001

Section c

9. The transmitters in our body, neurotransmitters of neurons, feel motion and emotion using electrical
impulse. On the other hand, hormones affect out mood and arousal using bloodstream. It’s all a
reminder that everything psychological is biological. All our reactions and emotions are result of
biological processes in our body.

10. Mental age is a concept that looks at how a person performs tasks intelligently at a specific age ,
compared to average performance of person’s actual chronological age. Mental age depends what kind
of intelligence is measures. If a person is too mature emotionally for their chronological age can be of
average intellectual age for their actual age.

11. Second language acquisition or second language learning or l2 acquisition is the process by which a
person learns a second language. Second language acquisition is also the branch of science that studies
that process. Other branches of science also give attention to second hand acquisition such as
psychology and education.

12. Reinforcement is a consequence applied to strengthen an organism’s future behavior whenever the
behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. Reinforcement can also be used for
enhancement of memory as well. There are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement when
reward is awarded for desirable behavior and negative reinforcement when undesirable element is
taken for desirable behavior.

13. The sensory deprivation also known as perceptual isolation is a deliberate removal of one or more
senses of a person. It has been used in various alternative medicines and psychological experiments.
Short term sensory deprivation is described as relaxing. Sensory deprivation technique is used by armed
forced of NATO under international treaty obligation for interrogation of prisoners.

14. Threshold is the minimum strength a person need in order to detect a stimuli. It is used in
experiments to explore how humans and animals process sensory information. Absolute threshold
means the minimum amount of strength to need in order to detect stimuli. Differential threshold is the
lowest amount of intensity at which a person can tell if the stimulus is strengthened.

15. Intentions are the reason or motivation for committing a certain act. First, intentions are imaginary
concept put to reality through acts. Second, we can never tell what the intentions of a person are if they
try to manipulate their intentions. Third, to understand someone’s intentions it should be congruent to
the facts. Forth, intentions are active in nature. If n act is not committed, we cannot predict person’s
intention.

16. Social distance describes the distance between different groups in society based on nationality, race
, gender and sexuality. Robert E. Park defined social distance as an attempt to reduce to something like
measurable terms the grade and degrees of understanding and intimacy which characterizes personal
and social relations generally.
17. An attribution bias or attributional bias, in psychology, is a cognitive bias that refers to the error
made by humans trying to find intentions behind someone’s behavior. However, attributions are not
always true. People often form biased interpretation of someone instead of objective perception.

18. Nerve impulse is the electrical signals through which neurons communicate with each other. The
nerve impulse also known as action potential is the result of moving ions from dendrites to axon
terminals. The neurotransmitters jump across the synaptic gap to forward the message from brain to
rest of the body or vice versa.

002

9. Self-esteem is a person’s subjective evaluation of their self-worth. Too little self-esteem can leave a
person depressed or defeated and it can also affect their performances in different aspects of life. Too
much self-esteem can make a person narcissistic, that can damage relations and also can affect how
they perform in different situations.

10. Midlife crisis is change in identity and self-confidence that occurs in mid aged people, usually 45-55
years old. This transition can lead people into depression, remorse and anxiety. Researchers have found
that mid-life crisis is often the time when people reflect on themselves about what they’ve done
through-out their life and question their worth.

11. Erikson proposed a theory where epigenetics isn’t referred to as individual genetic make-up but its
influence on a person’s development. He referred to his theory as ‘Epigenesis’ and ‘Epigentic principle’,
which signified the concept’s relevance to evolution and genetics. Erikson was extremely interested in
how personality and behavior of a person is influences after birth.

12. Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development characterize an individual advancing through the eight
stages of life as a function of negotiating their biological and sociocultural forces. The virtues are hope
(under 2 years), will (2-4 years), purpose (5-8 years), competence (9-12 years), fidelity (13-19 years),
love (20-39 years), care (40-59 years) and wisdom (60 and above).

13. Kubler-ross model shows a series of emotions experienced by a person by terminally ill patients prior
to death or people who have lost their loved one. These are also known as 5 stages of grief, denial,
anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. The existence of these stages has not been proven, hence
the model isn’t deemed useful.

14. Conditioning, according to behaviorism, is the process by which an animal learn their behavior
patterns. Froward conditioning is when neutral stimulus appears just before and during presentation of
the unconditioned stimulus. Backward conditioning is when the presentation of neutral stimulus occurs
after unconditioned stimulus usually resulting in no learning.

15. In Erik Erikson’s stages of psychological development, Autonomy versus shame and doubt are the
second stage which occurs at around age of 18 months to around age of 2 or 3. According to Erikson,
children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control.
16. Intellectualization, in psychology, is a “defense mechanism” used to avoid confronting emotionally
stressful situations. Reasoning is used as to block confronting an unconscious conflict. Intellectualization
is often accompanied by pseudo-rational justification of irrational act. It is one of Freud’s original
defense mechanisms.

17. Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and
communication, and by repetitive and restricted behavior. Autism is associated by genetics and
environment. Autism affects information processing in brain and how nerve cells and their synapses
connect and organize; how this occurs is not well known.

18. According to Rodgers, a fully-functional person is someone who can fully live in a moment. “Such a
person experiences in present, with immediacy. He is able to live in his feelings and reaction of the
moment. He is not bound by structure of his past learnings, but these are a resource for him in so far as
they relate to the experience of the moment. He lives freely, subjectively, in an existential confrontation
of this moment in life”, Rogers wrote in 1962 article.

004

9. Statistics is a form of science for analysis of numerical data that consists of quantifiable models and
representations and synopses. Statistics is a term used to summarize a process that an analyst uses to
characterize a data set. Statistics is used in various disciplines such as psychology, business, humanities,
physical and social sciences and much more.

10. In statistics, point estimation is the process of finding an approximate value of some parameter such
as mean of a population from random samples of population. The point estimation is not really precise.
It is the application of a point estimator to the data to obtain a point estimate.

11. The mean in statistics means average of a given data. It is calculated by adding all the data and then
dividing it by number of data. The resulting number is known as the mean. There are three different
types of mean: Arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean.

12. Variance is the expectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean, in statistic
or probability theory. Variance is an important tool in places where statistical data is commonly used. In
other words, the variance of a random variable X is the expected value of the squared deviation from
the mean X, μ= E[X] : Var(X)=E[(X-μ)2].
13. Range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value in a given set of data, in statistics.
It is measured in the same units of data, as it only depends on two observations, it is most useful in
representing the dispersion of small data sets.
14. In statistics, a linear relationship (or linear association) is used to describe a straight-line relationship
between a constant and a variable. The linear relationship can be showed in form of a graphical format
where constant and variable are connected via straight line or in a mathematical format where the
independent variable is multiplied by slope coefficient, added by a constant, which determines the
dependent variable.
15. An outliner is a data point that differs from other data points significantly. An outliner may show
experimental error or it can be because of variability of the data; errors are usually excluded from the
data set. An outliner can cause some series problems in analysis in statistics.
16. In statistics, a parameter refers to an aspect of a population, as opposed to statistics, which refers to
an aspect as a sample. Parametric statistics are the most common type of inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are calculated with the purpose of generalizing the findings of a sample to the
population it represents, and they can be classified as either parametric or non-parametric.
17. There are four types of probabilities:
A.) Classic probability which is calculated by listing all the possible outcomes and recording actual
outcomes.
B.) Experimental probability is based on number of possible outcomes divided by total number of trials.
C.) Theoretical probability is based on the possible probability on the possible chances of the outcome.
D.) Subjective probability is based on person’s personal reasoning and judgement.
18. Kurtosis is a measure if “tailedness” of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable.
Kurtosis describes the shape of probability distribution and there are different was of quantifying it for a
theoretical distribution and corresponding ways of estimating it from a sample from a population.
Different measure of kurtosis may have different interpretations.
003
9. A summary of a report is a short, written communication which briefs the reader on the details of a
particular event or analyses a particular issue, make conclusions. It also is used to convince the reader of
the importance of taking a particular course of action.
10. A table checklist is a form of job aid used to lessen failure through compensating for capability limits
of human memory and attention. It helps ensure consistency and completeness in wearing out a
challenge. A number one assignment in a checklist is documentation of the task and auditing in
opposition of the documentation.
11. The abstract is the first part in journal or report in psychology. It includes a summary of aims,
hypothesis, process, outcomes and conclusions, and that provides us with an overview of the entire
report. Abstract is aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject.
12. The introduction should provide reader with a sense of what they should expect from your essay.
The introduction should provide the background of your topic but should not contain the true argument.
It should provide a thesis and other helpful and relevant information. Also try to avoid clichés.
13. Advantages of experiments are: gain insight, control over variables, use to determine what is best,
and provides greater transferability than anecdotal research.
Disadvantages of experiments are: Human error, personal bias, sample may not be representative, and
results may apply to only one situation and may be difficult to replicate.
14. While writing a case study, you should read and examine the case very carefully and focus on why it
exists and what’s responsible for it. Try to uncover possible solution or changes required. Select the best
solution with supporting evidence, pros and cons and whether solution is realistic or not.
15. A pilot survey is a strategy used to test the questionnaire using a small sample compared to planned
sample size. In this phase of conducting a survey, the questionnaire is administered to a percentage of a
total sample population, or in more informal cases just to a convenience sample.
16. Stages of interview starts with the interview which should last from 2-3 minutes. The next stage is
Q&A which is the biggest part of interview where the employer asks you questions and listens to your
answers. Next stage is where you ask the employers any questions that you might have. And the last
stage is closing where employer takes a few minutes to end on positive note and to thank you for
interview.
17. Halo effect (or sometimes called as halo error) is the tendency for positive impressions of a person,
company, brand or product in one area which positively influences one’s opinion or feelings for it in
other areas. It is a type of cognitive bias and the opposite of horn effect.
18. Characteristics of observation:
Observation is the case of regulated perception of events.
Observation should be systematic and selective.
Observation should be free of any bias.
Observation is the active process of knowing the truth.
Observation should be simple and direct.