MATH 461 Homework 9

Aiden Cullo

February 9, 2020

Section 26: 7

Section 27: 2, 6

2. Let X be a metric space with metric d; let A ⊂ X be nonempty.

(a) Show that d(x, A) = 0 if and only if x ∈ Ā

1. (=>) Suppose d(x, A) = 0 and assume ∃ a neighborhood N of x s.t. N ∩ A = ∅ this implies

there is a distance  > 0 s.t. d(x, a) <  ∀a ∈ A, but this contradicts our assumption that

d(x, A) = 0, therefore no such distance exists and N ∩ A 6= ∅ ∀ nbhds of x, hence x ∈ Ā.

(<=) Suppose x ∈ Ā. Then all nbhds N of x intersect A. Now assume d(x, A) = γ for

some γ > 0. But we can find a nbhds of x Bd (x, ) s.t. 0 <  < γ and since every nbhd of x

intersects A, ∃ an a ∈ A s.t. d(x, a) <  which contradicts our assumption that d(x, A) = γ.

Thus, d(x, A) = 0.

(b) Show that if A is compact, d(x, A) = d(x, a) for some a ∈ A

1. First we show that f : A → R where f (a) = d(x, a) is a continuous. We see d(y, a) ≤

d(y, z) + d(z, a) =⇒ d(y, a) − d(z, a) ≤ d(z, y) and d(z, a) ≤ d(z, y) + d(y, a) =⇒ d(z, a) −

d(y, a) ≤ d(z, y), thus |f (z) − f (z)| = |d(z, a) − d(y, a)| ≤ d(z, y). Then, d(z, y) < δ = 

=⇒ |f (z) − f (z)| < , proving f (a) = d(x, a) is continuous. Since f is continuous and since

1
 A is compact, there exists a value f (b) of f (A), s.t. f (b) ≤ f (a) ∀a ∈ A by the extreme

value theorem.

(c) Define the  -neighborhood of A in X to be the set

U (A, ) = {x|d(x, A) < }

Show that U (A, ) equals the union of the open balls Bd (a, ) for a ∈ A

S
1. NTS: {x|d(x, A) < } = a∈A Bd (a, ). (” ⊂ ”) Suppose y ∈ {x|d(x, A) < }, then d(y, A) <

 and equivalently inf {d(y, a)} <  ∀a ∈ A. And from the definition of inf , d(y, A) ≤ d(y, a)

∀a ∈ A. Now, suppose d(y, a) ≥  ∀a ∈ A, then  would be the greatest lower bound

of d(y, a) so d(y, a) <  for at least one a ∈ A. Thus, Bd (a, ) for some a ∈ A and
S S
{x|d(x, A) < } ⊂ a∈A Bd (a, ). (” ⊃ ”) Suppose y ∈ a∈A Bd (a, ) then y ∈ Bd (a, ) for

some a ∈ A. If y is in multiple epsilon balls, then choose the ball s.t. d(y, a) is the smallest,

if y is equally close to more than 1 a then we can just choose one a, call it a0 . Now, d(y, a0 )

is a lower bound for d(y, a) ∀a ∈ A. Since we chose a0 such that d(y, a0 ) was smaller or

the same size as all d(y, a)’s. Further, there are no lower bounds of {d(y, a)|a ∈ A} larger

than d(y, a0 ) so it is the greatest lower bound and since d(y, a0 ) <  (since y ∈ Bd (a0 , )),
S
y ∈ {x|d(x, A) < } so a∈A Bd (a, ) ⊂ {x|d(x, A) < }.

(d) Assume that A is compact, let U be an open set containing A. Show that some  -neighborhood

of A is contained in U .

1. To avoid confusion, we call the open set containing A, V . For each ai ∈ A, define the -ball

Bd (ai , i ) where Bd (ai , i ) ⊂ V since V is open. Now consider the open cover Bd (ai , 2i ) of

A. Since A is compact, ∃ a finite subcover, C = {Bd (a1 , 21 ), ..., Bd (an , 2n )}, that still covers

a
A. We can find the minimum radius of -balls in C, call it 2. Consider the -neighborhood

U (A, 2a ). We want to show U (A, 2a ) ⊂ V . Let x ∈ U (A, 2a ). By (c), x ∈ a
S
a∈A Bd (a, 2 ).

2
 So x ∈ Bd (aj , 2a ) for some aj ∈ A. Since aj ∈ A, and C covers A, aj ∈ Bd (ai , 2i ) for some

ai ∈ A. It follows that x ∈ Bd (ai , 2i + a

2 ). Since a
2 is the minimum of { 21 , ..., 2n }, a
2 ≤ i
2

and x ∈ Bd (ai , i ). From earlier in the proof, Bd (ai , i ) ⊂ V , so x ∈ V and U (A, 2a ) ⊂ V as

desired.

(e) Show the result in (d) need not hold if A is closed but not compact.

1. Let A = R × {0} which is closed since it is the complement of a union of open sets R ×

−1
((−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)) now consider the open set V = {(x, y) | − x1 < y < x1 }. x and 1
x tend to

0 so d(x, R2 − V ) = 0. Suppose ∃ an -neighborhood U (A, ), but then for some x ∈ U (A, )

x 6∈ V that is we cannot put an -neighborhood inside any open set around A .

6. Let A0 be the closed interval [0, 1] in R. Let A1 be the set obtained from A0 by deleting its ”middle

1 2 1 2 7 8




third” 3, 3 . Let A2 be the set obtained from A1 by deleting its ”middle thirds” 9, 9 and 9, 9 .

In general, define An by the equation

∞  
[ 1 + 3k 2 + 3k
An = An−1 − ,
3n 3n
k=0
\
C= An
n∈Z+

(a) Show that C is totally disconnected.

1. Take two points x 6= y ∈ C. Suppose x and y are in the same connected subspace B ⊂ C.

1 1
Since x 6= y, d(x, y) > 0. Further, we can find 3n s.t. d(x, y) > 3n . Since x, y ∈ C, then

1
x, y ∈ An . Since An only contains closed intervals of size 3n so x and y cannot be in the

same closed interval and there is an open interval ( 1+3k 2+3k

3n , 3n ) for some k between x and

y. Given this, we can select a point z ∈ ( 1+3k 2+3k 1+3k 2+3k

3n , 3n ) (Note ( 3n , 3n ) 6∈ C and hence

6∈ B)then the open sets (−∞, z) ∩ B and B ∩ (z, ∞) form a separation of B hence so x and

y are not in a connected subspace E. Since x and y were arbitrary, C is totally disconnected.

(b) Show that C is compact.

3
 1. By (c), An is a finite union of closed intervals, thus it is closed. Further C is an intersection

of An ’s so it is also closed. Also, notice C ⊂ [0, 1], so it is bound. Since C is a closed and

bounded subset of R, it is compact.

(c) Show that each set An is a union of finitely many disjoint closed intervals of length 1/3n ; and

show that the end points of these intervals lie in C. We will show this by induction. Consider

base cases n = 0 and n = 1. For n = 0, A0 is a single (thus a finite number of) closed interval

1
for length 30
= 1. For n = 1, A1 is [0, 1] − ( 13 , 23 ) = [0, 31 ] ∪ [ 23 , 1] a two (thus a finite number of)

1
closed interval with length 31
= 13 . Assume An is a finite union of closed intervals of length 1
3n .
S∞ 1+3k 2+3k


Then An+1 = An − k=0 ,
3n+1 3n+1
which is equivalent to deleting the open middle third of

each closed set in An , leaving twice the number of closed sets as in An , but two times a finite

number is finite, so An+1 is a union of a finite number of open sets. Notice that in each step of

the induction proof, endpoints of all closed sets are not removed, thus endpoints of each closed

interval in every An will be in C.

(d) Show that C has no isolated points. Suppose C does have an isolated point x, then ∃ an open

set U containing only x. Open sets on the subspace [0, 1] are of the form U = (a, b) ∩ [0, 1] where

1
a < b. Now, consider c = min(x − a, x − b). We can always find an n such that 3n < c Thus we

can fit a closed interval in U . Since the endpoints of closed intervals are in C, there must be a

point y ∈ C s.t. y ∈ U . Thus, no open set in C contains only one point (x), i.e. singletons are

not open, so C has no isolated points.

(e) Conclude that C is uncountable.

1. Since R is Hausdorff, C ⊂ R, and subspaces of Hausdorff space are Hausdorff, thus C is

Hausdorff. From (b), C is compact and because 0, 1 are the endpoints of A0 = [0, 1] and (by

(c)) all the endpoints of closed intervals in every An is in C, 0, 1 ∈ C, thus C is nonempty.

Now, using the result of (d), we can conclude C is uncountable by 27.7.

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Section 28: 2, 5, 7a

7. Let (X, d) be a metric space. If f satisfies the condition

d(f (x), f (y)) < d(x, y)

for all x, y ∈ X with x 6= y, then f is called a shrinking map. If there is a number α < 1 such that

d(f (x), f (y)) ≤ αd(x, y)

for all x, y ∈ X, then f is called a contraction. A fixed point of f is a point x such that f (x) = x

(a) If f is a contraction and X is compact, show f has a unique fixed point. [Hint: Define f 1 = f

and f n+1 = f ◦ f n . Consider the intersection A of the sets An = f n (X).]

T∞
(i) First, we show i=1 An is nonempty where An = f n (X). We see f is continuous because

∀ > 0 ∀x ∈ X, ∃δ > 0 s.t. ∀y ∈ X, d(x, y) < δ =⇒ d(f (x), f (y)) < , namely ∀x ∈ X,

we take δ =  and d(f (x), f (y)) < αd(x, y) < d(x, y) < . Now we show by induction that

f n (X) is compact. For n = 0, A0 = X is compact by construction. For n = 1, since f

is cts and X is compact, A1 = f (X) is compact. Now, assume f n (X) is compact, then

f n+1 (X) = f (f n (X)) is compact since f is cts. Thus, every An is compact. Since every

metric space is Hausdorff, every An is a compact subset of a Hausdorff space and is therefore

closed. Now we show every An is non-empty by induction. For n = 0, X is nonempty by

construction. For n = 1, since X is nonempty this implies ∃x ∈ X, which then implies

f (x) ∈ f (X) so A1 is nonempty. Now, assume f n (X) is nonempty, then x ∈ f n (X)) implies

f (x) ∈ f (f n (X)) = f n+1 (X) so An+1 is nonempty, thus An is nonempty ∀n ∈ Z+ . Now, we

T∞
want to show i=1 Ai is nonempty, we will do this by proving that the set {Ai } (i ∈ Z+ ) has

the finite intersection property, and since {Ai } is a collection of closed sets in X a compact
T∞
metric space then having the finite intersection property implies i=1 Ai is nonempty. First,

5
 we show An+1 ⊂ An ∀n ∈ Z+ by induction. Since f is defined as f : X → X, it is clear

A1 = f (X) ⊂ X = A0 . Take x ∈ An = f n (X)), which implies x = f n (y) for some

y ∈ X. Obviously, y ∈ X =⇒ f (y) ∈ f (X) and since we know f (X) ⊂ X, f (y) ∈ X

and thus f n−1 (f (y)) ∈ f n−1 (X). Now, since x = f n (y) = f n−1 (f (y)), x ∈ f n−1 (X) so

An = f n (X) ⊂ f n−1 (X) = An−1 thus An ⊂ An−1 ∀n ∈ Z+ . Thus, finite collections of

{Ai } will form nested sequences with one Aj ∈ {Ai } being a subset of all {Ai }, thus the

intersection of a finite number of Ai ’s will be one of the Ai ’s and since we proved each Ai

will be nonempty, the intersection of a arbitrary and finite number of Ai ’s is nonempty

T∞ T∞
thus i=1 Ai is nonempty. Now, we show i=1 Ai contains only one element. Since X

is a compact metric space, it is bounded, i.e. ∀x, y ∈ X, d(x, y) ≤ M for some number

M . Since f is a contracting function, d(f (x), f (y)) ≤ αM and d(f n (x), f n (y)) ≤ αn M ,

thus diam(f n (X)) → 0 where diam(f n (X)) = sup{d(p, q)} ∀p, q ∈ f n (X) since distance

can never be negative and it if we suppose it was some  > 0 we can always find an n s.t.
T∞
αn M < . Given this, suppose x, y ∈ i=1 Ai then x, y ∈ f i (X) for every i, but this implies
T∞
diam(f n (X)) > 0 for every i, E. Thus, only one point can be in i=1 Ai . Now, we must show
T∞ T∞
that x ∈ i=1 Ai is the unique fixed point. We will show x is a fixed point iff x ∈ i=1 Ai .
T∞
which will imply that x ∈ i=1 Ai is the unique fixed point since we proved there is only one
T∞
point in i=1 Ai . ”=>” Suppose f (x) = x, the x ∈ X, x = f (x) ∈ f (X) and by induction
T∞ T∞
x = f n (x) ∈ f n (X), i.e. x ∈ f n (X) ∀n so x ∈ i=1 Ai . ”<=” x ∈ i=1 Ai , so x ∈ f n (X)
T∞ T∞
∀n so f (x) ∈ f n + 1(X), ∀n + 1 so f (x) ∈ i=1 Ai since there is only one element in i=1 Ai ,

x = f (x) .

Section 29: 1, 5, 8

8. Show that the one-point compactification of Z+ is homeomorphic with the subspace {0}∪{1/n|n ∈ Z+ }

of R.

6
1. Z+ is locally compact since for every point x ∈ Z+ , there is a compact subspace {x} (all single-

tons/finite sets are compact) containing x that also contains an open nbhd of x, namely {x} since Z+

has the discrete topology in R. Also, note that Z+ is hausdorff as we can easily create disjoint -balls

around distinct integers. Since Z+ is locally compact hausdorff it has a unique (up to a homeomor-

1
phism) 1-pt compactification. Further, Z+ is homeomorphic to K via the homeomorphism f (n) = n

which is clearly 1 − 1 and onto, and hence bijective. Singletons in K and Z+ are open so open sets

in K will be unions of singletons and hence will be mapped to by unions of singletons in Z+ which

will be open, i.e. if U is open in K f −1 (K) is open, thus f is cts. Similarly, any open set in Z+ will

be a union of singletons and thus if U is open in Z+ , then f (U ) is open in K and therefore f −1 is

cts and f is a homeomorphism from Z+ to K. Now, we show that {0} ∪ { n1 | n ∈ Z+ } is the 1-pt

compactification of K. First, {0} ∪ K is compact since any open cover will have one open set (a, b)

1 1
covering {0} and all n < b leaving only a finite number of n ’s that can be covered by finitely many

1 1
open sets giving us a finite subcover. Further, {0} ∪ K is hausdorff since for any n and k where k 6= n

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
we can find a x ∈ R s.t. k <x< n if k < n or k >x> n if k > n and create disjoint open sets

1 1
around n and k respectively (we already used this to say only singletons in K are open), note we can

1
do the same for 0 and any n. Thus, {0} ∪ K is compact hausdorff, K ⊂ {0} ∪ K and K̄ = {0} ∪ K.

Thus, {0} ∪ K is the 1-pt compactification of K and since Z+ is homeomorphic to K and Z+ locally

compact hausdorff, the 1-pt compactification of Z+ is {0} ∪ K.