposed gabion f a c e s t h e o u t e r l a y e r of s t o n e s should be hand placed
t o ensure proper alignment, and a n e a t compact square appearance.

b. Cohesive S o i l s . A system of gabion c o u n t e r f o r t s i s recommended when

d e s i g n i n g gabion s t r u c t u r e s t o r e t a i n c l a y slopes. They should be used a s
headers and should extend from t h e f r o n t bf t h e wall t o - a p o i n t a t l e a s t one
gabion l e n g t h beyond t h e c r i t i c a l s l i p c i r c l e of t h e bank. C o u n t e r f o r t s may
be spaced from 1 3 f e e t ( v e r y s o f t c l a y ) t o 30 f e e t ( s t i f f c l a y ) . A f i l t e r i s
a l s o r e q u i r e d on t h e back of t h e w a l l so t h a t c l a y w i l l n o t c l o g t h e f r e e
d r a i n i n g gabions.
 a

STABILIZING BERM

CULMANN LINE

PLANE OF SHEAR

---------

SlVE RESISTANCE,Pp

1. Draw berm t o s c a l e .

2. Layout OX from p o i n t 0 a t a n g l e 6 below h o r i z o n t a l .

3. Layout OY from point 0 a t a n g l e (a+6 ) below OX.

4. Assume f a i l u r e s u r f a c e s o r i g i n a t i n g a t p o i n t 0 and passing t h r o u g h

points a , b y c , etc.

5. Compute t h e weight of each f a i l u r e wedge.

6. Layout t h e weight of each f a i l u r e wedge along OX t o a convenient

scale.

7. Draw a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o OY f o r each f a i l u r e wedge from i t s w e i g h t

p l o t t e d on OX t o i t s f a i l u r e plane ( e x t r a p o l a t e d where n e c e s s a r y ) .

8. Connect t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p o i n t s from 7 above w i t h a smooth c u r v e -

t h i s i s t h e Culmann Curve. Draw a tangent t o t h i s curve which i s
a l s o p a r a l l e l t o OX.

9. Through t h e tangent p o i n t F , draw a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o OY t o

i n t e r s e c t OX a t w ~ . Distance FWF i s t h e value of Pp i n t h e w e i g h t
scale.

10. Normal component of t h e p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e , PN = Pp cos 8 .

11. To compute p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e w a l l , assume a t r i a n g u l a r

distribution.
Figure 32
Culmann Method f o r Determining Passive Resistance of E a r t h Berm
(Granular S o i l )
7.2-113
 J
1

GIVEN #1=30O,y = 1 2 5 ~ ~ ~ , b = 1 . 5 ' , ~ = 1 5 '

flND ULTIMATE RESISTANCE OFTHE BOTTOM OFTHE SOLDIER PlLE TO
HORIZONTAL LOAD.

K ~ TAN^
= (45+#/2 )
=3
'125 X 1.5 = l88PSF=O.l88KSF, C15=125X I5=1875 PSF=IB75KSF
0'188+1'875X 13.5 X 3 X ( 3 Xl.5) = 188KlPS
41= 2

- -L - b ,
b

EFFECTIVE PILE WIOTH=3b

w
UNORAINEO STRENGTH
8"KP
EFFECTIVE STRESS (COHESIONLESS
OR COHESIVE)
(COHESIVE)
NOTE :RESISTANCE SHOWN IS PER FOOT OF EFFECTIVE PlLE WIDTH.

FIGURE 33
Passive Pressure Distribution for Soldier P i l e s
 Gabion R e t a i n i n g Wall

Types - Common Gabion w a l l s

shown on accompanying
diagrams a r e :

a ) Battered face w a l l with

horizontal backfill.
b) Stepped f a c e w a l l w i t h
sloped b a c k f i l l .
c ) Battered face w a l l with
sloped backf ill.
d ) Stepped f a c e w a l l w i t h
horizontal b a c k f i l l .

The choice of e i t h e r b a t t e r e d o r
stepped f a c e s r e s t s with d e s i g n e r ;
" stepped f a c e recommended i f w a l l
i s more t h a n 1 0 f e e t high.

Gabion F i l l - Hard, durable, clean

stone 4 t o 8 inches i n
s i z e o r o t h e r approved
size.

Design: Design c r i t e r i a f o r g r a v i t y w a l l s apply. Wall s e c t i o n r e s i s t i n g

overturning and s l i d i n g . To i n c r e a s e wall s t a b i l i t y , recommended t o
t i l t t h e w a l l a t an angle of 6' (i.e. 1:lO).

The a n g l e of f r i c t i o n between t h e base of gabion w a l l and g r a n u l a r

s o i l may be assumed 0.9 times t h e a n g l e of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n of s o i l .

For r e t a i n i n g c l a y s l o p e s , a system of gabion c o u n t e r f o r t s i s

recommended.

Compute a c t i v e s o i l p r e s s u r e behind t h e w a l l using Coulomb Wedge

t h e o r y and design mass of t h e w a l l t o balance t h e f o r c e e x e r t e d by
t h a t s o i l wedge. (Higher than a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s may be used depending
on compaction c o n d i t i o n s and l i m i t a t i o n s on deformations.)

Maximum pressure a t t h e base of gabion wall must be l e s s t h a n t h e

a n t i c i p a t e d bearing c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l under t h e wall.

When water q u a l i t y i s i n doubt (pH below 6 o r g r e a t e r than 1 2 ) o r

where high c o n c e n t r a t i o n of organic a c i d s may be p r e s e n t , u s e of PVC
( p o l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e ) coated gabions i s recommended.

FIGURE 34
Gabion Wall
9. REINFORCED EARTH. Reinforced e a r t h i s a system of tying v e r t i c a l f a c i n g
u n i t s i n t o a s o i l mass with t h e i r t e n s i l e s t r i p s . It c o n s i s t s of four ele-
ments: ( 1 ) a s o i l b a c k f i l l , ( 2 ) t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c i n g s t r i p s , (3) f a c i n g -
elements a t boundaries, and (4) mechanical connections between r e i n f o r c e m e n t s
and f a c i n g elements. The s o i l b a c k f i l l i s g e n e r a l l y g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l w i t h
n o t more than 15% by weight passing a No. 200 mesh s i e v e . It should n o t
c o n t a i n m a t e r i a l s c o r r o s i v e t o r e i n f o r c i n g s t r i p s . Reinforcing s t r i p s i n c l u d e
smooth and rough s t r i p s of non-corrodable m e t a l s o r t r e a t e d m e t a l s about 3
i n c h e s wide. Facing c o n s i s t s of s t e e l s k i n o r p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e panels about 7
inches t h i c k .

A wall c o n s t r u c t e d of r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s a g r a v i t y w a l l and i t s s a f e t y should

be checked a s i n Figure 15.

I n t e r n a l s a f e t y of r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s checked a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 35.

For f u r t h e r guidance on r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h s e e Reference 14, ~ e i n f o r c e dE a r t h
Retaining Walls, by Lee, e t a l . and Reference 15, Symposium of E a r t h
Reinforcement, Proceedings of a Symposium, by American S o c i e t y of C i v i l
~-

Engineers.
~

10. EARTH FILLED C R I B WALLS. See Figure 36 (Reference 16, Concrete C r i b

Retaining Walls, by P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c i a t i o n ) f o r types and d e s i g n c r i -
teria. For s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , a c r i b wall i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
g r a v i t y r e t a i n i n g w a l l ( F i g u r e 15). For d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r a l elements, s e e
Reference 17, Foundations, Design and P r a c t i c e , by Seelye.

Section 5. COFFERDAMS

1. TYPES. Double-wall o r c e l l u l a r cofferdams c o n s i s t of a l i n e of c i r c u l a r

c e l l s connected by smaller a r c s , p a r a l l e l semi-circular w a l l s connected by
s t r a i g h t diaphragms, o r a succession of c l o v e r l e a f c e l l s ( s e e Figure 37). For
a n a l y s i s , t h e s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e transformed i n t o e q u i v a l e n t p a r a l l e l w a l l
cofferdams of width B.

2. ANALYSIS. S t a b i l i t y depends on r a t i o of width t o h e i g h t , t h e r e s i s t a n c e

of an inboard berm, i f any, and type and drainage of c e l l f i l l m a t e r i a l s .

a. E x t e r i o r Pressures. Usually a c t i v e and p a s s i v e p r e s s u r e s a c t on ex-

t e r i o r f a c e s of t h e sheeting. However, t h e r e a r e exceptions t o t h i s and t h e s e
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 37.

b. S t a b i l i t y Requirements. A c e l l must be s t a b l e a g a i n s t s l i d i n g on i t s
base, shear f a i l u r e between s h e e t i n g and c e l l f i l l , shear f a i l u r e on c e n t e r -
l i n e of c e l l , and i t must resist b u r s t i n g p r e s s u r e s through i n t e r l o c k t e n s i o n .
These f a c t o r s a r e influenced by foundation type. See Figure 37 f o r d e s i g n
c r i t e r i a f o r cofferdams with and without berms, on foundation of rock o r of
coarse-grained o r fine-grained s o i l . See Reference 18, Design, C o n s t r u c t i o n
and Performance of C e l l u l a r Cofferdams, by Lacroix, e t a l . , f o r f u r t h e r
guidance.
 Qh =$Yd
I

THICKNESS = t

S a f e t y a g a i n s t breaking of r e i n f o r c e d s t r i p s .
Fs = fs W t
HAYHSX
S = H o r i z o n t a l s p a c i n g between s t r i p s X = V e r t i c a l Spacing between s t r i p s
fs = a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s of r e i n f o r c e d s t r i p s . -
~ y ~ i c aWl =l ~3'*. A high f a c t o r of s a f e t y , Fs = 3.2, i s used even t h o u g h
a l l o w a b l e metal s t r e s s i s u t i l i z e d i n computing s t r i p t h i c k n e s s . This i s
done t o account f o r unknowns such a s d u r a b i l i t y and c o r r o s i o n .
2 Lmin.W TAN 8
SAFETY AGAl NST PULLOUT FS =
KA. .X
bini s measured beyond zone of Rankine f a i l u r e . The upper s t r i p s may n o t
have enough l e n g t h t o f u l f i l l t h i s requirement, but a s l o n g a s t h e a v e r a g e
l e n g t h of a l l t h e s t r i p s s a t i s f i e s t h i s c o n d i t o n t h e w a l l i s c o n s i d e r e d
satisfactory.
d = depth beneath top of w a l l
t = t h i c k n e s s of s t r i p

Y = u n i t weight of b a c k f i l l

B = width of w a l l

KA = c o e f f i c i e n t of each a c t i v e p r e s s u r e ( h i g h e r t h a n a c t i v e
v a l u e may be used depending on compaction c o n d i t i o n s and
l i m i t a t i o n s on deformations).
8 = a n g l e of f r i c t i o n between r e i n f o r c i n g s t r i p and t h e b a c k f i l l
material
1 = e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h of t i e beyond p o t e n t i a l s l i d i n g s u r f a c e

FIGURE 35
Reinforced E a r t h
 PANYING DIAGRAMS.
CRIBBING MATERIALS -TIMBER,CONCRETE ,AND METAL.
FILL-CRUSHED STONE ,OTHER COARSE GRANULAR MATERIAL,INCLlJDING ROCK LESS THAN I2 INCHES H SIZE.
--
DESIGN DESKN CRITERIA FOR GRAVITY WALLS APPLY. WALL SECTION RESISTING OVERTURNING IS
TAKEN AS A RECTANGLE OF DIMENSW ( H x b ). WEIGHT OF CRlB IS EQUAL TO THAT OF MATERIAL
WITHIN (H x b), INCLUDING WEIGHT OF CRlB MEMBERS. UIW WALLS (4 FT HlGH AND UNDER 1 MAY BE MADE
WITH A PLUMB FACE. HIGHER WALLS ARE BATTERED ON THE FACE AT LEAST 2 INCHES PER FOOT. FOR
HlGH WALLS (12 FT. HlGH AND WER) THE BATTER IS INCREASED OR SUPPLEMENTAL CRIBS AOOED AT
THE W K . SUCH WALLS ARE VERY SENSITIVE TO TRANSVERSE DIFFERENTIALSETTLEMENTS. WALLS
WITH CONVEX BACK ARE MORE DESIRABLE FOR GREATER HEIGHT. IN OPEN FACE CRIBS,THE SPACE
BETWEEN STRETCHERS S W L D NOT EXCEED 8 INCHES SO AS TO PROPERLY RETAIN THE FILL.EXPANSION
JOINTS FOR CONCRETE AND METAL CRIBBING ARE S W E D NO MORE THAN 90 FEET.
FILLING -THE WALL SHOULD NOT BE LAID UP HIGHER THAN 3 FEET ABWE THE LEVEL OF THE FILL
WITHIN THE CRIB.
BIN TYPE RETAINING WALL - COMPOSED OF METAL BINS OR CELLS JOINED TO SPECIALCWMNAR UNITS
AT THE CORNERS. THE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ARE THE SAME AS FOR CRlB WALLS EXCEPT THAT
SUITABLE DRAINAGE BEHIND THE WALLS IS NEEDED. INTERNAL STRESSES ARE INVESTIGATED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH CRITERIA FOR CELLULAR WALLS.

FIGURE 36
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C r i b and Bin Walls
 TYPICAL CELL CONFIGURATWS EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR
EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR

a = 450 B=.87!5D
CIRCULAR CELLS SEMICIRCULAR CELLS CLOVERLEAF TYPE CELL

TYPICAL SECTION

INBOARD FACE

STEEL SHEET PILE

WATER SURFACE INTHE CELL

TOP OF ROCK,SAND,OR CLAY

SLOPE OF FREE SURFME IN CELL DEPENDS ON

PERMEABILITY OF CELL FILL ...UNLESS SPECIAL
DRAINME IS PROVIDEDAND SLDPE IS CONTROUEn
ASSUME THE FOLLOWING: FREEDRAINING COARSE
GRAINED F I L L (GW,GP,SW,SP): SLOPE I
HORIZONTALTO I VERTICAL: Sl LTY COARSE
GRAINED F l L L (GW,GC,SM,SC): SLOPE 2 TO I:
FINE GRAINED FILL: SLOPE 3 7 0 1.
HORIZONTAL STRESS DIAGRAMS IN CELL F l L L
a
CENTER PLANE OF CELL IN BOARD SHEETING
K = 0.5 TO 0.6

-P; -I -YH
, -'
- I ,
p i -L
C
1 -
--
p;
--
P;' YSUBH
P ~ ' KE ( H - H ~ ) + Y ~ ~ ~ ( H I J
pb = [ Y ( ~ - ~ J ) + Y( H~J~- +~I ] + ~ ~ ( H3- %)
pi'^ p(H-~3) IS^^ HJ]
FIGIJRE 37
Design Criteria for Cellular Cofferdams
7.2-119
PARAMETERS FOR ANALYSIS

1. Equivalent width of cofferdam. Assume B = 0.85H f o r f i r s t t r i a l .

2. E f f e c t i v e weight of c e l l f i l l . w = [B(H-H1)Y~+ B(H1) Ysubl

3. Average d i s t a n c e between c r o s s L
walls.
Ys,,
4. Horizontal a c t i v e f o r c e on P; = KA 2
outboard s i d e - compute using
KA = tan2(45 -
6/21.
5. C o e f f i c i e n t of h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h K (varies - see horizontal
pressure. p r e s s u r e - diagram)
(~12
6. Water f o r c e on outboard side. pw = Yw 2
7. Horizontal passive f o r c e due t o Pp = Pp'+Pwi ( i n c l u d e
berm plus water force. w a l l f r i c t i o n between
s h e e t p i l e and s o i l

8. Net o v e r t u r n i n g moment due t o Mo.(PWx 3H ) + ( ~ h 7~H)2- ( P p x TH)4

t o t a l h o r i z o n t a l force. ( p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of Pp i s
approximated a s H4/3, s e e References
i n t e x t f o r f u r t h e r guidance)

9. R e s i s t i n g moment due t o c e l l MR = W(B12)

fill.

10. Radius of c e l l wall. R

11. I n t e r l o c k tension. TrPbL

where Pb = t o t a l h o r i z o n t a l stress
a t point b

Zone a t maximum i n t e r l o c k t e n s i o n
l o c a t e d a t H/4 above base. See
stress diagram, Inboard Sheeting
and r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d i n t e x t

12. Ultimate i n t e r l o c k s t r e n g t h . Tu = 16 k i p / i n f o r o r d i n a r y U.S.

s t e e l s h e e t p i l e s and 28 k i p s / i n
f o r high i n t e r l o c k U.S. s h e e t
piles

13. E f f e c t i v e u n i t weight. YE = weighted average of c e l l

f i l l YT and )'SUB (above and
below water i n t h e c e l l )

FIGURE 37 (continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams
14. F r i c t i o n a n g l e of s o i l and 8 = 213 dl'
steel.

15. C o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n between X = u s e 0.5 f o r smooth r o c k ,

c e l l f i l l and rock. f o r a l l o t h e r use tan0

16. Drained a n g l e of s h e a r i n g
r e s i s t a n c e of s o i l .
+'
17. C o e f f i c i e n t of i n t e r l o c k f = 0.3
friction.

18. H o r i z o n t a l e f f e c t stress on p' = ( s e e p r e s s u r e diagram f o r

a v e r t i a l plane. subscript)

19. H o r i z o n t a l e f f e c t f o r c e on a PI = ( s e e p r e s s u r e diagram f o r
v e r t i c a l plane. subscipt)

FIGURE 37 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams
 i

DESIGN METHODS

COFFERDAM ON ROCK - WITH BERM

1. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t s l i d i n g on Base
) 1.25 (TEMP0RARI)TO 1.5 (PERMANENT)
Fs = P ~ ~ + P ~- - P ~

2. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g , Fo
F~=$L 3 TO 3.5

3. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t e x c e s s i v e i n t e r l o c k t e n s i o n , Fi
Fi = +1 1.5 TO 2.0

4. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t v e r t i c a l s h e a r on c e n t e r l i n e , Fvs (Terzaghi)

FYS = 2/3 8
Mo
[ p i TAN + + ( pIi - p p ) d 1 1.50
I. 25 (TEMPORARYWALL)
( PERMANENT WALL)

Where P'a i s c a l c u l a t e d using t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s diagram f o r t h e

Center Plane of c e l l , and equals t h e a r e a efgh with K = 0.5 t o 0.6; and
P'~ i s c a l c u l a t e d using t h e e f f e c t i v e stress diagram of Inboard
Sheeting, and equals a r e a ab'c'd w i t h K = 0.4.

5. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t t i l t i n g , Ft
F+ =-- I I T E ~ 2 H ( 1 T A N 2 + -BT T A N 3 + + I ( f H ) I.25(TEMPORARY)
Mo 6
FOR K = T A N ~ ( ~ ~ - + / ~ )
B - 1.50 (PERMANENT

6. Factor of s a f e t y a g a i n s t shear a t c e l l f i l l , s h e e t p i l e i n t e r f a c e , Fsf

B "&
Fsf =-
Mo [ ( P ~ + P ~ + ~ ) T8A+ N
~if+] 2 i;g:::!EL,":))
Where Po' i s c a l c u l a t e d using t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s diagram f o r
Outboard Sheeting, and i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a r e a j k l with K = 0.7 t o 1.0.

7. S e l e c t value of B which s a t i s f i e s a l l requirements.

COFFERDAM ON ROCK - WITHOUT BERM

Follow design S t e p s 1 through 7 a s above f o r cofferdam with berm.

8. Put Pp = 0 i n a l l equations t o compute Mo and f a c t o r of s a f e t y .

9. I n computing Fvs, pai is c a l c u l a t e d using t h e stress diagram f o r
Inboard Sheeting, and equals a r e a ab'c'd with K = 0.4.

FIGURE 37 (Continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams
COFFERDAM ON DEEP SAND FOUNDATION - WITHOUT BERM
10. P e n e t r a t i o n of s h e e t p i l i n g may depend on underseepage r e q u i r e m e n t s
which a r e evaluated with flow net. In general, t h i s is to avoid piping
a t inboard toe.

Dl = D2 =
2H
-
3

H
o r Dl = D2 = 7 i f water l e v e l i s lqwered a t l e a s t g b e l o w i n b o a r d
ground s u r f a c e .

11. Check f a c t o r s of s a f e t y f o r S t e p s 2 , 3 , 4, 5, and 6 above f o r

cofferdams on rock.

12. Factor of s a f e t y f o r s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t bearing c a p a c i t y f a i l u r e , Fbc

Fbc = -"It ) 2
W +6Mo -
(NOTE:Pp=O)
B ?i
Qult = ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY FOR CONTINUOUS FOOTING OF WIDTH B (SEE CHAPTER 4 )

13. P e n e t r a t i o n t o avoid pull-out of outboard sheeting.

1 1.5,WHERE Qult = ULTlMATE PULLOUT CAPACITY PER LINEAR FOOT OF

PQ
Mo
WALL = 1/2 K,,Y~D~'TAN 8 x PERIMETER INOTE:P~=O), AND ctp= B
38 ( 1 + 4 ~ )
COFFERDAM ON DEEP SAND FOUNDATION - WITH BERM
14. Design a s per s t e p s f o r cofferdam on deep sand foundation w i t h o u t berm,
except t h a t p a s s i v e r e s u l t a n t Pp i s included i n r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g
moment .
15. S t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t bearing c a p a c i t y f a i l u r e i s n o t a s c r i t i c a l w i t h
presence of berm.

16. P e n e t r a t i c n of s h e e t i n g required t o avoid piping is evaluated w i t h f l o w

net.

17. P e n e t r a t i o n of Outboard Sheeting t o avoid pull-out i s t h e same as f o r

cofferdam on deep sand without berm except i n c l u d e Pp i n c a l c u l a t i o n
of Mom
COFFERDAM ON STIFF TO HARD CLAY

18. Design procedures same a s f o r cofferdams on sand. S t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t

b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y f a i l u r e of inboard t o e Fbc 1 2.5. P e n e t r a t i o n of
s h e e t i n g t o avoid piping i s u s u a l l y n o t important.
19. P e n e t r a t i o n t o avoid pull-out of Outboard Sheeting
"It - 1.5;
) Qp SAME AS STEP 13
QUl! = C. DI X PERIMETER ( Co FROM TABLE I 1

FIGURE 37 (Continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams
7.2-123
COFFERDAM ON SOFT TO MEDIUM STIFF CLAY

20. Design procedures same a s f o r cofferdams on deep sand, w i t h

modifications a s per following s t e p s . P e n e t r a t i o n t o avoid
piping i s u s u a l l y n o t important.

21. Factor of Safety f o r , s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t bearing c a p a c i t y f a i l u r e , Fbc

Fbc from Step 12 >3

-
22. Because of i n t e r n a l i n s t a b i l i t y due t o s e t t l e m e n t of compressible
foundation, f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t v e r t i c a l s t r e s s on c e n t e r l i n e
Fvs from Step 4 qhould be
(L+Q25B) 1.25 (TEMPORARY)
FVS * X ~ X ( L+0.5B) 1{ I. 50 (PERMANENT

I n v e s t i g a t e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of cofferdam with r e s p e c t t o s l i d i n g
along a curved s u r f a c e below t h e bottom of t h e s h e e t i n g by s l o p e
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s from DM-7.1 CHAPTER 7.

23. I n v e s t i g a t e and e v a l u a t e seams of pervious sand w i t h i n t h e c l a y d e p o s i t

which could develop excessive u p l i f t p r e s s u r e below t h e base of t h e
cofferdam.

24. Evaluate p e n e t r a t i o n of outboard s h e e t i n g t o avoid pull-out a s per Step

19.

FIGURE 37 (continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r C e l l u l a r Cofferdams
 ( 1 ) Sand Base. For c e l l w a l l s on s a n d , p e n e t r a t i o n of s h e e t i n g must
be s u f f i c i e n t t o avoid p i p i n g a t i n t e r i o r t o e of w a l l and t o prevent p u l l o u t
o f outboard s h e e t i n g .

( 2 ) Clay Base. For cofferdams on c l a y , p e n e t r a t i o n of o u t b o a r d

s h e e t i n g u s u a l l y i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e p u l l o u t r e q u i r e m e n t and p i p i n g i s n o t
critical.

( 3 ) Bearing Capacity. For cofferdams on e i t h e r c l a y o r s a n d , check

t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y a t t h e inboard t o e by methods of Chapter 4.

c. C e l l Deformations. The maximum b u l g i n g of c e l l s o c c u r s a t a b o u t 114

of t h e h e i g h t above t h e base of t h e cofferdam and t h e c e l l s t i l t a b o u t 0.02 t o
0.03 r a d i a n s due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l a t e r a l l o a d s on t h e outboard and
i n b o a r d f a c e s . D e f l e c t i o n s under t h e l a t e r a l o v e r t u r n i n g l o a d s a r e a func-
t i o n of t h e dimensions, t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u p p o r t , and t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c e l l
f i l l ( s e e Reference 19, F i e l d Study of C e l l u l a r Cofferdams, by Brown).

3. CELL FILL. Clean, coarse-grained, f r e e - d r a i n i n g s o i l s a r e p r e f e r r e d f o r

c e l l f i l l . They may be placed h y d r a u l i c a l l y o r dumped through water w i t h o u t
compaction o r s p e c i a l drainage.

a. Materials. Clean g r a n u l a r f i l l m a t e r i a l s should be used i n l a r g e and

c r i t i c a l c e l l s . Every a l t e r n a t i v e should be s t u d i e d b e f o r e a c c e p t i n g f i n e -
grained b a c k f i l l . These s o i l s produce h i g h b u r s t i n g p r e s s u r e s and minimum
c e l l r i g i d i t y . T h e i r use may n e c e s s i t a t e i n t e r i o r berms, i n c r e a s e d c e l l
width, o r p o s s i b l y c o n s o l i d a t i o n by sand d r a i n s o r pumping w i t h i n t h e c e l l .
A l l so£ t m a t e r i a l t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e c e l l s must be removed b e f o r e f i l l i n g .

b. Drainage. Weep h o l e s should be i n s t a l l e d on inboard s h e e t i n g t o t h e

c e l l f i l l . For c r i t i c a l c e l l s and marginal f i l l m a t e r i a l , supplementary
d r a i n a g e by w e l l p o i n t s , o r w e l l s w i t h i n c e l l s have been used t o i n c r e a s e c e l l
stability.

c . R e t a r d a t i o n of Corrosion. When cofferdams a r e used a s permanent

s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n b r a c k i s h o r seawater, s e v e r e c o r r o s i o n o c c u r s from
t o p of t h e t h e s p l a s h zone t o a p o i n t j u s t below mean low water l e v e l . Use
protective c o a t i n g , corrosion r e s i s t a n t s t e e l and/or cathodic p r o t e c t i o n i n
these areas.
 REFERENCES

1. Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y , E x c a v a t i o n s and R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s ,

Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual, P a r t 4, 1978.

2. Caquot, A., and K e r i s e l , F., T a b l e s f o r t h e C a l c u l a t i o n of P a s s i v e

P r e s s u r e , Active P r e s s u r e and Bearing C a p a c i t y of F o u n d a t i o n s ,
Gauthier-Villars, Paris.

3. Gray, H., C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e A n a l y s i s of Seepage E f f e c t s i n B a c k f i l l s ,

Geotechnique, 1958.

4. R i c h a r t , F.E., and Schmertmann, F., The E f f e c t s of seepage on t h e

S t a b i l i t y of Sea Walls, Proceedings, F i r s t Conference on C o a s t a l
Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e , FL.

5. Based on work by Terzaghi, K., Anchored Bulkheads, T r a n s a c t i o n , ASCE,

Paper No. 2720, Vol. 119, 1954.

6. Goldberg, D.T., J a w o r s k i , W.E., and Gordon, M.D., L a t e r a l Support

Systems and Underpinning, Vol. I , Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n (Summary),
FHWA-RD-75, F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 1976.

7. I n g o l d , T.S., R e t a i n i n g Wall Performance During B a c k f i l l i n g , J o u r n a l

of t h e Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 105, GT5, 1979.

8. Seed, H.B. and Whitman, R.V., Design of E a r t h etain in in^ Structures f o r

Dynamic Loads, L a t e r a l S t r e s s e s i n t h e Ground and Design of E a r t h
R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s , ASCE, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1970.

9. Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B., S o i l Mechanics i n Engineering P r a c t i c e ,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1967.

10. Rowe, P.W., Anchored Sheet P i l e Walls, Proceedings, I n s t i t u t i o n of

C i v i l Engineers, London, January, 1952.

11. T s c h e b o t a r i o f f , G.P., Foundations, R e t a i n i n g and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s , 2nd

E d i t i o n , McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.

12. United S t a t e s S t e e l Corporation, S t e e l Sheet P i l i n g Design Manual,

United S t a t e s S t e e l , P i t t s b u r g h , PA., 1975.

13. Carson, A. C., Foundation C o n s t r u c t i o n , McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965.

14. Lee, K.L., Dean, B. and Vageron, J.M.J., Reinforced E a r t h R e t a i n i n g

Walls, J o u r n a l of S o i l Mechanics and Foundation D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol.
99, No. SM10, 1973.

15. ASCE Proceedings, Symposium on E a r t h Reinforcement, ASCE Annual

Convention, P i t t s b u r g h , PA., 1978.

16. P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c i a t i o n , Concrete C r i b R e t a i n i n g Walls, Concrete

Information No. St. 46, Chicago, IL., May, 1952.
17. Seelye, E.E., F o u n d a t i o n s , Design and P r a c t i c e , John Wiley & S o n s ,
Inc., New York, New York, 1956.

18. Lacroix, Y., E s r i g , M.I. and Luschem, U., D e s i g n , C o n s t r u c t i o n and

Performance of C e l l u l a r Cofferdams, L a t e r a l S t r e s s e s i n t h e Ground and
Design of E a r t h R e t a i n i n g S t r u c t u r e s , ASCE, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1970.

19. Brown, P.P., D i s c u s s i o n of Paper by White, Chency and Duke, F i e l d

Study of C e l l u l a r Cofferdams, T r a n s a c t i o n , ASCE, Paper No. 3426, Vol.
128, P a r t 1, 1963.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 4. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. This chapter p r e s e n t s c r i t e r i a f o r t h e d e s i g n of shallow founda-

t i o n s , methods of determining allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s , and t r e a t m e n t of
problems i n swelling and c o l l a p s i n g s u b s o i l s . For t h e m a j o r i t y of s t r u c t u r e s
t h e d e s i g n of f o o t i n g s i s c o n t r o l l e d by l i m i t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s . (See RELATED
CRITERIA below.) This c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s p e r m i s s i b l e bearing p r e s s u r e s as
l i m i t e d by s h e a r f a i l u r e . Shallow foundations a r e of t h e following t y p e s ;
spread f o o t i n g s f o r i s o l a t e d columns, combined f o o t i n g s f o r supporting t h e
load from more than one s t r u c t u r a l u n i t , s t r i p f o o t i n g s f o r w a l l s , and mats o r
r a f t s beneath t h e e n t i r e b u i l d i n g area. Also, included i s guidance f o r f o o t -
i n g s s u b j e c t e d t o u p l i f t . Design of deep anchors f o r such f o o t i n g s i s covered
i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

2. RELATED CRITERIA. See DM-7.1, Chapter 5 f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t s

of shallow foundations. See NAVFAC DM-2 f o r c r i t e r i a f o r l o a d s a p p l i e d t o
foundations by v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s and s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n of foundations.

3. APPLICATIONS. Shallow foundations can be used where t h e r e i s a s u i t a b l e

bearing s t r a t u m near t h e s u r f a c e , no h i g h l y compressible l a y e r s below, and
c a l c u l a t e d s e t t l e m e n t s a r e acceptable. Where t h e bearing s t r a t u m a t ground
s u r f a c e i s u n d e r l a i n by weaker and more compressible m a t e r i a l s , c o n s i d e r t h e
use of deep foundations o r p i l e s . See Chapter 5.

Section 2. BEARING CAPACITY ANALYSIS

1. LIMITATIONS. Allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s f o r shallow foundations a r e

l i m i t e d by two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The s a f e t y f a c t o r a g a i n s t u l t i m a t e s h e a r
f a i l u r e must be adequate, and s e t t l e m e n t s under allowable bearing p r e s s u r e
should not exceed t o l e r a b l e values. I n most c a s e s , s e t t l e m e n t governs t h e
foundation pressures. See DM-7.1, Chapter 5 f o r e v a l u a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t s .
For major s t r u c t u r e s , where r e l a t i v e l y high foundation bearing p r e s s u r e s y i e l d
s u b s t a n t i a l economy, determine u l t i m a t e bearing c a p a c i t y by d e t a i l e d explora-
t i o n , l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g , and t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s . For small o r temporary
s t r u c t u r e s , e s t i m a t e allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s from p e n e t r a t i o n tests, per-
formance of nearby b u i l d i n g s , and presumptive b e a r i n g . v a l u e s ; see Paragraphs 3
and 4.

2. THEORETICAL BEARING CAPACITY.

a. Ultimate Bearing c a p a c i t y . To analyze u l t i m a t e bearing c a p a c i t y f o r

v a r i o u s loading s i t u a t i o n s , s e e Figures 1 through 5. For t h e s e a n a l y s e s t h e
depth of foundation embedment i s assumed t o be l e s s than t h e foundation width,
and f r i c t i o n and adhesion on t h e foundation's v e r t i c a l s i d e s a r e neglected.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e a n a l y s e s assume a rough f o o t i n g base such a s would occur w i t h
c a s t - i n - p l a c e concrete.
 F i g u r e s 1 through 5 p r e s e n t u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y diagrams f o r
t h e following c a s e s :

( 1 ) See F i g u r e 1 (Reference 1, I n f l u e n c e of Roughness of Base and

Ground Water Condition on t h e U l t i m a t e Bearing C a p a c i t y of Foundations, by
Meyerhof) f o r shallow f o o t i n g s with c o n c e n t r i c v e r t i c a l load. Formulas shown
assume groundwater a t a d e p t h below base of f o o t i n g e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r than
t h e narrow dimension of t h e footing.

( 2 ) Use F i g u r e 2 (Reference 1 ) t o determine groundwater e f f e c t on

u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y and t h e d e p t h of f a i l u r e zone. For c o h e s i v e s o i l s ,
changes i n groundwater l e v e l do not a f f e c t t h e o r e t i c a l u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g
capacity.

( 3 ) Use F i g u r e 3a (Reference 2, The Bearing C a p a c i t y of Foundations

Under E c c e n t r i c and I n c l i n e d Loads.* bv . Meverhof) f o r i n c l i n e d l o a d on c o n t i n u -
ous h o r i z o n t a l f o o t i n g and f o r i n c l i n e d load on continuous i n c l i n e d f o o t i n g .

(4) Use F i g u r e 3b f o r e c c e n t r i c l o a d on h o r i z o n t a l f o o t i n g .

( 5 ) Use F i g u r e s 4a; 4b (Reference 3 , The U l t i m a t e Bearing Capacity

of Foundations on Slopes, by Meyerhof) f o r shallow f o o t i n g w i t h c o n c e n t r i c
v e r t i c a l load p l a c e d on a s l o p e o r n e a r top of slope.

( 6 ) Use F i g u r e 5 (Reference 4, The Bearing C a p a c i t y of F o o t i n g s on

a Two-Layer Cohesive S u b s o i l , by Button) f o r s h a l l o w f o o t i n g w i t h c o n c e n t r i c
v e r t i c a l l o a d on two l a y e r e d cohesive s o i l .

These diagrams assume g e n e r a l s h e a r f a i l u r e which normally o c c u r s i n

dense and r e l a t i v e l y i n c o m p r e s s i b l e s o i l s . T h i s t y p e of f a i l u r e i s u s u a l l y
sudden and c a t a s t r o p h i c ; i t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e of a well-
defined f a i l u r e pattern. I n c o n t r a s t , i n loose o r r e l a t i v e l y compressible
s o i l s , punching o r l o c a l s h e a r f a i l u r e s may occur a t lower b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s .
Punching o r l o c a l s h e a r f a i l u r e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p o o r l y d e f i n e d f a i l u r e
s u r f a c e , s i g n i f i c a n t v e r t i c a l compression below t h e f o o t i n g and v e r y l i t t l e
d i s t u r b a n c e around t h e f o o t i n g perimeter.

To approximate t h e l o c a l o r punching s h e a r f a i l u r e s , t h e b e a r i n g
c a p a c i t y f a c t o r s should be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h reduced s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c*
and @*d e f i n e d a s :

c* = 0.67 c
@*= tan'l (0.67 t a n $)

For more d e t a i l e d and p r e c i s e a n a l y s i s , s e e Reference 5, Bearing Capacity of

Shallow Foundations, by Vesic.

b. Allowable Bearing Capacity. To o b t a i n a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y ,

u s e a s a f e t y f a c t o r of 3 f o r dead load p l u s maximum l i v e load. When p a r t of
t h e l i v e l o a d s a r e temporary ( e a r t h q u a k e , wind, snow, e t c . ) u s e a s a f e t y
f a c t o r of 2. I n c l u d e i n d e s i g n dead l o a d t h e e f f e c t i v e weight of f o o t i n g and
s o i l d i r e c t l y above footing. See F i g u r e s 6 and 7 f o r examples of a l l o w a b l e
bearing capacity calculations.
.
ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY =quit

CONTINUOUS FO(TT1NG;GENERALCASE

C-IlY ASSUMING
WEMHTLESS FOUNDATIONSOlL
q"=PORTION OF BEARING
CAPACITY FROM WEIGHT OF
FOUNDATION SOILS

m quit ~1.3cNc+yDNq+0.6yRN Y

FOR COHESIONLESS FOUNDATION

SOILS (c=O)
CONTINUOUS FOOTING:

SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR FOOTING:

quit = yDNq+QSyBNy
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTDN, 4, DEGREES CIRCULAR FOOTING:
q,tl = yDNs + W Y R N y
L= LENGTH FOOTING ,
+B
2Rd

FOR COHESIVE FOUNDATION

SOILS (t#J =o1
CONTINUOUS FOOTING:
quit =CNc+y D

ASSUMED FAILURE
ASSUMED CONDITIONS:
* THEORETICAL FAILURE
SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR FWllNG:
B
qdt = c N c ( l + 3 ~ ) + y D
I.D l B
2. SOlL IS UNIFORM TO DEPTH do ) B . CIRCULAR FOOTING:
3. WlER LEVEL W E R THAN do BELOW BASE quit ~ 1 . 3cNC+yD
OF FOOTING.
4. VERTICAL LOAD CONCENTRIC.
5. FRACflON AND ADHESION ON VERTICAL SIDES OF
FOOTING ARE NEGLECTED.
6. FOUNDATION SOlL WITH PROPERTIES ~,t#J,y
w
FIGURE 1
U l t i m a t e Bearing Capacity of Shallow Footings With C o n c e n t r i c Loads
7.2-131
ANGLE O F INTERNAL FRICTION DEGREES
DEPTH OF WATER TABLE -
DEPTH OF FAILURE ZONE-
A
do I
ASSUMED CONDITIONS :
L = LENGTH FOOTING I. GROUNDWATER LEVEL IS
ROUGH BASE HORIZONTAL
SURFACE FOOTING 2. PRESENCE OF GROUNDWATER
HAS NO EFFECT ON COHESIVE
SOIL WITH # -0.

RECTANGULAR FOOTING:
CONTINUOUS FOOTING:
R A C E F I N D =O
SURFACE FOOTING : D = 0 ult =cNc(l+.3 )+ [ y a ~ ~ + ~ ( y0.4
- B
~ N~y ~ ~ g
B
w U i b + ~ ( y ~ - y a u b ) ]T N
"It = c N ~ + ~ SHALLOW FOOTING: DL'B, IF d& D
=CN~(I+.~ [~~ub~+(~~'~au Nqb ) d ]
SHALLOW FOOTING : 0 1 B
+~-~YSIIb BNy
IF d & ~
quit = C N ~ + [ Y ~ , ,D
~ + ( Y ~ - ~ ~ , , ~q
~)~]

+OmS Yaub B N y
IF D< d i (D+do) CIRCULAR FOOTING : RADIUS = R= B/2
SURFACE FOOTING: D =0
quit =I.3CNc + [ y a u b + ~ ( y ~ - y a u b ) ]0.6 RNy
SHALLOW FOOTING: D 2R, IF dI & D
~1.3cNc+ [yaub ~ + ( y ~ - y a u b )~d q 4 . 6 ~ ~ ~ ~ .
VALUES OF BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS
IF D ( d & (D+do) RNfI
N~ ~q AND ~y ARE SHOWN IN FIGURE I.

FIGURE 2
Ultimate Bearing Capacity With Groundwater Effect
&
4

6 6

V)
a
gd '
w
o
4
cn
a
e=
0
-
0
4

2
2 s
>
k
0
c
d
4
O P9 0

300 E 300
EL K
2m ibl 200
200
k
V) V)
W W
3 3
s loo loo
w
w
*
z 50 z* 50

25 25

10 10
5 5
I I

0 20 40 60
INCLINATION OF LOAD, a DEGREES INCLINATION OF FOOTING, a DEGREES

Ye YE
qu(t=CNCq +- 2 N ~ q quit ' C k q + 2 N y q

.
I

INCLUDED LOAD ON HORIZONTAL FOOTINGS INCLUDED W O N INCLINED FOOTINGS

FIGURE 3a
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Continuous Footings With Inclined Load
 For rectangular f o o t i n g s
reduce dimension a s f o l l o w s :

(6) RE~UCEDAREA-RECTANOUUR FOOTING

For a c i r c u l a r f o o t i n g of
radius R, t h e e f f e c t i v e area
A t e = 2 x (area of c i r c u l a r
segment ADC),consider A',
t o AC
be a rectangle with L ' / B ' = %

REDUCED AREA M
=T-
= 2s = B'L'
I A' e

e2=
!Qk
ole=o0o
L' = ( 2 s Jz)1'2
B' = I' JET
R+ep
I
(C) REDWEDAREA-CIRCULAR POOTlNO s = --
T ~ 2 F2-+R2
2
SIN ' 1 ( %j
FIGURE 3b
E c c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Footings
 CASE I:CONTINUOUS FOOTINGBT TOP OFSLOPE

Water a t do -> B
4ult' cNcq+~2 Nyq @

Water a t Ground S u r f a c e

q u l t ' CNcq + y s u b Nyq @

If B I
- H:
Obtain Ncq from Figure 4b f o r Case I w i t h No = 0.
I n t e r p o l a t e f o r v a l u e s of 0 < D / ~< 1
I n t e r p o l a t e q u i t between EQ @ and @) f o r water a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
l e v e l between ground s u r f a c e and do = B.
If B > H:
Obtain N~~ from F i g u r e & f o r Case I w i t h s t a b i l i t y number
YH
No = -
C
I n t e r p o l a t e f o r values O< D / ~< 1 f o r 0 < No < 1. I f No 1 - 1,
s t a b i l i t y of s l o p e c o n t r o l s u l t i m a t e bearing pressure.
I n t e r p o l a t e quit between EQ @ and @) f o r water a t i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l
b e t e e n ground s u r f a c e and do = B. For water a t ground s u r f a c e and sudden
drawdown: s u b s t i t u t e 0' f o r 0 i n EQ
0' = t a n-1 (- 7 s u b t a n 0 )
YT
Cohesive s o i l (0 = 0 )
S u b s t i t u t e i n EQ @ and @ D f o r B/2 and Nyq = 1-
Rectangular, square o r c i r c u l a r f o o t i n g :

quit = kult
f o r continuous f o o t i n g
a s given above

CASE II : CONTINUOUS FOOTINGSON SLOPE

IxC qult f o r f i n i t e footing
1
q u l t f o r continuous f o o t i n g Fig.
fr- 1

Same c r i t e r i a a s f o r Case I except t h a t

--
Ncq and Nyq a r e obtained from
diagrams f o r Case I1

FIGURE 4a
Ultimate Bearing Capacity For Shallow Footing Placed on o r Near a Slope
 CASE I I CASE II I

SU)PE ANGLE ,P DEGREES

D/B :I -----
D/B =O

RATIO b/B FOR No=O

RATIO b/H FOR No) 0

FIGURE 4b
Bearing Capacity Factors f o r Shallow Footing Placed on o r Near a Slope
-
7.2-136
L A

STRENGTH PROFILE

Nc FOR LAYERS WITH CONSTANT

SHEAR STRENGTH
RATIO T/B

FIGURE 5
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Two Layer Cohesive S o i l (@=(I)
 4

STRENGTH PROFILE

EFFECT OF D

LEGEND

D = DEPTH OF EMBEDMENT OF FOOTING

NC = BEARING CAPACITY FACTOR FOR WNTINUOUS FOOTING WlTH D=O
N~~
-
'
FACTOR FOR CONTINUOUS FOOTING WlTH D )O
NCR = FACTOR FOR RECTANGULAR FOOTING WlTH D=O

CONTINWUS FOOTING RECTANGULAR FOOTING

quit =cl NCD+YD NCR= NCO E+Q2(+(, qu,+=cI N C R + y ~

NCD&c FROM TABLE ABOVE

FIGURE 5 (continued)
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Two Layer Cohesive S o i l (0=0)
 qult = cNc+ y D

Iy D= EFFECTIVE SURCHARGE
PRESSURE AT LEVELOF BASE O F M I N

91,111=2(as3)+[13(1)+(.13-.os25)(~.5q
=I1.4 KSF
FOR FACTOR OF %FETY, Fs=3.0
C = 2.0 KSF 4 =O quit
qall = -=- 11.4 -3.8 KSF
YT=130PCF 3.0 3.0
DEAD LOADS TO INCLUDE EFFECTIVE WEIGHT OF FOOTING
NC(FROMFIGURE 1 ) = 5.53 WlTH ASSUMED GROUND WATER LEVEL.

@ CONTINUOUS FOOTING WlTH VERTICAL LOAD

I
YB
qult = cNcq +-Nyq=2(3.8)+0=1.6KSF

-$$p
2
- 3.5'
Fs=3.0
9 t qal I=37.60=2.5KSF
C = 2.0KSF #'o
YT = 130 PCF
D/B--=5: 0.58
NCa(FROM FIGURE 3) =3.8,Nyq=O I
I

@ CONTINUOUS FOOTING WlTH INCLINED LOAD

qult IS INTERPOLATED BETWEEN VALUES FOR D/B=l AND m = O

FOR D/B=l,qult =cNcq+yD=2(6.75)+.13(35)=14.0KSF
FOR WB =O,qult = 2 (4.3) +.I3 (3.5) = 9.1 KSF
FOR D/B =3.5/6 =O.58,qult = 9.1+0.!58(4.9)=11.9 KSF
b=3.0
qaM= 3ll. 90 ~ 4 . 0 KSF

(c)
J'
FOR D/B = I.Ncq= 6.75 FROM LlGURE4
FOR D/B=0.Ncq=4.3
- I
I

CONTINUOUS FOOTING PLKED ON SLOPE

I
C2/CI =4/2 = 2 T/B = 3/6=Q5
-6'- NC (FROM FIGURE 5 ) =5.8
7v q FOR D/B =35/6Z O.~,NCD/NC (FROM FWRE5)=1.15
* qult =clNco+yD =2(5.8)(1.15) +[.I3 (1)+(.13-O~X2.5)3=136KSF

CI= 20 KSF
1111 %=30 13 6
qdl=3.0=4.5 KSF
#,=o YT=IX)PCF
m~r~lrr,,rl,,ll,,,l
C2=4.0 KS F
#2= 0 6=130PCF
I

@ CONTINUOUS FOOTING ON TWO -LAYER FOUNDATION STRATA

FIGURE 6
Examples of Computation of Allowable Bearing C a p a c i t y
Shallow F o o t i n g s on Cohesive S o i l s
 -
b

q
m
-
+ 6 ' 4 FROM FIGURE 2 AND D$ 8:
qult =CNc+ [YSUB D+(yT-yfVB Id] Nq+O.Sysu~BNy
1' 3.s1

+= 35"
*
C =O
11111-A =O+ L . x 3 . 5 + ( . 1 3 - . 0 6 8 ) 1 . ~ 3 4 + 0 5 ~ . 0 6 8 ~ 6 ~ 4 0
= 18.5 KSF
YT = I30 PCF FS = 3.0
qa11=3.0~ 6 . 2KSF
Nq ( FROM FIGURE 1 ) = 3 4 DEAD LOAD TO INCLUDE EFFECTIVE WEIGHTOF FOOTING WITH
Ny ( FROM FIGURE I) = 40 ( APPROX.) ASSUMED GROUND WATER LEVEL.

@) CONTINUOUS FOOTING WlTH VERTICAL WAD

ASSUME GROUND WATER TABLE IS LOCATEDATGREAT

DEPTH BEWW BASE OF FOOTING.
quit = c N ~ ~ + Yg~~~
=o+.I~ox$-~60.23.4 KSF

Fs = 3.0

+= 35" C =O
yT=130 PCF

Nyq ( FROM flGURE 3 ) = 60

D/B = 3.5h = .58

--
@ INCLINED CONTINUOUS FOOTING WITH INCLINED LOAD

ASSUME GROUND WATER TABLE IS LOCATED AT GREAT

k 6 ' 6' DEPTH BEUW BASE OF FOOTING.
n B
qult = C N c q + y ~ N y q= 0 + . 1 3 ~ ~ ~ 2 6 = 1 KSF
0.2

Fs = 3.0
+= 350
C= 6
qall = 31.002- 3 . 4 KSF
YT=130 PCF

b = 6 1.=
0 %=*=.58

NrP (FROM FIGURE 4)

l0+40+38+120 =26
yq " 8
I

_I
@ CONTINUOUS FOOTING PLACED BACK OF SLOPE
A

FIGURE 7
Examples of Computation of Allowable Bearing C a p a c i t y
Shallow Footings on G r a n u l a r S o i l s
 c. S o i l S t r e n g t h Parameters.

( 1 ) Cohesive S o i l s . I n t h e c a s e of fine-grained s o i l s which have

low p e r m e a b i l i t y , t o t a l stress s t r e n g t h parameters a r e used. Value of cohe-
s i o n may be determined from l a b o r a t o r y unconfined compression t e s t s , v a n e
s h e a r tests, o r undrained t r i a x i a l t e s t s . Shear s t r e n g t h c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h
s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s and cone p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s may a l s o be used. (See
DM-7.1, Chapter 1.)

( 2 ) Granular S o i l s . I n t h e case of coarse-grained s o i l s which d r a i n

f r e e l y use t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s s t r e n g t h parameter ( 8 ' ) . F i e l d t e s t s (e.g.,
standard p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s o r cone p e n e t r a t i o n ) a r e almost always used t o
estimate t h i s strength.

( 3 ) I n t h e case where p a r t i a l drainage may occur during c o n s t r u c t i o n

(e.g., newly compacted f i l l ) perform two a n a l y s e s , one assuming drained, t h e
o t h e r assuming undrained c o n d i t i o n s , and design f o r t h e most c o n s e r v a t i v e
results.

3. PRESUMPTIVE BEARING PRESSURES. For preliminary e s t i m a t e s o r when e l a b o r -

a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s i s not j u s t i f i e d , use bearing p r e s s u r e
from Table 1.

a. U t i l i z a t i o n . .These load i n t e n s i t i e s a r e intended t o provide a r e a -

sonable s a f e t y f a c t o r a g a i n s t u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e and t o avoid d e t r i m e n t a l set-
tlements of i n d i v i d u a l footings. Where d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s cannot b e
t o l e r a t e d , e x p l o r a t i o n , t e s t i n g and a n a l y s i s should be performed. Presump-
t i v e bearing p r e s s u r e s must be used w i t h c a u t i o n and v e r i f i e d , i f p r a c t i c a -
b l e , by performance of nearby s t r u c t u r e s .

b. Modifications of Presumptive Bearing Pressures. See Table 2 f o r

v a r i a t i o n s i n allowable bearing p r e s s u r e depending on f o o t i n g s i z e and p o s i -
tion. (See Reference 6, Foundation Analysis and Design, by Bowles f o r more
d e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s of u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e than shown i n Table 2). Nominal bear-
ing pressures-may be u n r e l i a b l e f o r foundations on very s o f t t o medium-stiff
fine-grained s o i l s o r over a shallow groundwater t a b l e and. should be checked
by an e s t i m a t e of t h e o r e t i c a l bearing capacity. Where bearing s t r a t a are
u n d e r l a i n by weaker and more compressible m a t e r i a l , o r where c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
of s u b s o i l s i s c o n s t a n t with depth, analyze c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e m e n t of t h e
e n t i r e foundation ( s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 5).

4. EMPIRICAL ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURES. Allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s f o r

foundation may be based upon t h e r e s u l t s of f i e l d t e s t s such a s t h e Standard
P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t (SPT) o r Cone P e n e t r a t i o n Test (CPT). These b e a r i n g p r e s -
s u r e s a r e based on maximum foundation s e t t l e m e n t s but do not c o n s i d e r s e t t l e -
ment e f f e c t s due t o t h e adjacent foundations. I n t h e c a s e of c l o s e l y spaced
foundations where t h e p r e s s u r e beneath a f o o t i n g i s i n f l u e n c e d by a d j o i n i n g
f o o t i n g s a d e t a i l e d s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s must be made.
 TABLE 1
Presumptive Values of Allowable Bearing Pressures f o r Spread Foundat i o n s

Allowable Bearing
Pressure
Tons Per sq f t

Type of Bearing M a t e r i a l Consistency Recommended

I n Place Value f o r
Range Use

Massive c r y s t a l l i n e igneous and Hard, sound rock 60 t o 100 80.0

metamorphic rock: g r a n i t e , dio-
r i t e , b a s a l t , g n e i s s , thoroughly
cemented conglomerate (sound
c o n d i t i o n allows minor cracks).

F o l i a t e d metamorphic rock: Medium hard sound 30 t o 40 35.0

s l a t e , s c h i s t (sound c o n d i t i o n rock
allows minor cracks).

Sedimentary rock; hard cemented Medium hard sound 15 t o 25 20.0

s h a l e s , s i l t s t o n e , sandstone, rock
limestone without c a v i t i e s .

Weathered o r broken bed rock of S o f t rock 8 t o 12 10.0

any kind except h i g h l y a r g i l -
laceous rock ( s h a l e ) . RQD l e s s
t h a n 25.

Compaction s h a l e o r o t h e r highly S o f t rock 8 t o 12 10.0

a r g i l l a c e o u s rock i n sound
condition.

Well graded mixture of f i n e and Very compact 8 t o 12 10.0

coarse-grained s o i l : g l a c i a l
t i l l , hardpan, boulder c l a y
(GW-GC, GC, SC)

Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, Very compact 6 t o 10 7.0

boulder g r a v e l mixtures (SW, SP, Medium t o compact 4 to 7 5.0
SW, SP) Loose 2 to 6 3.0

Coarse t o medium sand, sand with Very compact 4 to 6 4.0

l i t t l e g r a v e l (SW, SP) Medium t o compact 2 to 4 3.0
Loose 1 to 3 1.5

Fine t o medium sand, s i l t y o r Very compact 3 to 5 3.0

clayey medium t o c o a r s e sand Medium t o compact 2 to 4 2.5
(SW, SM, SC) Loose 1 to 2 1.5
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Presumptive Values of Allowable Bearing P r e s s u r e s f o r Spread Foundations

Allowable Bearing
Pressure
Tons Per sq f t .

Type of Bearing M a t e r i a l Consistency Recommended

.
. I n Place Value f o r
Range Use

Homogeneous inorganic c l a y , Very s t i f f t o hard 3 to 6 4.0

sandy o r s i l t y $ c l a y (CL, CH) Medium t o s t i f f 1 to 3 2.0
Soft 05 t o 1 0.5

Inorganic s i l t , sandy o r clayey Very s t i f f t o hard 2 to 4 3.0

s i l t , varved s i l t - c l a y - f i n e Sand medium t o s t i f f 1 to 3 1.5
Soft .5 t o 1 0.5

Notes :

1. V a r i a t i o n s of allowable bearing p r e s s u r e f o r s i z e , depth and arrangement

of f o o t i n g s a r e given i n Table 2.

2. Compacted f i l l , placed with c o n t r o l of moisture, d e n s i t y , and l i f t

t h i c k n e s s , has allowable bearing p r e s s u r e of e q u i v a l e n t n a t u r a l s o i l .

3. Allowable bearing p r e s s u r e on compressible f i n e grained s o i l s is

g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t of s t r u c t u r e .

4. Allowable bearing p r e s s u r e on organic s o i l s o r uncompacted f i l l s i s

determined by i n v e s t i g a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l case.

5. I f t a b u l a t e d recommended value f o r rock exceeds unconfined compressive

s t r e n g t h of i n t a c t specimen, allowable p r e s s u r e s equals unconfined
compressive s t r e n g t h .
 TABLE 2
S e l e c t i o n of Allowable Bearing P r e s s u r e s f o r Spread Foundations -
\
1. For preliminary a n a l y s i s o r i n t h e absence of s t r e n g t h tests of founda-
t i o n s o i l , design and proportion shallow foundations t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e i r
l o a d s using presumptive v a l u e s of allowable bearing p r e s s u r e given i n
Table 1. Modify t h e nominal value of allowable b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e f o r
s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n accordance with t h e following i t e m s .

2. The maximum bearing p r e s s u r e beneath t h e f o o t i n g produced by e c c e n t r i c

loads t h a t i n c l u d e dead p l u s normal l i v e load p l u s permanent l a t e r a l
loads, s h a l l not exceed t h e nominal bearing p r e s s u r e of Table 1.

3. Bearing p r e s s u r e s up t o one-third i n excess of t h e nominal bearing

values a r e permitted f o r t r a n s i e n t l i v e load from wind o r earthquake.
I f overload from wind o r earthquake exceeds one-third of nominal bearing
p r e s s u r e s , i n c r e a s e allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s by one-third of nominal
value.

4. Extend f o o t i n g s on s o f t rock o r on any s o i l t o a minimum depth of 18

inches below a d j a c e n t ground s u r f a c e o r s u r f a c e of a d j a c e n t f l o o r bear-
ing on s o i l , whichever e l e v a t i o n i s t h e lowest.

5. For f o o t i n g s on s o f t rock o r on coarse-grained s o i l , i n c r e a s e a l l o w a b l e

bearing p r e s s u r e s by 5 percent of t h e nominal v a l u e s f o r each f o o t of
depth below t h e minimum depth s p e c i f i e d i n 4.

6. Apply t h e nominal bearing p r e s s u r e s of t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s of hard o r

medium hard rock shown on Table 1 where base of foundation l i e s on rock
surface. Where t h e foundation extends below t h e rock s u r f a c e i n c r e a s e
t h e allowable bearing p r e s s u r e by 10 percent of t h e nominal v a l u e s f o r
each a d d i t i o n a l f o o t of depth extending below t h e s u r f a c e .

7. For f o o t i n g s m a l l e r than 3 f e e t i n l e a s t l a t e r a l dimension, t h e allowa-

b l e bearing p r e s s u r e s h a l l be one-third of t h e nominal b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e
m u l t i p l i e d by t h e l e a s t l a t e r a l dimension i n f e e t .

8. Where t h e bearing s t r a t u m i s u n d e r l a i n by a weaker m a t e r i a l determine

t h e allowable bearing p r e s s u r e a s follows:
 TABLE 2 (continued)
S e l e c t i o n of Allowable Bearing P r e s s u r e s f o r Spread Foundations

a ONTINUED

. .
7 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / f l..
t.'..A-. f / / / / / / f f / I / /
Q = a p p l i e d l o a d , not i n c l u d i n g
,p'.::.! weight of f o u n d a t i o n i t s e l f .
<;;. D:
D
L = l e n g t h of foundation.

(B + 1.16H) (L + 1.16H) = a r e a
s t r e s s e d i n weaker l a y e r .

Q
(B + 1.16H)(L + 1.16H) < nominal
- value of allowable bearing pressure.

Area s t r e s s e d i n weaker l a y e r s h a l l not extend beyond i n t e r s e c t i o n of 30'

planes extending downward from a d j a c e n t foundations.

9. Where t h e f o o t i n g i s subjected t o a s u s t a i n e d u p l i f t f o r c e , compute

u l t i m a t e r e s i s t a n c e t o u p l i f t a s follows:

Q = a p p l i e d u p l i f t load.

W = t o t a l e f f e c t i v e weight of
s o i l and c o n c r e t e l o c a t e d
w i t h i n prism bounded by
v e r t i c a l l i n e s a t b a s e of
foundation. Use t o t a l u n i t
weights above water t a b l e
and buoyant u n i t w e i g h t s
below.

Safety F a c t o r = -WQ -> 2

-- -
(This i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e procedure; s e e t e x t f o r r e f e r e n c e on more d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s e s procedures. )
.
 a. Standard P e n e t r a t i o n Test. R e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Reference
7, Foundation Engineering, by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn, f o r a l l o w a b l e bear-
i n g values i n terms of standard p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e and f o r l i m i t i n g s e t -
tlement. When SPT t e s t s a r e a v a i l a b l e , use t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i n DM-7.1, Chapter
2 t o determine r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y and Figure 6, DM-7.1, Chapter 3 t o e s t i m a t e
0 values. Use Figure 1 t o compute u l t i m a t e bearing p r e s s u r e .
b. Cone P e n e t r a t i o n Test. The r e s u l t s of CPT may be used d i r e c t l y t o
compute allowable bearing p r e s s u r e f o r coarse-grained s o i l s . See Figure 8
(Reference 8, Shallow ~ o u n d a t i o n s , by t h e Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y ) .

c. Bearing Capacity Fr& pressuremeter. I f pressuremeter i s used t o

determine i n s i t u s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y can be computed from
these t e s t results. (See Reference 8.)

S e c t i o n 3. SPREAD FOOTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. FOUNDATION DEPTH. I n g e n e r a l f o o t i n g s should be c a r r i e d below:

( a ) The depth of f r o s t p e n e t r a t i o n ;

( b ) Zones of h i g h volume change due t o moisture f l u c t u a t i o n s ;

( c ) Organic m a t e r i a l s ;

( d ) Disturbed upper s o i l s ;

( e ) Uncontrolled f i l l s ;

( f ) Scour depths i n r i v e r s and streams.

( g ) Zones of c o l l a p s e - s u s c e p t i b l e s o i l s .

2. AT..TERNATIVE FOUNDATION METHODS -

Light S t r u c t u r e s . Light s t r u c t u r e s may
be supported by o t h e r types of shallow foundation treatment such a s : ( a ) deep
perimeter wall f o o t i n g s ; ( b ) overexcavation and compaction i n f o o t i n g l i n e s ;
( c ) mat design w i t h thickened edge; (d) preloading surcharge.

3. PROPORTIONING INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS. Where s i g n i f i c a n t compression w i l l

not occur i n s t r a t a below a depth equal t o t h e d i s t a n c e between f o o t i n g s ,
i n d i v i d u a l f o o t i n g s should be proportioned t o g i v e equal s e t t l e m e n t s , using
formulas from DM-7.1, Chapter 5. See Figure 9 f o r an example.

4. CORROSION PROTECTION. Foundation design should c o n s i d e r p o t e n t i a l l y

d e t r i m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e s i n s o i l s , such a s c h l o r i d e s and s u l p h a t e s , w i t h appro-
p r i a t e p r o t e c t i o n f o r reinforcement, c o n c r e t e and metal piping. I f t h e analy-
sis i n d i c a t e s s u l p h a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o be more than 0.5% i n t h e s o i l o r more
than 1200 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n i n t h e groundwater, t h e use of a s u l p h a t e resist-
i n g cement such a s Type V Portland cement should be considered. I n a d d i t i o n s ,
o t h e r p r o t e c t i o n such a s lower water-cement r a t i o , bituminous c o a t i n g , e t c .
may be required depending upon t h e s u l p h a t e concentration. See Reference 9,
Sulphates i n S o i l s and Groundwaters, BRS Digest, f o r guidance.
\
0
u

B,FT
qa = ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE

%one =CONE RESISTANCE

Df = DEPTH OF SURCHARGE ABOVE M E BASE OFFOOTING
B = FOOTING WIDTH

FIGURE 8
Allowable Bearing Pressure f o r Sand From S t a t i c Cone Penetration T e s t s
EXAMPLE
COL. A C0L.B

ILOAD = 5 o T

f. LOAD = 160T

tt-tt rrm-t
7
to- t

1 5'
SAND YT = 120 PCF
N-AN.= I 5 BLOW/FT. N -AVG. = 18 BLOWS/FT
Y -
-
Column l o a d A = 50 t o n s .
, Avg N = 15 b l o w s / f t.
Column load B = 160 t o n s , Avg. N = 18 b l o w s / f t .
S o i l : w e l l graded sand (SW) , YT = 120 pcf
Column A
Assume s q u a r e f o o t i n g 5 f t . x 5 f t . , B = 5 f t .
Average overburden p r e s s u r e a t 6.5 f t . (Df + B/2) below ground
level :
Po = 120 x 6.5 = 780 psf = 0.39 t s f
From Figure 3, DM-7.1, Chapter 2, Dr = 80%
From Figure 7, DM-7.1, Chapter 3, 6 = 37.5'
a ) Determine Bearing Capacity 1
From Figure 1, q u l t = El20 x 4 x 45 + 0.4 x 120 x 5 x 7 0 7 2 0 0 0 = 19.2 t s f
q u l t (net) = 19.2 - 120 x 4 e 19 t s f
2000
Use Fs = 3, .'. Qall = - 19 = 6 . 3 t s f
3
Minimum r e q u i r e d f o o t i n g s i z e : I50 3 f t . x 3 f t . which i s less t h a n
.
assumed s i z e 5f t x 5 f t . 6.3
b) Check f o r s e t t l e m e n t .
To l i m i t s e t t l e m e n t , assume a 5 f t . x 5 f t . f o o t i n g w i t h q = 5oT =:2 t s f .
From Figure 6, DM-7 . l , Chapter 5 q, = 255 t o n s / f t 3 5ft. x 5ft.
A H E ~X 2 X S2 x 12 = 0.26 i n c h e s
255 x ( 5 + 1)
Column B
Assume 8 f t . x 8 f t . s q u a r e f o o t i n g
Average overburden p r e s s u r e a t 8 f t . = (Df + ~ / 2 )below ground l e v e l .
Po = 120 x 8 x 1 = 0.48 t s f
2000
From Figure 3, DM-7.1, Chapter 2, Dr = 87%
From Figure 7, DM-7.1, Chapter 3, t8 = 39'
a ) Determine Bearing Capacity
From Figure 1 , q u l t = El20 x 4 x 58 + 0.4 x 120 x 8 x 961 1
2000
-32.3 t s f

-
q u l t ( n e t ) = 32.3 120 x 4 % 3 2 t s f
2Q00
U s e Fs = 3.0.'- q a l l = 32 = 10.7 t s f
3

.
FIGURE 9
Example of Proportioning Footing S i z e t o Equalize S e t t l e m e n t s
7.2-148
 Minimum required f o o t i n g s i z e : 160 = 3.9 f t . x 3.9 f t .
10.7
b) Footing s i z e required f o r settlement equal t o that o f
Column A .
From Figure 6, DM-7.1, Chapter 5, Kvl = 290 t o n s / f t 3 .
4 x 160 x 8 2 x 12
0 ' 2 6 = 290 x B~ x (B + 1 ) 2

Or B = - 1 = 9.1 )) 3.9
0.26 x 290 Settlement Governs
Use 9.1 x 9.1 f o o t i n g f o r Column B

FIGURE 9 (continued)
Example of Proportioning Footing S i z e t o Equalize Settlements
 E l e c t r i c a l c o r r o s i v e p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l a r e i m p o r t a n t where metal s t r u c -
t u r e s such as p i p e l i n e s , e t c . a r e b u r i e d underground. A r e s i s t i v i t y survey
of t h e s i t e may be n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e t h e need f o r c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n .

S e c t i o n 4. MAT AND CONTINUOUS BEAM FOUNDATIONS

1. APPLICATIONS. Depending on economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m a t f o u n d a t i o n s a r e

g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e i f t h e sum of i n d i v i d u a l f o o t i n g b a s e a r e a s exceeds
about one-half t h e t o t a l f o u n d a t i o n a r e a ; i f t h e s u b s u r f a c e s t r a t a c o n t a i n
c a v i t i e s o r compressible l e n s e s ; i f s h a l l o w s h e a r s t r a i n s e t t l e m e n t s predomi-
n a t e and t h e mat would e q u a l i z e d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s ; o r i f r e s i s t a n c e t o
h y d r o s t a t i c u p l i f t i s required.

2. STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT REQUIREMENTS. A s with o t h e r t y p e s of founda-

t i o n s , a-mat f o u n d a t i o n must have an ample f a c t o r of s a f e t y ( s e e S e c t i o n 2)
a g a i n s t o v e r a l l s h e a r f a i l u r e and i t must not e x h i b i t i n t o l e r a b l e s e t t l e m e n t
( s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 5).

S i n c e mat f o o t i n g s a r e simply l a r g e f o o t i n g s , t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y p r i n -
c i p l e s o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n s 2 and 3 of t h i s c h a p t e r a r e a p p l i c a b l e . The u l t i -
mate b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of l a r g e mats on coarse-grained s o i l s i s u s u a l l y v e r y
h i g h and d e s i g n i s u s u a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by s e t t l e m e n t ( s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 5).
For mats on c o h e s i v e s o i l s , s h e a r s t r e n g t h parameters f o r s o i l s a t d e p t h must
be determined f o r t h e proper e v a l u a t i o n of f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t deep-
seated failure.

3. DESIGN PROCEDURES. A d e s i g n method based on t h e t h e o r y f o r beams o r

p l a t e s on d i s c r e e t e l a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s (Reference 10, Beams on E l a s t i c Foun-
d a t i o n , by Hetenyi) h a s been recommended by A C I Committee 436 (Reference 11,
Suggested Design Procedures f o r Combined Footings and Mats) f o r d e s i g n of m a t
foundations. This a n a l y s i s i s s u i t a b l e f o r f o u n d a t i o n s on coarse-grained
soils.

a. Two-dimensional Problems. For w a l l s o r c r a n e t r a c k f o o t i n g s o r mat

f o u n d a t i o n s s u b j e c t e d t o p l a n e s t r a i n , such a s drydock w a l l s and l i n e a r block-
i n g l o a d s , u s e t h e procedures of Table 3 and F i g u r e s 10 and 11 (Reference 1 0 ) .
Superpose s h e a r , moment, and d e f l e c t i o n produced by s e p a r a t e l o a d s t o o b t a i n
t h e e f f e c t of combined loads.

b. Three-dimensional'Problems. For i n d i v i d u a l l o a d s a p p l i e d i n i r r e g u -
l a r p a t t e r n t o a roughly equi-dimensional mat, a n a l y z e s t r e s s e s by methods of
p l a t e s on e l a s t i c foundations. Use t h e procedures of Table 4 and F i g u r e 12.

Superpose s h e a r , moment, o r d e f l e c t i o n produced by s e p a r a t e l o a d s t o

o b t a i n k f f e c t of combined loads.
 TABLE 3 .
D e f i n i t i o n s and P r o c e d u r e s , A n a l y s i s of Beams on E l a s t i c F o u n d a t i o n
). --
Definitions:

Kv, = Modulus of s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n f o r a 1 s q f t b e a r i n g p l a t e .

Kb = Modulus of s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n f o r beam of w i d t h b, Kb = (K,, ) / b

y = D e f l e c t i o n of beam a t a p o i n t .

p = P r e s s u r e i n t e n s i t y on t h e s u b g r a d e a t a p o i n t , p = y(Kb)

b = Width of beam a t c o n t a c t s u r f a c e

I = Moment of i n e r t i a of beam

E = Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of beam m a t e r i a l

=!, Beam l e n g t h

A = C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e system of beam and s u p p o r t i n g s o i l =

;4j3E EI

Procedure f o r Analysis:

1. Determine E and e s t a b l i s h K,, from F i g u r e 6 i n D M - 7 . 0 4 Chapter 5 o r

from p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s . .,

2. Determine d e p t h of beam from s h e a r r e q u i r e m e n t s a t c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n

and w i d t h from a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e . Compute c h a r a c t e r i s t i c X
of beam and s u p p o r t i n g s o i l .

3. C l a s s i f y beams i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s i n t o t h e
f o l l o w i n g t h r e e groups. A n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e d i f f e r s w i t h e a c h group.

Group 1 - S h o r t beams: 4 Beam i s c o n s i d e r e d r i g i d . Assume

l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n c o n t r a c t p r e s s u r e as f o r a r i g i d
footing. Compute s h e a r and moment i n beam by s i m p l e s t a t i c s .
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
D e f i n i t i o n s and Procedures, A n a l y s i s of Beams on E l a s t i c Foundation
,

Group 2 - Beams of medium l e n g t h : 7 1 4 <Xl<r. End c o n d i t i o n s i n f l u -

ence a l l s e c t i o n s of t h e beam. Compute moments and s h e a r s throughout
t h e beam l e n g t h by t h e i n f i n i t e beam formulas, t o p p a n e l of F i g u r e 10.
Determine i n t h i s way t h e s h e a r and moments a t t h e two e n d s of t h e
beam. By superposing on t h e loaded beam two p a i r s of c o n c e n t r a t e d
f o r c e s and moments a t t h e ends of t h e beam, s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e i n f i n i t e
beam a r e modified t o conform t o t h e a c t u a l end c o n d i t i o n s . For
example, i f Q = 0 and M = 0 a t t h e ends of a free-ended beam, a p p l y
redundant s h e a r and moment a t t h e ends e q u a l and o p p o s i t e t o t h a t
detemined from t h e i n f i n i t e beam formulas. See r e f e r e n c e c i t e d i n
t e x t f o r formulas f o r moments and s h e a r s i n end loaded beam of f i n i t e
length.

Group 3 - Long beams: .

>r End c o n d i t i o n a t d i s t a n t end has
n e g l i g i b l e i n f l u e n c e on moment and s h e a r i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e beam.
Consider beam a s extending a n i n f i n i t e d i s t a n c e away from loaded end.
Compute moment and s h e a r caused by i n t e r i o r l o a d s by formulas f o r
i n f i n i t e beam, top p a n e l of F i g u r e 10. Compute moment and s h e a r f o r
l o a d s a p p l i e d n e a r t h e beam ends by formulas f o r s e m i - i n f i n i t e beam.
bottom p a n e l of F i g u r e 10. Superpose moment and s h e a r o b t a i n e d from
t h e two l o a d systems.

4. Obtain f u n c t i o n s ,B x ~, C i X , DiX , for u s e i n formulas of F i g u r e

10 from F i g u r e 11.

S i g n Convention:

Consider i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l element of beam between two v e r t i c a l c r o s s

s e c t i o n s a t a d i s t a n c e dx a p a r t .

+Q = Upward a c t i n g s h e a r f o r c e t o l e f t of s e c t i o n .

+M = Clockwise movement a c t i n g from t h e l e f t t o t h e s e c t i o n .

+y = Downward d e l e c t i o n .

.
. CONCENTRATED LOAD APPLIED MOMENT

DEFLECTION: y = $AXX DEFLECTION : Y = -

MOMENT : Mr -P
4X C ~ x
MOMENT : M=
MO
2DXX
SHEAR : Q =-f .AX SHEAR :

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LDID

POINT C IS UNDER LOAD

DEFLECTION : YC = ( ~ - D ~ ~ - D ~ ~ )

m ~AOMENT: MC = $ ( BA.+BX~ )
W
k
I
SHEAR: Qc = -
4X
(CXo -CXb )
LL
g POINT C IS LEFT OF LOAD q
DEFLECTION : YC = 2~ ( DXa - b)
MOMENT: MC --(Bh-BXb)
4x2
q
SHEAR: Qc : -
4X
(CXa-CXb)

POINT C IS RIGHT OF WAD

DEFLECTION : YC '- q ( D i g - DXb)

MOMENT: MC =
q (BXa-BXb )

SHEAR : q
Qc = (CXo-chb)

FREE END, CONCENTRATED WAD 2P X DAX

DEFLECTION : =
WENT: M = - P'BXx
SHEAR : Q = - PI CXx
I
4 FREE END, MOMENT
DEFLECTION : Y = --
2 MI h2 cCx
K

"
k
z
gb
LL

'
0

FREE W BEAM,aWmYTRATED LDIDNEAREND

MOMENT :

SHEAR :
M = MI AXX
0 =-~MIXBX~

V)
:Y=$ pXa+2~h)~Ax-2(~k+~Xa
B X ~ ~ ~
IF MATK)N (CXq+PDXg)=Q
AND (CXq+Dh ) IS USED =B
P
Y MOMENT: M= K @ c ~- ~~ B D ~ ~ + c ~ ( ~ - ~ ) )
SHEAR : ~ = - f (~DXX-BAXX~~&-~)]
! A

FIGURE 10
Computation of Shear, Moment, and Deflection,Beams on Elastic Foundation
 - 0.2 /
~ 7 \,
\
\
1
' \

/ \
Ckr
-0.1.
/

-
I
I
I
I I

/
I @

I
/ /+-
.s
-... - z z d
0
.
1
8 I ------I

.
8
Z

8
I
I
I -
e
0.1
.
*;
e
I
8 I
I

A A x = e-AX(c~sAx
+ smAx)
.

BRx 8 -AX s/n A X -

CAX = e -'* (cos a x - sin ax)
x
DA, - c - ~ cos
* AX
,' II I
I
6
T

0.4
I
2 I
2
CI
I
u
a I
S
b.

0
0.5
I
I
/
-
W
3
I
1
I 1
I I I
I
-1
b

I I
I
0.7 I/
I
/I I
I
rl
I I
I

PARAMETER Ax

FIGURE 11
Functions f o r Shear, Moment, and Deflection, Beams on E l a s t i c Foundations

7.2-154
 TABLE 4
Definitions and Procedures, Mats on Elastic Foundations

b efinitions:

I Mr,Mt
r = Distance of point under investigation from point column load along
radius

= Radial and tangential moments (polar coordinates) for a unit

width of mat

I Q = Shear per unit width of mat

Mx = Moment which causes a stress in the x-direction (rectangular

coordinates)

My = Moment which causes a stress in the y-direction (rectangular

coordinates)

u, = Stress due to &

uy = Stress due to My

I y = Deflection of mat at a point

b = width of mat

I
Procedure for Analysis:

1. Determine modulus of subgrade reaction for foundation width "b" - as

follows :

For cohesive soils: Kb = Kv,/b,

For granular soils:

2. Determine mat thickness h from shear requirements at critical

sections.

.
3
, Determine values of E and Poisson's ratiop for mat.
~h~
4. Calculate flexural rigidity of mat, D =
12( 1-p2)

5. Calculate radius of effective stiffness: L = 4/z

6. Radius of influence of individual column load equals approximately 4L.
 TABLE 4 ( c o n t i n u e d )
D e f i n i t i o n s and Procedures, Mats o n E l a s t i c F o u n d a t i o n s
2

7. To determine r a d i a l and t a n g e n t i a l moments and d e f l e c t i o n s a t any p o i n t

from a n i n t e r i o r column l o a d u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g formulas:

Mr= --,P c z4(O-(1-p) -

z ~ ' ( E,)E~= -
L
0 . - .
4L z4'(&)
&
P
-,Y =-z3(&)
z;(E)
Mt=- - c ~ z ~ ( & ) + ( I - ~ )
4
P L ~
€
To c o n v e r t r a d i a l and t a n g e n t i a l moments t o r e c t a n g u l a r c o o r d i n a t e s , u s e
t h e following r e l a t i o n s h i p s :

M,=Mr c0s2$ +M+ SIN*$

y[ete3-Lq
0
X M ~ = M ~ SIN^^ + M+ ~ 0 ~ 2 9

Determine f u n c t i o n s Z3(&), zt3(&), z4(&), and zt4(&) from

F i g u r e 12.
8. To determine moments o r d e f l e c t i o n s from a combination of i n t e r i o r
column l o a d s , s u p e r p o s e t h e e f f e c t s from i n d i v i d u a l column l o a d s a t
p o i n t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

9. When edge of mat i s l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e r a d i u s of i n f l u e n c e of t h e

i n d i v i d u a l column l o a d , apply t h e f o l l o w i n g c o r r e c t i o n :

a. C a l c u l a t e moments and s h e a r s t h a t occur p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e edge of

mat w i t h i n t h e r a d i u s of i n f l u e n c e of t h e column l o a d by a n a l y z i n g
t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e edge i n i n f i n i t e mat formulas.

b. Apply redundant moments and s h e a r s of opposing s i g n s a t t h e edge of

t h e mat. Determine moments and s h e a r s produced w i t h i n t h e mat by
t h e r e d u n d a n t s by a n a l y z i n g a s e r i e s of beams on e l a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s
p o s i t i o n e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e edge, a p p l y i n g formulas of t h e
bottom p a n e l of FigurelO. U t i l i z e a s i m i l a r procedure f o r l a r g e
openings i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e mat. Superpose t h e s e moments t o
moments computed i n S t e p 8.

10. When s u p e r s t r u c t u r e l o a d s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d through deep f o u n d a t i o n w a l l s ,

u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g procedure:
a. E s t i m a t e a n approximate d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u p e r s t r u c t u r e l o a d s a s a
l i n e load a l o n g t h e wall.
b. Divide t h e mat i n t o a s e r i e s of s t r i p s 1 f o o t wide p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
t h e f o u n d a t i o n w a l l with t h e l i n e l o a d a c t i n g a t t h e end. Analyze
t h e s t r i p s a s beams on e l a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s u s i n g f o r m u l a s of t h e t o p
panel of F i g u r e I0 f o r i n t e r i o r f o u n d a t i o n w a l l s and f o r m u l a s of t h e
bottom
-- p a n e l of FigurelO For f o u n d a t i o n w a l l s a t edge of mat.
c. Superpose moments and s h e a r s determined from t h i s a n a l y s i s w i t h
--h o--
t se o
- -- -
f r a n i n t e r i o r column l o a d s on t h e mat.
b t a i n-e d-- -
-
 + .s

+ .4

+ .3
T

-
E
G' + -2
Yr
L
-10
Y
9
v
<+.I
3
u)
r
b
2
0
3
k
k
0
u)
u
%-.I
*
J
5

- .z

- .3

- .4

- .s
0 I 3
PARAMETER < - $
4 5 6

FIGURE 12
unctions for Shear, Moment, and Deflection, Mats on E l a s t i c Foundation
 c. Modulus of Subgrade Reaction. The modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n (K)
is expressed a s :

where : p = c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e (stress u n i t )

A H = s o i l deformation ( l e n g t h )
( 1 ) K v a r i e s with t h e width and shape of t h e loaded a r e a . Empiri-
c a l c o r r e c t i o n f o r s t r i p f o o t i n g s from Reference 12, Evaluation of Coeffic-
i e n t of Subgrade Reaction, by Terzaghi a r e :

(a) Cohesive s o i l .

where : Kb = c o e f f i c i e n t of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r foundation of width b

= c o e f f i c i e n t of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r a 1' x 1' p l a t e

I f t h e loaded a r e a i s of width, b, and l e n g t h , mb, kh assumes t h e value:

I f a c t u a l p l a t e load tests on cohesive s o i l a r e not a v a i l a b l e , estimates of

K, can be made i n g e n e r a l accordance w i t h t h e recommendations i n Reference
12. I f a c t u a l p l a t e load t e s t s a r e not a v a i l a b l e use c o r r e l a t i o n f o r &,i n
Figure 6, DM-7.1, Chapter 5.

(b) Granular s o i l .

( c ) Limitations. Values of Kb as determined f r a n extrapola-

t i o n of p l a t e bearing tests should be u t i l i z e d with judgement and care. Un-
l i k e t h e deformation i n f u l l s i z e mat t h e deformation from p l a t e load tests i s
not r e f l e c t i v e of t h e underlying deeper s t r a t a . Also r e s u l t s from p l a t e load
tests on s a t u r a t e d o r p a r t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d c l a y s may be u n r e l i a b l e because time
may not permit complete c o n s o l i d a t i o n of loaded clay.

( 2 ) An e s t i m a t e of Kb may be obtained by back c a l c u l a t i n g from a

s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s . The s e t t l e m e n t of t h e m a t can be c a l c u l a t e d assuming a
uniform contact p r e s s u r e and u t i l i z i n g t h e methods o u t l i n e d i n DM-7.1, Chapter
5. The c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e i s then divided by t h e average .settlement t o o b t a i n
a n e s t i m a t e of Kb:
P

where Allavg = average computed settlement of t h e m a t .

For a f l e x i b l e c i r c u l a r m a t r e s t i n g on a p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l AHavg =
0.85 x s e t t l e m e n t a t t h e c e n t e r . For o t h e r shapes s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 5 ,
Table 1.

d. Numerical Methods. Methods of a n a l y s e s of mat foundation which ac-

count f o r t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and t h e foundatio;, i n which t h e
s o i l i s modelled a s an e l a s t i c h a l f space continuum u t i l i z i n g f i n i t e element
techniques a r e more a c c u r a t e . A v a r i e t y of s o i l c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
such a s l i n e a r e l a s t i c , non-linear e l a s t i c , e l a s t o - p l a s t i c , e t c . can be u t i l i -
zed. F i n i t e element techniques a r e w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e s e problems. See Appen-
d i x f o r l i s t i n g of computer programs.

S e c t i o n 5. FOUNDATIONS 'ON ENGINEERED FILL

1. UTILIZATION. F i l l s placed w i t h c o n t r o l l e d compaction may be used beneath

s t r u c t u r e s f o r t h e following purposes:

( a ) To r a i s e t h e g e n e r a l grade of t h e s t r u c t u r e o r t o r e p l a c e u n s u i t a b l e
foundation s o i l s .

( b ) To provide a r e l a t i v e l y s t i f f mat over s o f t s u b s o i l s i n o r d e r t o

spread bearing p r e s s u r e s from column l o a d s and decrease column s e t t l e m e n t s .

( c ) To bridge over s u b s o i l s with e r r a t i c hard and s o f t s p o t s o r s m a l l

cavities.

( d ) To a c c e l e r a t e s u b s o i l c o n s o l i d a t i o n and t o e l i m i n a t e a l l o r p a r t of
s e t t l e m e n t of t h e completed s t r u c t u r e when used with surcharge.

2. COMPACTION CONTROL. R i g i d i t y , s t r e n g t h , and homogeneity of many n a t u r a l

s o i l s may be i n c r e a s e d by c o n t r o l l e d compaction w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e equipment. A
complete d i s c u s s i o n of compaction requirements and c o n t r o l i s presented i n
Chapter 2. Other methods of d e n s i f y i n g in-place s o i l s a r e given i n DM-7.3,
Chapter 2.

3. GEOMETRIC LIMITS OF COMPACTION. The limits of t h e zone of compacted s o i l

beneath a f o o t i n g should consider t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s imposed by t h e f o o t i n g
( s t r e s s - b u l b ) on t h e s o i l s beneath i t . Recommended requirements f o r compac-
t i o n beneath a square and a continuous f o o t i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 13.
For l a r g e f o o t i n g s , t h e necessary depth of compacted f i l l should be determined
from a s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s .

Section 6. FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS

1. POTENTIAL EXPANSION CONDITIONS. S o i l s which undergo volume changes upon

wetting and drying a r e termed expansive o r swelling s o i l s . I f s u r f a c e c l a y s
above t h e water t a b l e have a P I g r e a t e r than about 22 (CH c l a y s ) and r e l a t i v e -
l y low n a t u r a l water c o n t e n t , p o t e n t i a l expansion must be considered. These
s o i l s a r e most commonly found i n a r i d climates with a d e f i c i e n c y of r a i n f a l l ,
over-evaporation, and where t h e groundwater t a b l e i s low. Mottled, f r a c t u r e d ,
 CONTlNUOUS FOOT1NG

1
d = DEPTH TO ADEQUATE BEARING MATERIAL WHICHEVER IS LESS
d=LXb

SQUARE FOOTING

d = I-V2 X b 1
d = DEPTH TO ADEQUATE BEARING MATERIAL wHlcH~vER
ms

FIGURE 1 3
Limits of Compaction Beneath Square and Continuous Footings
o r s l i c k e n s i d e d c l a y s , showing evidence of p a s t d e s i c c a t i o n , a r e - p a r t i c u l a r l y
troublesome. For o t h e r causes of swelling i n s o i l s and f o r t h e computations
of r e s u l t i n g heave s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 5, and DM-7.3, Chapter 3 f o r f u r t h e r
guidance.

2. ELIMINATING SOIL EXPANSION POTENTIAL. Where economically f e a s i b l e , r e -

move p o t e n t i a l l y expansive s o i l s from beneath f o o t i n g s and r e p l a c e w i t h com-
pacted f i l l of g r a n u l a r s o i l s o r nonexpansive m a t e r i a l s . I f t h i s c a n n o t be
done, consider spread f o o t i n g s o r d r i l l e d and underreamed c a i s s o n s founded
below t h e zone of a c t i v e swelling. Design t h e s h a f t s of such f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t r e i n f o r c i n g t o r e s i s t t e n s i l e f o r c e s a p p l i e d t o s h a f t by f r i c t i o n
o r adhesion i n t h e s w e l l i n g m a t e r i a l s . Reinforcing must be c a r r i e d i n t o t h e
b e l l e d s e c t i o n t o a p o i n t 4" above t h e base. A t any depth, t e n s i l e f o r c e s
exerted on a s h a f t equal c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l a r e a of t h e s h a f t times t h e d i f f e r -
ence between average s w e l l i n g p r e s s u r e above and below t h e p o i n t under
consideration.

Placing t h e base of foundation near t h e water t a b l e reduces heave damage

because of l i t t l e change i n moisture content. For c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n
such s o i l s e e Figure 14 ( t o p and c e n t e r , Reference 13, S o i l Mechanics and
Foundation, by Parcher and Means), DM-7.3, Chapter 3, and Reference 14,
Design and Performance of Mat Foundation on Expansive Clay, by Lytton and
Woodburn.

Footing foundations can be s u c c e s s f u l i f s u f f i c i e n t dead load i s e x e r t e d

t o e l i m i n a t e heave completely o r reduce i t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n with a
s t r u c t u r e r i g i d enough t o withstand s t r e s s due t o heaving. See DM-7.1, Chap-
t e r 5, and DM-7.3, Chapter 3 f o r methods of e s t i m a t i n g t h e magnitude of s w e l l .

3. M I N I M I Z I N G EXPANSION EFFECTS. Where i t i s not economically f e a s i b l e t o

remove expansive m a t e r i a l s o r t o support foundations below depths of p o s s i b l e
expansion, t h e e f f e c t s can be miminized a s follows:

( a ) Where l a r g e s e a s o n a l changes i n s o i l moisture a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

s w e l l i n g , schedule c o n s t r u c t i o n during o r immediately a f t e r a prolonged r a i n y
period when t h e r e w i l l be less p o t e n t i a l volume change i n t h e f u t u r e .

( b ) For c o n c r e t e f l o o r s l a b s placed d i r e c t l y on p o t e n t i a l l y e x p a n s i v e
c l a y s , provide expansion j o i n t s so t h e f l o o r can move f r e e l y from t h e s t r u c -
t u r a l frame.

( c ) For foundations on f i l l m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g p l a s t i c f i n e s and sus-

c e p t i b l e t o swelling, p l a c e f i l l a t moisture c o n t e n t above optimum w i t h den-
s i t y no h i g h e r than r e q u i r e d f o r s t r e n g t h and r i g i d i t y . Excessive compaction
w i l l r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r swelling.

( d ) Grade beams should c o n t a i n s u f f i c i e n t s t e e l reinforcement t o r e s i s t

t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l t h r u s t of swelling s o i l s . I f p r a c t i c a l , p l a c e
compressible, j o i n t f i l l e r o r open blocks o r boxes beneath grade beams t o
minimize s w e l l i n g pressures.

( e ) Provide impervious b l a n k e t s and s u r f a c e grading around t h e founda-

t i o n s t o prevent i n f i l t r a t i o n of s u r f a c e water.
GRADE W POURED ON CAR- FORMS

FIGURE 14
Construction Details for Swelling Soils
 ( f ) Locate water and drainage l i n e s so t h a t i f any leakage occurs, water
w i l l n o t be r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o foundation s o i l s thereby causing damage.
-
(g) Consider s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e foundation s o i l s and b a c k f i l l mate-
r i a l s by l i m e and o t h e r agents.

For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 15, Foundations on Expansive S o i l s , by

Chen, and DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

4. COLLAPSING SOILS. Many c o l l a p s i n g s o i l s w i l l s l a k e upon immersion, b u t

t h i s i s not a d e f i n i t i v e i n d i c a t o r . D e f i n i t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s a p a i r
of c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s with and without s a t u r a t i o n , o r by p l a t e load tests
where water i s added with t h e p l a t e under s t r e s s . I n t h e c a s e of c o l l a p s i b l e
s o i l , t h e e-log p curve f o r t h e specimen, which was allowed t o come i n c o n t a c t
w i t h water, i s below t h a t of t h e d r y specimen. See DM-7.1, Chapter 3 f o r
t e s t i n g procedures.

( a ) I f p o s i t i v e measures a r e p r a c t i c a l f o r avoiding water f o u n d a t i o n con-

t a c t , t h e "dry" s t r e n g t h of s o i l can be used f o r d e s i g n purposes.

( b ) A l t e r n a t e l y , under some c o n d i t i o n s , p r e w e t t i n g of t h e s o i l is found

e f f e c t i v e i n reducing s e t t l e m e n t s . By t h i s process, t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e b r e a k s
down r e s u l t i n g i n i t s d e n s i f i c a t i o n . This i n c r e a s e s i t s s t r e n g t h and reduces
t h e t o t a l and d i f f e r e n t i a l settlement. This method i s n o t very s u c c e s s f u l
e s p e c i a l l y where l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l load i s a p p l i e d during wetting. F o r f u r -
t h e r guidance see DM-7.3, Chapter 3, and Reference 7.

S e c t i o n 7. FOUNDATION WATERPROOFING

1. APPLICATIONS. See Table 5 f o r g e n e r a l requirements f o r w a t e r p r o o f i n g ,

dampproofing, and waterstops. See References 16, 17, and 18; Foundation
Design, by Teng, NAVFAC TS-07110, Membrane Waterproofing, and NAVFAC TS-07160,
n
g
, i~
a
m
o
f-p
r r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r guidance. For basements below
ground, two g e n e r a l schemes a r e employed a s follows:

( a ) Where t h e permanent water t a b l e i s above t h e top of basement s l a b ,

provide p r e s s u r e r e s i s t a n t s l a b ( p r e s s u r e s l a b ) o r r e l i e v e u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s by
underdrainage ( r e l i e v e d s l a b ) .

( b ) Where t h e water t a b l e i s deep but i n f i l t r a t i o n of s u r f a c e w a t e r damp-

ens b a c k f i l l surrounding basement, provide dampproof w a l l s and s l a b s ( s e e
Table 5, Damp proofing).

2. PRESSURE AND RELIEVED SLABS.

a. P r e s s u r e Slabs. I n g e n e r a l , t h e choice between p r e s s u r e o r r e l i e v e d

s l a b depends on o v e r a l l economy, maintenance, l a y o u t , and o p e r a t i o n , and must
be evaluated i n d i v i d u a l l y f o r each p r o j e c t . For basements extending o n l y a
small depth below groundwater, a p r e s s u r e s l a b t o r e s i s t maximum p r o b a b l e
h y d r o s t a t i c u p l i f t u s u a l l y i s economical. Also, when t h e s o i l below w a t e r
l e v e l i s very pervious, an e x t e n s i v e and consequently v e r y c o s t l y d r a i n a g e
system may be necessary. See Case A, Figure 15. Drainage m a t e r i a l should be
 TABLE 5
Requirements f o r Foundation Waterproofing and Dampproofing
Materials
Waterproofing
1. Membrane Bitumen: 1) ASTM D449,
Type [A] [B] [C] Asphalt,
ASTM D450, Type I1 Coal-
tar; 2) Bituminous p l a s -
t i c cement; F e d e r a l
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s SS-C-153,
Type I f o r a s p h a l t , Type
I1 f o r c o a l - t a r ; 3 ) F e l t
o r f a b r i c m a t e r i a l im-
pregnated with a s p h a l t o r
c o a l - t a r as s p e c i f i e d i n
references cited i n text;
4)-for primer, p r o t e c t i v e
covering, prefabricated
laminated a s p h a l t water-
proofing s e e references.
Workmanship Applicability Remarks
Before s t a r t i n g t h e work Use on e x t e r i o r Vulnerable t o
i n s p e c t a l l s u r f a c e s t o be wall surfaces, damage. Hard t o
waterproofed t o determine over roofs o r l o c a t e and
t h a t they a r e i n s a t i s f a c - underground r e p a i r damaged
t o r y condition. Complete structures, for area.
c o n d u i t , p i p i n g , and o t h e r p a t c h i n g openings
r e q u i r e d rough-in. Start through walls
a f t e r a l l d e f e c t s and un- formed f o r u t i l i -
s a t i s f a c t o r y conditions ties o r struc-
have been c o r r e c t e d . Sur- t u r a l members.
f a c e s t o be t r e a t e d should Method i s f r e -
be c l e a n and d r y , smooth quently u t i l i z e d ,
and f r e e from d e l e t e r i o u s b u t c a r e f u l in-
and e x c e s s m a t e r i a l s and s p e c t i o n and con-
p r o j e c t i o n s . Use priming t r o l is required
c o a t of c r e o s o t e and t o o b t a i n com-
a s p h a l t a t no l e s s t h a n pletely satis-
one g a l l o n p e r 100 sq f t factory applica-
on s u r f a c e r e c e i v i n g tion.
c o a l - t a r membrane water-
proof i n g and a s p h a l t
membrane wa tser p r o o f i n g
r e s p e c t i v e l y . For membrane
application, use a t l e a s t
3 - p l y f o r dampproofing and
5-ply f o r h y d r o s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e . Apply membrane
u s i n g s h i n g l e method. For
d e t a i l e d requirements s e e
references.
 TABLE 5 (continued)
Requirements f o r Foundation Waterproofing and Dampproofing
Type Materials
2. Cement One p a r t P o r t l a n d cement,
plaster no more than two p a r t s of
sand and no more than two
p a r t s of water. Sand
should c o n t a i n no s i z e s
s m a l l e r t h a n No. 200
s i e v e and p r e f e r a b l y i s
w e l l graded between No.
100 and No. 8 s i e v e
s i z e s . Waterproofing
compounds a r e o p t i o n a l ,
except t h a t no s a l t s o r
deliquescent materials
a r e permitted.
Dampproof i n g
1. Interior Coating c o n s i s t i n g of
faces f i n e l y divided i r o n mixed
w i t h sand, cement, and
o x i d i z i n g agent.
2
Workmanship Applicability Remarks
A l l surfaces i n contact Used on exposed Can r e s i s t high
with form s h a l l be en- i n t e r i o r surfaces hydrostatic
t i r e l y chipped away. Floor of w a l l s , f l o o r s pressures
c o n c r e t e s h a l l have rake and o c c a s i o n a l l y without i n j u r y .
finish. A l l faces s h a l l on c e i l i n g s where E a s i l y inspect-
be r i n s e d thoroughly with the c e i l i n g is ed f o r imper-
c l e a n water. Wall and exposed on t h e f e c t i o n s and
c e i l i n g c o a s t s h a l l be outside to w a t e r can be e a s i l y
applied i n 2 coats t h a t pressures. Ap- repaired.
t o g e t h e r t o t a l betwen 518 propriate for
t o 314 i n c h i n thickness. h i g h e s t type of
Floors t o have one c o a t of basement occu-
1 inch thickness. A l l pancy. Care is
s u r f a c e s a r e t o be f l o a t e d r e q u i r e d t o ob-
w i t h wood f l o a t and hand t a i n a s e a l sur-
f i n i s h e d by s t e e l rounding w a l l
troweling. openings f o r
u t i l i t i e s , etc.
Surfaces t o be thoroughly Used on basement
cleaned and roughened. w a l l s below Lower c o s t . I f
Apply i n a t l e a s t f o u r ground a t damp o r ' appearance of
brush coats. wet l o c a t i o n s , interior
below temporary surfaces is
groundwater important,, u s e
l e v e l s , o r under cement p l a s t e r
h y d r o s t a t i c heads waterproofing.
feet .
of only s e v e r a l
J
 TABLE 5 (continued)
Requirements f o r Foundation Waterproofing and Dampproofing

.
Type Materials Wo rkmanship Applicability Remarks

2. Exterior Hot c o a l tar, s t r a i g h t Concrete and masonry Used on basement Lower c o s t . I f

faces run, p i t c h , Type B s u r f a c e s t o be d r y and w a l l s below appearance of
c o a t i n g , o r a s p h a l t Type f r e e from d u s t , d i r t , ground a t damp i n t e r i o r sur-
B mopping. Built-up i n grease, o i l , or other o r w e t locations, f a c e s i s impor-
successive coats t o a c o a t i n g s before applica- below temporary t a n t , use ce-
minimum of 1/8 i n c h tion. Use primary c o s t of groundwater ment p l a s t e r
thickness. c r e o s o t e and a s p h a l t a t no l e v e l s , o r under water-proofing.
less t h a n one g a l l o n p e r h y d r o s t a t i c heads
100 s q f t a s s u r f a c e of only s e v e r a l
receiving coal-tar p i t c h feet.
dampproofing and a s p h a l t
o r f i b r o u s a s p h a l t damp-
proofing, respectively.
E i t h e r t h e hot a p p l i c a t i o n
method using a s p h a l t o r
c o a l t a r bitumen o r t h e
c o a l a p p l i c a t i o n method
u s i n g f i b r o u s a s p h a l t may
be used. For f u r t h e r
d e t a i l s on a p p l i c a t i o n
method and p r o t e c t i v e
covering s e e r e f e r e n c e s .
 TYPE "A" SUMP

WATER PROOFING

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS :
I. SEE CHAPTER 6 DM-7.1 FOR REQUIREMENTS FOR FILTER IN DRAINAGE SYSTEM.
2. SEE TABLE 5 FOR REQUIREMENTS FOR CEMENT PLASTER WATERPROOFING (CWP) ,
AND DAMPPROOFING.

MATERIAL FOR UNDER -FLOOR DRAINAGE CWRSE SHALL CONSIST OF SOUND,CLEAN

GRAVEL OR CRUSHED ROCK, 3/4 IN. TO 2 IN. IN SUE.

@ RELIEVED SLAB

DAMPPROOFING FOR PRESSURE RELIEVED

SLAB, PROVIDE PERIPHERAL
DRAIN AT BASE OF FOUNMTION
USE TYPE "A" WALL. REPLACE CWP ON
FILL "c"SUMP FOUNDATION WALL WITH
DAMPPROOFING.

FIGURE 15
Typical Foundation Drainage and Waterproofing
-
t *
a SEALED SITE

NOTE :IMPERVIOUS STRATUM OF

SMALL THICKNESS MAY NOT BE ABLE
TO WITHSTAND PRESSURE DOE
WPPROORNG TO HIGH WATER TABLE OUTSIDE
THE FOUNWTION.

SOUND ROCK OR
THICK IMPERVIOUS STRATUM

IF SOUND ROCK OR IMPERVIOUS STRATUM

TYPE"c" SUMP EXTENDING TO A GREAT DEPTH IS ENCOUNTERED
AT SHALUlW DEPTH B E W FOUNDATION,
CARRY OUTSIDE WALL AS CUTOFF. DISPENSE
WlTH WALL DRAIN AND REPLME CAP ON
ROOR SLAB WlTH WPPROOFING. ARRANGE
DISCHARGE FROM DRAINAGE SYSTEM lD
PREVENT AERATION OF DRAINAGE COURSE.

FIGURE 15 (continued)
Typical Foundation Drainage and Waterproofing
sound, c l e a n g r a v e l o r crushed s t o n e graded between 314 and 2 i n c h e s , com-
pacted by two o r t h r e e coverages of v i b r a t i n g base p l a t e compactor. Open
j o i n t d r a i n pipe should be added beneath s l a b s of l a r g e p l a n dimensions.
Provide water- s t o p s a t t h e c o n s t u c t i o n j o i n t s between p r e s s u r e s l a b and w a l l .

b. Relieved Slabs. For basements a t c o n s i d e r a b l e depth below ground-

water l e v e l , i t i s u s u a l l y economical t o provide p r e s s u r e r e l i e f beneath t h e
foundation s l a b . See Cases B and C, Figure 15. I f pervious m a t e r i a l s of
g r e a t depth u n d e r l i e t h e foundation l e v e l , i n c l u d e a w a l l d r a i n and d r a i n a g e
course beneath t h e s l a b . See DM-7.1, Chapter 6 f o r f i l t e r requirements and
d r a i n spacing. I f foundation w a l l s can be c a r r i e d economically t o u n d e r l y i n g
sound impervious rock o r t h i c k impervious s t r a t u m , omit w a l l d r a i n s . Arrange
sumps f o r drainage d i s c h a r g e t o avoid a e r a t i n g drainage course.

3. WATERPROOFING REQUIREMENTS. I n a d d i t i o n t o leakage under p r e s s u r e

through j o i n t s and c r a c k s , water may move through basement w a l l s and f l o o r s by
c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n and a s water vapor. A d r a i n a g e course can be used t o i n t e r -
r u p t c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n , but i t w i l l n o t prevent movement of water vapor through
s l a b s . P l a s t i c vapor b a r r i e r s a r e u s e f u l i n providing an e f f e c t i v e vapor bar-
rier.

a. .Membrane Waterproofing and Dampproofing. Apply membrane ( s e e F i g u r e

15B) f o r basements u t i l i z e d f o r r o u t i n e purposes where appearances are unim-
p o r t a n t and some dampness i s t o l e r a b l e .

b. Cement P l a s t e r Waterproofing. Where i t i s important t o prevent damp-

n e s s o r moisture i n a basement, s p e c i f y cement p l a s t e r waterproofing, c o n s i s t -
ing of sand-cement mortar hand troweled on chipped and roughened c o n c r e t e s u r -
f a c e . Properly a p p l i e d , t h i s i s a very e f f e c t i v e method a g a i n s t dampness and
moisture.

S e c t i o n 8. UPLIFT RESISTANCE

1. ROCK FOUNDATION. Resistance t o d i r e c t u p l i f t of tower l e g s , guys, and

antennas, where t h e foundation i s r e s t i n g d i r e c t l y over rock, may be provided
by r e i n f o r c i n g bars grouted i n rock. In t h e absence of p u l l o u t tests, d e t e r -
mine u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e by e m p i r i c a l formulas of Figures 16 and 18. These
formulas apply t o bars i n f r a c t u r e d rock n e a r t h e rock s u r f a c e . Higher s h e a r
s t r e n g t h i s t o be expected i n sound, unweathered rock. To develop rock
s t r e n g t h , s u f f i c i e n t bond must be provided by grout surrounding t h e bar. Bond
s t r e n g t h s may be i n c r e a s e by using washers, rock b o l t s , deformed b a r s , o r
splayed bar ends.

Guidance f o r design r u l e s is given i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3 and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r e - s t r e s s e d , cement grouted rock anchors i s found i n
Reference 19, Rock Anchors - S t a t e of t h e A r t , by L i t t l e j o h n and Bruce.

2. SOIL FOUNDATION. For s u s t a i n e d u p l i f t on a f o o t i n g , see Table 2. Trans-

i e n t u p l i f t from l i v e loads a p p l i e d t o f o o t i n g s , p i e r s , p o s t s o r anchors i s
 PLAN

IN SQUARE ARRANGEMENT
/

SINGLE BAR ANCHORAGES

PA = ALLOWABLE ANCHOR PULL

D = EMBEDMENT DEPTH, MEASURED AS SHOWN
Call =ALLOWABLE ROCK SHEAR STRESS
fs = ALWWABLE BAR STRESS, 20 KSI
brqd =BOND STRESS ON BAR PERIMETER REQUIRED
TO DEVELOP Call
A = BAR CROSS -SECTION AREA SECTION
BAR GROUP ANCHORAGE
PA ' ( 2 . 1 ) ~ ~ ( ~ aAND
l l ) PA= A f S PT = ALLOWABLE ANCHOR PULL FOR GROUP OF BARS.
PA N '= NUMBER OF BARS IN SQUARE ARRANGEMENT
brqd ' BAR PERIMETER x D PT = 4.6D(B+0.58D) Call AND
PT = N A f s
TESTS INDICATE THAT FOR BAR IN ORDINARY pr
FRACTURED ROCK NEAR THE SURFACE : brqd ' BAR PERIMETERX NO
MINIMUM D(FT) =(1.25) fi (KIPS)
TESlS INDICATE THAT FOR BAR GROUP IN ORDINARY
AT THlS DEPTH Call = 0.3 KSF AND SHOULD FRACTURED ROCK NEAR THE SURFACE :
NOT BE TAKEN GREATER THAN THlS VALUE MINIMUM D (FT)
WITHOUT PULLOUT TESTS
SPACING OF BARS IN PLAN SHOULD EXCEED 1.20

EXAMPLE : AT THlS DEPTH C g I l = 0.3 KSF AND SHOULD NOT

GIVEN : PA = 20K FOR I IN. SQUARE BAR BE TAKEN GREATER THAN THlS VALUE WITHOUT
MINIMUM D = 1.25 -= 5.6 FT. PULLOUT TESTS
BAR SPKING = 1.2 (5.6 1 = 6.7 FT.
EXAMPLE :
-
GIVEN PT =BOK,USE 4 1 IN SQUARE BARS
B =4.5FT fs=20KSl
MIN. D: WITHOUT TESTS:

FIGURE 16
C a p a c i t y of Anchor Rods i n F r a c t u r e d Rock
 WEDGE OF SOlL
ACTING r0 RESIST
ANGLE 8 = 30° FOR COHESIVE SOIL, 20°FOR
GRANULAR SOIL.
WT = WEIGHT OF FOOTING P U S WEDGE OF SOlL
ACTING TO RESIST UPLIFT.

BE NO LESS THAN 1.5 WHERE TRANSIENT LOADS APPLY.

Ws = WEIGHT OF WEDGE OF SOILON SIDE OF FOOTING

TENDING TO MOVE UPWARD.
Wc = WEIGHT OF FOOTING.
ANALYSIS OF SIABlLlTY AND SOL PRESSURES
SAME AS IN FIGURE 15 CHAPI'ER 3.MAXIMUM SOlL
PRESSURE ON BASE OF RWTlNG IS OBTAINED
.
BY COMBINING WS,Wc APPLIED m D AND

REQUIRED SAFETY FACTOR AGAINST OVERTURNING

1.5, WHERE TRANSIENT W ARE APPLIED.

MOMENT IS RESISTED BY EM PRESSURE ON

SIDES OF PIER OR ms.
FOR ANALYSIS OF STRESS OR DEFLECTION, SEE CASE I ,
FIGURE II CHAPTER 5.
ALLOWABLE MOMENT ORDINARILY IS LIMITED BY
THE TOLERABLE MOVEMENT OF THE FOUNWTION.

GUY FORCES

IN SOlL
(SEE FIGURE 16) (SEE FIGURE I8 1

FIGURE 17
R e s i s t a n c e of Footings and Anchorages t o Combined T r a n s i e n t Loads
 P
PIRESULTANT OF MAXIMUM GUY FORCES
SURFACE3 Pv ,PH = COMPONENTS OF P
A
7nmi~11 WT= WEiGHT OF BLOCK + SOIL ON BLOCK
we ws
X, y , L = BLOCK DIMENSIONS
H Y- UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL, p c f
Ws= x - L . ~ - Y
Pp = TOTAL PASSIVE PRESSURE LBS/L.F.
V
+ =ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
- x
L=DIM.ITO P
C = COHESION, p s f

J\NT

I. RESISTANCE TO VERTICAL FORCE

SAFETY FACTORS IN VERTICAL DIRECTION :
USE TOTAL UNIT WEIGHTS ABOVE WATER TA:LE3[2' l5
[ BUOYANT 11 " BELOW 18
--WB t 1.0
pv
2. RESISTANCE .TO HORIZONTAL FORCE
SAFETY FACTOR. IN HORIZONTAL DIRECTION :
- 1.5
b. PASSIVE RESISTANCE CONSIDERED ON FACE OF
BLOCK (AREA y X L ) ONLY.

-
NOTES: BACKFILL SHALL BE COMPACTED AS SPECIFIED IN TABLE 4,CHAPTER 2

EXAMPLE : VERT: WB (ABOVE ~ . ~ . ) ~ 6 ' ~ 8 ' ~ 3 ' ~ =1 52 10 ,p6 c0 0f ~

+=30°; (2x0 We (BELOW W.T.)=~'X ~ p c f = 8,400
8 ' 2~ ' 875
WATER TABLE AT 5' DEPTH WB = 30,000
~ ~ 4 ~ ,0= 2~7 ~;pH=
; 3oK w ~ = ~ ' x ~ '1 x1 ~0 ' ~x ~ t Ws = 10,500
F = l l O ~ c f , YB=60pcf WT ' 40,500*
TRY BLOCK x ,y, L = 6: 5', 8' F~ w~ 4 0 . 5 ~ WB zK=
h = 2', H z 7
CHECK) F' -'Id %= 27
KEEP PH AT 112 TO 213 BLOCK :.OK VERT.
DEPTH BY VARYING x AND y HORIZ: FROM FIG.3,CHAPT.3 WITH $J-30:P=0°:~p=3.0
P

=3.0XllOX2= 6 6 0
nph=5=Kpyh' 3 . 0 X l l O X 5 = 1650
Uphz7 - 1 6 5 0 + 3 . 0 ~ 6 0 ~ 2 = 2 0 1 0
Pp=1/2.3(660+1650)L + I / 2 - 2 ( 1650+2010)L
P, = 3 4 6 5 L + 3 6 6 0 L = 7125 x 8 = 57,000 P
i

. ---
pp - 57K - 1.9 >1.5 S.F.
PH 3oK-
:. OK HORIZ.

MAKE ADDITIONAL TRIALS VARYING h ,x,y, L

FIGURE 18
Tower Guy Anchorage i n S o i l by C o n c r e t e Deadman
 analyzed a s shown i n Figure 17. Tower guy anchorage i n s o i l i s a n a l y z e d i n
Figbre 18. For a deadman i n weak s o i l , i t may be f e a s i b l e t o r e p l a c e a con-
- s i d e r a b l e volume of s o i l with g r a n u l a r b a c k f i l l and c o n s t r u c t t h e b l o c k with-
i n t h e new b a c k f i l l . I f t h i s i s done, t h e p a s s i v e wedge should be c o n t a i n e d
e n t i r e l y within t h e g r a n u l a r f i l l , and t h e s t r e s s e s on t h e remaining weak
m a t e r i a l should be i n v e s t i g a t e d . See Reference 6 f o r guidance.

3. CORROSION. For temporary anchors minimal p r o t e c t i o n i s needed u n l e s s t h e

environments a r e such t h a t r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n t a k e s place. Permanent anchor
b a r s a r e covered with grout. I n c o r r o s i v e environments i t i s common p r a c t i c e
t o provide a d d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n by c o a t i n g w i t h m a t e r i a l (epoxy, p o l y e s t e r
r e s i n ) with proven r e s i s t a n c e t o e x i s t i n g o r a n t i c i p a t e d c o r r o s i v e a g e n t s .
The c o a t i n g agent should not have any adverse e f f e c t on t h e bond.

4. ROCK AND SOIL ANCHORS. When t h e load t o be r e s i s t e d i s l a r g e , w i r e

tendons which can a l s o be p r e s t r e s s e d t o reduce movements a r e employed.

Also, because of c o r r o s i o n s p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s may be necessary when permanent

anchors a r e provided i n marine environments. I n t h e a n a l y s i s of a n c h o r s , be-
cause of submergence, t h e bouyant u n i t weight of s o i l s should be used. The
buildup of excess pore p r e s s u r e due t o r e p e t i t i v e l o a d s should a l s o b e evalua-
t e d i n t h e c a s e of g r a n u l a r s o i l s . For a d i s c u s s i o n of c y c l i c m o b i l i t y and
l i q u e f a c t i o n s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 1. For t h e d e s i g n of anchors s e e DM-7.3,
Chapter 3.
 REFERENCES

1. Meyerhof, G.G., Influence of Roughness of Base and Ground Water Condi-

tion on the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Foundations, Geotechnique,
1955.
2. Meyerhof, G.G., The Bearing Capacity of Foundations Under Eccentric and
Inclined Loads, Proceedings, Third International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Zurich, 1953.
3. Meyerhof, G.G., The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Slopes,
Proceedings, Fourth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, London, 1957.
4. Button, S.F., The Bearing Capacity of Footings on a Two-Layer Cohesive
Subsoil, Proceedings, Third International Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Zurich, 1953.
5. Vesic, A.S., Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations, Foundation Engi-
neering Handbook, Winterkorn and Fang, eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, Chapter 3, 1975.
6. Bowles, J.E., Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill Book Co., New
York, pp. 137-139, 1977
7. Peck, R.B., Hanson, W.E. and Thornburn, T.H., Foundation Engineering,
2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1974.

8. Canadian Geotechnical Society, Shallow Foundations, Canadian Founda-

tion Engineering Manual, Montreal, Canada, Part 2, 1978.
9. CP2004, Sulphates in Soils and Groundwaters, Classification and
Recommendations, BRS Digest, No. 90, Second Series, London, England,
1972.
10. Hetenyi, M., Beams on Elastic Foundation, University of Michigan Press,
Ann Arbor, MI, 1946.
11. ACI Committee 436, Suggested Design Procedures for Combined Footings
and Mats, American Concrete Institute, 1966.

12. Terzaghi, K., Evaluation of Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction,

Geotechnique, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1955.
13. Parcher, J.V. and Means, R.E., Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Charles
E. Merril Publishing Company, Columbus, OH, 1968.

14. Lytton, R.L. and Woodburn, J.A., Design and Performance of Mat Founda-
tions on Expansive Clay, Proceedings ot the Third International Con-
ference on Expansive Soils, 1973.
15. Chen, F.H., Foundations on Expansive Soils, Footing Foundations,
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., New York, Chapter 5, 1975.
16. Teng, W.C., Foundation Drainage and Waterproofing, Foundation Design,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Chapter 5, 1962.

17. NAVFAC TS-07110, Membrane Waterproofing, Naval Facilities, Engineering

Command, Guide Specifications, 1979.

18. NAVFAC TS-07160, Bituminous Dampproofing, Naval Facilities, Engineering

Command, Guide Specifications, 1978.

19. Littlejohn, G.S. and Bruce, D.A., Rock Anchors-State of the Art, Foun-
dation Publications Ltd., England, 1977.

I Out of Datc '

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTBR 5. DEEP FOUNDATIONS

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e common t y p e s of deep

f o u n d a t i o n s , a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s , and i n s t a l l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .
Deep f o u n d a t i o n s , a s used i n t h i s c h a p t e r , r e f e r t o f o u n d a t i o n s which o b t a i n
s u p p o r t a t some d e p t h below t h e s t r u c t u r e , g e n e r a l l y w i t h a f o u n d a t i o n d e p t h
t o width r a t i o (D/B) exceeding f i v e . These i n c l u d e d r i v e n p i l e s , d r i l l e d
p i l e s , d r i l l e d p i e r s / c a i s s o n s , and f o u n d a t i o n s i n s t a l l e d i n open o r b r a c e d
e x c a v a t i o n s w e l l below t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e . Diaphragm w a l l s a r e d i s c u s s e d
i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

2. APPLICATION. Deep f o u n d a t i o n s a r e used i n a v a r i e t y of a p p l i c a t i o n s

including :

( a ) To t r a n s m i t l o a d s through a n upper weak a n d / o r c o m p r e s s i b l e s t r a t u m

t o u n d e r l y i n g competent zone.

( b ) To p r o v i d e s u p p o r t i n a r e a s where s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s a r e i m p r a c t i -
c a l , such a s underwater, i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s , and o t h e r
conditions.

( c ) To p r o v i d e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a t e r a l l o a d c a p a c i t y .

3. RELATED CRITERIA. For a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a r e l a t i - n g t o t h e d e s i g n of deep

f o u n d a t i o n s and t h e s e l e c t i o n of d r i v i n g equipment and a p p a r a t u s , s e e t h e f o l -
lowing s o u r c e s :

Subject Source

P i l e Driving Equipment................................... NAVFAC DM-38

General C r i t e r i a f o r P i l i n g i n W a t e r f r o n t Construction....NAVFAC DM-2!

4. LOCAL PRACTICE. The c h o i c e of t h e t y p e of deep f o u n d a t i o n s u c h a s p i l e

t y p e ( s ) , p i l e d e s i g n c a p a c i t y , and i n s t a l l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s i s h i g h l y dependent
on l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e and p r a c t i c e . A d e s i g n e n g i n e e r u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s e
l o c a l p r a c t i c e s should c o n t a c t l o c a l b u i l d i n g l e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t s , l o c a l
foundation c o n t r a c t o r s , and/or l o c a l foundation consultants.

5. INVESTIGATION PROGRAM. Adequate s u b s u r f a c e e x p l o r a t i o n must p r e c e d e t h e

d e s i g n of p i l e foundations. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s must i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

( a ) Geological s e c t i o n showing p a t t e r n of major s t r a t a and p r e s e n c e o f

p o s s i b l e o b s t r u c t i o n s , such a s b o u l d e r s , b u r i e d d e b r i s , e t c .

( b ) S u f f i c i e n t t e s t d a t a t o e s t i m a t e s t r e n g t h and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y parame-
t e r s of major s t r a t a .

( c ) Determination of probable p i l e b e a r i n g s t r a t u m .

For . f i e l d e x p l o r a t i o n s and t e s t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 2.

6. CONSTRUCTION INSPECTION. The performance of a deep f o u n d a t i o n i s h i g h l y
dependent on t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , q u a l i t y of workmanship, and i n s t a l - - d

l a t i o n l d e s i g n changes made i n t h e f i e l d . Thus, i n s p e c t i o n of t h e deep foun-

d a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n by a g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r normally s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d .

S e c t i o n 2. FOUNDATION TYPES AND DESIGN CRITERIA

1. COMMON TYPES. T a b l e s 1 and 2 summarize t h e t y p e s of deep f o u n d a t i o n s ,

f a b r i c a t e d from wood, s t e e l , o r c o n c r e t e , i n common usage i n t h e United
S t a t e s . Table 1 p r e s e n t s p i l e t y p e s and Table 2 p r e s e n t s excavated f o u n d a t i o n
types including d r i l l e d piers/caissons. General comments on a p p l i c a b i l i t y of
t h e v a r i o u s foundation t y p e s a r e g i v e n i n Table 2, b u t l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e and
p r a c t i c e s , comparative c o s t s , and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s t r a i n t s should be reviewed
c a r e f u l l y f o r each s i t e .

a. Driven P i l e s . These a r e p i l e s which a r e d r i v e n i n t o t h e ground and

i n c l u d e b o t h low displacement and h i g h displacement p i l e s . Low d i s p l a c e m e n t
p i l e s i n c l u d e H and I s e c t i o n s t e e l p i l e s . Open end p i l e s which do n o t form a
p l u g , j e t t e d p i l e s , and pre-bored d r i v e n p i l e s may f u n c t i o n as low d i s p l a c e -
ment p i l e s . S o l i d s e c t i o n p i l e s , hollow s e c t i o n c l o s e d end p i l e s , and open
end p i l e s forming a s o i l p l u g f u n c t i o n a s h i g h displacement p i l e s . A l l t h e
p i l e types i n Table 1 except auger-placed p i l e s a r e d r i v e n p i l e s .

b. Excavated Foundations. These f o u n d a t i o n s i n c l u d e b o t h d r i l l e d p i l e s

and p i e r s and f o u n d a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d i n open o r braced e x c a v a t i o n s ( s e e
Reference 1, Foundation Design, by Teng). ' ~ r i l l e dp i l e s i n c l u d e auger-placed
p i l e s and d r i l l e d p i e r s / c a i s s o n s e i t h e r s t r a i g h t s h a f t o r b e l l e d .

2. OTHER DEEP FOUNDATION TYPES. Tables 1 and 2 i n c l u d e o n l y t h e most com-

monly used p i l e t y p e s and deep f o u n d a t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n procedures. New and
i n n o v a t i v e t y p e s a r e being developed c o n s t a n t l y , and each must be a p p r a i s e d on
i t s own m e r i t s .

a. D r i l l e d - i n Tubular P i l e s . These c o n s i s t of heavy-gauge s t e e l t u b u l a r

p i l e c a p a b l e of being r o t a t e d i n t o t h e ground f o r s t r u c t u r e s u p p o r t . S o i l s i n
t h e tube may be removed and r e p l a c e d w i t h c o n c r e t e . Used i n p e n e t r a t i o n of
s o i l c o n t a i n i n g b o u l d e r s and o b s t r u c t i o n s , o r d r i l l i n g of rock s o c k e t t o re-
s i s t u p l i f t and l a t e r a l f o r c e s . S t e e l H-sections w i t h i n c o n c r e t e c o r e s a r e
used t o develop f u l l end b e a r i n g f o r h i g h load c a p a c i t y .

b. TPT (Tapered P i l e T i p ) P i l e s . These c o n s i s t of a mandrel d r i v e cor-

r u g a t e d s h e l l w i t h a n e n l a r g e d p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e base. This t y p e of p i l e i s
u s u a l l y considered i n c o n d i t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r p r e s s u r e i n j e c t e d f o o t i n g s . The
p r i n c i p a l claimed advantage i s t.he avoidance of punching through a r e l a t i v e l y
t h i n b e a r i n g stratum.

c. I n t e r p i l e s . These c o n s i s t of an uncased c o n c r e t e p i l e , formed by a

mandrel d r i v e n s t e e l p l a t e . A s t e e l p i p e mandrel of smaller d i a m e t e r t h a n t h e
p l a t e i s used, and t h e void c r e a t e d by t h e d r i v e n p l a t e i s k e p t c o n t i n u o u s l y
f i l l e d with c o n c r e t e . It i s claimed t h a t t h i s p i l e develops g r e a t e r s i d e
f r i c t i o n i n a g r a n u l a r s o i l t h a n d r i l l e d p i e r s and c o n v e n t i o n a l d r i v e n p i l e s .
 TABLE 1
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Bearing P i l e s
L

PILE TYPE TIMBER STEEL - H SECTIONS

CONSIDER FOR
LENGTH OF 3 0 -60 FT 40 -100 FT
APPLICABLE ASTM -025 ASTM -A36
MATERIAL SPEC-
IFICATIONS.
MAXIMUM MEASURED AT MOST CRITICAL PDINT, 1200 PSI 12,000 PSI.
STRESSES. FOR SOUTHERN PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR. SEE
U.S.D.A. WOOD HANDBOOK NO72 FOR STRESS
VALUES OF OTHER SPECIES.

CONSIDER FOR 10-50 TONS 4 0 -120 TONS

DESIGN LOADS
OF.

DISADVANTAGES DIFFICULT TO SPLICE. VULNERABLE TO CORROSION WHERE EXPOSED

VULNERABLE TO DAMAGE IN HARD DRIVING, H P SECTION MAY BE DAMAGED OR DEFLECTEDBY
TIP MAY HAVE TO BE PROTECTED. MAJOR OBSTRUCTIONS.
VULNERABLE TO DECAY UNLESS TREATED,
WHEN PILES ARE INTERMITTENTLY SUB-
MERGED.

ADVANTAGES COMPARATIVELY LOW INITIAL COST. EASY TO SPLICE.

PERMANENTLY SUBMERGED PILES ARE AVAILABLE IN VARIOUS LENGTHS AND SIZES.
RESISTANT TO DECAY. HIGH CAPACITY.
EASY TO HANDLE. SMALL DISPLACEMENT.
ABLETOPENETRATETHROUGHLIGHT
OBSTRUCTIONS.
HARDER OBSTRUCTIONS MAY BE PENETRATED
WITH APPROPRIATE POINT PROTECTION
OR WHERE PENETRATIW OF SOFT ROCK IS
REQUIRED.

REMARKS BEST SUITED FOR FRICTION PILE IN GRANULAR BEST SUITED FOR ENDBEARING ON ROCK.
MATERIAL. REDUCE ALLOWABLE CAWCITY FOR CORROSIVE
LOCATIONS .

BUTT DIA 12" TO 22" @

H
CROSS SECTION

TYPICAL
ILLUSTRATIONS.

CROSS SECTION

TIF' D U 5" TO 9"

L #
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Bearing P i l e s
- -
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE (THIN SHELL
PILE TYPE PRECAST CONCRETE (INCLUDING PRESlESSED) DRIVEN WITH MANDREL )

CONSIDER FOR 40-50 FT. FOR PRECAST 10-120 FT BUT TYPICALLY IN THE
LENGTH OF -
00 I00FT FOR PRESTRESSED. -
5 0 80 fl RANGE
APPLWLE ACI 318 FOR CONCRETE ACI CODE 318 -FOR CONCRETE.
MATERAL SPEC- ASfM AIS-FDR REINFORCING STEEL
IFICATIONS.
MAXIMUM FOR PRECAST-33% OF 28 DAY STRENGTH OF 33OlO OF 28-DAY STRENGTH OF CONCRETE,WITH
STRESSES. CONCRETE. INCREASE TO 40°/o OF 28 DAY !XRENGTH.
FOR PRESTRESSED- Fc = 0.33 F;-0.27 F~ PROVIDlNG :
(WHERE: FplS THE EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS (A) CASING IS A MINIMUM 14 GAUGE THICKNESS
STRESS ON THE GROSS SIXTION 1. ( BICASING IS SEAMLESS OR WITH WELDED SEAMS
(C) RATIO OFSTEELYIELD STRENGTH TO CON-
CRETE 28 DAY STRENGTH S NOT LESS THAN 6.
(D)PILE M E T E R IS NOT GREATER THAN 17 .

SPEC1FICALLY DESIGNED FOR A WIDE SPECIFICALLY DESGNED FOR A WIDE

RANGE OF W. RANGE OF U D S

MSADVANTmS UNLESS PRESTRESSED,WLNERABLE TO HANDLING DlFFICULT RI SPLICE AFTER CONCRETING.

RELATIVEW HIGH BREAK= RATE ESPOClAUY REDRIVING NOT RECOMMENDED.
WHEN PILES ARE TO BE SPLICED. THIN SHELL VULNERABLE DURING DRIVING TO
HIGH INITIAL COST. EXCESSIVE EARTH PRESSURE OR IMPACT,
CONSIDERABLE DISPLACEMENT
PRESTRESSED DIFFICULT TO SPLICE. CONSIDERABLE DISPLACEMENT.
ADVANTAGES HIGH LOAD CARIICITIES. INITIAL ECONOMY.
CORROSION RESISTANCE CAN BE ATTAINED. TAPERED SECTIONS PROVIDE HIGHER BEARING
HARD DRIVING POSSIBLE. RESISTANCE IN GRANULAR STRATUM CAN BE
INTERNALLY INSPECTEDAFTER DRIVING
RELATIVLY LESS WASTE STEEL MATERIAL.
CAN BE DESIGNEDAS END BEARING OR FRICTION
PILE,GENERALLY LOADED IN THE 40-IOOTON
RANGE.
REMARKS CYLINDER PILES IN WRTICULAR ARE SUITED FOR BEST SUITED FOR MEDIUM UMD FRICTION PILES
BENDING RESISTANCE. IN GRANULAR MATERIALS.
G€N€RAL W I N G RAWE IS 40-400 TONS.
I
-- - - - --- -.
12" TO 24" DIA
RADE

TYPICAL 12" TO 24" DIA.

8" T O 18" DIA
I U U S r n
t-3
0
NOTE REINFORCING CROSS
MAY BE PRE-STRESSED SECTION
12" TO 54" DIA. CORRUGATED S H E L L
THICKNESS 1 2 GA.
T O 2 0 GA.
BE OMITTED SIDES STRAIGHT
OR TAPERED
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Bearing P i l e s
i
CAST-IN -PLACE CONCRETE PILES (SHELLS PRESSURE INJECTED FOOTINGS
PILE TYPE DRIVEN WITHOUT MANDREL)

CONSIDER FOR
LENGTH OF 3 0 - 8 0 FT 10 TO 60 FT

APPLICABLE AC I CODE 318 ACI CODE 318

MATERIAL SPEC-
IFICATION.
MAXIMUM 33 % OF 2 8 -DAY STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 3S0/o OF 28-DAY STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
STRESSES SIOOO PSI IN SHELL,MORE THAN 1/6 INCHTHICK. 91000PSI FOR PIPE SHELL IF THICKNESS GREATER
THAN 1/8 INCH

CONSIDER FOR 5 0 -70 TONS. 6 0 -120 lDNS.

DESIGN LQllDS
OF BASE OF FOOTING CANNOT BE MADE INCLAY OR
DISADVANT#iES HARD lD SPLICE AFTER CONCRETING. WHEN HARD SPOTS (E.G.ROCK LEDGES) ARE
CONS1DERABLE DISPLACEMENT. PRESENT IN SOIL PENETRATED. WHEN CLAY
LAYERS MUST BE PENETRATED TO REACH
SUITABLE MATERAL, SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
ADVANTXES CAN BE REDRIVEN. ARE REQUIRED FOR SHAFTS IF IN GROUPS.
SHELL NOT EASlLY DAMAGED. PROVIDES MEANS OF PLACING HIGH CAPACITY
FOOTINGS ON BEARING STRATUM WITHOUT
NECESSITY FOR EX-@VATION OR DEWAERIEI- -
HlGH BLOW ENERGY AVAILABLE FOR OVERCOMING
OBSTRUCTIONS.
GREAT UPLIFT RESISTANCE IF SUITABLY REINFORCED
REMARKS BEST SUITED FOR FRICTION PILES OF MEDIUM BEST SUITED FOR GRANULAR SOILS WHERE
LENGTH. BEARING IS ACHIEVED THROUGH COMMTION
AROUND BASE.
MINIMUM SPACING 4'-6"ON CENTER.

12" TO 18" DIA.

17" TO 12" TO

TYPICAL CROSS SECTION_

(FLUTED SHELL)
IYPICAL
I L W W r n S

TYPICAL CROSS SECTION

(SPIRAL WELDnD SHELL)
UNCASED CASED
SHAFT SHAFT

.
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Design Criteria f o r Bearing P i l e s
+
PILE TYPE CONCRETE FILLED STEEL PIPE PILES COMPOSITE PILES

CONSIDER FOR
LENGTH OF 40-120FT OR MORE 60 - 200 FT
APPLICABLE ASTM A36 - FOR CORE. ACI CODE 318- FOR CONCRETE.
MATERIAL SPEC- ASTM A252- FOR PIPE. ASTM A36 - FOR STRUCTURAL SECTION.
IFICATIONS. ACI CODE 318- FOR CONCRETE. ASTM A252-FOR STEEL R E .
ASTM D25 -FOR TIMBER.
MAXIMUM 9,000 PSI FOR PIPE SHELL 33% OF 26-DAY STRENGTH OF WKRETE.
STRESSES. 33% OF 28-DAY STRENGTH OFCONCRETE. 9,000 PSI FOR STRUCTURAL AND PIPESECTlONS.
12,000 PSI ON STEEL CORES OF SAME AS TIMBER PILES FOR WOOD WMPOSITE.
STRUCTURAL REINFORCING STEEL.
CONSlDER FOR 8 0 - 120 TONS WITHOUT CORES. 3 0 - 100 TONS.
DESIGN LOAD 500-1,500 TONS WITH CORES.
OF
DISADVANTAGES HIGH INITIAL COST DIFFICULT TO ATTAIN GOOD JOINT BETWEENtWO
DISPLACEMENT FOR CLOSED END PIPE. MATERIALS EXCEPT FOR PIPE COMPOSITE PILE
ADVANTAGES BEST CONTROL DURING INSTALLATION. COFtSlDERABLE LENGTH CAN BE PROVIDED AT
NO DISPLACEMENT FOR OPEN END INSTALLATION. COMPARATIVELY U M COST. FOR W000 00kl#)6m
OPEN END PIPE BESTAGAINST OBSTRUCTIONS. PILES. HlGH CAPACITY FOR PlPE AND HP
CAN BECLEANED OUT AND DRIVEN FURTHER. COMPOSITE PIUS. INTERNAL INSPECTION FOR
HIGH LOAD CAWITIES. PIPE COMPOSITE PILES.
EASY TO SPLICE.
REMARKS PROVIDES HIGH BENDING RESISTANCE WHERE THE WEAKEST OF ANY MATERIALUSED SHALL
UNSUPPORTED LENGTH IS LOADED LATERALLY. GWERN ALLOWABLE STRESSES AND CAMCITY.

-- .. .. .-. . - -- .
8" TO 36" DIA.
TYPICAL COMBINATIONS

TYPICAL
ILLUSTRATlONS

OF PIPE PILE
WITH CORE

SOCKET REQ'D
FOR VERTICAL

E m CLOSURE
MAY BE OMITTED
-
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Bearing P i l e s

AUGER -PLACED, PRESSURE-

PILE TYPE GENERAL NOTES
INJECTED CONCRETE PILES

CONSIDER FOR 3 0 - 6 0 FT I. STRESSES GIVEN FOR STEEL PILES ARE FOR

LENGTH OF NONCORROSIVE LOCATIONS. FOR CORROSIVE
APPLICABLE
MATERIAL SPEC-
-
AC I 318 WTIONS,ESTIMATE POSSIBLE REDUCTION
IN STEEL CROSS SECTION OR PROVIDE
IFICATIONS. PROTECTION FROM CORROSION.
2. LENGTHS AND LOADS INDICATED ARE FOR
MAXIMUM 33% OF 28-DAY STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. FEASlBlLlTY GUIDANCE WY.THEY
!TRESSES. GENERALLY REPRESENT TYPICAL CURRENT
PRACTICE,GREATER LENGTHS ARE OFTEN
CONSIDER FOR 35 -70 TONS USED.
DESlGN LQLID 3. OESlGN LOAD CAPACITY SHOULD BE DETER -
OF MINED BY SOIL MECHANICS PRINCIPLES,
LIMITING STRESSES IN PILES,AND TYPE AND
~ ~ A M Z K Z MORE
S THAN AVERSE DEPENDENCE ON QUALITY NNCTlON OF STRUCTURE.SEE TEXT
WOAKMANSHIP.
NOT SUITABLE THRU PEAT OR SIMILAR HIGHLY
COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL.
REWIRES RELATIVELY MORE EXTENSIVE
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION.
AMIANTAGES ECONOMY.
COMPLETE NONDISPLACEMENT.
MINIMAL DRIVING VIBRATION TO ENDANGER
ADJACENT STRUCTURES.
HIGH SKIN FRICTION.
0000 CONTAM ON ROCK FOR END BEARING.
CONVENIENT FOR U)W-HEADROOM UNDER-
PINNING WORK.
VISUAL INSPECTION OF AUGERED MATERIAL.
NO SPLICING REWIRED.
REMARKS BEST SUITED AS A FRICTION PILE.

T Y P I C A L CROSS SECTION

TYPICAL
ILLUSTRPITIONS
+*y:;
;*.
F L U I D CONCRETE
CAUSES EXPANSION
OF P I L E D I A 3 T E H
I F h%AK S O I L ZONES.
S O I L IS COldPACTED
AND CONSOLIDATJD.

DRILLED PILES CAN BE PROPERLY

SEATED F~RM SUBSTRATA
 TABLE 2
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common ExcavatedIDrilled Foundations
-
1. PIERS ( a l s o c a l l e d S h a f t s )

a. D e s c r i p t i o n and Procedures -Formed by d r i l l i n g o r e x c a v a t i n g a

h o l e , removing t h e s o i l , and f i l l i n g with concrete. Casing may b e
necessary f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n , and/or t o a l l o w f o r i n s p e c t i o n and may
o r may n o t be p u l l e d a s t h e c o n c r e t e i s poured. *Types i n c l u d e
s t r a i g h t s h a f t p i e r s and b e l l e d o r underreamed p i e r s . Drilled
s h a f t diameters a r e t y p i c a l l y 18 t o 36 i n c h e s but can exceed 8 4
inches; b e l l e d diameters vary but a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t l a r g e r t h a n 3
t i m e s t h e diameter of t h e s h a f t . Excavated p i e r s can be l a r g e r
( s h a f t diameters exceeding 12 f e e t w i t h b e l l e d diameters exceeding
30 f e e t have been c o n s t r u c t e d ) . Lengths can exceed 200 f e e t .
P i e r s i z e depends on design load and allowable s o i l l o a d s .

b. Advantages
b
Completely non-displacement.

Excavated m a t e r i a l can be examined and bearing s u r f a c e can be

v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t e d i n cased p i e r s exceeding 30 i n c h e s i n diameter
( o r s m a l l e r using TV cameras).

Applicable f o r a wide v a r i e t y of s o i l c o n d i t i o n s .

P i l e caps u s u a l l y not needed s i n c e most loads can be c a r r i e d on a

single pier.

No d r i v i n g v i b r a t i o n .

With b e l l i n g , l a r g e u p l i f t c a p a c i t i e s p o s s i b l e .

Design p i e r depths and diameters r e a d i l y modified based on f i e l d

conditions.

Can be d r i l l e d i n t o bedrock t o c a r r y very h i g h loads.

c. Disadvantages

More than average dependence on q u a l i t y of workmanship; i n s p e c t i o n

required.

Danger of l i f t i n g c o n c r e t e when p u l l i n g c a s i n g can r e s u l t i n v o i d s

o r i n c l u s i o n s of s o i l i n concrete.

Loose granuLar s o i l s below t h e water t a b l e can cause c o n s t r u c t i o n

problems.
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common ~ x c a v a t e d / D r i l l e dFoundations

O B e l l u s u a l l y cannot be formed i n g r a n u l a r s o i l s below t h e w a t e r

table.

O Small d i a m e t e r p i e r s ( l e s s t h a n 30 i n c h e s ) c a n n o t be e a s i l y
i n s p e c t e d t o confirm bearing and a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o
necking problems.

d. Typical I l l u s t r a t i o n

CASING PULLED WRING

2. INTERNALLY-BRACED COFFERDAM I N OPEN WATER

a. D e s c r i p t i o n and Procedures - Generally o n l y a p p l i c a b l e i f s t r u c t u r e

e x t e n d s below mudline.

(1) Cofferdam c o n s t r u c t e d and dewatered b e f o r e pouring of

foundation.

(a) I n s t a l l cofferdam and i n i t i a l b r a c i n g below water i n

e x i s t i n g r i v e r / s e a bottom. Cofferdam s h e e t i n g d r i v e n i n t o
bearing s t r a t a t o c o n t r o l underseepage.

(b) Pump down water i n s i d e cofferdam.

(c) Excavate t o bearing s t r a t u m completing b r a c i n g s y s t e m

d u r i n g excavation.

(d) C o n s t r u c t f o u n d a t i o n w i t h i n completed and dewatered

cofferdam.

(e) Guide p i l e s o r t e m p l a t e r e q u i r e d f o r d r i v i n g cofferdams.

(f) Cofferdam designed f o r h i g h water, i c e f o r c e s , o r l o a d o f

f l o a t i n g debris.

(g) C e l l u l a r w a l l o r double-wall cofferdams w i l l e l i m i n a t e o r

reduce r e q u i r e d b r a c i n g system.
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common ~ x c a v a t e d / D r i l l e dF o u n d a t i o n s

(2) Cofferdam excavated m d e r w a t e r

(a) I n s t a l l cofferdam and i n i t i a l t r a c i n g below water+ t o

e x i s t i n g r i v e r / s e a bottom.

(b) Excavate underwater and p l a c e a d d i t i o n a l b r a c i n g t o

subgrade i n b e a r i n g s t r a t u m .

(c) S e a l bottom with t r e m i e mat of s u f f i c i e n t weight t o

b a l a n c e expected h y d r o s t a t i c u p l i f t .

(d) Pump o u t cofferdam and e r e c t remainder of f o u n d a t i o n

structure.

( e ) , ( f ) and ( g ) same a s dewatered cofferdam.

(h) R e l i e f of w a t e r p r e s s u r e s below t r e m i e s l a b may be used t o

d e c r e a s e weight of tremie s l a b .

b. Advantages - G e n e r a l l y more economical t h a n c a i s s o n s i f f o u n d a t i o n

i s i n l e s s t h a n 40 f e e t of water.

c. Disadvantages - Requires complete dewatering o r t r e m i e mqt.

d. Typical I l l u s t r a t i o n
COFFERDAM EXCAVATED IN DRY COFFERDAM EXCAVATED UNDER WATER

P
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common E x c a v a t e d l D r i l l e d F o u n d a t i o n s

3. OPEN CAISSON

a. D e s c r i p t i o n and Procedure - An open box o r c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n w i t h a

I
c u t t i n g shoe on i t s lower edge. The c a i s s o n i s sunk i n t o p l a c e
under i t s own weight by removal of t h e s o i l i n s i d e t h e c a i s s o n ,
j e t t i n g on t h e o u t s i d e w a l l i s o f t e n used t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o c e s s .

(1) C a i s s o n s should be c o n s i d e r e d when one o r more of t h e f o l l o w i n g

conditions exist :

(a) A s u b s t r u c t u r e i s r e q u i r e d t o extend t o o r below t h e

r i v e r / s e a bed.

(b) The s o i l c o n t a i n s l a r g e b o u l d e r s which o b s t r u c t

p e n e t r a t i o n of p i l e s o r d r i l l e d p i e r s .

(c) The f o u n d a t i o n i s s u b j e c t t o v e r y l a r g e l a t e r a l f o r c e s .

I f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s do n o t e x i s t t h e u s e of a c a i s s o n i s n o t
I
w a r r a n t e d because i t i s g e n e r a l l y more e x p e n s i v e t h a n o t h e r t y p e s of
deep f o u n d a t i o n s . I n open w a t e r , i f t h e b e a r i n g s t r a t u m i s l e s s
t h a n about 40 f e e t below t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e , a s p r e a d f o o t i n g
f o u n d a t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n cofferdams i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s
expensive.

(2) General method of c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c l u d e s :

I
(a)

(b)
Float caisson s h e l l i n t o position.

B u i l d up s h e l l i n v e r t i c a l l i f t s and p l a c e f i l l w i t h i n
I
s h e l l u n t i l i t s e t t l e s t o s e a bottom.

(c) Continue buildup and e x c a v a t e by d r e d g i n g w i t h i n c a i s s o n

s o a s t o s i n k i t through u n s u i t a b l e upper, s t r a t a .

(d) Upon r e a c h i n g f i n a l e l e v a t i o n i n b e a r i n g s t r a t u m , pour

t r e m i e base.

(e) Provide anchorage o r g u i d e s f o r c a i s s o n s h e l l d u r i n g

sinking.

(f) F l o a t i n g and s i n k i n g o p e r a t i o n s c a n be f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e
u s e of f a l s e bottoms o r temporary domes.

(g) Dredging o p e r a t i o n s may be a s s i s t e d by t h e u s e of jets o r

airlifts.
I
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C h a r a c t e r i s.*t J c s of Common ~ x c a v a t e d l ~ r i l l eFdo u n d a t i o n s

Generally a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d e p t h s exceeding 50 t o 60 f e e t and

when f i n a l subgrade i n t h e b e a r i n g s t r a t u m i s n o t t h r e a t e n e d by
u p l i f t from u n d e r l y i n g p e r v i o u s s t r a t a .

b. Advantages - F e a s i b i l i t y of extending t o g r e a t d e p t h s .

c. Disadvantages

Bottom of t h e c a i s s o n cannot be t h o r o u g h l y c l e a n e d and i n s p e c t e d .

Concrete s e a l placed i n water i s n o t a s s a t i s f a c t o r y a s placed i n

t h e dry.

S o i l d i r e c t l y under t h e haunched p o r t i o n n e a r t h e c u t t i n g edges

may r e q u i r e hand e x c a v a t i o n by d i v e r .

C o n s t r u c t i o n i s slowed down i f o b s t r u c t i o n of b o u l d e r s o r l o g s i s
encountered.

d. Typical I l l u s t r a t i o n

E
WATER LEVEL

SHAFTS FOR
0 TREMIE

ANDCONSTRU

BOX TYPE CIRCULAR TYPE

-
CROSS SECTIOP
4. PNEUMATIC CAISSON

a. D e s c r i p t i o n and Procedure -
S i m i l a r t o a n open c a i s s o n b u t t h e box
i s c l o s e d and compressed a i r i s used t o keep water and mud from
flowing i n t o t h e box. Because of h i g h c o s t s , i t i s g e n e r a l l y o n l y
used on l a r g e p r o j e c t s where an a c c e p t a b l e b e a r i n g s t r a t u m cannot b e
reached by open c a i s s o n methods because of e x c e s s i v e d e p t h of water.

(1) G e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d f o r s i n k i n g t o g r e a t d e p t h s where i n f l o w of
m a t e r i a l during e x c a v a t i o n can be damaging t o s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s
a n d / o r where u p l i f t i s a t h r e a t from u n d e r l y i n g p e r v i o u s
strata.
 TABLE 2 (continued)
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common ExcavatedIDrilled foundation^

(2) General method of c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c l u d e s :

( a ) Float caisson i n t o position.
( b ) Build up on t o p of c a i s s o n i n v e r t i c a l l i f t s u n t i l t h e
s t r u c t u r e s e t t l e s t o s e a bottom.
( c ) Continue buildup and excavate beneath t h e c a i s s o n , u s i n g
compressed a i r when passing through u n s t a b l e s t r a t a .
( d ) Pour c o n c r e t e base i n t h e dry upon r e a c h i n g f i n a l p o s i t i o ~
i n t h e bearing stratum.
( e ) Provide anchorage o r guides f o r c a i s s o n during s i n k i n g .
For excavation i n t h e d r y , a i r p r e s s u r e i s g e n e r a l l y made
equal t o t o t a l head of water above bottom of caisson.
b. Advantages
A l l work i s done i n t h e dry; t h e r e f o r e , c o n t r o l s over t h e
foundation p r e p a r a t i o n and m a t e r i a l s a r e b e t t e r .

Plumbness of t h e c a i s s o n i s e a s i e r t o c o n t r o l a s compared w i t h thc

open caisson.

O b s t r u c t i o n from boulders o r l o g s can be r e a d i l y removed.

Excavation by b l a s t i n g may be done i f necessary.

c. Disadvantages
The c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t i s h i g h due t o t h e u s e of compressed a i r .

The depth of p e n e t r a t i o n below water i s l i m i t e d t o about 120 f e e t

(50 p s i ) . Higher p r e s s u r e s a r e beyond t h e endurance of t h e human
body.

Use of compressed a i r r e s t r i c t s allowable working hours p e r man

and r e q u i r e s s t r i c t s a f e t y precautions.

d. Typical I l l u s t r a t i o n

n A I R SHAFTS

WATER LEVEL? y A l R LOCK

SEA BOT

BEARING ,COMPRESSED AIR

I N WORKING
CHAMBER UP TO
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Common ~ x c a v a t e d / D r i l l e dF o u n d a t i o n s

5. BOX CATSSON ( F l o a t i n g C a i s s o n )
a. D e s c r i p t i o n and Procedure -
E s s e n t i a l l y a cast-on-land floating
f o u n d a t i o n sunk i n t o p o s i t i o n by b a c k f i l l i n g .
(1) Used p r i m a r i l y f o r w h a r f s , p i e r s , bulkheads, and b r e a k w a t e r s i n
water n o t more t h a n 40 f e e t deep.
(2) General c o n s t r u c t i o n method i n c l u d e s :
( a ) P r e p a r e subgrade a t s e a bottom by d r e d g i n g , f i l l i n g , o r
combination of dredging and f i l l i n g .
(b) Float caisson i n t o position.
( c ) S i n k c a i s s o n t o prepared f o u n d a t i o n a t t h e s e a bottom by
u s e of b a l l a s t .
( d ) Provide anchorage o r g u i d e s t o p r o t e c t f l o a t i n g c a i s s o n
a g a i n s t water currents.
( e ) B a c k f i l l f o r s u i t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n should be c l e a n g r a n u l a r
m a t e r i a l and may r e q u i r e compaction i n p l a c e under water.

b. Advantages
-

The c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t i s r e l a t i v e l y low.
B e n e f i t from p r e c a s t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .
No dewatering necessary.
c. Disadvantages

The ground must be l e v e l o r excavated t o a l e v e l s u r f a c e .

Use i s l i m i t e d t o only t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s where b e a r i n g s t r a t u m i s
c l o s e t o ground s u r f a c e .
P r o v i s i o n s must be made t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t undermining by scour.
The b e a r i n g s t r a t u m must be a d e q u a t e l y compacted t o a v o i d a d v e r s e
settlements.

d. Typical I l l u s t r a t i o n
 d. E a r t h S t a b i l i z a t i o n Columns. Many methods a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r f o r m i n g
- . - compression r e i n f o r c e m e n t elements ( s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 2 ) i n c l u d i n g :

(1) Mixed-In-Place Piles. A mixed-in-place soil-cement o r s o i l -

lime p i l e .

( 2 ) Vibro-Replacement Stone Columns. A v i b r o f l o t o r o t h e r d e v i c e i s

used t o make a c y l i n d r i c a l , v e r t i c a l h o l e which i s f i l l e d w i t h compacted
g r a v e l o r crushed rock.

( 3 ) Grouted Stone Columns. This i s s i m i l a r t o t h e above b u t i n -

c l u d e s f i l l i n g v o i d s w i t h bentonite-cement o r water-sand-bentonite cement
mixtures.

( 4 ) Concrete Vibro Columns. S i m i l a r t o s t o n e columns b u t c o n c r e t e

i n t r o d u c e d i n s t e a d of g r a v e l .

S e c t i o n 3. BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENT

1. DESIGN PROCEDURES. The d e s i g n of a deep f o u n d a t i o n system s h o u l d i n -

clude t h e following s t e p s :

( 1 ) Evaluate the subsurface conditions.

( 2 ) Review t h e f o u n d a t i o n requirements i n c l u d i n g d e s i g n l o a d s and

allowable settlement o r deflection.

(3) valuate t h e a n t i c i p a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and p r o c e d u r e s .

( 4 ) I n c o r p o r a t e l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e and p r a c t i c e s .

(5) S e l e c t a p p r o p r i a t e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e ( s ) based on t h e above i t e m s ,

c o s t s , and comments on T a b l e s 1 and 2.

( 6 ) Determine t h e a l l o w a b l e a x i a l f o u n d a t i o n d e s i g n l o a d s based on a n
e v a l u a t i o n of u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n c a p a c i t y i n c l u d i n g r e d u c t i o n s f o r group
a c t i o n o r downdrag i f a p p l i c a b l e , a n t i c i p a t e d s e t t l e m e n t and l o c a l r e q u i r e -
ments and p r a c t i c e s .

The a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of deep f o u n d a t i o n s i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e
s t r u c t u r a l c a p a c i t y of t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g member ( w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e r e d u c t i o n
f o r column a c t i o n ) and t h e s o i l l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . Usually, t h e l a t t e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n t r o l s design. The methods a v a i l a b l e f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e u l t i -
mate a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y a r e l i s t e d below. Some o r a l l of t h e s e should b e
considered by t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r a s a p p r o p r i a t e .

(a) S t a t i c analysis u t i l i z i n g s o i l strength.

( b ) Empirical a n a l y s i s u t i l i z i n g standard f i e l d s o i l t e s t s .

( c ) B u i l d i n g code requirements and l o c a l experience.

 (d) Full-scale load t e s t s .

( e ) Dynamic d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e .

( 7 ) Determine d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , and i n c o r p o r a t e t h e

requirements i n t o c o n s t r u c t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

I n s p e c t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n should be c o n s i d e r e d a n i n t e g r a l
p a r t of t h e d e s i g n procedures. Perform a p i l e t e s t program as r e q u i r e d . The
p i l e t e s t can a l s o be used a s a d e s i g n t o o l i n i t e m ( 6 ) .

2. BEARING CAPACITY OF SINGLE PILE

a. Allowable S t r e s s e s . See Table 1 f o r a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e

p i l e and q u a l i t y requirements f o r p i l e m a t e r i a l s . Allowable s t r e s s e s should
be reduced f o r column a c t i o n where- t h e p i l e e x t e n d s above f i r m ground, i.e.
through water and v e r y s o f t bottom sediments.

b. S o i l Support. The s o i l must be c a p a b l e of s u p p o r t i n g t h e element

when i t i s i n compression, t e n s i o n , and s u b j e c t t o l a t e r a l f o r c e s . The s o i l
s u p p o r t can be computed from s o i l s t r e n g t h d a t a , determined by l o a d t e s t s ,
and/or e s t i m a t e d from d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e . These d e t e r m i n a t i o n s s h o u l d i n c l u d e
t h e following stages:

( 1 ) Design Stage. Compute r e q u i r e d p i l e l e n g t h s from s o i l s t r e n g t h

d a t a t o determine bidding l e n g t h and p i l e type.

( 2 ) E a r l y i n C o n s t r u c t i o n Stage. Drive test p i l e s a t s e l e c t e d l o c a -

tions. For s m a l l p r o j e c t s where performance of nearby p i l e f o u n d a t i o n s i s
known, base d e s i g n l e n g t h and l o a d c a p a c i t y on knowledge of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e ,
nearby p i l e performance, and d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e of t e s t p i l e s . On l a r g e pro-
j e c t s where l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e i s a v a i l a b l e , perform l o a d t e s t s on s e l e c t e d
p i l e s and i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s a s shown i n F i g u r e 7.

( 3 ) Throughout C o n s t r u c t i o n Stage. Record d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e of a l l

p i l e s f o r comparison w i t h t e s t p i l e s and t o i n s u r e a g a i n s t l o c a l weak subsur-
f a c e formations. Record a l s o t h e type and c o n d i t i o n of c u s h i o n i n g m a t e r i a l
used i n t h e p i l e hammer.

c. T h e o r e t i c a l Load Capacity. See F i g u r e 1 f o r a n a l y s i s of u l t i m a t e

l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of s i n g l e p i l e s i n homogeneous g r a n u l a r s o i l s ; f o r p i l e
i n homogeneous c o h e s i v e s o i l s e e F i g u r e 2 (upper p a n e l r i g h t , Reference 2,
The Bearing Capacity of Clays, by Skempton; remainder of f i g u r e , Reference 3,
The Adhesion of P i l e s Driven i n Clay S o i l s , by Tomlinson).

( 1 ) Compression Load Capacity. Compression l o a d c a p a c i t y e q u a l s

end-bearing c a p a c i t y , p l u s f r i c t i o n a l c a p a c i t y on p e r i m e t e r s u r f a c e .

( 2 ) P u l l o u t Capacity. P u l l o u t c a p a c i t y e q u a l s t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e
on t h e p e r i m e t e r s u r f a c e of t h e p i l e o r p i e r .
 "'.\' \

Y3 BEARING STRATUM

I,

7P B PRESSURE DIAGRAM
K H c P ~ AND K H ~ P o

( A) ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY IN COMPRESSION

H=HotD
Quit = PT Nq AT +C (KHcXP~TAN8 ) ( ~ )
H = HO

WHERE Quit 'ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY IN COMPRESSDN

PT = EFFECTIVE VERTICAL STRESS AT PlLE TIP (SEE NOTE I )
Nq = BEARING CAPACITY FKTOR (SEE TABLE, FIGURE I CONTINUED )
AT = AREA OF PlLE TIP
KHC= RATIO OF HORIZNTAL TO VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS ON SIDE OF ELEMENT WHEN
ELEMENT IS IN COMPRESSION.
Po = EFFECTIVE VERTICAL STRESS OVER LENGTH OF EMBEDMENT, D (SEE NOTE I)
8 = FRICTION ANGLE BETWEEN PILE AND SOIL (SEE TABLE, FIGURE ICONTINUED)
S = SURFACE AREA OF PlLE PER UNIT LENGTH
FOR CALCULATING Qall ,USE FS OF 2 FOR TEMPORARY LOADS, 3 FOR PERMANENT WDS.(SEE NOTE 2)
(8) ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY IN TENSION
H=Ho+D
Tult' C
H=Ho
(KH~)(P0)(TAN8) (s)(H)

WHERE: Tult = ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY IN TENSION, PULLOUT

KHT = RATIO OF HORIZONTAL TO VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS ON SlDE OF ELEMENT WHEN ELEMENT
IS IN TENSION

FOR CALCULATING Tall IUSE FS = 3 ONTul+ PLUS THE WEIGHT OFTHE PIG (Wp),THUS Tall = V+wp
(SEE NOTE 2
NOTE-I :EXPERIMENTAL AND FIEU) EVIDENCE INDICATE THAT BEARING PRESSURE AND SKIN FRICTION INCREASE
WITH VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS Po UPTO A LIMITING DEPTH WEMBEDMENT, DEPENDING ON
THE RELATIVE DENSITY OFTHE GRANULAR SOIL AND POSITION OF THE WATER TABLE. BEYOND THIS
*
LIMITING DEPTH ( IOB k TO 4 0 8 ) THERE IS VERY LITTLE INCREASEIN END BEARING, AND INCREASE
IN SlDE FRICTION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONALTOM E SURFACE AREAOF THE PILE. THEREFORE,IF
D IS GREATER THAN 20 9, Ll MlT Po AT THE PlLE TIP TO THAT VALUE CORRESPONDING TO D = 209.
NOTE.2: IF BUILDING LOADS AND SUBSURFACE CONDITION ARE WELL DOCUMENTED IN THE OPINION OF THE ENGINEER, A
LESSER FACTOR OF SAFETY CAN BE USED BUT NOT LESS THAN 2.0 PROVIDED PlLE CAPACITY IS MRlFlED BY
LOAD TEST AND SETTLEMENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE.

FIGURE 1
Load Carrying Capacity of S i n g l e P i l e i n Granular S o i l s
 BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS - Nq
I
>

di* 26 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Nq
(DRIVENP~~E 10 15 21 a 29 35 42 50 62 n as I 146
DISPLKE-
MENT)

Nq ** 5 8 I0 I2 14 17 21 25 30 38 43 60 72
(DRILLED
PIERS)
2 . . A
b

EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS KHC AND KHT

J

PILE TYPE KHC K HT

DRIVEN SINGLE H -PILE 0.5 - 1.0 0.3 - 0.5
DRIVEN SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
PlLE 1.0 - 1.5 0.6 - 1.0
DRIVEN SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
TAPERED PlLE
1.5 - 2.0 1.0 - 1.3

DRIVEN JETTED PILE 0.4 - 0.9 0.3 - 0.6

w I

DRILLED PILE (LESS THAN

0.7 0.4
24" DIAMETER)
.
. FRICTION ANGLE -8 >

PILE TYPE 8
STEEL 20°
CONCRETE 3wj
b
TIMBER v4 +
* UMlT 4 TO 28' IF JETTING IS USED
** (A) IN CASE A BAILER OR GRAB BUCKET IS USED BELOW GROUNDWATERTABLE,CALCULATE END
#
BEARING BASED ON NOT EXCEEDING 28'.
(0) FOR PIERS GREATER THAN 24-INCH DIAMETER,SETTLEMENT RATHER THAN BEARING CAPACITY
USUALLY CONTROLS THE DESIGN. FOR ESTIMATING SETTLEMENT, TAKE 50% OF THE SETTLEMENT
FOR AN EQUIVALENT FOOTING RESTING ON THE SURFACE OF COMPARABLE GRANULAR SOILS.
(CHAPTER 5 ,DM -7. I).
. .-
.
FIGURE 1 (continued)
Load Carrying Capacity of Single P i l e i n Granular S o i l s
 BEARING STRATUM
DENSE SAND , 165 PCF

EFFECTIVE VERTICAL STRESS, Po, FOR

PILE DESIGN
FOR A DIAMETER CLOSED END, DRIVEN P I E PILE, CONCRETE FILLED, FIND Qdl AND Tal FOR
A =FOOT LONG PILE.
Po MAX OCCURS AT 208, OR 20' INTO BEARING STRATUM.
+=30°, Nq = 21
KHC=1.5,8 = 20°
KHT = 10
.
AT = r X 0.5?=0.78 SF
CIRCUM. AREA/If = IX r =3.14SF/If

Quit '1.535 ~ 2 x0.78+

1 ( 1.5 X(0'235;1.535

-
1
) x TAN 20 ~20x314)t (1.5 xL535xTAN 20 x 5~3.14)

~68.64K
FOR Fs =3,0qll =- 68 64
3
= 22.9 K

TUlt = 1.0 x ( 0'235

2 +
) x TAN 20x20~314 1.0 x 1.535 xTAN 20x 5 x 3.14

FIGURE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Load Carrying Capacity of S i n g l e P i l e i n Granular S o i l s
 1.25

Y .n
4
.SO
s WITH WIDTH, &AND LENGTH, L,THE
BEARING CAPACIM FACTOR IS
.25 NCR = NCC ( 1+0.2 B/L)
I 1 I I I I 1 I 1
0 I 2 3 4
0 RATIO OF DEPTH TO WIDTH FOUNMTION
0 500 1000 I500 2000 2500 JOOO Z / B OR Z/2R
COHESION C, PSF
RECOMMENDED VALUES OF ADHESON
I PILE
TYPE
~~ONSIS~YCT
OF SOIL
,C IADHESION~
PSF

I1
TIMBER
VERY SOFT
1 SOFT 1
0
250
-
-
250
500
I

1
0
250
- 250
- 480
I1
I POSITION OF GROUND -
WNER HAS NO EFFECT
ON ULTIMATE WAD
CAPACITY UNLESS
COHESION IS CHANGED.
VERY SOFT 0
250-
- 250
500
0 250 -
SOFT 250-460
QuH IS APPLIED LO*D STEEL MED. STIFF 500-1000 460-700
ONLY. PILE WEIGHT IS STIFF DOO-2000 700-720
BALANCED BY WEIGHT
OF OVERBURDEN AND
VEmm 2000-4000 720-750
IS NOT CONSIDERED.
ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY IN TENSION
ULTIMATE L M D CAPACITY IN COMPRESSION Tult = CA 2 r R z
Quit =c ( N s ) T R ~ + Q 2 r R ~ Tu(t UNDER SUSTAINED LOAD MAY BE
(Nee) LIMITED BY OTHER FACTORS, SEE TEXT.

vTS1JPF 2
U l t i m a t e Load Canacity of S i n g l e P i l e or P i e r i n Cohesive Soils
 ( 3 ) D r i l l e d P i e r s . For d r i l l e d p i e r s g r e a t e r t h a n 24 i n c h e s i n
diameter s e t t l e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y may c o n t r o l . A reduced end
b e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e may r e s u l t from entrapment of b e n t o n i t e s l u r r y i f used t o
m a i n t a i n a n open e x c a v a t i o n t o t h e p i e r ' s t i p . Bells, o r enlarged bases, a r e
usually not s t a b l e i n granular s o i l s .

( 4 ) P i l e s and D r i l l e d P i e r s i n Cohesive S o i l s . See F i g u r e 2 and

Table 3. Experience demonstrates t h a t p i l e d r i v i n g permanently alters s u r -
f a c e adhesion of c l a y s having a s h e a r s t r e n g t h g r e a t e r t h a n 500 p s f ( s e e
F i g u r e 2). I n s o f t e r c l a y s t h e remolded m a t e r i a l c o n s o l i d a t e s with t i m e ,
r e g a i n i n g adhesion approximately e q u a l t o o r i g i n a l s t r e n g t h . Shear s t r e n g t h
f o r point-bearing r e s i s t a n c e i s e s s e n t i a l l y unchanged by p i l e d r i v i n g . For
d r i l l e d p i e r s , u s e Table 3 from Reference 4, S o i l s and Geology, P r o c e d u r e s
f o r Foundation Design of B u i l d i n g s and Other S t r u c t u r e s , by t h e Departments of
Army and A i r Force, f o r determining s i d e f r i c t i o n . Ultimate r e s i s t a n c e t o
p u l l o u t cannot exceed t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of reduced adhesion a c t i n g o v e r t h e
p i l e s u r f a c e o r t h e e f f e c t i v e weight of t h e s o i l mass which i s a v a i l a b l e t o
r e a c t a g a i n s t p u l l o u t . The a l l o w a b l e s u s t a i n e d p u l l o u t l o a d u s u a l l y i s l i m i t e d
by t h e tendency f o r t h e p i l e t o move upward g r a d u a l l y w h i l e m o b i l i z i n g a n
adhesion l e s s t h a n t h e f a i l u r e value.

Adhesion f a c t o r s i n F i g u r e 2 may be v e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r e v a l u -
a t i n g p i l e s d r i v e n i n t o s t i f f but normally c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y s . A v a i l a b l e d a t a
s u g g e s t s t h a t f o r p i l e s d r i v e n i n t o normally t o s l i g h t l y o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d
c l a y s , t h e s i d e f r i c t i o n i s about 0.25 t o 0.4 t i m e s t h e e f f e c t i v e overburden.

( 5 ) P i l e s P e n e t r a t i n g Multi-layered S o i l P r o f i l e . Where p i l e s
p e n e t r a t e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a , a simple approach i s t o add s u p p o r t i n g
c a p a c i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s , e x c e p t where a s o f t l a y e r may c o n s o l i d a t e
and r e l i e v e l o a d o r cause drag on t h e p i l e . For f u r t h e r guidance on b e a r i n g
c a p a c i t y when a p i l e p e n e t r a t e s l a y e r e d s o i l and t e r m i n a t e s i n g r a n u l a r s t r a t a
s e e Reference 5, U l t i m a t e Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Layered S o i l s
Under I n c l i n e d Loads, by Meyerhoff and Hanna, which c o n s i d e r s t h e u l t i m a t e
b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of a deep member i n sand underlying a c l a y l a y e r and f o r t h e
c a s e of a sand b e a r i n g s t r a t u m o v e r l y i n g a weak c l a y l a y e r .

( 6 ) P i l e Buckling. For f u l l y embedded p i l e s , b u c k l i n g u s u a l l y i s

n o t a problem. For a f u l l y embedded, f r e e headed p i l e w i t h l e n g t h e q u a l t o o r
g r e a t e r t h a n 4T, t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r buckling i s a s f o l l o w s ( a f t e r Reference
6 , Design of P i l e Foundations, by Vesic):

Pcrit = 0.78 ~~f - 4T

f o r L>

where : Pcrit = c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r buckling

f = c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of l a t e r a l s u b g r a d e
r e a c t i o n ( s e e Figure 10)

T = r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s f a c t o r ( s e e F i g u r e 10)

L = l e n g t h of p i l e .
 TABLE 3
Design Parameters f o r S i d e F r i c t i o n f o r D r i l l e d P i e r s i n Cohesive S o i l s
L

Side Resistance

Design Category cA/~ Limit on s i d e s h e a r - tsf Remarks

A. Straight-sided s h a f t s i n e i t h e r
homogeneous o r l a y e r e d s o i l w i t h
no s o i l of e x c e p t i o n a l s t i f f n e s s
below t h e base

1. S h a f t s i n s t a l l e d d r y o r by t h e 0.6
s l u r r y displacement met hod

2. S h a f t s i n s t a l l e d with d r i l l i n g 0.3(a) ( a ) CA/C may b e

mud a l o n g some p o r t i o n of t h e i n c r e a s e d t o 0.6 and s i d e
h o l e w i t h p o s s i b l e mud entrap- s h e a r i n c r e a s e d t o 2.0
ment t s f f o r segments d r i l l e d
dry

B. Belled s h a f t s i n e i t h e r
homogeneous o r l a y e r e d c l a y s w i t h
no s o i l of e x c e p t i o n a l s t i f f n e s s
below t h e base

1. S h a f t s i n s t a l l e d d r y o r by t h e
s l u r r y displacement methods 0.3

2. S h a f t s i n s t a l l e d with d r i l l -
i n g mud along some p o r t i o n of
t h e h o l e w i t h p o s s i b l e mud
entrapment 0.15(b) ( b ) CA/c may be
i n c r e a s e d t o 0.3 and s i d e
s h e a r i n c r e a s e d t o 0.5
t s f f o r segments d r i l l e d
dry
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Design Parameters f o r S i d e F r i c t i o n f o r D r i l l e d P i e r s i n Cohesive S o i l s

Side Resistance

Design Category CA/~ Limit on s i d e s h e a r - tsf Remarks

C. S t r a i g h t - s i d e d s h a f t s with b a s e
r e s t i n g on s o i l s i g n i f i c a n t l y
s t i f f e r t h a n s o i l around s t em 0

D. B e l l e d s h a f t s w i t h base r e s t i n g
on s o i l s i g n i f i c a n t l y s t i f f e r t h a n
s o i l around stem 0 0

Note: I n c a l c u l a t i n g load c a p a c i t y , exclude: (1) t o p 5 f e e t of d r i l l e d s h a f t : ( 2 ) p e r i p h e r y of b e l l : and

( 3 ) bottom 5 f e e t of s t r a i g h t s h a f t and bottom 5 f e e t of stem of s h a f t above b e l l .
 For p i l e s w i t h t h e head f i x e d a g a i n s t r o t a t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n ,
i n c r e a s e Pcrit by 13%. I f t h e p i l e head i s pinned (i.e. prevented from
t r a n s l a t i o n but f r e e t o r o t a t e ) , i n c r e a s e Pcrit by 62%.

For a p a r t i a l l y embedded p i l e , assume a f r e e s t a n d i n g column

f i x e d a t depth 1.8T below t h e s o i l surface. Compute t h e c r i t i c a l buckling
l o a d by methods of s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s . For such p i l e s compute a l l o w a b l e p i l e
s t r e s s e s t o avoid buckling. For t h e c a s e where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l
subgrade r e a c t i o n (Kh) of t h e embe merit s o i l is c o n s t a n t w i t h depth, calcu-
l a t e t h e depth of f i x i t y a s 1 . 4 ~ 4 , h e r t i E I is t h e f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y o f
t h e p i l e , B is p i l e width (diameter) and Kh i s defined i n t h e u n i t s of
~ o r c e ~ ~ e n g t Buckling
h~. f o r a f u l l y embedded l e n g t h of o t h e r p i l e types
does not c o n t r o l p i l e s t r e s s . For f u r t h e r guidance see Reference 6.

d. Empirical Bearing Capacity. R e s u l t s from t h e Standard P e n e t r a t i o n

Test, S t a t i c Cone penetrometer (Dutch Cone with f r i c t i o n s l e e v e ) , and Pres-
suremeter have been c o r r e l a t e d w i t h model and f u l l s c a l e f i e l d tests on p i l e s
and deep foundations s o t h a t e m p i r i c a l expressions a r e a v a i l a b l e t o estimate
foundation c a p a c i t i e s .

( 1 ) Standard Penetration. Use of t h e Standard P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t t o

p r e d i c t c a p a c i t i e s of deep foundations should be l i m i t e d t o g r a n u l a r s o i l s and
must be considered a crude estimate.

Tip Resistance of d r i v e n p i l e s ( a f t e r Reference 7, Bearing

Capacity and Settlement of P i l e Foundations, by Meyerhof):

q ult

where :

N = standard p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e ( b l o w l f t )
near p i l e t i p
20
CN = 0.77 l o g l o
P
- -
( f o r p> 0.25 TSF)

p = e f f e c t i v e overburden stress a t p i l e t i p (TSF)

quit = u l t i m a t e p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e of d r i v e n p i l e (TSF)
-
N = average c o r r e c t e d Standard P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e
near p i l e t i p ( b l o w s l f t )

D = depth d r i v e n i n t o g r a n u l a r bearing s t r a t u m ( f t )

B = width o r diameter of p i l e t i p ( f e e t )

q 1 = l i m i t i n g p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e (TSF), equal t o
4N f o r sand and 3N f o r non-plastic s i l t .
 For d r i l l e d p i e r s , use 113 times quit computed from t h e above
expression.
- . - Use a f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 3 t o compute allowable t i p resis-
t ance ..
Skin F r i c t i o n of d r i v e n p i l e s :

where : N = average standard p e n e t r a t i o n along p i l e s h a f t

f s = u l t i m a t e s k i n f r i c t i o n f o r d r i v e n p i l e (TSF)

f l = l i m i t i n g s k i n f r i c t i o n ( f o r d r i v e n p i l e , f l = 1 TSF)

Use f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 3 f o r allowable s k i n f r i c t i o n .

For d r i v e n p i l e s tapered more t h a n 1 p e r c e n t , use 1.5 t i m e s

above expression.

For d r i l l e d p i e r s , use 50 p e r c e n t of above expression

( 2 ) The Cone Penetrometer. The Cone Penetrometer provides u s e f u l

information a s a "model p i l e " and i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r l o o s e t o dense sands and
s i l t s . Penetrometer r e s u l t s a r e not considered a c c u r a t e f o r very dense sands
o r d e p o s i t s with gravel.

Point Resistance:

quit = qc

where : quit = ultimate t i p resistance for driven p i l e

qc = cone p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e

Depth of p e n e t r a t i o n t o g r a n u l a r bearing s t r a t u m i s a t l e a s t 1 0
times t h e p i l e t i p width.

S h a f t Resistance :

fult = fC

where: f u l t = u l t i m a t e s h a f t f r i c t i o n of d r i v e n c y l i n d r i c a l p i l e

f c = u n i t r e s i s t a n c e of l o c a l f r i c t i o n s l e e v e of s t a t i c
penetrometer

Use f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 3 f o r allowable s k i n f r i c t i o n .

For d r i l l e d p i e r s i n cohesionless s o i l , u s e 1/2 of £,I+ o r quit.

based on t h e above expressions f o r d r i v e n p i l e s .
 (3) Pressuremeter. R e s u l t s from pressuremeter t e s t s can be used t o
e s t i m a t e d e s i-m c a v a c i t v of deep foundation elements. See Reference 8.= - The
Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering, by Baguelin, e t a l . , o r Reference 9,
Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual, by t h e Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y , 4

f o r d e t a i l s of design c o r r e l a t i o n .

The pressuremeter method i s u s e f u l i n s o f t rock, weathered o r

c l o s e l y jointed rock, g r a n u l a r s o i l s , and very s t i f f cohesive s o i l s . R e s u l t s
a r e g e n e r a l l y not s u i t a b l e i n s o f t c l a y s because of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e during
d r i l l i n g . The self-boring pressuremeter i s designed t o reduce t h i s problem.

e. Bearing Capacity from Dynamic Driving Resistance.

(1) General. The u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y of a p i l e may be estimated on

t h e b a s i s of d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e during i n s t a l l a t i o n ' o f t h e p i l e . The r e s u l t s
a r e not always r e l i a b l e , and may over-predict o r g r o s s l y under-predict p i l e
c a p a c i t i e s , and t h e r e f o r e should be used with caution. Use must be supported
by l o c a l experience o r t e s t i n g . Dynamic r e s i s t a n c e based on t h e wave e q u a t i o n
a n a l y s i s i s a more r a t i o n a l approach t o c a l c u l a t i n g p i l e c a p a c i t i e s .

(2) P i l e Driving Formulas:

( a ) General. Because of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s of t h e dynamics of

p i l e d r i v i n g , t h e use of formulas more e l a b o r a t e than those i n Table 4 i s n o t
warranted. A minimum of t h r e e test p i l e s should be d r i v e n f o r each i n s t a l l a -
t i o n , with more t e s t s i f subsurface c o n d i t i o n s a r e e r r a t i c .

( b ) Control During Construction. The embedment of p i l e s should

be c o n t r o l l e d by s p e c i f y i n g a minimum t i p e l e v a t i o n on t h e b a s i s of t h e sub-
s u r f a c e p r o f i l e and d r i v i n g t e s t s o r load t e s t s , i f a v a i l a b l e , and a l s o by
r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e p i l e s be d r i v e n beyond t h e s p e c i f i e d e l e v a t i o n u n t i l t h e
d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e equals o r exceeds t h e value e s t a b l i s h e d a s necessary from
t h e r e s u l t s of t h e t e s t p i l e s . However, i f t h e p i l e p e n e t r a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t l y
overruns t h e a n t i c i p a t e d depth, t h e b a s i s f o r t h e s p e c i f i e d depth and d r i v i n g
r e s i s t a n c e should be reviewed.

( c ) Formulas. Dynamic p i l e d r i v i n g formulas should not be used

a s c r i t e r i a f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g load c a p a c i t y without c o r r e l a t i o n with t h e re-
s u l t s of an adequate program of s o i l e x p l o r a t i o n . For c r i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and
where l o c a l experience i s l i m i t e d , o r where u n f a m i l i a r p i l e types o r equipment
a r e being used, load t e s t s should be performed.

( 3 ) Wave Equation Analysis. The wave equation a n a l y s i s i s based on

t h e theory of one dimensional wave propagation. For t h e a n a l y s i s t h e p i l e i s
divided i n t o a s e r i e s of masses connected by s p r i n g s which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e
p i l e s t i f f n e s s , and dashpots which s i m u l a t e t h e damping below t h e p i l e t i p and
along p i l e embedded length.

T h i s method was f i r s t put i n t o p r a c t i c a l form i n 1962 (Reference

10, P i l e Driving by t h e Wave ~ ~ u a t i o hby, ~ m i i h ) . The wave equation a n a l y s i s
provides a means of e v a l u a t i n g t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e p i l e s t i f f n e s s t o t r a n s -
m i t d r i v i n g energy t o t h e t i p - t o achieve p i l e - p e n e t r a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e
a b i l i t y of p i l e s e c t i o n t o withstand d r i v i n g s t r e s s e s without damage. The
r e s u l t s of t h e a n a l y s i s can be t n t e r p r e t e d t o g i v e t h e following:
 TABLE 4
Application of P i l e Driving Resistance Formulas

BASIC PlLE DRIVING FORMULAS (SEE COMMENT IN SECTION 2 )

FOR DROP HAMMER -
FOR SINGLE ACTING HAMMER FOR DOUBLE-ACTING DlFFEREHllAL HAMMER
I

2WH {USE WHEN D R M N W E m

Qall= S+O.I Pall = *{USE WHEN DRIVEN
ARE SMALLER THAN WEIGHTS AR SMALLER
2 WH
Qa11' s+l STRIKING WEIGHTS. THEN STRIKING WEIGHTS.

QaW WH { USE WHEN DRIVEN WEIGHTS 2E

all= {USE WHEN DRIVEN WEIGHTS
S+O.I- WD ARE LARGER THAN S+O.l- ARE LARGER THAN
Ws STRIKING WEIGHTS. Ws STRIKING WEIGHTS.

Qall = ALLOWABLE PlLE LOAD IN POUNDS.

W = WEIGHT OF STRIKING PARTS OF HAMMER IN POUNDS.
H = THE EFFECTIVE HEIGHT OF FALL IN FEET.
E = THE ACTUAL ENERGY DELIVERED BY HAMMER PER BLOW IN FOOT- POUNDS.
S = AVERAGE NET PENETRATION IN INCHES PER BLOW FOR THE LAST 6 IN. OF DRIVING.
WD
WS
=
=
DRIVEN WEIGHTS
WEIGHTS OF STRIKING B W S 1
NOTE: RATIO OF DRIVEN WEIGHTS TO STRIKING WEIGHTS SHOULD NOT
EXCEED 3.
MODIFICATONS OF BASIC PlLE DRIVING FORMULAS
A. FOR PILES DRIVEN TO AND SEATED IN ROCK AS HIGH CAPACITY END-BEARING PILES:
DRIVE TO REFUSAL (APPROXIMATELY 4 TO 5 BLOWS FOR THE LAST QUARTER INCH OF DRIVING).
REDRIVE OPEN END PIPE PILES REPEATEDLY UNTIL RESISTANCE FOR REFUSAL IS REACHED
WITH IN I IN. OF ADDITIONAL PENETRATION.

8. PILES DRIVEN THROUGH STIFF COMPRESSIBLE MATERIALS UNSUITABLE FOR PlLE BEARING TO AN
UNDERLYlNG BEARING STRATUM :
ADD BLOWS ATTAINED BEFORE REACHING BEARING STRATUM TO REQUIRED BU)WS ATTAINED IN
BEARING STRATUM (SEE EXAMPLE).
PILE
fi
- ////Ip
COMPRESS1BLE
EXAMPLE: REQUIRED LOAD W I T Y OF PlLE Qall =25TONS
HAMMER ENERGY E = 15,000 FT.-LB.
-
v/"/"/>; -
wd ( I
ws
..-....-:. :.:.::
i....
PENETRAm(S) AS PER BASlC FORMULA = 1/2" OR 2 BUWS PER
:.'BEARING .
::.STRATUM
...
-
....;...:.;.-; .
.::...::::.::..
.....
~ 4 BU)WS/FT:
2 INCH (24 BUIWS/FT).
REQUIRED BLOWS FOR PILE 24 + I8 = 42 BUIWS/FT.
I

C. PILES DRIVEN INTO LIMITED THIN BEARING STRATUM, DRIVE TO PREDETERMINED TIP ELEVATION.
DETERMINE ALIDWABLE IDAD BY U)AD TEST.

STRATUM

LBUJ UNSUITABLE FWZ P O W BEARING

 ( a ) Equipment compatibility:,appropriate hammer s i z e and
cushion.
-
(b) Driving s t r e s s e s : p l o t s of stress vs. set can be made t o
evaluate the potential f o r p i l e overstress.

( c ) P i l e capacity: p l o t of u l t i m a t e p i l e c a p a c i t y vs. set can

be developed.

The s o i l i s modeled by approximating t h e s t a t i c r e s i s t a n c e

(quake), t h e viscous r e s i s t a n c e (damping), and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s o i l
r e s i s t a n c e along t h e p i l e . The assigned parameter f o r s p r i n g s and dashpots
cannot be r e l a t e d t o r o u t i n e l y measured s o i l parameters which c o n s t i t u t e s t h e
major draw back of t h e wave equation a n a l y s i s . The i n p u t f o r t h e d r i v i n g
system i s provided by t h e a n t i c i p a t e d hammer performance, c o e f f i c i e n t of
r e s t i t u t i o n of t h e cushion, and s t i f f n e s s of t h e p i l e . Computer programs a r e
a v a i l a b l e t o perform t h e lengthy c a l c u l a t i o n s .

( 4 ) Case Method. The wave equation a n a l y s i s can be used i n conjunc-

t i o n with f i e l d measurements by using t h e Case Method (Reference 11, S o i l
Resistance P r e d i c t i o n s from P i l e Dynamics, by Rausche, e t a l . ) .
-
This proce-
dure e l e c t r o n i c a l l y measures t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n and s t r a i n n e a r t h e top of .the
p i l e , and by usingv t h e wave equation a n a l y s i s e s t i m a t e s t h e s t a t i c s b i l r e s i s -
tance f o r each blow of t h e hammer. Energy t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p i l e i s computed
by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e product of f o r c e and v e l o c i t y . A d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s o i l
r e s i s t a n c e along t h e p i l e l e n g t h i s assumed and t h e wave equation a n a l y s i s i s
performed. The assumed s o i l s t r e n g t h parameters a r e checked a g a i n s t t h e mea-
sured f o r c e a t t h e p i l e top and t h e s e a r e then a d j u s t e d t o r e s u l t i n a n i m -
proved match between t h e a n a l y t i c a l and measured p i l e f o r c e a t t h e top.

3. BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE GROUPS.

a. General. The bearing c a p a c i t y of p i l e groups i n s o i l s i s normally

l e s s than t h e sum of i n d i v i d u a l p i l e s i n t h e group and must be considered i n
design. Group e f f i c i e n c y i s a term used f o r t h e r a t i o of t h e c a p a c i t y of a
p i l e group t o t h e sum of t h e c a p a c i t i e s of s i n g l e p i l e s a t t h e same depth i n
t h e same s o i l d e p o s i t . I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e performance of p i l e groups i n com-
pression, s e t t l e m e n t i s a major consideration. Expressions f o r e s t i m a t i n g
u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e of p i l e groups a r e included i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

b. Group Capacity i n Rock. The group c a p a c i t y of p i l e s i n s t a l l e d t o

rock i s t h e number of members times t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t y of each member.
Block f a i l u r e i s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n only i f foundations a r e on a s l o p i n g rock
formation, and s l i d i n g may occur along unfavorable dipping, weak planes. The
p o s s i b i l i t y of such a n occurrence must be evaluated from t h e s i t e geology and
f i e l d exploration.

c. Group Capacity i n Granular S o i l . P i l e s d r i v e n i n t o c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l

i n a group c o n f i g u r a t i o n a c t a s i n d i v i d u a l p i l e s i f t h e spacing i s g r e a t e r
than 7 times t h e average p i l e diameter. They a c t a s a group a t c l o s e spac-
ings. Center t o c e n t e r spacing of a d j a c e n t p i l e s i n a group should be a t
l e a s t two times t h e b u t t diameter.
 Block f a i l u r e of a p i l e group i n g r a n u l a r s o i l s i s n o t a d e s i g n con-
s i d e r a t i o n provided each i n d i v i d u a l p i l e has an adequate f a c t o r of s a f e t y
a g a i n s t bearing f a i l u r e and t h e c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l i s n o t u n d e r l a i n by a weaker
d e p o s i t . I n l o o s e sand a n d / o r g r a v e l d e p o s i t s , t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of
a n i n d i v i d u a l p i l e may be g r e a t e r i n t h e group t h a n s i n g l e because of d e n s i f i -
c a t i o n d u r i n g d r i v i n g . T h i s i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n d e s i g n
w i t h c a u t i o n , and o n l y where demonstrated by f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o r t e s t s .

The u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y of a p i l e group founded i n dense c o h e s i o n l e s s

s o i l of l i m i t e d t h i c k n e s s u n d e r l a i n by a weak d e p o s i t i s t h e s m a l l e r o f :

(1) sum of t h e s i n g l e p i l e c a p a c i t i e s

( 2 ) block f a i l u r e of a p i e r e q u i v a l e n t i n s i z e t o t h e p i l e s a n d
enclosed s o i l mass, punching through t h e dense d e p o s i t i n t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g
weak d e p o s i t (Reference 12, U l t i m a t e Bearing Capacity of F o o t i n g s on Sand
Layer Overlying Clay, by Meyerhof).

d. Group C a p a c i t y i n Cohesive S o i l . E s t i m a t e t h e group c a p a c i t y u s i n g

he method i n F i g u r e 3 (upper p a n e l , Reference 13, Experiments w i t h Model
P i l e s i n Groups, by Whitaker).

e. U ~ l i f tR e s i s t a n c e of G ~ O U D S .

(1) Granular Soil. U l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e of p i l e group i s

l e s s e r of:

( a ) Sum of s k i n f r i c t i o n on t h e p i l e s i n t h e group (no reduc-

t i o n f o r t a p e r e d p i l e s ) , u s e a f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 3.0.

( b ) E f f e c t i v e weight of block of s o i l w i t h i n t h e group and

w i t h i n a 4 v e r t i c a l on 1 h o r i z o n t a l wedge extending up from p i l e t i p s weight -
of p i l e s ' assumeil e q u a l t o volume of s o i l they d i s p l a c e . F a c t o r of s a f e t y
should be u n i t y .

(2) Cohesive S o i l . Ultimate u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e of p i l e group i s t h e

l e s s e r of:

(a) Sum of s k i n f r i c t i o n on t h e p i l e s i n t h e group

where: Tu = u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e of p i l e group

A = l e n g t h of group

B = width of group

L = d e p t h of s o i l block below p i l e cap

C = average undrained s t r e n g t h of s o i l around t h e s i d e s of t h e group

Wp = weight of p i l e s , p i l e cap, and block of s o i l e n c l o s e d by t h e

piles.
 d

3 x 3 PILE GROUP

3 x 3 PlLE GRWP
9 x 9 PlLE GROUP

PlLE GROUP EFFICIENCY

FOR COHESIVE SOILS

PlLE
SPACING
a
1.5

PERIMETER

pO""l
2O
. 2.5 3.O
SPACING IN PILE DIAMETERS

DEFlNITIONS
3.5 4.0

QG = ULTIMATE LOAD CAMITY OF PlLE IN GROUP

Quit = ULTIMATE LOAD W I T Y OF ISOLATED PILE
n = NUMBER OF PILES IN GROUP

G OG FOR COHESIVE SOILS

4.5

= Qult
2R = PILEDIAMETER
QG AND Quit ARE APPLIED LOADS ONLY. WEIGHT OF
PILES AND ENCLOSED SOIL IS BALANCED BY WEIGHT
OF OVERBURDEN AND IS NOT CONSIDERED.

BEARING CAWlTY

BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP

Quit = (cNc) W +
R ~ CA 2 T R L (OBTAIN CA AND Nc FROM FIGURE 2 )
ULTIMATE LOAD OF GROUP = nQG = Ge n Quit

FIGURE 3
Bearing Capacity of P i l e Groups i n Cohesive S o i l s
 F a c t o r s of S a f e t y : 2 f o r short-term l o a d s , 3 f o r s u s t a i n e d
- u p l i f t i n g loading.

4. SETTLEMENTS OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

a. S i n g l e P i l e . The s e t t l e m e n t a t t h e t o p of p i l e can be broken down

i n t o t h r e e components ( a f t e r Reference 6 ) .

(1) S e t t l e m e n t due t o a x i a l deformation of p i l e s h a f t ; W s

where: Q = p o i n t l o a d t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e p i l e t i p i n t h e working stress

P
range.

Qs = s h a f t f r i c t i o n load t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e p i l e i n t h e working
s t r e s s range(in force units)

= 0.5 f o r p a r a b o l i c o r uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of s h a f t f r i c t i o n

0.67 f o r t r i a n g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of s h a f t f r i c t i o n s t a r t i n g
from z e r o f r i c t i o n a t p i l e head t o a maximum v a l u e a t p i l e
point

0.33 f o r t r i a n g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of s h a f t f r i c t i o n
s t a r t i n g from a maximum a t p i l e head t o - z e r o a t t h e
p i l e point.

L = pile length

A = p i l e cross sectional area

Ep = modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e p i l e

(2) S e t t l e m e n t of p i l e p o i n t caused by l o a d t r a n s m i t t e d a t t h e p o i n t
W ~ ~ :

where : Cp = e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t depending on s o i l type and

method of c o n s t r u c t i o n , s e e Table 5

B = p i l e diameter

q0 = u l t i m a t e end b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y

( 3 ) S e t t l e m e n t of p i l e p o i n t s caused by l o a d t r a n s m i t t e d a l o n g t h e
p i l e s h a f t , Wps;
 TABLE 5
Typical* Values of C o e f f i c i e n t C f o r Estimating
Settlement of a Sing e P i l e P
L I

S o i l Type Driven P i l e s Bored P i l e s

Sand (dense t o l o o s e ) 0.02 t o 0.04 0.09 t o 0.18

Clay ( s t i f f t o s o f t ) 0.02 t o 0.03 0.03 t o 0.06

S i l t (dense t o l o o s e ) 0.03 t o 0.05 0.09 t o 0.12

* Bearing s t r a t u m under p i l e t i p assumed t o extend a t l e a s t 10 p i l e

diameters below t i p and s o i l below t i p i s of comparable o r h i g h e r
stiffness.
 D = embedded l e n g t h

(4) T o t a l s e t t l e m e n t of a s i n g l e p i l e , Wo:

b. Settlement of P i l e Group i n Granular S o i l s . Compute group s e t t l e m e n t

Wg based on ( a f t e r Reference 6):

-
where : B = t h e s m a l l e s t dimension of p i l e group

B = diameter of i n d i v i d u a l p i l e

Wo = Settlement of a s i n g l e p i l e estimated o r determined

from load t e s t s

c. Settlement of P i l e Groups i n S a t u r a t e d Cohesive S o i l s . Compute t h e

group s e t t l e m e n t a s shown i n Figure 4.

d. Limitations. The above a n a l y s e s may be used t o e s t i m a t e s e t t l e m e n t ,

however, s e t t l e m e n t estimated from t h e r e s u l t s of load t e s t s a r e g e n e r a l l y
considered more a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e .

5. NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION.

a. General. Deep foundation elements i n s t a l l e d through compressible

m a t e r i a l s can experience "downdrag" f o r c e s o r n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n along t h e
s h a f t which r e s u l t s from downward movement of adjacent s o i l r e l a t i v e t o t h e
p i l e . Negative s k i n f r i c t i o n r e s u l t s p r i m a r i l y from c o n s o l i d a t i o n of a s o f t
d e p o s i t caused by dewatering o r t h e placement of f i l l .

Negative s k i n f r i c t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y severe on b a t t e r p i l e i n s t a l -
l a t i o n s because t h e f o r c e of subsiding s o i l i s l a r g e on t h e o u t e r s i d e of t h e
b a t t e r p i l e and s o i l s e t t l e s away from t h e i n n e r s i d e of t h e p i l e . This can
r e s u l t i n bending of t h e p i l e . B a t t e r p i l e i n s t a l l a t i o n s should be avoided
where negative s k i n f r i c t i o n i s expected t o develop.

b. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Negative Skin F r i c t i o n on S i n g l e P i l e . The d i s t r i b u -

t i o n and magnitude of negative s k i n f r i c t i o n along a p i l e s h a f t depends on:

(1) r e l a t i v e movement between compressible s o i l and p i l e s h a f t ;

(2) r e l a t i v e movement between upper f i l l and p i l e s h a f t ;

(3) e l a s t i c compression of p i l e under working load;

(4) r a t e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n of compressible s o i l s .
--
 1 FRICTION PILES IN CLAY 1 FRICTION PILES IN SAND UNDERLAIN BY CLAY 1 1

n Qall

I
L, Y

SOFT
CLAY
L
-
nQall

V ,
............
+
. . . . ....!
.:....... .. I
. . ..:(':;:.-.
\
SAND /
......
..*
...:...:.
..... ......\
: ... .: :
.....
: ...: :. /
/ \\
\
~w. ~ S F .. T C L -A. Y
.......
. .:;.:. ::.:-.=.sspfl ::.. :. .........
-I
' n ~ a l l +rLl, n e \\
:. . .:..... q = i m T (B) (A)

II SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUP = COMPRESSION OF

LAYER H UNDER PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION SHOWN. I
(
OD = DRAG PER PlLE FOR LENGTH = L 3

L3 = DEPTH TO TOP OF BEARING STRATUM OR I

2/3 (L2 FOR FRICTION PILES.
POINT BEARING PILES IN SAND UNDERLAIN BY CLAY FRICTION PILES IN a A y WITH RECENTFILL
NUfES: I. PLAN AREA TO OUTSIDE OF PlLE GROUP = B x A.
2FOR RELATlVEW RIGID PlLE CAP, PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IS ASUMED TD VARY WITH DEPTH AS SHOWN.
3FOR FLEXIBLE SLAB OR GROUP OF SMALL SEPARATE CAPS,COMWTE PRESSURES BY ELASTIC SOUJTONS
(DM-?. 1 CHAPTER 4) FOR LOAD APPLIED N LEVEL SHOWN.
1 4. COMPUTE SETTLEMENTS BY METHODS OF DM 7.1 CHAPTER 5.

FIGURE 4
1
Settlement of Pile Groups
 Negative s k i n f r i c t i o n develops along t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e p i l e s h a f t
where s e t t l e m e n t of t h e a d j a c e n t s o i l exceeds t h e downward displacement of t h e
. - s h a f t . The " n e u t r a l p o i n t " i s t h a t p o i n t of no r e l a t i v e movement between t h e
p i l e and adjacent s o i l . Below t h i s p o i n t , s k i n f r i c t i o n a c t s t o s u p p o r t p i l e
loads. The r a t i o of t h e depth of t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e p i l e
i n compressible s t r a t a may be roughly approximated a s 0.75. The p o s i t i o n of
t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t can be estimated by a t r i a l and e r r o r procedure which com-
p a r e s t h e s e t t l e m e n t , o f t h e s o i l t o t h e displacement of a d j a c e n t s e c t i o n s of ,
. the pile. (For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 14, P i l e Design and Construc-
t i o n P r a c t i c e , by Tomlinson. )

Observations i n d i c a t e t h a t a r e l a t i v e downward movement of 0.6 i n c h

i s expected t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o mobilize f u l l n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n (Refer-
ence 6 ) .

c. Magnitude of Negative Skin F r i c t i o n on S i n g l e P i l e . The peak nega-

t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n i n g r a n u l a r s o i l s and cohesive s o i l s i s determined as f o r
positive skin friction.

The peak u n i t n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n can a l s o be estimated from

( a f t e r Reference 15, P r e d i c t i o n of Downdrag Load a t t h e C u t l e r C i r c l e Bridge,
by Garlanger):

where : f n = u n i t n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n ( t o be m u l t i p l i e d by
a r e a of s h a f t i n zone of subsiding s o i l r e l a t i v e t o p i l e )

Po = e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l stress

p = e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r from f u l l s c a l e t e s t s

-
Soil

Clay
Silt
Sand

d. S a f e t y F a c t o r f o r Negative Skin F r i c t i o n . Since n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c -

t i o n i s u s u a l l y estimated on t h e s a f e s i d e , t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h i s load i s u s u a l l y unity. Thus:

where : Q a l l = allowable p i l e l o a d
Qult = ultimate p i l e load

F, = f a c t o r of s a f e t y

P, = ultimate negative skin f r i c t i o n load

 For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of f a c t o r of s a f e t y i n d e s i g n i n c l u d i n g
t r a n s i e n t l o a d s , s e e Reference 16, Downdrag on P i l e s Due t o - ~ e ~ a t i vs ke i n
F r i c t i o n , by F e l l e n i u s .

e. Negative Skin F r i c t i o n on P i l e Groups. The n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n on

a p i l e group does n o t u s u a l l y exceed t h e t o t a l weight of f i l l a n d / o r com-
p r e s s i b l e s o i l enclosed by t h e p i l e s i n t h e group. For t h e c a s e of r e c e n t
f i l l u n d e r l a i n by a compressible d e p o s i t over t h e b e a r i n g s t r a t u m :

where : l'total = t o t a l l o a d on p i l e group

W = working l o a d on p i l e group

B = width of p i l e group

L = l e n g t h of p i l e group

3 , y2 = e f f e c t i v e u n i t weight of f i l l and u n d e r l y i n g
compressible s o i l respectively

D l , D2 = d e p t h over which f i l l and compressible s o i l

i s moving downward r e l a t i v e t o t h e p i l e s

f . Reduction of Negative Skin F r i c t i o n . S e v e r a l methods have been

developed t o reduce t h e expected n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n on deep f o u n d a t i o n s .
These i n c l u d e :

( a ) Use of s l e n d e r p i l e s , such as H-sections, t o reduce s h a f t a r e a

s u b j e c t t o drag.

( b ) P r e d r i l l e d o v e r s i z e d h o l e through compressible m a t e r i a l p r i o r t o
i n s e r t i o n of p i l e ( r e s u l t i n g a n n u l a r space f i l l e d w i t h b e n t o n i t e s l u r r y o r
vermiculite)

( c ) P r o v i d e c a s i n g o r s l e e v e around p i l e t o p r e v e n t d i r e c t c o n t a c t
with s e t t l i n g s o i l .

( d ) Coat p i l e s h a f t with bitumen t o a l l o w s l i p p a g e .

Bitumen compounds which can be sprayed o r poured on c l e a n p i l e s a r e

a v a i l a b l e t o reduce n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n . Coatings should be a p p l i e d o n l y
t o t h o s e p o r t i o n s of t h e p i l e a n t i c i p a t e d t o be w i t h i n a zone of BLbsidence
and t h e lower p o r t i o n of t h e p i l e ( a t l e a s t t e n times t h e d i a m e t e r ) should
remain uncoated so t h a t t h e f;ll ldwer s h a f t and p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e may be
mobilized. Reductions of n e g a t i v e f r i c t i o n of 50% o r g r e a t e r have been mea-
s u r e d f o r bituminous c o a t i n g s on c o n c r e t e and s t e e l p i l i n g ( s e e Reference 1 7 ,
Reducing Negative Skin F r i c t i o n w i t h Bitumen Layers, by Claessen and Horvat,
and Reference 18, Reduction of Negative Skin F r i c t i o n on S t e e l P i l e s t o Rock,
by Bjerrum, e t a l . ) .
 S e c t i o n 4. PILE INSTALLATION AND LOAD TESTS

1. PILE INSTALLATION.

a. General C r i t e r i a . See Table 6.

b. I n s t a l l a t i o n Techniques. Table 7 summarizes t h e more common s u p p l e -

mentary procedures and appurtenances used i n d r i v e n p i l e i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

c. P i l e Driving Hammers. Table 8 (Reference 6) summarizes t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e more common types of hammers i n u s e i n t h e U.S. Figure
5 shows p r i n c i p a l o p e r a t i o n of p i l e d r i v e r s (modified from Reference 6 ) :

( 1 ) Drop Hammer. Generally, i t i s only a p p r o p r i a t e on s m a l l ,

r e l a t i v e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e jobs due t o t h e i r slow r a t e of blows.

( 2 ) S i n g l e Action Steam o r Air Hammers. Blow r a t e i s h i g h e r t h a n

drop hammer with maximum speeds g e n e r a l l y ranging from about 35 t o 60 blows
per minute. S i n g l e a c t i n g hammers have an advantage over double a c t i n g
hammers when d r i v i n g pi.les i n f i r m cohesive s o i l s s i n c e t h e slower r a t e a l l o w s
t h e s o i l and p i l e t o r e l a x before s t r i k i n g t h e next blow; thereby , g i v i n g
g r e a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n p e r blow. I n d r i v i n g b a t t e r p i l e s , s i n g l e a c t i n g hammers
can l o s e c o n s i d e r a b l e energy due t o t h e s h o r t e n i n g f a l l and i n c r e a s e s i n
friction.

( 3 ) Double Acting Steam o r A i r Hammers. They provide a blow r a t e

n e a r l y double t h a t of t h e s i n g l e a c t i n g hammers and l o s e less energy d r i v i n g
b a t t e r p i l e s . They a r e g e n e r a l l y b e s t s u i t e d f o r d r i v i n g p i l e s i n g r a n u l a r
s o i l s o r i n s o f t clays. The energy per blow d e l i v e r e d by a double-acting
hammer decreases r a p i d l y a s i t s speed of o p e r a t i o n drops below t h e r a t e d
speed.

( 4 ) D i e s e l Hammers. They have a r e l a t i v e l y low f u e l consumption,

o p e r a t e without a u x i l i a r y equipment, and can o p e r a t e a t low temperatures and
a r e more e f f i c i e n t f o r d r i v i n g b a t t e r p i l e s . Maximum blow r a t e s a r e about 35
t o 60 blows p e r minute f o r s i n g l e a c t i n g and about 80 t o 100 blows p e r minute
f o r double a c t i n g . Diesel hammers o p e r a t e b e s t i n medium t o hard ground; i n
s o f t ground t h e r e s i s t a n c e and r e s u l t i n g compression may be too low t o i g n i t e
the fuel.

(5) Vibratory Hammers. They a r e b e s t s u i t e d t o w e t s o i l s and low

displacement p i l e s but o c c a s i o n a l l y have been used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c o h e s i v e
s o i l s and 'with h i g h displacement p i l e s . They can a l s o be e f f e c t i v e i n ex-
t r a c t i n g p i l e s . When c o n d i t i o n s a r e s u i t a b l e , v i b r a t o r y hammers have s e v e r a l
advantages over impact hammers i n c l u d i n g lower d r i v i n g v i b r a t i o n s , reduced
n o i s e , g r e a t e r speed of p e n e t r a t i o n and v i r t u a l l y complete e l i m i n a t i o n of
p i l e damage. However, t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e . p i l e may not be e f f i-
c i e n t l y advanced, o b s t r u c t i o n s g e n e r a l l y can not be p e n e t r a t e d , and t h e r e i s
no g e n e r a l l y accepted method of determining u l t i m a t e p i l e c a p a c i t y based on
t h e r a t e of p e n e t r a t i o n .
 TABLE 6
General Criteria for I n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l e Foundations
- --

GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS

PW

OVER BURDEN

- d 5
SKETCH A
LMINIMUM
AREA 2 SUM OF PILE LOPDS
A W A B L E BEARING CAPAClTY

AT LEAST 2 INTERIOR ANGLES 60'

REQUIRED MIN. PlLE SPACING

SKETCH B

ITEM CRITERIA AND LIMITATIONS

WNERAL REPUIRFMENTS
MINIMUM SWING
-
(CENTER TO CENTER) (I) PlLES TO ROCK : TWICE THE AVERAGE PlLE DIAMETER OR 1.75 TIMES THE
DIAGONAL DIMENSION OF P I E CROSS SECTION, BUT NO LESS THAN 24':

(2) ALL OTHER PILES: TWICE THE AVERAGE MAMETER OFTHE PlLE OR 1.75 VMES
THE DIAGONAL DIMENSION OF PlLE CROSS SECTION, BUT NO LESS THAN 30: IN
ADDITION ,THE MINIMUM SPACING SHALL BE LIMITED BY THE REQUIREMENT
THAT THE PlLE LOAD DISTRIBUTED INTO THE BEARING STRATUM SHALL NOf
EXCEED THE NOMINAL BEARING CAWITY OF THE STRATUM (TABLE I,
CHAPTER 4. ).PILES OR PlLE GROUPS SHALL BE ASSUMED TO TRANSFER THEIR
LOADS TO THE UNDERLYING MATERIALS BY SPREADING THE LDAD UNIFORMLY AT
AN ANGLE OF 6j1° WITH THE HORIZONTAL, STARTING AT A POLYGON
CIRCUMSCRIBING THE PILES AT THE TOP OF THE BEARING !7RATUM IN WHICH
THEY ARE EMBEDDED. THE AREA CONSIDERED AS SUPPORTING THE LOAD SHALL
NOT EXTEND BEYOND THE INTERSECTION OF THE 60' PLANES OF ADJACENT
PlLES OR PlLE GROUPS. (SEE SKETCH A )

MINIMUM NUMBER OF
PILES IN GROUP -
8-
PlLE GROUPS SUPPORTING SUPERSTRUCTURE UMS NORMALLY CONSIST OF AT
LEAST 3 PlLES (FOR ARRANGEMENT SEE SKETCH B),EXCEPT FOR INDIVIDUAL PILES
SUPPORTING THE FLOOR SLAB OR IN CASES WHERE LATERALTIES ARE PRUUIDED.
 TA.BLE 6 (continued)
General C r i t e r i a f o r I n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l e Foundations

Item C r i t e r i a and L i m i t a t i o n s

S i n g l e p i l e s u p p o r t s may be used i f t h e p i l e has a b u t t diameter of 12" o r

g r e a t e r , i f t h e upper s o i l s a r e not of a weak n a t u r e , and i f proper
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given t o reinforcement of column and p i l e t o accommodate
potential eccentricities.

Embedment i n p i l e cap. Tops of p i l e s s h a l l extend a t l e a s t 4" i n t o t h e p i l e cap.

Pile length ........... No p i l e s h a l l be s h o r t e r t h a n 10 f e e t .

Tolerances i n p i l e
l o c a t i o n and alinement ( 1 ) V e r t i c a l p i l e s s h a l l n o t vary more than 2 p e r c e n t from t h e plumb p o s i t i o n .

( 2 ) No p i l e s h a l l be d r i v e n more t h a n 4" i n h o r i z o n t a l dimension from i t s design

l o c a t i o n , u n l e s s t h e e f f e c t of t h i s d e v i a t i o n i s analyzed and found a c c e p t a b l e

(3) E c c e n t r i c i t y of r e a c t i o n of t h e p i l e group with r e s p e c t t o t h e l o a d

r e s u l t a n t s h a l l not exceed a dimension t h a t would produce overloads of
more t h a n 10 percent i n any p i l e .

Driving Order......... P i l e groups s h a l l be d r i v e n from t h e i n t e r i o r outward t o preclude d e n s i f i c a t i o n

and e x c e s s i v e l y hard d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s on t h e i n t e r i o r .
Allowable loads:

.... ..
Allowable overload of
piles-. 0.
(1) Up t o 10 percent overload i s permitted due t o e c c e n t r i c i t y of r e a c t i o n
of t h e p i l e group.

(2) Overload due t o wind i s permitted i f i t does n o t exceed 33 p e r c e n t of

allowable c a p a c i t y of p i l e under dead p l u s l i v e loads.

Item
L a t e r a l l o a d s on
v e r t i c a l piles........
R e l a t i v e load c a p a c i t y
of p i l e s i n a group...
Maximum allowable p i l e
load..................
S t a t i c and dynamic
pick-up loads.......
Splices.............,.
Load t e s t s :
tests.. o.............. Load t e s t s t o
Conditions r e q u i r i n g
TABLE 6 (continued)
General C r i t e r i a f o r I n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l e Foundations
C r i t e r i a and L i m i t a t i o n s
Maximum 1 t o n p e r p i l e , i f p i l e i s embedded i n s o i l f o r i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h ,
except t h a t no l a t e r a l load i s permitted on v e r t i c a l p i l e s i n very s o f t f i n e -
grained s o i l s o r very l o o s e coarse-grained s o i l s . For p i l e s with unsupported
l e n g t h o r f o r l a r g e r h o r i z o n t a l l o a d s , use b a t t e r p i l e s o r use a n a l y s i s of
Figure 10 t o determine l a t e r a l load c a p a c i t y of v e r t i c a l p i l e s .
A l l bearing p i l e s w i t h i n a group s h a l l be of t h e same type and be of e q u a l
load capacity.
S h a l l be l i m i t e d by both allowable stress i n p i l e a s given i n Table 1 and
supporting c a p a c i t y of s o i l .
Induced f l e x u r a l s t r e s s e s i n c u r r e d during pick-up and placement of long con-
c r e t e p i l e s s h a l l not exceed t h e allowable bending s t r e s s e s p r e s c r i b e d f o r
t h a t p i l e length.
S h a l l be a b l e t o t r a n s m i t t h e r e s u l t a n t v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s ade-
quately.
be performed f o r any of t h e following c o n d i t i o n :
( 1 ) To v e r i f y o r modify e s t i m a t e of p i l e load c a p a c i t y determined by o t h e r
means.

Item
Number of load t e s t s . .
Supervision:
Inspection............
Records...............
General items t o be
checked..............,
TABLE 6 (continued)
General C r i t e r i a f o r I n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l e Foundations
C r i t e r i a and L i m i t a t i o n s
( 2 ) Where s i z e of p r o j e c t and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t s a v i n g s
i s possible.
(3) Where unique o r u n f a m i l i a r types a r e t o be used.
(4) Where bearing stratum i s u n d e r l a i n by a more compressible o r ques-
t i o n a b l e stratum.
A minimum of 3 test p i l e s s h a l l be driven p e r i n s t a l l a t i o n with uniform sub-
s o i l conditions. Two of t h e s e p i l e s s h a l l be test loaded, but no l e s s than 1
load t e s t f o r each 15,000 square f e e t of b u i l d i n g area.
A l l p i l e d r i v i n g p r o j e c t s s h a l l have on t h e s i t e i n s p e c t i o n by a person who
has experience i n such work, p r e f e r a b l y a Registered P r o f e s s i o n a l Engineer.
Records s h a l l be kept f o r t h e d r i v i n g of each p i l e . The record s h a l l include:
d a t e of d r i v i n g , type, s i z e , l e n g t h , d e v i a t i o n from design l o c a t i o n and a l i g n -
ment, p i l e hammer used, hammer speed, type and c o n d i t i o n of cushion, and blows
per f o o t f o r each foot of p e n e t r a t i o n f o r t h e f u l l l e n g t h of t h e p i l e , blows
p e r i n c h f o r t h e f i n a l 6 inches of d r i v i n g , except where an abrupt high
i n c r e a s e i n r e s i s t a n c e i s encountered, t h e f i n a l counts may be reduced t o
p e n e t r a t i o n f o r t h e l a s t 5 blows.
M a t e r i a l , q u a l i t y of t h e p i l e s t r a i g h t n e s s , a p p l i c a t i o n of p r e s e r v a t i v e s ,
radiographic i n s p e c t i o n of marine p i l i n g welds. For l i g h t weight mandrel
d r i v e n s h e l l p i l e s , check i n t e r i o r f o r damage p r i o r t o concreting, check
d r i v i n g equipment f o r o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s .
 TABLE 7
Supplementary P r o c e d u r e s and Appurtenances Used i n P i l e D r i v i n g
Method Equipment and procedure utilized
Means of reducing driving
resistance above bearing
stratum:
Temporary casing.. .. . .
. Open end pipe casing driven and
cleaned out. May be pulled later.
Precoring.. ........... . By continuous flight auger or churn
drill, a hole is formed into which
the pile is lowered. P i l e is then
driven t o bearing below the cored
hole.
Spudding . ......... .... Heavy structural sections or closed
end pipes are alternately raised
and dropped t o form a hole into
which pile is lowered. P i l e is
then driven to bearing below the
jets are sometimes
driven with large butt downward.
timber or steel pipes.
jacks are used to advance pile.
Applicability
a. T o drive through minor obstructions.
b. T o minimize displacement.
c. To prevent caving or squeezing of holes.
d. T o permit concretingof pile before excavation
to subgrade of foundation.
a. To drive through thick stratum of stiff to
hard cloy.
b. T o avoid displacement and heave of surround-
ing soil.
c. To avoid injury to timber and thin shell pipes.
d. To eliminate driving resistance in strata un-
suitable for bearing.
a. To drive past individual obstruction
b. To drive through strata of fill with large
boulders or rock fragments.
a. T o be used instead of pile hammer where
access is difficult.
 TABLE 8
Impact ana V i b r a t o r y P i l e - D r i v e r Data
'\

I 1. IMPACT PILE HAMMER

** Weight
Rated Stroke Strikirg Total
Energy Make of Blows a t Rated Parts Weigh
Kip - f t . Hammer* Model No. per min Energy Kips Kips

180.0 Vulcan S-A 62 36 60.0 121.0

130.0 MKT S-A 55 39 40.0 96.0
120.0 Vulcan S-A 60 36 40.0 87.5
113.5 S-Vulcan Diff. 100 16.5 40.0 83.0
97.5 rn S-A 60 39 30.0 - 86.0
79.6 KObe Dies. 52 98 9.2 22.0
60.0 Vulcan S-A 60 36 20.0 39.0
60.0 MKT S-A 60 36 20.0 38.6
56.5 Kobe Dies. 52 98 7.0 15.4
50.2 S-Vulcan Mff. 98 15.5 20.0 39.0
48.7 Vulcan S-A 60 36 16.2 30.2
48.7 Raymond S-A 46 39 15.0 23.0
44.5 Kobe Dies. 52 98 4.8 10.6
42.0 Vulcan S-A 60 36 14.0 27.5
40.6 R v n d S-A 50 39 12.5 21.0
39.8 Delmag Dies. 52 N/A 4.8 10.0
37.5 rn S-A 60 32 14.0 31.6
36.0 S-Vulcan Diff. 103 15.5 14.0 27.9
32.5 MKT S-A 55 39 10.0 22.2
32.5 Vulcan S-A 50 39 10.0 18.7
32.5 Raymond S-A 50 39 10.0 18.5
32.0 MKT Dies. 48 96 4.0 11.2
30.2 Vulcan S-A 50, 39 9.3 16.7
26.3 Link-Belt Mes. 82 43.2 5.0 12.5
26.0 MKT D-A 81 20 8.0 18.7
26.0 Vulcan S-A 50 39 8.0 16.7
26.0 MKT S-A 55 39 8.0 18.1
24.4 S-Vulcan Diff. 111 16.2 8.0 17.8
24.4 Vulcan Mff. 111 N/A 8.0 18.4
24.3 Vulcan S-A 50 39 7.5 16.2
24.0 MKT D-A 90 18 8.0 17.7
22.6 Dehg Dies. 51 N/A 2.7 5.4
22.4 MKT Dies. 48 96 2.8 9.0
24.4 Kobe Dies. 52 98 2.8 6.4
19.8 Union D-A 110 24 3.0 14.5
19.8 MKT D-A 95 19 5.0 14.5
19.5 Vulcan S-A 60 36 6.5 11.2
19.2 S-Vulcan Mff. 117 15.5 6.5 14.8
18.2 Link-Belt Mes. 88 36.9 4.0 10.3
 TABLE 8 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Impact and V i b r a t o r y P i l e - D r i v e r Data

Weight
Rated** Stroke Striking Total
Energy Make of Blows atRated Parts Weight
Kip-f t Hammer* Model No. Types* per min Energy Kips Kips

16.2 MKT S5 S-A 60 39 5.0 12.3

16.0 Mm. DE-20 Dies. 48 96 2 .O 6.3
16.0
15.1
MKT
S-Vulcan
C5
50C
Comp
Dif f.
. 110
120
18
15.5
5.0
5 .O
11.8
11.7
15.1 Vulcan 5M Diff. 120 15.5 5.0 12.9
15.0 Vulcan 1 S-A 60 36 5.0 10.1
15.0 Link-Belt 312 Dies. 100 30.9 3.8 10.3
13.1 Ma.' 10B3 D-A 105 19 3.0 10.6
12.7 Union 1 D-A 125 21 1.6 10.0
9.0 DeI= D5 Dies. 51 N/A 1.1 2.4
9.0 MKT C-3 P A 130 16 3.0 8.5
9 .O MKT S3 S-A 65 36 3.0 8.8
8.8 MKT DE- 10 Dies. 48 96 11.0 3.5
8.7 MKT 9B3 D-A 145 17 1.6 7.0
8.2 Union 1.5A D-A 135 18 1.5 9.2
8.1 Link-Belt 180 Dies. 92 37.6 1.7 4.5
7.2 Vulcan 2 S-A 70 29.7 3.0 7.1
7.2 S-Vulcan 30C Diff. 133 12.5 3.0 7.0
7.2 Vulcan 3M Diff. 133 N/A 3.0 8.4
6.5 Link-Belt 105 Dies. 94 35.2 1.4 3.8
4.9 Vulcan DGH900 Diff. 238 10 .9 5.0
3.6 Union 3 D-A 160 14 .7 4.7
3.6 MKT 7 D-A 225 9.5 .8 5.0
.4 Union 6 D-A 340 7 .1 -9
.4
.4
Vulcan
MKT
DGHl OOA
3
D if f
D-A
. 303
400
6
5.7
.1
.06
.8
-7
.3 Union 7A D-A 400 6 -08 -5

* Codes

MKT -McKiernan-Terry D-A -

Double-Acting
S-Vulcan -Su'per-Vulcan Diff. -
Differential
S-A -Single-Acting Dies. -
Diesel
Comp. - Compound
** In calculations of p i l e capacities by dynamic formula, e f f e c t i v e energy delivered by
hammr should be used. Hammer energy i s affected by pressures used t o operate t h e
hammer, stroke r a t e , etc. Double-acting, d i f f e r e n t i a l , and d i e s e l hammers may
operate a t less than rated energies; double-acting hammrs deliver s i g n i f i c a n t l y less
than rated energy when operated a t l e s s than rated speed. Consult manufacturers.
 TABLE 8 (continued)
Impact and Vibratory Pile-Driver Data

2. VIBRATORY DRNWS

Frequency Force Kips***,

Total Weight Available Range Frequency
Make hodel Kips HP cps cps

Foster 2-17 6.2 34 18-2 1

(France) 2-35 9.1 70 14-19 62/19
2-50 11.2 100 11-17 101117

Men& M\r 622-30 4.8 50 481

(Germany) MVB65-30 2.0 7.5 141
IWB44-30 8.6 100 971

Muller MS-26 9.6 72

(Germany) MS-26D 16.1 145

Uraga VHW1 8.4 40 16-20 43/20

(Japan) VHD-2 11.9 80 16-20 86/20
VHD-3 15.4 120 16-20 129120

Bodine B 22 1000 0-1% 631100 - 175/100

(USA)

(Russia) BT-5 2.9 37 42 48/42

WP-2 4.9 54 25 49/25
100 4.0 37 13 44/13
VP 11.0 80 6.7 3517
VP-4 25.9 208 1981

*** Forces g i w n a r e present maximums. These can usually be raised o r lor~eredby

changing w i g h t s i n the oscillator.
 AIR OR STEAM

WEIGHT

(A) DROP (6) SINGLE-ACTING (C) DIFFERENTIAL (D) DIESEL (E) VIBRATORY
HAMMER HAMMERS AND HAMMERS MilVER
DOUBLE-ACTING
HAMMERS

FIGURE 5
Principles of Operation of P i l e Drivers
 d. I n s p e c t i o n Guidelines. See Table 6 f o r g e n e r a l guidance and Refer-
ence 19, I n s p e c t o r s ' Manual f o r P i l e Foundations, by t h e Deep Foundation
Institute.
- .
( 1 ) Driven P i l e s . The i n s p e c t o r should normally a s s e s s t h e perform-
ance of t h e d r i v i n g equipment, record t h e d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e f i n a l s e t ( n e t p e n e t r a t i o n p e r blow), record t h e d r i v e n depth and t i p
e l e v a t i o n , and c o n t i n u a l l y observe t h e p i l e f o r evidence of damage o r e r r a t i c
driving. The c r i t e r i a f o r t e r m i n a t i o n of p i l e d r i v i n g i s normally a p e n e t r a -
t i o n r e s i s t a n c e c r i t e r i a o r a r e q u i r e d depth of p e n e t r a t i o n . Normally, a set
c r i t e r i a would be used f o r end bearing p i l e s o r p i l e s where s o i l f r e e z e i s n o t
a major f a c t o r while p e n e t r a t i o n c r i t e r i a would be more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r f r i c -
t i o n p i l e s , p i l e s i n t o c l a y , and/or when s o i l f r e e z e i s a major f a c t o r .

( a ) Timber P i l e s . (Reference 20, AWPI Technical G u i d e l i n e s

f o r Pressure-Treated Wood, Timber P i l i n g , and A S R l Standard D25, Round Timber
P i l e s . ) S i t e E n g i n e e r l I n s p e c t o r should check t h e following items:

- O v e r s t r e s s i n g a t t h e top of p i l e , u s u a l l y v i s i b l e
brooming.

- Properly f i t t e d d r i v i n g cap.

- Straightness.
- Sound wood f r e e of decay and i n s e c t a t t a c k .

- Pressure treatment.
- Low frequency of knots.
( b ) Concrete P i l e s . (Reference 21, Recommendations f o r
Design, Manufacture, and I n s t a l l a t i o n of Concrete P i l e s , by t h e American
Concrete I n s t i t u t e . ) S i t e Engineer/Inspector should check t h e f o l l o w i n g
items:

- That p i l e l e n g t h , geometry, t h i c k n e s s , and s t r a i g h t n e s s

conforms t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

- Note e x t e n t , amount, and l o c a t i o n of s p a l l i n g o r crack-

i n g i n t h e p i l e during d r i v i n g and p i c k up, and set.

- Thickness and type of cushion - should comply w i t h

specification.

(c) S t e e l Piles. S i t e Engineer/Inspector should check t h e

following items:

- Compliance with a p p l i c a b l e codes and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

- S t r u c t u r a l damage t o p i l e due t o over-driving/

overstressing.

- P i l e o r i e n t a t i o n conforms t o t h e plans.
 ( 2 ) D r i l l e d P i e r s . Minimum requirements f o r proper i n s p e c t i o n of
d r i l l e d s h a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a s follows:

(a) For Dry o r Casing Method of Construction;

-A q u a l i f i e d i n s p e c t o r should record t h e m a t e r i a l t y p e s
being removed from t h e hole a s excavation proceeds.

- When t h e bearing s o i l has been encountered and

i d e n t i f i e d and/or t h e designated t i p e l e v a t i o n has been
reached, t h e s h a f t w a l l s and base should be observed f o r
anomalies, unexpected s o f t s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , o b s t r u c t i o n s
o r caving.

- Concrete placed f r e e f a l l should not be allowed t o h i t

t h e s i d e w a l l s of t h e excavation.

- S t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e b a r cage should be main-

t a i n e d during t h e c o n c r e t e pour t o prevent buckling.

- The volume of c o n c r e t e should be checked t o ensure v o i d s

d i d not r e s u l t during e x t r a c t i o n of t h e casing.

- Concrete must be tremied i n t o p l a c e with an adequate

head t o d i s p l a c e water o r s l u r r y i f groundwater has
e n t e r e d t h e bore hole.

- P u l l i n g c a s i n g with i n s u f f i c i e n t c o n c r e t e i n s i d e should
be r e s t r i c t e d .

- Bottom of hole should be cleaned.

(b) For S l u r r y Displacement Method of Construction.

- A check on t h e c o n c r e t e volume and recording t h e mate-

r i a l types and depth of s h a f t apply t h e same a s above.

- The tremie p i p e should be w a t e r t i g h t and should be

f i t t e d with some form of valve a t t h e lower end.

( 3 ) Caissons on Rock. I n s p e c t i o n of c a i s s o n bottom i s u s u a l l y

accomplished by e i t h e r :

( a ) Probing with a 2-112" diameter probe hole t o a minimum of 8

f e e t o r 1.5 times t h e c a i s s o n s h a f t diameter (whichever i s l a r g e r ) .

( b ) Visual i n s p e c t i o n by a q u a l i f i e d g e o l o g i s t a t c a i s s o n bot-
tom with proper s a f e t y precautions o r from t h e s u r f a c e u t i l i z i n g a borehole
camera. The purpose of t h e i n s p e c t i o n i s t o determine t h e e x t e n t of seams,
c a v i t i e s and f r a c t u r e s . The allowable cumulative seam t h i c k n e s s w i t h i n t h e
probe depth v a r i e s depending on performance c r i t e r i a . Values a s low a s 114"
of cumulative t h i c k n e s s can be s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e top 112 diameter.
 e. I n s t a l l a t i o n Guidelines.

(1) Driven P i l e s .

( a ) For p i l e groups, d r i v e i n t e r i o r p i l e s f i r s t t o a v o i d hard

d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , o v e r s t r e s s i n g , and t o minimize heave.

(b) Make s u r e p i l e d r i v i n g caps and/or cushions are a p p r o p r i -

ate.

( c ) Check f o r compression bands around t h e t o p of c o n c r e t e and

timber p i l e s t o avoid o v e r s t r e s s i n g .

(d) Check f o r proper alignment of t h e d r i v i n g head.

( e ) I f t h e p i l e suddenly changes d i r e c t i o n s o r a s u b s t a n t i a l l y
reduced d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s noted, t h e p i l e i s probably broken.

Table 9 summarizes some of t h e common i n s t a l l a t i o n problems and

recommended procedures. Table 10 (Reference 22, D r i l l e d S h a f t s : Design and
Construction Guideline Manual. Vol 1: Construction Procedures and Desien f o r
Axial Load, by Reese and Wright) summarizes some of t h e more common i n s t a l l a -
-
t i o n problems and procedures f o r d r i l l e d p i e r s .

( 2 ) Performance Tolerance. It i s normal p r a c t i c e t o t a i l o r t h e

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t o p a r t i c u l a r s i t e c o n d i t i o n s and t o s t r u c t u r a l performance
c r i t e r i a . I n many a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e following c r i t e r i a may apply:

( a ) Allowable Deviation,from S p e c i f i e d Location. I n t h e

absence of another over-riding p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a , use 4 i n c h e s .
Consider t h e t e c h n i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y of i n c r e a s i n g t o more than 4 i n c h e s f o r
caps with 4 p i l e s o r less.

( b ) Allowable out-of-vertical. I n t h e absence of t h e over-

r i d i n g p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a , use 2% provided t h a t t h e a l l o w a b l e
d e v i a t i o n i s not exceeded. Values of 4%, 2% and 1/4 i n c h o u t of plumb have
been used.

( c ) Allowable Heave Before Redriving. Require r e d r i v i n g of

p i l e s i f heave exceeds 0.01 f e e t f o r e s s e n t i a l l y f r i c t i o n p i l e s , o r any
d e t e c t a b l e heave i f p i l e s a r e known t o be e s s e n t i a l l y end-bearing.

( d ) Minimum Distance of P i l e Being Driven from Fresh Concrete.

I n t h e absence of over-riding p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a , u s e 15 f e e t .
Values of 10 f e e t t o 50 f e e t have been used i n p r a c t i c e .

Treatment of F i e l d Problems Encountered During P i l e D r i v i n p
I Description of problem
Category:
Obstructions: Old foundations, boulders, rubble
fill, cemented lenses, and similar obstacles to
driving.
General problems:
Vibration in Driving: May compact loose granular
materials causing settlement of existing struc-
( tures near piles. Effect most pronounced i n
driving displacement piles.
Damage to Thin Shells: Driven shells may have
been crimped, buckled, or torn, or be leaking a t
joints a s the results of driving difficulties or
presence of obstructions.
Inappropriate Use of P i l e Driving Formula: P i l e s
driven t o a penetration determined solely by
driving resistance may be bearing i n a compres-
sible stratum. This may occur i n thick strata of
silty fine sarid, varved silts and clays, or me-
dium stiff cohesive soils.
Difficulties a t pile tip:
Fracturing of Bearing Materials: Fracturing of ma-
terial immediately below tips of piles driven t o
required resistance a s a result of driving adja-
cent piles. Brittle weathered rock, clay-shale,
shale, siltstone, and sandstone are vulnerable
materials. Swelling of stiff fissured clays or
shales a t pile tip may complicate this problem.
Steeply Sloping Rock Surface: Tips of high capac-
ity end bearing piles may slide or move laterally
on a steeply sloping surface of sound hard rock
which h a s little or no overlying weathered ma-
terial.
L o s s of Ground: May occur during installation of
open end pipe piles. Materials vulnerable t o
piping, particularly fine sands or silts, may flow
into pipe under the influence of a n outside dif-
ferential head, causing settlement i n surrounding
areas or l o s s of ground beneath tips of adjacent
piles.
Movement of piles subsequent to driving:
Heave: Completed piles rise vertically a s the re- For piles of solid cross sections (timber, steel, precast con-
sult of driving adjacent piles. Particularly com-
mon for displacement piles i n soft clays and me-
dium compact granular soils. Heave becomes
serious i n soft clays when volume displaced by
piles exceeds 2%% of volume of soil enclosed
within the limits of the pile foundation.
Lateral Movement of Piles: Completed piles move Survey horizontal position of completed piles during the driving
horizontally a s the result of driving adjacent of adjacent piles. Movement is controlled by procedures used
piles.
TABLE 9
Procedures to be applied
I -
Excavate or break up shallow obstruction if practical. For
deeper obstructions use spudding, jetting, or temporary c a s -
ings, or u s e drive shoes and reinforced tips where pile is
strong enough to be driven through obstructions.
Select pile type with minimum disp!acement, and/or precore or
jet with temporary casing or substitute jacking for pile driv-
1 ing. I
Each pile is inspected with light beam. If diameter a t any lo-
cation varies more than 15% from original diameter or if other
damage t o shell cannot be repaired, pile is abandoned, filled
with sand and a replacement is driven. Concrete shall b e
vlaced in dry shell only.
I
Unsuitable bearing strata should be determined by exploration
-program. P i l e s should not be permitted to stop in these I
I-strata, regardless of driving resistance. For bearing i n stiff
and-brittle cohesive soils and i n soft rock. load t e s t s a r e
particularly important.
For piles bearing in these materials specify driving resistance
t e s t o n selected piles after completion of driving adjacent
piles. If damage .to the bearing stratum is evidenced, require
redriving until specified resistance is met.
Provide special shoes or pointed tips or use open end pipe
pile socketed into sound rock.
Avoid cleaning i n advance of pile cutting edge, and/or retain
sufficient material within pipe t o prevent inflow of s o i l from
below.
crete), survey top elevations during driving of adjacent piles
t o determine possible heave. For piles that have risen more
than 0.01 ft, redrive to at least the former tip elevation, and
beyond that a s necessary to reach required driving resistance.
Heave is minimized by driving temporary open-end casing,
precoring, or jetting s o that total volume displaced by pile
driving is l e s s than 2 or 3% of total volume enclosed within
limits of pile foundation.
to minimize heave.

Drilled Piers:
Problem
Pouring c o n c r e t e through wqter
Segregation of c o n c r e t e during
placing
R e s t r i c t e d flow of c o n c r e t e
through o r arouna r e b a r cage
Torsional buckling of r e b a r
cage during c o n c r e t e placement
with casing method
P u l l i n g casing with
i n s u f f i c i e n t concrete i n s i d e
Weak s o i l o r undetected c a v i t y
beneath base of foundation
Deformation o r c o l l a p s e of s o i l
TABLE 10
Construction Problems
Solution
Removal of water by b a i l i n g o r use o f
tremie
I f f r e e - f a l l i s employed, e x e r c i s i n g c a r e
t o see t h a t concrete f a l l s t o f i n a l
l o c a t i o n without s t r i k i n g anything, o r u s e
of t r emie
Designing of r e b a r cage with adequate
spacing f o r normal c o n c r e t e ( a l l c l e a r
spaces a t l e a s t t h r e e times t h e s i z e of
l a r g e s t aggregate) o r u s e of s p e c i a l mix
with small-sized c o a r s e aggregate
Strengthening r e b a r cage by use of
c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l bands welded t o lower
p o r t i o n of cage, u s e of c o n c r e t e w i t h
improved flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , use of
r e t a r d e r i n c o n c r e t e allowing c a s i n g t o be
p u l l e d very slowly
Always having casing extending above
ground s u r f a c e and always having c a s i n g
f i l l e d w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t head of c o n c r e t e
with good flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e f o r e
casing i s p u l l e d
Requiring e x p l o r a t i o n t o a depth of a few
diameters below t h e bottom of t h e
excavation
Such problems a r e r e a d i l y detected by
even t h e minimums of i n s p e c t i o n
2. PILE LOAD TEST.

a. ~ e n e r a l . The r e s u l t s of p i l e l o a d t e s t s a r e t h e most r e l i a b l e means

of e v a l u a t i n g t h e l o a d c a p a c i t y of a deep foundation. Load tests can be p e r -
formed d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n phase as a d e s i g n t o o l and/or d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o
v e r i f y d e s i g n loads. P i l e l o a d tests should be considered f o r l a r g e and/ o r
c r i t i c a l p r o j e c t s , f o r p i l e t y p e s and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s f o r which t h e r e i s
l i m i t e d p r e v i o u s l o c a l experience, when proposed d e s i g n l o a d s exceed t h o s e
normally used, and f o r o t h e r d e s i g n / s i t e c o n d i t i o n s such a s t h e need t o u s e
lower t h a n s p e c i f i e d f a c t o r of s a f e t y i n t h e design.

The t y p e s of p i l e l o a d t e s t s normally performed i n c l u d e :

( 1 ) Standard Loading Procedures o r Slow Maintained-Load T e s t Method.

For procedure, r e f e r t o ASTM Standard D3689, I n d i v i d u a l P i l e s under S t a t i c
A x i a l T e n s i l e Load. It i s t h e most common l o a d t e s t c u r r e n t l y used. It i s a
long d u r a t i o n t e s t ( t y p i c a l l y 70 hours o r l o n g e r ) loaded t o 200 p e r c e n t of t h e
d e s i g n l o a d , o r t o f a i l u r e . To determine curve of p l a s t i c deformation, t h e
t e s t procedure should be a l t e r e d t o i n c l u d e a t l e a s t t h r e e unload-reload
c y c l e s . T h i s procedure i s d e s c r i b e d i n ASTM Standard D1143, P i l e Under A x i a l
Compressive Load.

( 2 ) Quick Maintained-Load T e s t Method. For p r o c e d u r e , r e f e r t o ASTM

Standard D1143. This i s a s h o r t d u r a t i o n t e s t , t y p i c a l l y 1 t o 4 h o u r s , gen-
e r a l l y loaded t o 300 p e r c e n t of t h e d e s i g n l o a d o r f a i l u r e . It i s s u i t a b l e
f o r d e s i g n l o a d t e s t and can be e f f e c t i v e l y used f o r l o a d proof t e s t i n g d u r i n g
c o n s t r u c t ion.

( 3 ) Constant Rate of P e n e t r a t i o n ( o r U p l i f t ) T e s t Method. A d i s -

placement-controlled method. For procedure, r e f e r t o ASTM S t a n d a r d Dl143 o r
ASTM Standard D3689. It i s a s h o r t d u r a t i o n t e s t , t y p i c a l l y 2 t o 3 h o u r s , and
may r e q u i r e s p e c i a l l o a d i n g equipment a s d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 23, A Device
f o r t h e Constant Rate of P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t f o r P i l e s , by Garneau and Samson.
This method i s recommended f o r t e s t i n g p i l e s i n cohesive s o i l s and f o r a l l
t e s t s where o n l y t h e u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y i s t o be measured. The method can
provide i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g behavior of f r i c t i o n p i l e s and i s w e l l s u i t e d
f o r l o a d t e s t s d u r i n g design.

b. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of R e s u l t s . There a r e numerous procedures f o r i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n of p i l e l o a d t e s t r e s u l t s i n c l u d i n g t h o s e s p e c i f i e d by l o c a l b u i l d -
i n g codes. A d e f l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a i s normally used t o d e f i n e f a i l u r e . I n t h e
absence of a n o v e r - r i d i n g p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a , u s e 314 i n c h n e t
s e t t l e m e n t a t twice t h e d e s i g n load. Values of 114 and 1 i n c h a t twice t h e
design l o a d and 1/4 i n c h a t t h r e e t i m e s t h e d e s i g n l o a d have been used. Fig-
u r e 6 p r e s e n t s a procedure f o r determining t h e f a i l u r e load based on a perma-
n e n t s e t of 0.15 + D/120 i n c h e s (where D i s t h e p i l e diameter i n i n c h e s ) . T h i s
procedure can be used f o r e i t h e r of t h e t h r e e t e s t methods p r e s e n t e d above.

Where n e g a t i v e s k i n f r i c t i o n (downdrag) may a c t on t h e p i l e , o n l y

l o a d c a r r i e d by t h e p i l e below t h e compressible zone should be considered.
T h i s may be determined by minimizing s h a f t r e s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e l o a d t e s t
(e.g., p r e d r i l l i n g o v e r s i z e d h o l e , c a s e and c l e a n , u s i n g b e n t o n i t e s l u r r y ,
e t c . ) o r by measuring movement of t i p d i r e c t l y by e x t e n s i o n r o d s a t t a c h e d t o
t h e p i l e t i p and a n a l y z i n g t e s t r e s u l t s i n accordance w i t h F i g u r e 7.
I APPLIED LOAD (TONS)
I

TYPICAL TEST PLOT

I
column by: "

Q = t e s t load, l b s
aE= %L Lp = p i l e l e n g t h , i n . ( f o r end-bearing p i l e )
AE A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of p i l e m a t e r i a l ,
sq i n
E = Young's Modulus f o r p i l e m a t e r i a l , p s i
2. Determine s c a l e s of p l o t such t h a t s l o p e of p i l e e l a s t i c compression
l i n e i s approximately 20'.

3.

4.
P l o t p i l e head t o t a l displacment vs. a p p l i e d l o a d .

F a i l u r e l o a d i s d e f i n e d a s t h a t l o a d which produces a displacement of

I
t h e p i l e head e q u a l t o :
D S f = displacement a t f a i l u r e , i n .
sf.=SEt (.15+-)120 D = p i l e diameter, in.

5. Plot f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n a s described i n ( 4 ) , represented a s a s t r a i g h t

l i n e , p a r a l l e l t o l i n e of p i l e e l a s t i c compression. I n t e r s e c t i o n of
f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n with observed l o a d d e f l e c t i o n curve d e f i n e s f a i l u r e
l o a d , Qf.

'6. Where observed l o a d displacement curve does n o t i n t e r s e c t f a i l u r e

c r i t e r i o n , t h e maximum t e s t l o a d should be t a k e n a s t h e f a i l u r e l o a d .

7. Apply f a c t o r of s a f e t y of a t l e a s t 2.0 to f a i l u r e load t o determine

a l l o w a b l e load.

FIGURE 6
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P i l e Load T e s t
 c. P u l l o u t T e s t s . Methods or a e ~ e m ~ l ~ fi anigl u r e load f o r t e n s i o n l o a d
t e s t s vary depending on t h e t o l e r a b l e movement of t h e s t r u c t u r e . In g e n e r a l ,
f a i l u r e load i s more e a s i l y defined than f o r compression load tests s i n c e
a v a i l a b l e r e s i s t a n c e g e n e r a l l y de r e a s e s more d i s t i n c t l y a f t e r reaching f a i l -
ure. F a i l u r e load may be taken t h a t value a t which upward movement sudden-
l y i n c r e a s e s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o l o a d a p p l i e d , i.e. t h e p o i n t of s h a r p e s t
c u r v a t u r e on t h e load-displacement curve.

d. L a t e r a l Load Tests. L a t e r a l load t e s t s a r e u s u a l l y performed by

jacking a p a r t two adjacent p i l e and recording d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e p i l e s f o r
each load increment. See Reference 24, Model Study of L a t e r a l l y Loaded P i l e ,
by Davisson and S a l l e y , f o r f u r t h e r guidance. In some a p p l i c a t i o n s t e s t i n g of
a- p i l e group may be required.

e. Other Comments. A response of a d r i v e n p i l e i n a load t e s t can be

g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e time elapsed between d r i v i n g and t e s t i n g . I n most
c a s e s , a g a i n i n p i l e bearing c a p a c i t y i s experienced w i t h time and i s gov-
erned by t h e r a t e of d i s s i p a t i o n of excess pore water p r e s s u r e s generated by
d r i v i n g t h e p i l e throughout t h e surrounding s o i l mass. This i s f r e q u e n t l y
termed "freezing." The time r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s o i l t o r e g a i n i t s maximum s h e a r
s t r e n g t h can range from a minimum of 3 t o 30 days o r longer. The a c t u a l re-
q u i r e d waiting period may be determined by r e d r i v i n g p i l e s o r from previous
experience. Generally, however, e a r l y t e s t i n g w i l l r e s u l t i n an underestimate
of t h e a c t u a l p i l e c a p a c i t y e s p e c i a l l y f o r p i l e s d e r i v i n g t h e i r c a p a c i t y from
s a t u r a t e d cohesive s o i l s .

P i l e s d r i v e n through s a t u r a t e d dense f i n e sands and s i l t s may experi-

ence l o s s of d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e a f t e r periods of r e s t . When r e d r i v e n a f t e r
p e r i o d s of rest t h e d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e (and bearing c a p a c i t y ) w i l l be less
compared t o t h e i n i t i a l d r i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e (and c a p a c i t y ) . This phenomenon i s
commonly r e f e r r e d t o a s r e l a x a t i o n .

S e c t i o n 5. D I S T R I B ~ I O N OF LOADS ON PILE GROUPS

1. VERTICAL PILE GROUPS.

a. E c c e n t r i c V e r t i c a l Loading. D i s t r i b u t i o n of design load on p i l e s i n

groups i s analyzed by r o u t i n e procedures a s follows:

(1) For d i s t r i b u t i o n of a p p l i e d load e c c e n t r i c about one o r two

axes, s e e Reference 6.

( 2 ) Overload from e c c e n t r i c i t y between a p p l i e d l o a d and c e n t e r of

g r a v i t y of p i l e group s h a l l be permitted up t o 10 percent of allowable working
load when a s a f e t y ' f a c t o r of 2-112 t o 3 i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e working load.

( 3 ) Overload from wind plus o t h e r temporary l i v e l o a d s up t o 33 per-

c e n t of t h e allowable working load i s permitted, when a s a f e t y f a c t o r of 2-112
t o 3 i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e working load.

( 4 ) Except i n unusual circumstances, a l l bearing p i l e s i n a group

s h a l l be of t h e same type, and of equal load capacity.
t

I. IF SKlN FRICTION ACTING ON TEST PlLE MAY BE REVERSED IN THE PROTOTYPE BY CONSOLIDATION
OF MATERIALS ABOVE THE BFARING CrRATUM,ANALYZE UADTEST TD DETERMINE RELATION
OF U)AD VS SETTLEMENT FOR PlLE TIP AUNE .
2. COMPUTE THEORETICAL ELASTIC SHORTENING ASSUMING SEVERAL POSSIBU VARIATIONS OF SKIN
FRICTION ON PlLE AS SHOWN BELOW FOR A CYLINDRICAL PILE.
3. COMPARE THEORETICAL WltH OBSERVED ELASTIC SHORTENING AND DETERMINE PROBABLE
VARIATION OF SKlN FRICTION ON PILE. USING THIS VARIATION OF SKlN FRICTUN, COMPUTE LaAD
AT TIP.

CYLINDRICAL PILE: MODULUS OF ELASTICITY =E

CA=MAXIMUM
SKlN FRICTION
-
QA

I
I

F I I
I
'
/acA ,'
BEARING DIVISION OF APPLIED LOAD IN~ENSITYOF SKIN
STRATUM BETWEEN TIP LOAD ,AND FRICTION
SKlN FRICTION
R =RADIUS A = AREA F = TOTAL SKIN FRICTION

8E = ELASTIC SHORTENING OF PILE WITH

LOAD QA AT BUTT AND Qp' AT TIP.
CASE a,SKIN FRICTION CONSTANT
WITH DEPTH :
L
8~ = (QA-rr R C A L I AE
ap' = L

CASE @ ,SKIN FRICTION DECREASING TD a CA CASE @ ,SKIN FRICTION DECREASING TO

AT TIP : ZERO AT TIP :

BE = ( a * - 2 n ~ ~ ~ ( -3 Q BE = ( Q A - 4 T R3C A L
' Ln ~
QP'=
~ A E ~ E
2,
-+
*

FIGURE 7
Load Test Analysis Where Downdrag Acts on Pile
2. GROUPS WITH VERTICAL AND BATTER PILES. Analyze d i s t r i b u t i o n of p i l e
l o a d s according t o c r i t e r i a i n Reference 25, P i l e Foundations, by C h e l l i s .
The f o l l o w i n g l i m i t a t i o n s apply:

( 1 ) Assume i n c l i n a t i o n of b a t t e r p i l e s no f l a t t e r t h a n 1 h o r i z o n t a l
t o 3 v e r t i c a l u n l e s s s p e c i a l d r i v i n g equipment i s s p e c i f i e d .

( 2 ) When b a t t e r p i l e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n a group, no allowance i s made

f o r p o s s i b l e r e s i s t a n c e of v e r t i c a l p i l e s t o h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s .

( 3 ) For a n a l y s i s of l o a d s on p i l e s i n r e l i e v i n g p l a t f o r m s , s e e
Reference 26, American C i v i l Engineering P r a c t i c e , Vol. 1, by Abbett.

(4) For a n a l y s i s of b a t t e r p i l e anchorage f o r tower guys, s e e F i g u r e

8.

S e c t i o n 6. DEEP FOUNDATIONS ON ROCK

1. GENERAL. For o r d i n a r y s t r u c t u r e s , most rock f o r m a t i o n s p r o v i d e an i d e a l

f o u n d a t i o n capable of s u p p o r t i n g l a r g e l o a d s w i t h n e g l i g i b l e s e t t l e m e n t . Nor-
m a l l y , t h e a l l o w a b l e l o a d s on p i l e s d r i v e n i n t o rock a r e based on p i l e s t r u c -
t u r a l c a p a c i t y while t h e allowable b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s f o r f o o t i n g s / p i e r s on
rock a r e based on a nominal v a l u e s of a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y ( s e e Chapter
4 1.

There a r e however c e r t a i n u n f a v o r a b l e r o c k c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g. , cavernous

l i m e s t o n e , s e e DM-7.1, Chapter 1 ) which can r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e s e t t l e m e n t
and/or f a i l u r e . These p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d s must be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e d e s i g n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n s on rock.

2. PILES DRIVEN INTO ROCK. P i l e s d r i v e n i n t o rock normally meet r e f u s a l a t

a nominal d e p t h below t h e weathered zone and can be designed based on t h e
s t r u c t u r a l c a p a c i t y of t h e p i l e imposed by b o t h t h e dynamic d r i v i n g s t r e s s e s
and t h e s t a t i c stresses. Highly weathered r o c k s such as decomposed g r a n i t e o r
l i m e s t o n e and weakly cemented rocks such as s o f t c l a y - s h a l e s can be t r e a t e d a s
soils.

The p o s s i b i l i t y of buckling below t h e mudline should b e e v a l u a t e d f o r

h i g h c a p a c i t y p i l e d r i v e n through s o f t s o i l s i n t o bedrock ( s e e Reference 27,
The Design of Foundations f o r B u i l d i n g s , by Johnson and Kavanaugh).

3. ALLOWABLE LOADS ON PIERS I N ROCK. P i e r s d r i l l e d through s o i l and a

nominal d e p t h i n t o bedrock shciuld be designed on t h e b a s i s of a n a l l o w a b l e
b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e g i v e n i n Chapter 4 o r o t h e r c r i t e r i a ( s e e Reference 28,
Foundation ~ n ~ i n e e r i nby~ peck, , e t al.). P i e r s a r e normally d r i l l e d a -
nominal d e p t h i n t o t h e rock t o e n s u r e b e a r i n g e n t i r e l y on rock and t o e x t e n d
t h e p i e r through t h e upper, more f r a c t u r e d zones of t h e rock. I n c r e a s e i n
a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g with embedment depth should be based on e n c o u n t e r i n g more
competent rock w i t h depth.
 EL-33
VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS IN
BEARING STRATUM

FOR A SIX PILE GROUP -4 TENSION, 2 COMPRESSION ASSUME A SQUARE STRAIGHT CONCRETE PILE,
AS SHOWN , ~ = 2 0 '(D(20B) PILE CAP WEIGHT (DW)=10 X ll X 3 X 0.b KCF
=*.5K
FIND Fs AGAINST Quit AND Tult

DETERMINE PILE FORCES BY A FORCE DIMRAM.

IGNORE RESISTANCE ABOVE FIRM SAND STRATUM.
BEARING STRATUM 4
= 30°, Nq = 2 1
KHC =I.5, K~~ = 1.0,8=) (-=22d0 (mFIGURE I)
A ~ = ( # ) ~1=. 3 6 ~ ~
PERIM. AREA /lf
=4 X +$= 4.7 SF&(
. --

Quit = 1.98 X 21 X 1.36 + (1.5 x ( "'l x TAN 22.5 x4.7 i 2 0 )

= !5654+81.47
= 138 K
COMPRESSION LOAD ON PILES FROM FORCE MAGRAM IS 70KIPS. UMD PER PILE 70K h = 35K
F ~ = ~ 3 . 9 )~,REQ'D Fs

) xTAN 225 x 4.7 x 20

T u l t = I.Ox( 0.81+Isg8
= 54.31 K
TENSION LOAD ON PILES FROM FORCE DIAGRAM IS 80 KIPS. LOIO PO1PILE = 2 0K
WEIGHT OF PlLE ~0.204Kp/' X 37 = Z6 K
-
Fs- 54.3
(20.0 -7.6)
-4.3 > 3 REQ'D FS
i

FIGURE 8
Example Problem - Batter Pile Group as Guy Anchorage
7.2-233 -
Rock-socketed d r i l l e d p i e r s extending more t h a n a nominal depth i n t o rock
d e r i v e capacity from both s h a f t r e s i s t a n c e and end bearing. The p r o p o r t i o n
of t h e load t r a n s f e r r e d t o end bearing depends on t h e r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s of
t h e rock t o concrete and t h e s h a f t geometry. Generally, t h e p r o p o r t i o n t r a n s -
f e r r e d t o end bearing decreases f o r i n c r e a s i n g depth of embedment and f o r in-
c r e a s i n g rock s t i f f n e s s . This proportion i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e d loading.
F i e l d t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e s h a f t r e s i s t a n c e i s developed w i t h v e r y
l i t t l e deformation ( u s u a l l y less t h a n 0.25 i n c h e s ) and t h a t t h e peak r e s i s -
t a n c e developed tends t o remain c o n s t a n t with f u r t h e r movement. Based on load
test d a t a , t h e u l t i m a t e s h a f t r e s i s t a n c e can be estimated approximately from:

Sr = (2.3 t o 3 ) ( f w ~ ) l / ~( p i e r diameter >16 i n c h e s )

Sr = ( 3 t o 4 ) ( f w ' ) l I 2 ( p i e r diameter (16 i n c h e s )

where : Sr ultimate shaft resistance i n force per s h a f t contact area

fw' = unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of e i t h e r t h e rock o r t h e

concrete, whichever i s weakest.

See Reference 29, S h a f t Resistance of Rock Socketed D r i l l e d P i e r s , by Horvath

and Kenney.

4. SETTLEMENT OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS I N ROCK. Settlement i s normally n e g l i g i -

b l e and need not be evaluated f o r foundations on rock designed f o r an appro-
p r i a t e allowable bearing pressure.

For very heavy o r f o r extremely s e t t l e m e n t s e n s i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s e t -

tlement can be computed based on t h e s o l u t i o n f o r e l a s t i c s e t t l e m e n t presented
i n Chapter 5 of DM-7.1. The choice of the e l a s t i c modulus, E, t o use i n t h e
a n a l y s i s should be based on t h e rock mass modulus which r e q u i r e s f i e l d inves-
t i g a t i o n . For guidance s e e Reference 9 and Reference 30, Rock Mechanics i n
Engineering P r a c t i c e , by Stagg and Zienkiewicz, eds. In c a s e s where t h e
seismic Young's modulus is known, t h e s t a t i c modulus can be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y
assumed t o be 1110th t h e seismic modulus.

S e c t i o n 7. LATERAL LOAD CAPACITY

1. DESIGN OONCEPTS. A p i l e loaded by l a t e r a l t h r u s t and/or moment a t i t s

top, resists t h e load by d e f l e c t i n g t o mobilize t h e r e a c t i o n of t h e surround-
ing s o i l . The magnitude and d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e s i s t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e a
f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s of p i l e and s o i l .

Design c r i t e r i a i s based on maximum combined stress i n t h e p i l i n g , allow-

a b l e d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e top o r permissible bearing on t h e surrounding s o i l .
Although 114-inch a t t h e p i l e top i s o f t e n used a s a l i m i t , t h e allowable
l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n should be based on t h e s p e c i f i c requirements of t h e
structure.
 2. DEFORMATION ANALYSIS - SINGLE PILE.

- a . General. Methods a r e a v a i l a b l e (- e o-n . ,- Reference 9 and Reference 31,

Non-Dimensional S o l u t i o n s f o r L a t e r a l l y Loaded P i l e s , w i t h S o i l Modulus
Assumed P r o p o r t i o n a l t o Depth, by Reese and Matlock) f o r computing l a t e r a l
p i l e load-deformation based on complex s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and/or non-linear s o i l
s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The COM 622 computer program (Reference 32,
L a t e r a l l y Loaded P i l e s : Program Documentation, by Reese) has been documented
and i s widely used. Use of t h e s e methods should o n l y be considered when t h e
s o i l s t r e s s - s t r a i n p r o p e r t i e s a r e w e l l understood.

P i l e deformation and s t r e s s can be approximated through a p p l i c a t i o n

of s e v e r a l s i m p l i f i e d procedures based on i d e a l i z e d assumptions. The two
b a s i c approaches presented below depend on u t i l i z i n g t h e concept of c o e f f i -
c i e n t of l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n . It i s assumed t h a t t h e l a t e r a l l o a d does
not exceed about 113 of t h e u l t i m a t e l a t e r a l load c a p a c i t y .

b. Granular S o i l and Normally t o S l i g h t l y Overconsolidated Cohesive

S o i l s . P i l e deformation can be estimated assuming t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of
subgrade r e a c t i o n , Kh, i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y with depth i n accordance with:
fz
-
Kh =
D

where : Kh = c o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n ( t o n s i f t 3 )

f = c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n
(tons/f t3)

z = depth ( f e e t )

D = widthldiameter of loaded a r e a ( f e e t )

Guidance f o r s e l e c t i o n of f i s given i n Figure 9 f o r fine-grained and

coarse-grained s o i l s .

c. Heavily Overconsolidated Cohesive S o i l s . For h e a v i l y overconsoli-

dated hard cohesive s o i l s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n can
be assumed t o be c o n s t a n t w i t h depth. The methods presented i n Chapter 4
can be used f o r t h e a n a l y s i s ; Kh v a r i e s between 35c and 70c ( u n i t s of
force/length3) where c i s t h e undrained shear s t r e n g t h .

d. Loading Conditions. Three p r i n c i p a l loading c o n d i t i o n s a r e i l l u s -

t r a t e d with t h e design procedures i n Figure 10, using t h e i n f l u e n c e diagrams
of Figure 11, 12 and 13 ( a l l from Reference 31). Loading may be l i m i t e d by
allowable d e f l e c t i o n of p i l e top o r by p i l e s t r e s s e s .

Case I. P i l e with f l e x i b l e cap o r hinged end condition. Thrust and

moment a r e a p p l i e d a t t h e t o p , which is f r e e t o r o t a t e . Obtain t o t a l d e f l e c -
t i o n , moment, and s h e a r i n t h e p i l e by a l g e b r a i c sum of t h e e f f e c t s of t h r u s t
and moment, given i n Figure 11.
I I
FIGURE 9 ,
Coefficient of Variation of Subgrade Reaction
. CASE I.FLEXIBLE CAP, ELEVATED POSITION
LQLID AT DESIGN PROCEDURE
CONDITION GROUND LINE
FOR EACH PILE: FOR DEFINITION OF PARAMETERS SEE FIGURE 12

"r==?H M
P =

=
L
!

PH
I.

2.
COMPUTE RELATIVE STIFFNESS FACTOR.
T =(-
E I )ID
f
SELECT CURVE FOR FROPER 9
IN FIGURE II.
M 3. OBTAIN COEFFICIENTS Fs, FM, FV AT DEPTHS DESIRED.
I n 4. COMPUTE DEFLECTION, MOMENT AND SHEAR AT
.

7
TT
I1
mnTITmm,'Tnrtrz DESIRED DEPTHS USING FORMULAS OF FEURE II

,
i n = NUMBER OF PILES DEFLECTED
POSITION
NOTE : 'If I' VAWES FROM FIGURE 9 AND CONVERT
TO LB/IN?

CASE 1.PILES WITH RIGID CAP AT GROUND SURFACE

-
I

PT P I. PROCEED ASINSTEP 1,CASEI.

T-
1
2. COMPUTE DEFLECTION AND MOMENT AT DESIRED
DEPTHS USING COEFFICIENTS 4,FM AND
FORMULAS OF FIGURE 12.
3. MAX!MUM SHEAR OCCURS AT TOP OF PlLE
AND EQUALS p = Pf IN EACH PILE.
n

1 CASE m.RIGID CAP, ELEVATED POSITION

DEFLECTED
I. ASSUME A HINGE AT POINT A WlTH A BALANCING
MOMENT M APPLl ED #r POINT A.
2. COMPUTE SLOPE e2 ABOVE GROUND AS A FUNCTION
OF M FROM CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPERSTRUCTURE.
3. COMPUTE SLOPE el FROM SLOPE COEFFICIENTS
OF FIGURE 13 AS FOUMIVS:
MT
8, =Fe ( &E) I+ F ~

4. EQUATE = e2 AND SOLVE FOR VALUE OF M.

5. KNOWING VALUES OF P AND M, SOLVE FOR DEFLECTION,
SHEAR,AND MOMENT AS IN CASE I.
NOTE : IF GROUND SURFACE AT PlLE LOCATION IS
INCLINED, LOAD P TAKEN BY EACH PlLE IS
PROPORTIONAL TO 1 1 ~ ~ 3 .

FIGURE 10
Design Procedure f o r L a t e r a l l y Loaded P i l e s
 FIGURE 11
Influence Values for Pile with Applied Lateral Load and Moment
(Case I . Flexible Cap or Hinged End Condition)
 ND GROUND S U R F . .

ES=f(Z) SOIL MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

f = COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION OF LATERAL SUBGRAOE
REACTION (SEE FWRE 9 )
L= LENGTH OF PlLE BELOW GROUND SURFACE
T = RELATIVE STIFFNESS FAClDf?
E- MODUU S OF ELASTICITY OF PlLE
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PILE CROSS SECTON
Mp ,Vp=DERECT(ONIMOMENT,8 SHEAR AT ANY DEPTH
Z DUE TO FORCE P.

FIGURE 12
Influence Values for Laterally Loaded Pile
(Case 11. Fixed Against Rotation at Ground Surface)
7.2-239
 ADDITIONAL DEFINITIONS OF PARAMETERS

-3.0 -25 -2.0 -1.5 - 1.0 -0.5 0

SLOPE COEFFICIENT, Fg

SU)PE COEFFICIENT, Fg

FIGURE 13
Slope Coefficient for P i l e with Lateral Load or Moment
 Case 11. P i l e w i t h r i g i d cap f i x e d a g a i n s t r o t a t i o n a t ground sur-
face. Thrust i s a p p l i e d a t t h e t o p , which must m a i n t a i n a v e r t i c a l t a n g e n t .
Obtain d e f l e c t i o n and moment from i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s of F i g u r e 12.

Case 111. P i l e w i t h r i g i d cap above ground s u r f a c e . R o t a t i o n of

p i l e top depends on combined e f f e c t of s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and r e s i s t a n c e below
ground. Express r o t a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s of F i g u r e 1 3
and determine moment a t p i l e top. Knowing t h r u s t and moment a p p l i e d a t p i l e
top, o b t a i n t o t a l d e f l e c t i o n , moment and s h e a r i n t h e p i l e by a l g e b r a i c sum of
t h e s e p a r a t e e f f e c t s from F i g u r e 11.

3. CYCLIC LOADS.

L a t e r a l subgrade c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e s d e c r e a s e t o about 25% t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e

due t o c y c l i c l o a d i n g f o r s o f t / l o o s e s o i l s and t o about 50% t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e
for stiffldense soils.

4. LONG-TERM LOADING. Long-term l o a d i n g w i l l i n c r e a s e p i l e d e f l e c t i o n c o r -

responding t o a d e c r e a s e i n l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n . To approximate t h i s
c o n d i t i o n reduce t h e subgrade r e a c t i o n v a l u e s t o 25% t o 50% of t h e i r i n i t i a l
v a l u e f o r s t i f f c l a y s , t o 20% t o 30% f o r s o f t c l a y s , and t o 80% t o 90% f o r
sands.

5. ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY - SINGLE PILES. A l a t e r a l l y loaded p i l e c a n f a i l

by exceeding t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e surrounding s o i l o r by exceeding t h e bending
moment c a p a c i t y of t h e p i l e r e s u l t i n g i n a s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e . Several met-
hods a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t y .

The method p r e s e n t e d i n Reference 33, L a t e r a l R e s i s t a n c e of P i l e s i n Cohesive

S o i l s , by Broms, p r o v i d e s a simple procedure f o r e s t i m a t i n g u l t i m a t e l a t e r a l
c a p a c i t y of p i l e s .

6. GROUP ACTION. Group a c t i o n should be c o n s i d e r e d when t h e p i l e s p a c i n g i n

t h e d i r e c t i o n of l o a d i n g i s l e s s t h a n 6 t o 8 p i l e diameters. Group a c t i o n c a n
be e v a l u a t e d by reducing t h e e f f e c t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l subgrade reac-
t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of l o a d i n g by a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r R (Reference 9 ) a s f o l -
lows :

P i l e Spacing i n Subgrade R e a c t i o n
D i r e c t i o n of Loading Reduction F a c t o r
D = P i l e Diameter R
8D 1-00
6D 0.70
4D 0.40
3D 0.25
 REFERENCES

I. Teng, W . C . , u-**-.lation
Design, Prentice Hall International, 1962

2. Skempton, A.W., The Bearing Capacity of Clays, Proceedings, Building

Research Congress, London, 1951.

3. Tomlinson, M.F., The Adhesion of Piles Driven in Clay Soils,

Proceedings, Fourth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, London, 1957.

4. Departments of the Army and Air Force, Soils and Geology, Procedures for
Foundation Design of Buildings and Other Structures (~xceptHydraulic
Structures), TM51818-1lAFM88-3, Chapter 7, Washington, D.C. 1979.

5. Meyerhof, G.G., and Hanna, A.M., Ultimate Bearing Capacity of

Foundations on Layered Soils Under Inclined Load, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 15, No. 4, 1978.

6. Vesic, A.S., Design of Pile Foundations, National Cooperative Highway

Research Program Synthesis 42, Transportation Research Board, 1977.

7. Meyerhof, G.G., Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations,

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT3,
1976.

8. Baguelin, F., Jexequel, J.F., and Shields, D.H., The Pressuremeter and
Foundation Engineering, TransTech Publications, 1978.

9. Canadian Geotechnical Society, Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual,

Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1978.

10. Smith, E.A., Pile Driving by the Wave Equation, Transactions, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 127, Part 11, pp 1145-193, 1962.

11. Rausche, F., Moses, F., and Goble, G.G., Soil Resistance Predictions
from Pile Dynamics, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM9, 1972.

12. Meyerhof, G.G., Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings on Sand Layer

Overlying Clay, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1974.

13. Whitaker, T., Experiments with Model Piles in Groups, Geotechnique,

London, 1957.

14. Tomlinson, M.J., Pile Design and Construction Practice, Viewpoint

Publications, Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1957.

15. Garlanger, J.E., Prediction of the Downdrag Load at Culter Circle

Bridge, Symposium on Downdrag of Piles, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1973.

16. Fellenius, B.H., Downdrag on Piles Due to Negative Skin Friction,

Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 9, No. 4, 1972.
 17. Claessen, A.I.M. and Horvat, E., Reducing Negative Skin Friction with
- Bitumen Slip Layers, Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, Vol. 100, No. GT8, 1974.

18. Bjerrum, L., Johannessin, I.J., and Eide, O., Reduction of Negative
Skin Friction on Steel Piles to Rock, Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Vol. 2, pp 27-34, 1960.

19. Deep Foundation Institute, Inspectorsf Manual for Deep Foundations, The
Deep Foundations Institute, Springfield, NJ, 1978.

20. AWPI, Technical Guidelines for Pressure-Treated Wood, Timber Piling, P1

American Wood Preservers Institute, 1976.

21. ACI Committee 543, Recommendations for Design, Manufacture and

Installation of Concrete Piles, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice,
American Concrete Institute, Part 3, October, 1974.

22. Reese, L.C. and Wright,S.J., Drilled Shafts: Design and Construction,
Guideline Manual, Vol. 1; Construction Procedures and Design for Axial
Load, Federal Highway Authority, July, 1977.

23. Garneau, R., and Samson, L., A Device for the Constant Rate of
Penetration Test for Piles, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 11, No.
2, 1974.
24. Davisson, M.T. and Salley, J.R., Model Study of Laterally Loaded Pile,
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 96, No.
SM5, 1970.

25. Chellis, R.D., Pile Foundations, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1961

26. Abbett, American Civil Engineering Practice, Vol. 1.

27. Johnson, S.M. and Kavanaugh, T.C., The Design of Foundations for
Buildings, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1968.

28. Peck, R.B., Hanson, W.E., and Thornburn, T.H., Foundation Engineering,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 1974.

29. Horvath, N.G. and Kenney, T.C., Shaft Resistance of Rock-Socketed

Drilled Pier. ASCE, Preprint #3698. 1979.

30. Stagg, K.G. and Zienkiewiez, O.C., Eds., Rock Mechanics in Engineering
Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968.

31. Reese, L.C. and Matlock, H., Non-Dimensional Solutions for Laterally
Loaded Piles with Soil Modulus Assumed Proportional to Depth,
Proceedings, Eighth Texas Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Austin, Texas, ASCE, 1956.
32. Reese, L.C., Laterally Loaded Piles: Program Documentation, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, No. GT4, 1977.

33. Broms, B.B., Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive Soils, Journal of

Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. S M ~and
SM3, 1964.

)ut of Date
I
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for Planning,

Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP 2A, January
1971. '

Casagrande, L., Comments on Conventional Design of Retaining Wall

Structures, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 99, No. SM2, 1973.
Davisson, M.T., Inspection of Pile Driving Operations, Tech. Report M-22,
Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratories Corps of Engineers, U.S.
Department of the Army, 1972.
Foster, C.R., Field Problems: Compaction, Foundation Engineering,
Leonards, G.A., Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, Chapter
12, 1952.
Fuller, F.N. and Hoy, H.E., Pile Load Tests Including Quick Load Test
Method, Conventional Methods and Interpretations, Highway Research Record
No. 333, HRB U.S. National Research Council, pp 74-86, 1970.
Hunt, H.W., Design and Installation of Pile Foundations, Associated Pile
Fitting Corporation, Clifton, NJ, 1974.
McClelland, Be, Design of Deep Penetration Piles for Ocean Structures,
Terzaghi Lectures: 1963-1972, ASCE, New York, pp 383-421, 1974.
Meyerhof, G.G., Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations,
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, No.
GT3, 1976.
National Bureau of Standards, Corrosion of Steel Pilings in Soils,
Monographs 58 and 127, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Reese, L.C. and Welch, R.C., Lateral Loading of Deep Foundations in Stiff
Clay, Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 101,
NO. GT7, 1975.
USBR, Earth Manual, Second Edition, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau
of Reclamation, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1974.
Vesic, A.S., Ultimate Loads and Settlements of Deep Foundations in Sand,
Procs., Symposium on Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Foundations, Duke
University, Durham, NC. , 1967.
Winterkorn, H.F., and Fang, H.Y., Editors, Foundation Engineering
Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1975.
Woodward, R.J., Gardner, W.S. and Greer, D.M., Drilled Pier Foundations,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1972.
 APPENDIX A
Listing of Computer Programs
,
Subject Program Description Availability

Shallow Foundations QULT Bearing capacity analysis by Geotechnical Engineering

(Chapter 4) GESA Catalog No. Balla, Brinch Hansen, Meyerhof- Software Activity
E03-0001-00043 Prandtl, Sokoluvski and University of Colorado
Terzaghi Methods. Boulder, CO 80309

Excavation, and Earth SOIL-STRUCT Two dimensional finite element Stanford University
Pressures program to analyze tieback
(Chapter 1) and walls.
(Chapter 3)
SSTINCS-2DFE Two dimensional finite element Virginia Polytechnic
program to analyze tieback Institute and State
walls. University, Blacksburg,
VA 24061

Deep Foundations COM622 Program solves for deflection GESA or University of

(Chapter 5) GESA Catalog No. and bending moment in a lat- Texas at Austin
E04-0003-00044 erally loaded pile based on
theory of a beam on an elastic
foundation using finite differ-
ence techniques. Soil proper-
ties are defined by a set of
load-deflection curves.

TTI Program for analysis of pile U.S. Department of

driving by the Wave Equation; Transportation FHWA R&D
developed at Texas A&M Implementation Div.
University.

WEAP Wave Equation analysis for pile GESA

GESA Catalog No. driven by impact hammers,
E04-0004-00046 diesel hammers and airlsteam
hammers.
 APPENDIX A
Listing of Computer Programs (continued)

Subject Program Description Availability

Deep Foundations WINIT Auxillary program for WEAP. GESA

(Chapter 5 ) GESA Catalog No.
E04-005-00047
I.
WEHAM Hammer data f o r WEAP.
GESA Catalog No.
E04-006-00048

WDATA
I.
GESA Catalog No. WEAP data generator.
E04-007-00049
 GLOSSARY

- d

Downdrag. Force induced on deep foundation r e s u l t i n g from downward movement

of a d j a c e n t s o i l r e l a t i v e t o foundation element. Also r e f e r r e d t o a s nega-
tive skin friction.

Homogeneous Earth Dam. An e a r t h dam whose embankment i s formed of one s o i l

type without a s y s t e m a t i c zoning of f i l l m a t e r i a l s .

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction. The r a t i o between t h e bearing p r e s s u r e of a

foundation and t h e corresponding s e t t l e m e n t a t a given point.

Nominal ~ e a r i n gPressures. Allowable bearing p r e s s u r e s f o r spread foundation

on v a r i o u s s o i l t y p e s , derived from experience and g e n e r a l usage, which
provide s a f e t y a g a i n s t s h e a r f a i l u r e o r excessive s e t t l e m e n t .

Optimum Moisture Content. The moisture c o n t e n t , determined from a l a b o r a t o r y

compaction t e s t , a t which t h e maximum dry d e n s i t y of a s o i l i s obtained u s i n g
a s p e c i f i c e f f o r t of compaction.

Piping. The movement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s a s t h e r e s u l t of unbalanced seepage

f o r c e s produced by p e r c o l a t i n g water, l e a d i n g t o t h e development of b o i l s o r
e r o s i o n channels.

Swell. Increase i n s o i l volume, t y p i c a l l y r e f e r r i n g t o volumetric expansion

of p a r t i c u l a r s o i l s due t o changes i n water content.

Zoned E a r t h Dam. An e a r t h dam embankment zoned by t h e systematic

d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o i l types according t o t h e i r s t r e n g t h and permeability
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , u s u a l l y with a c e n t r a l impervious c o r e and s h e l l s of c o a r s e r
materials.
 SYMBOLS

Symbol Designation

Cross-sectional a r e a .
Anchor p u l l i n t i e b a c k system f o r f l e x i b l e wall.
Width i n g e n e r a l , o r narrow dimension of a foundation u n i t .
Unit adhesion between s o i l and p i l e s u r f a c e o r s u r f a c e of some
o t h e r foundation m a t e r i a l .
Allowable cohesion t h a t can be mobilized t o resist shear
stresses.
Shape f a c t o r c o e f f i c i e n t f o r computation of immediate
settlement.
Cohesion i n t e r c e p t f o r Mohrts envelope of s h e a r s t r e n g t h based on
total stresses.
Cohesion i n t e r c e p t f o r Mohrts envelope of s h e a r s t r e n g t h based on
effective stresses.
C o e f f i c i e n t of consolidation.
Depth, diameter, o r d i s t a n c e .
Relative density.
Grain s i z e d i v i s i o n of a s o i l sample, percent of dry weight
smaller than t h i s g r a i n s i z e i s i n d i c a t e d by s u b s c r i p t .
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l .
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y o r "modulus of deformation" of s o i l .
Void r a t i o .
Safety f a c t o r i n s t a b i l i t y o r shear s t r e n g t h a n a l y s i s .
C o e f f i c i e n t of - v a r i a t i o n of s o i l modulus o f - e l a s t i c i t y w i t h d e p t h
f o r a n a l y s i s of l a t e r a l l y loaded p i l e s .
~ ~ e c i f i gk r' a v i t y of s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i n s o i l sample, o r s h e a r
modulus of s o i l .
In general, height o r thickness.
Height of groundwater o r of open water above a base l e v e l .
Influence value f o r v e r t i c a l s t r e s s produced by superimposed
l o a d , equals r a t i o of s t r e s s e s a t a p o i n t i n t h e foundation
t o i n t e n s i t y of applied load.
Gradient of groundwater pressures i n underseepage a n a l y s i s .
C o e f f i c i e n t of a c t i v e e a r t h pressures.
Ratio of h o r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e s on s i d e of p i l e
o r o t h e r foundation.
C o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l subgrade r e a c t i o n .
C o e f f i c i e n t of passive e a r t h p r e s s u r e s .

width b .
Modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r bearing p l a t e o r foundation of

Modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r 1 f t square bearing p l a t e a t

ground s u r f ace.
.k C o e f f i c i e n t of permeability.
ksf Kips per s q f t pressure i n t e n s i t y .
ksi Kips per sq i n pressure i n t e n s i t y .
Symbol Designation

Lengtn l u g e n e r a l o r l o n g e z t dimension 9f f o u n d a t i c r u n i t .
Bearing c a p a c i t y f a c t o r s .

S t a b i l i t y number f o r s l o p e s t a b i l i t y .
P o r o s i t y of s o i l sample.
Effective porosity.
Optimum moisture c o n t e n t of compacted s o i l .
Resultant active e a r t h force.
Component of r e s u l t a n t a c t i v e f o r c e i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .
Density i n pounds p e r c u b i c f o o t .
Resultant horizontal e a r t h force.
Resultant passive e a r t h force.
Component of r e s u l t a n t p a s s i v e e a r t h f o r c e i n h o r i z o n t a l
direction.
Resultant v e r t i c a l e a r t h force.
R e s u l t a n t f o r c e of water p r e s s u r e .
I n t e n s i t y of a p p l i e d l o a d .
E x i s t i n g e f f e c t i v e overburden p r e s s u r e a c t i n g a t a s p e c i f i c
height i n the s o i l profile.
Preconsolidation pressure.
Allowable l o a d c a p a c i t y of deep f o u n d a t i o n element.
U l t i m a t e load t h a t causes s h e a r f a i l u r e of f o u n d a t i o n u n i t .
I n t e n s i t y of v e r t i c a l l o a d a p p l i e d t o f o u n d a t i o n u n i t .
Allowable b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n u n i t .
Unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of s o i l sample.

foundation uni t .
U l t i m a t e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e t h a t c a u s e s s h e a r f a i l u r e of

Radius of w e l l o r o t h e r r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r .
Shear s t r e n g t h of s o i l f o r a s p e c i f i c s t r e s s o r c o n d i t i o n i n s i t u ,
used i n s t e a d of s t r e n g t h parameters c and 0.
Thickness of s o i l s t r a t u m , o r r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s f a c t o r of s o i l
and p i l e i n a n a l y s i s of l a t e r a l l y loaded p i l e s .
Depth.
Dry u n i t weight of s o i l .
E f f e c t i v e u n i t weight of s o i l .
Maximum d r y u n i t weight of s o i l determined from m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t
d r y u n i t weight curve; o r , f o r c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l , by v i b r a t o r y
compaction.
Minimum d r y u n i t weight.
Submerged (buoyant) u n i t weight of s o i l mass.
W e t u n i t weight of s o i l above t h e groundwater t a b l e .
Unit weight of w a t e r , v a r y i n g from 6 2 . 4 pcf f o r f r e s h w a t e r t o 64
pcf f o r s e a water.
Magnitude of s e t t l e m e n t f o r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s .
Angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o r "angle of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , "
o b t a i n e d from Mohr's f a i l u r e envelope f o r s h e a r s t r e n g t h .
P o i s s o n ' s Ratio.
 INDEX
A Embankment compacted, compaction pro-
Anchorages, tower guy..........7.2-169
See Foundations, shallow,
Tower Guy Anchorages
B Settlement...............7.2-38
Bibliography...................7.2-B-1
C Secondary compression.7.2-41
Cofferdams, double-wall........7.2-116
See Walls and retaining
structures .
Compaction procedures..........7.2-45
Computer Programs, Listing of..7.2-A-1
E Rock fi11.............7.2-53
Embankments compacted, compac-
tion procedures, and hydrau-
lic fill~..............o..o.o7o2-37
Applications................7.2-37
Compaction control, embank-
ment......................7.2-50
Analysis of control
test data..............7.2-51
Compactive effort.....7.2-52
Moisture contro1......7.2-52
Statistical study.....7.2-52
Number of field density
tests..................7.2-51
Number of laboratory
compaction tests.......7.2-51
Compaction requirements
and procedures............7.2-45
Material type influence..7.2-45
Oversize effect
Soils insensitive to
......
-7.2-45
compaction moisture .7.2-45
Soils sensitive to
compaction moisture.7.2-45
Methods..................7.2-45
Requirements.............7.2-45
Specification pro-
visions.............7.2-45
Cross-section design........7.2-38
Earth dam embankments....7.2-41
Piping and cracking...7.2-41
Seepage contro1.......7.2-41
cedures, and hydraulic fills
(continued)
Cross-section design (continued)
Material type influence..7.2-38
Utilization...........7.2-38
Embankment consolida-
tion................7.2-38
Foundation settlement.7.2-38
Stable foundation........7.2-38
Weak foundation..........7.2-38
Excavation, borrow..........7.2-52
Methods of excavation.. .7.2-53
Utilization of excavated
.
materials..............7.2-53
Borrow volume.........7.2-53
Fills, hydraulic and under-
water.....................7.2-54
Construction methods.....7.2-54
Hydraulic fill on
land................7.2-54
Underwater fills......7.2-54
Performance of fill mate-
rials..................7.2-54
Coarse-grained fills..7.2-54
Hard clay fills.......7.2-56
Equipment, pile driving........7.2-213
See Foundations, deep,
5pes
Excavation, borrow.............7.2-52
See Embankments , compacted ,
Excavation.
Fills, hydraulic and under-
water........................7.2-54
See Embankments compacted,
Fills.
Foundations, deep..............7.2-177
Application.................7.2-177
Bearing capacity............7.2-191
Dynamic Driving Resis-
tance..................7.2-202
Pile group, theoretica1..7.2-204
Single pile, theoretical.7.2-192
Foundations. deep (continued) Foundations. shallow ( c o n t i n u e d )
Underdrainage and water-
D i s t r i b u t i o n of l o a d s on
p i l e groups o..............
.................... 7. 2-230 proofing ..................
Pressure s l a b s ........... 7. 2-163
7. 2-163
Downdrag
Installation ................
.......
7. 2-209
7. 2-213 Relieved s l a b s ...........
Waterproofing r e q u i r e -
7. 2-169
I n v e s t i g a t i o n program
.......
L a t e r a l load c a p a c i t y
Load tests ..................
7. 2-177
7. 2-234
7. 2-228
ments .................. 7. 2-169

Settlement..
...
.................
Rock. deep foundations on 7. 2-232
7. 2-207
P i l e group...............
Single p i l e.............. 7. 2-209
7. 2-207
Glossary .......................7.2- G-1
Types .......................
Allowable stresses ....... 7. 2-178
7. 2-179
..........
Design c r i t e r i a
........... 7. 2-179 Mat foundations ................7. 2-150
See Foundations. shallow.
Foundations. shallow
Applications ................
............
Bearing c a p a c i t y
7. 2-129
7. 2-129
7. 2-129
Mat .
.............
Footings. proportioning
individual
Nominal bearing pres-
7. 2-146
Piles :
sures..............:...
Modifications......... 7. 2-141
7. 2-141
Foundations ( s e e Foundations.
deep) .....................
7. 2-177
U t i l i z a t i o n ...........7. 2-141
...
Ultimate s h e a r f a i l u r e
Bearing c a p a c i t y dia-
7. 2-129

...............
grams 7. 2-129

Uplift capacity
............
T h e o r e t i c a l bearing
capacity
.......... 7. 2-129
7. 2-169
Rock anchorages........
...... 7. 2-169 Walls and r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s .
.....................
Collapsing s o i l s ............
S o i l anchorages

.............
.7.2-169
7. 2-163
analysis
Cofferdams. double-wall .....
.................
7. 2-59
7. 2-116
Engineered f i l l
.......
Compaction c o n t r o l
U t i l i z a t i o n ..............7.
7. 2-159
7. 2-159
2-159
Analysis
Exterior pressures....
S t a b i l i t y require-
7. 2-116
7. 2-116

Expansive s o i l s .............
........ 7. 2-159 ...............
ments
................ 7. 2-116
7. 2-125
Eliminating s w e l l
Minimizing s w e l l effects.7.2-161
P o t e n t i a l s w e l l i n g con-
7. 2-161 Cell fill
Drainage
Materials
..............
............. 7. 2-125

ditions ................
Mat and continuous beam
7. 2-159 Types ....................
.......
F l e x i b l e w a l l s design
7. 2-125
7. 2-116
7. 2-85
foundations ...............7.
............. 2-150 Anchored bulkheads
Anchorage system
.......
...... 7. 2-85
7. 2-90
Applications
Design ...................7.
Settlement ...............7.
7. 2-150
2-150
2-150
Computation example ...
Construct i o n pr e-
7. 2-93

...
........
S t a b i l i t y requirements
Tower guy anchorages
7. 2-150
7. 2-169 Drainage
............
..............
cautions 7. 2-90
7. 2-85
Anchoring tower guy
l o a d s ..................L 2-169
.......
Movements. w a l l
.......
Pressures. w a l l
7. 2-85
7. 2-85
Deadman anchorages ....
..... 7. 2-172 Braced s h e e t p i l e w a l l s ..7. 2-90
...
P i l i n g anchorages
Rock ..................7.
7. 2-233
2-169
Computation example
....
Narrow c u t s braced
7. 2-107
7. 2-101
kralls and r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s . . Walls and r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s .
a n a l y s i s (continued) a n a l y s i s (continued)
~ l e k b l 'ew a l l s design (continued) P r e s s u r e s . w a l l . computation (con-
tinued)
Braced s h e e t pile w a l l s (con-
t inued ) Reinforced e a r t h .........
....
Rigid r e t a i n i n g w a l l s
7. 2-116
Raking braces with
................
wall 7. 2-101 .....
C r i t e r i a . genera1
..............
7. 2-82
7. 2-82

..........
S t a b i l i t y of base of
excavation
........ 7. 2-104
Drainage
Settlement and over-
7. 2-85

Gabions
...............
Tied backwalls

..................
Crib w a l l s
7. 2-101
7. 2-116
7. 2-112
Stability
High w a l l s
.............
t u r n i n g .............7,

...............
2-82
7. 2-82
7. 2-82
Pressures. wall. computa-
tions ..................... 7. 2-59
Low w a l l s
Drainage
................
.............. 7. 2-85
7. 2-85
.........
Active p r e s s u r e s
Stratified backfill.
7. 2-59 Equivalent f l u i d
pressures ........... 7. 2-85
s l o p i n g groundwater
...............
level 7. 2-61

.........
Uniform b a c k f i l l . no
groundwater
Uniform b a c k f i l l .
7. 2-61

s t a t i c groundwater ..7. 2-61

friction ...............
C o e f f i c i e n t s with wall
7. 2-61

procedures .............
E f f e c t of c o n s t r u c t i o n

.......
Compacted f i l l s
7. 2-76
7. 2-76
.......
Hydraulic f i l l s
E f f e c t of seepage and
7. 2-76

Drainage ...............
Beneath w a l l s seepage.7.2-70
7. 2-70

Conditions. genera1 ...

R a i n f a l l on drained
7. 2-70

walls ............... 7. 2-70

head ................
Static differential

....... 7. 2-70
Loading. surcharge
............
............
Area l o a d s
7. 2-70
7. 2-73
Live l o a d s
Movement. w a l l ...........
Braced f l e x i b l e
7. 2-73
7. 2-73

sheeting ............
Restrained walls ...... 7. 2-73
7. 2-76

walls ...............
Tilting retaining

........
Passive p r e s s u r e s
7. 2-73
7. 2-59
Stratified backfill.
sloping groundwater
level ............... 7. 2-61

groundwater .........
Uniform b a c k f i l l . no

Uniform b a c k f i l l .
7. 2-61

s t a t i c groundwater
l e v e l ...............7, 2-61

7.2:INDEX .
3

U . S . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1984 0 .442-802