Oc Manual

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Student Lab Manual

Fourth Year Semester-VII
Advance Communication Engineering
Laboratory II
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Institute Vision, Mission & Quality Policy
Vision
To foster and permeate higher and quality education with value added engineering,
technology programs, providing all facilities in terms of technology and platforms for all
round development with societal awareness and nurture the youth with international
competencies and exemplary level of employability even under highly competitive
environment so that they are innovative adaptable and capable of handling problems faced
by our country and world at large.
Mission
The institution is committed to mobilize the resources and equip itself with men and
materials of excellence thereby insuring that the Institution becomes pivotal center of
service to Industry, academia and society with the latest technology. RAIT engages
different platforms such as technology enhancing Student Technical Societies, Cultural
platforms, Sports Excellence Centers, Entrepreneurial Development Center and Societal
Interaction Cell. To develop the college to become an autonomous Institution & deemed
university at the earliest with facilities for advanced research and development programs
on par with international standards. To invite international and reputed national
Institutions and Universities to collaborate with our institution on the issues of common
interest of teaching and learning sophistication.
RAIT’s Mission is to produce engineering and technology professionals who are

innovative and inspiring thought leaders, adept at solving problems faced by our nation
and world by providing quality education.
Quality Policy
Our Quality Policy

It is our earnest endeavour to produce high quality engineering professionals
who are innovative and inspiring, thought and action leaders, competent to solve
problems faced by society, nation and world at large by striving towards very
high standards in learning, teaching and training methodologies.
Our Motto: If it is not of quality, it is NOT RAIT!
Dr. Vijay D. Patil
President, RAES
i
Institute Goals
Short Term
 To produce engineering and technology professionals who are innovative and inspiring
thought leaders, adept at solving problems faced by our nation and world by providing quality
education.
 To assure our main stakeholders of students 100% quality for the programmes we deliver.
 To provide students skills that make them thought and action leaders with right attitude and
concern towards challenges faced by society , country and the world.
 To mobilize the resources and equip the institution with men and materials of excellence so
that the institute becomes pivotal center of service to Industry and academia and society, with
the latest technology.
 To work closely with all stake holders like industry, academia and research groups to foster
knowledge generation, acquisition, dissemination using best available resources to address the
challenges being faced by our country and World.
 To have a full fledged course curriculum and deliveries feedback mechanisms of learning
processes thereby ensuring the fulfillment programme educational objectives and ensure same
quality of teaching independent of any individual instructor.
 To expand the areas of engineering and technology by adding new programmes like
Mechanical, Civil and other branches at Ph.D., M.E. and B.E. level.
 To install the internal procedures to better the skill set of instructors by sponsoring them to
training courses, workshops, seminars and conferences and encourage faculty to enhance and
improve their academic qualifications and skills.
 To establish and deploy effective learning process in the campus comprising a clean and
stimulating classroom environment and availability of lecture notes and digital resources
prepared by instructor.
 To ensure learning process to include practical and industry relevant aspects by employing
project based training and organizing advanced technology training programmes and
organizing internships as per the needs of industry and the society.
ii
Long Term
 To become one of the best and reputed engineering institutions in the country and most
sought after destination for discerning students across country and globe.
 To achieve the status of autonomy for academic pursuits so as to provide current curricula to
the students to provide competent manpower to industry and academia across the world.
 To become a university of international standards with Indian ethos that can meet all the
aspirations of the people of this country and the world.
 To contribute to social and economical growth of the society and country.
iii
Department Vision & Mission
Vision
To be a center of academic excellence by imparting quality education and carrying
out research and technology in frontier areas of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering and to produce competent leaders to face challenges of the global
village, Strive towards producing world class engineers who will continuously
innovate, upgrade telecommunication technology and provide advanced and hazard-
free solutions to the mankind to inspire, educate and empower students to ensure
green and sustainable society with strong moral values and ethics.
Mission
 To impart quality and value based education to be at par with the state-of-
-art technology.
 To provide a strong foundation for analyzing and designing various

communication systems and develop an intuition to implement global
information transportation and computing communication system so as to
facilitate use of advanced task.
 To build the team spirit, develop the area for higher and continuing
education and develop better outlook skills driven by social, economical
and technological reasons by bridging gap between academia, industry
and society.
 Students are promoted to participate in industrial training and NGO

camps for welfare of society during semester break.
 To provide all possible resources to make the student a better engineer

and strong sportsman by motivating to participate in sports and
extracurricular activities.
iv
Department Objectives & Goals
 Identify, define and solve problems in the fields of electronics & telecommunication
engineering and use their skills in ethical & professional manner to raise the satisfaction level
of the stakeholders.
 To prepare students to give good theoretical background with sound practical knowledge,
enable them to analyze and solve Electronics and telecommunication Engineering problems
by applying basic principles of mathematics, science, and engineering by using modern tools
and techniques.
 To build strong fundamental knowledge amongst students to pursue higher education, and to
enhance research and continue professional development in Electronics, Communication and
IT industries.
 To produce graduates who have ability to pursue advanced studies and research in
telecommunication engineering and to contribute for meaningful linkage with the society.
 To develop students for team working and managerial skills leading to entrepreneurship and
leadership
Short Term
 Arrange lectures / seminars / STTPs / Workshops of resource persons from Industries to

upgrade the knowledge of students and staff and increase Industry institute interaction.
 Encourage faculty and staff for acquiring higher qualification.
Long Term
 To establish our department as a premium research & consultancy center of repute.
 To establish a strong industry institute partnership.
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Department Program Outcomes (POs)
 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems and design the Electronics and Telecommunication circuits and system, also have
the depth knowledge of basic science and engineering.
 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
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 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
vii
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
 PEO-1: To prepare skilled Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering graduates

with sound knowledge of mathematics, basic sciences and engineering fundamentals
that makes them ready for employability in industry and academia.
 PEO-2: To provide in-depth theoretical and experimental knowledge in Electronics

and Telecommunication engineering to the students and make them ready for higher
studies.
 PEO-3: To train the students for effective use of modern engineering tools and
inculcate communication skills and leadership qualities to work as an individual and
team member on multidisciplinary projects.
 PEO-4: To develop sound ethical and professional attitude in students to facilitate

them for finding effective solutions to societal, economic and environmental
problems.
 PEO-5: To encourage, train and facilitate the students for life-long learning and
entrepreneurship.
viii
Program Specific Objectives (PSOs)
 Knowledge of Engineering Fundamentals: A graduate will be able to acquire in-depth

knowledge of Basic sciences, mathematics and fundamentals of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering.
 Technical skills and Ability: A graduate will be able to get the desired exposure to
software & hardware tools and emerging technologies necessary for the
acquisition of technical skills and problem solving ability.
 Application of Knowledge: A graduate will be able to apply the acquired knowledge

to design, solve and analyze real-life engineering problems and applications. He/she
will have the understanding of the impact of engineering solutions in a global,
economical, environmental and societal context.
 Research and Innovation: A graduate will be able to provide innovative and original
solutions by possessing requisite research and developmental aptitude and abilities.
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Index
Sr. No. Contents Page No.
1. List of Experiments 1
2. Experiment Plan and Course Outcomes 2
3. Study and Evaluation Scheme 3
4. Experiment No. 1 4
x
List of Experiments
Sr. No. Experiments Name
1 Study Of Microwave Components
2 Mode Characteristics Of Reflex Klystron
3 V-I Characteristics Of GUNN Diode
4 Measurement Of Frequency And Wavelength
5 Measurements Of VSWR
6 Optical Analog Link Setup
7 Optical Digital Link Setup
8 Propagation Or Attenuation Loss In Optical Fiber
9 Bending Loss In Optical Fiber
10 Numerical Aperture Of The Fiber
11 Introduction To High Power Microwaves
1
Experiment Plan & Course Outcome

Course Outcomes:
CO1 The Student will be able to understand microwave band and characteristics. Mode
analysis of rectangular and circular wave guide will be understood. The student is
able to understand resonator, re-entrant cavities and all microwaves passive device.
CO2 The student will be able to understand the principle of generation and amplification
microwave frequencies using reflex klystron.
CO3 The student will be exposed to construction working and performance of GUNN
diode at microwave frequencies.
CO4 The student will be exposed to principles of optics and light waves and will
understand fibres links using appropriate optical fibres, light sources and detectors.
CO5 The student will understand the working principle and characteristics of optical
fibres, light sources such as numerical apertures.
CO6 The students will be studying different losses incurred to light wave while
propagating through different fibre optic cables.
Module Week Course

Experiments Name
No. No. Outcome
1 W1 Study of Microwave Components CO1
2 W2 Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron CO2
3 W3 V-I Characteristics of GUNN Diode CO3
4 W4 Measurement of frequency and wavelength CO1
5 W5 Measurements of VSWR CO2
6 W6 Optic Analog link setup CO4
7 W7 Optic Digital link setup CO4
8 W8 Propagation or attenuation loss in Optical fiber CO6
9 W9 Bending loss in optical fiber CO6
10 W10 Numerical Aperture of the fiber CO5
2
Study and Evaluation Scheme

Course
Course Name Teaching Scheme Credits Assigned
Code
Advance Theory Practical Tutorial Theory Practical Tutorial Total
ETL703 Communication
Laboratory II -- 02 -- -- 01 -- 01
Course Code Course Name Examination Scheme

Advance Term Work Practical & Oral Total
ETL703 Communication
Laboratory II 25 25 50
Term Work:
1. Term work assessment must be based on the overall performance of the student with
every experiment graded from time to time. The grades should be converted into
marks as per the Credit and Grading System manual and should be added and
averaged.
2. The final certification and acceptance of term work ensures satisfactory performance
of laboratory work and minimum passing marks in term work.
Practical & Oral:
1. Practical and Oral exam will be based on the entire syllabus of Optical
Communication and Network and Microwave and Radar Engineering.
3
Experiment No.: 1
Study of Microwave Components
4
Experiment No. 1
1. Aim:To study the various microwave components in detail.
2. What you will learn by performing this experiment? (Should be in enumerated

form)
 Study of basics of Rectangular waveguide.

 Study of modes of propagation in waveguides.
 Study of characteristics of various microwave devices and components.
3. Apparatus Required:
Sr. No. Apparatus / Equipment Specification
1. Rectangular Waveguide EIA No. : WR - 90

2. Fixed Attenuators Model No: X - 5000
3. Tunable Probe Model No. : X - 6055
4. Klystron Mount Model No. : X - 2051
5. Circulators Model No. : X - 6021
6. Multi-hole Directional Couplers Model No. : X - 6003
7. E Plane Tee Model No. : X - 3061
8. H Plane Tee Model No. : X - 3065
9. Magic Tee Model No. : X - 3045
10. Matched Termination Model No. : X - 3065
Table 1. List of required Apparatus and components
4. Theory:
i. Rectangular Wave Guide

A typical rectangular waveguide is shown in Fig. 1.1. Wave guides are manufactured to the
highest mechanical and electrical standards and mechanical tolerances. Various modes exist
for a waveguide with different electric and magnetic field distribution patterns shown in Fig.
1.2.
SPECIFICATIONS
X Band
EIA No.: WR - 90
Frequency: 8.2 - 12.4 GHZ
Width: 2.286cm
Height: 1.1016cm
±Tol.(im): 7.6
Width: 2.54 cm
Material: Brass/Copper.
5
Fig.1.1 Rectangular Wave Guide
Fig.1.2 Field Distribution of wave inside the guide.
6
ii. Fixed attenuators

Series 5000 fixed Attenuators (fig.1.3) are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave
guide system. These consist of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on both
ends. These are useful for isolation of wave guide circuits, padding and extending the range of
measuring equipment. Fixed Attenuators are available for 3, 6 or 10 dB attenuation values, but
any attenuation valve between 0 and 30dB can be provided.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No: X-5000

Frequency: 8.12 - 12.4 GHZ Max VSWR: 1.10
Attenuation (dB) : 3,6,10 Max Insertion Loss (dB): 0.2
Calibration Accuracy: ± 0.2dB W.G. Type: WG – 90
Avg Power: 2W Flange Type (UG/U) : 39
.
A precision built probe carriage has a centimetre scale with a vernier reading of 0.1mm least
count and a dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.
Fig.1.3 Fixed Attenuators

iii) Tunable Probe
Model 6055 Tunable probe (fig.1.4) is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These
are meant for exploring the energy of the EM field in a suitably fabricated section of wave guide.
The depth of penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The
tip picks up the RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is
then fed to the VSWR meter or indicating instrument.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X6055 Freq (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Output Connector: BNC(F) Detector: IN23
7
Fig.1.4 Tunable Probe
iv) Wave Guide Detector Mount (Tunable)
Model 4051 Tunable Detector Mount (fig.1.5) is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting
microwave power through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a
section of a Wave guide and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal
may be fed to an indicating instrument. In K and R bands detector mounts the plunger is driven
by a micrometre.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No. : X - 4051 Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4 Flange Type (UG/U) : 39
O/P Connector : BNC (F)
Fig.1.5 Wave Guide Detector Mount
v) Klystron Mount
Model 2051 Klystron mounts (fig.1.6) are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such as
2K25, 723A/B, 726A or RK - 5976 etc. These consists of a section of wave guide flanged on one
end
and terminated with a movable short on the other end. An octal base with cable is provided for
Klystron.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X – 2051
8
Freq. Range (GHz) 8.2 - 12.4

WG Type (WR-): 90
Flange Type (UG-/U): 39
Fig.1.6 Klystron Mount
vi) Circulators
Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These are
precisely machined and assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators (Fig. 1.7) are
matched three port devices and these are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in
clockwise direction with negligible loss but almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise
direction.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X - 6021
Frequency Range (Ghz): 8.6-10.6 or 10.2- Min. Isolation (dB): 20
12.2 Max. Insertion Loss (dB): 0.4
Max. VSWR: 1.20
Fig.1.7 Circulators
vii) Multi-hole Directional Couplers

Model 6000 series Multi-hole directional couplers (Fig. 1.8) are useful for sampling a part of
Microwave energy for monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These
consists of a section of Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus
9
making it a four port network. However, the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These
two parallel sections are coupled to each other through many holes, almost to give uniform
coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These are available in 3,6,10,20
and 40dB coupling.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X – 6003
Frequency Range (Ghz): 8.2 - 12.4 Directivity (dB): 35
Coupling (dB): 3,10,20,40 Flange type (UG/U): 39
Wave guide type (WR-): 90
Fig.1.8. Multi-hole Directional Couplers
viii) E Plane Tee
Model 3061 E - plane tee (Fig. 1.9) are series type T - junction and consists of three section of
wave guide joined together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering the
first port of this T - junction will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same
magnitude but in opp. phase
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X - 3061

Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-): 90
Fig.1.9 E Plane Tee

10
ix) H – PLANE TEE
Model 3065 H - Plane Tee (Fig.1.10) are shunt type T - junction for use in conjunction with
VSWR meters, frequency - meters and other detector devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed
through first port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided in magnitude at second and third ports
but in same phase.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X - 3065
Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 - 12.4
Flange Type (UG-/U): 39
WG Type (WR-): 90
11
Fig.1.10. H – PLANE TEE
x) MAGIC TEE
Model 3045 E - H or Magic Tee (fig.1.11) consists of a section of wave guide in both series
and shunt wave guide arms, mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both ends of the
section of wave guide and both arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in
balanced mixers, AFC circuits and impedance measurement circuits etc. This becomes a
four terminal device where one terminal is isolated from the input terminal.
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X - 3045 Frequency Range (GHz): 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-): 90 Flange Type (UR-/U): 39
Fig.1.11. Magic Tee
xi) MATCHED TERMINATION
Model 4000 are low power and non-reflective type of terminations (fig.1.12). It consists of a
small and highly dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of wave guide.
Matched Terminations are useful for USWR measurement of various waveguide
components. These are also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads with Tee
junctions, directional couplers and other similar dividing devices.
12
SPECIFICATIONS
Model No.: X - 4000, AV Power: 2W, WG

Freq. Range (Ghz): 8.2 - 12.4 Max Type (WR-) 90,
VSWR: 1.04 Flange Type (UG-/U): 39
Fig.1.12. Matched Transmission
5. Conclusion:
6. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

 What is Waveguide?
 Explain Magic-Tee.
 Differentiate H-Tee and E-Tee.
7. References:
1. http://www.rceroorkee.in/pdf/PEC652.pdf
2. http://www.dankalia.com/science/ele216.pdf
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Experiment No.: 2
Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron
14
Experiment No. 2
1. Aim: To study the Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron.
2. What you will learn by performing this experiment?
o Study of operation of Reflex klystron.

o Study of modes of operation of reflex klystron.
o Study of relation between input voltage and modes of reflex klystron.
Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
Attenuator, Slotted section with Probe carriage, CRO, Movable Short.
4. Theory:
Reflex Klystron is one of the most commonly used microwave (low power) generators.
It converts D.C. power into microwave power.
Reflex Klystrons Oscillator: The schematic diagram of a reflex klystron tube is shown in
Fig. 2.1, which uses only a single re-entrants microwave cavity as resonator. The electron
beam emitted from the cathode K is accelerated by the grid G and passes through the cavity
anode A to the repeller space between the cavity anode and the repeller electrode.
Fig. 2.1: Klystron Schematic
15
Mechanism of Oscillation: Due to dc voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated

in the cavity. This electromagnetic noise field in the cavity becomes pronounced at cavity
resonant frequency. The electrons passing through the cavity gap d experience this RF field
and are velocity modulated in the following manner. The electrons as shown in Fig. 2.2
which encountered the positive half cycle of the RF field in the gap d will be accelerated,
those (reference electrons) b which encountered zero RF field will pass with unchanged
original velocity, and the electrons c which encountered the negative half cycle will be
retarded on entering the repeller space.
Fig. 2.2 Bunching action of a reflex klystron
Mode of Oscillation: The bunched electrons in a reflex klystron can deliver maximum
power to the cavity at any instant which corresponds to the positive peak of the RF cycle of
the cavity oscillation. If T is the time period at the resonant frequency, to is the time taken
by the reference electron to travel in the repeller space between entering the repeller space at
b and the returning to the cavity at positive peak voltage on formatting of the bunch, then
as shown in fig. 2.2.
Thus, by adjusting repeller voltage for given dimensions of the reflex klystron, the bunching
1 3 3
can be made to occur at N  ,1 , 2 , etc. for modes n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, respectively. It is
4 4 4
obvious that the lowest order mode 3/4 occurs for a maximum value of repeller voltage
when the transit time to of the electrons in the repeller space is minimum. Higher modes
occur at lower repeller voltages. Since at the highest repeller voltage the acceleration of the
bunched electrons of return is maximum, the power output of the lowest mode is maximum.
16
Modulation: By varying the reflector voltage about a d.c. value, Klystron can be
frequency and amplitude modulated simultaneously. For proper square wave modulation
with 100% modulation index, the reflector voltage and amplitude of the square wave should
be set as shown in Fig. 2.3. If the square wave peak to peak amplitude is Vm and Vo is the
reflector d.c. voltage, the total reflector voltage will switch between (Vo+Vm) and (VoVm).
We have to choose Vo and Vm such that (Vo+Vm) is in the mode center and (Vo-Vm) is
the non-oscillating region for proper square wave modulation.
Fig. 2.3 Reflector voltage for modulation
5. Procedure:
i) Assemble the components as shown in fig. 2.4.
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Fig. 2.4 Setup of equipment for mode study of Klystron
ii) After following the necessary precautions, the Klystron Power Supply is switched
ON.
iii) To obtain peak voltage, the attenuator is positioned at its minimum attenuation.
iv) Vary the repeller voltage from its maximum negative value and increase it in steps
on N and record output power and frequency.
v) The frequency is measured by tuning the basic frequency meter to have a dip
in the output voltage each time.
vi) The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power each time.
vii) The mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron is plotted. (i.e. Output Voltage Vs
Repeller voltage and Frequency Vs Repeller voltage)
6. Observations &Calculations:
Observation Table I shows the data of repeller voltage Vs output voltage. Graph is plotted
between “output voltage vs repeller voltage” and “output voltage vs frequency”.
TABLE I: observation table

Repeller Voltage Output Voltage Repeller Voltage Frequency
(V) (V) (V)
18
7. Conclusion:

1. Explain operation of Reflex Klystron.
2. Explain modes of Reflex Klystron.
9. References:
19
Experiment No. : 3
V-I Characteristics of GUNN Diode
20
Experiment No. 3
1. Aim: Study of V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.
o Study of principles of operation of GUNN diode.

o Study of V-I characteristics of GUNN diode.
o Study of principles of operation of PIN diode.
X- Band Gunn Oscillator, Microwave bench, PIN modulator, Isolator, Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator, Slotted section, Tunable probe, Detector Mount, Matched termination,
Gunn power supply, Wave guide stand, BNC cable, Cooling fan.
4. Theory:
Some bulk semiconductor materials such as Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium
Phosphide (InP) and Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) have two closely spaced energy bands in
the conduction band. At lower electric field strengths in the material, most of the electrons
will be transmitted into higher energy band. In the higher energy band the effective electron
mass is longer and hence the electron mobility is lower than what it is in the lower energy
band. Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility there is an immediate
range of electric field strengths for which the fraction of electrons that are transferred into
higher energy low mobility conduction is such that the average mobility and hence
conductivity decreases with an increase in the electric field strength. Thus there is a range of
voltage over which the current decreases with the increasing voltage and a negative
instrumental of resistance is displayed by the device. A Gunn device is also called a
transferred electronic device since the negative resistance arises from the transfer of
electrons from the lower to higher energy band. The oscillations that occur in the material
with energy band structure noted above were discovered by J.B.Gunn. The probability of
obtaining negative differential resistance had been predicted earlier by Ridley and Watkins.
21
Fig. 3.1. Block Diagram
5. Procedure:
i) Set up the microwave test bench as shown in block diagram (Fig.3.1).

ii) Keep the control knobs of power supply as detailed below: ON/OFF switch – OFF
Gunn diode bias knob -fully anti -clockwise to keep the bias voltage to zero to start
with. PIN bias knob - fully anti - clockwise to keep the bias voltage to zero to start
with PIN mode frequency - middle position to keep frequency approx. to 1 kHz.
iii) Do not apply any bias to PIN diode throughout the experiment.
iv) Set the micro-meter of Gunn oscillator cavity for required frequency of operation.
v) Switch on the Gunn power supply.
6. Observation:
Table I: Observation table
Voltage (V) Current (mA)
Graph is to be plotted (Voltage vs Current)
22
7. Conclusion:

1. What is Gunn effect?
2. Draw V-I characteristics of GUNN diode.
9. References:
23
Experiment No. : 4
Measurement of frequency and

wavelength
24
Experiment No. 4
1. Aim: To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide
working inTE10 mode.
 Study of dominant modes in rectangular waveguide.

 Study of wave propagation in rectangular waveguide.
 Study of relationship between wavelengths in waveguide.
Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator, Slotted section waveguide, Tunable probe, VSWR meter, Waveguide
stand, Movable short/matched termination.
4. Theory:
For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide,

1 1 1
 2 2
0
2
g c
where 0 is free space wavelength, g is guide wavelength and c is cut-off wavelength. For TE10
mode, c  2a , where ‘a’ is the broad dimension of waveguide. The block diagram for the
measurement of guided wavelength and frequency is given in Fig. 4.1.
25
Fig. 4.1. Block Diagram of Setup Measurement of frequency
5. Procedure:
i. Set up the components and equipment’s as shown in Fig. 4.1

ii. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply as below:
Meter switch Off
Mod-switch AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage Fully clockwise
AM-Amplitude Knob Around fully clockwise
AM-Frequency Knob Around mid-Position
iii. Switch “ON‟ the Klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
iv. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency directly from the frequency meter.
v. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
vi. Move probe along with the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will vary.
Move the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading; it is
necessary to increase the VSWR meter range dB switch to higher position. Note
and record the probe position.
vii. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
viii. Calculate the guided wavelength as twice the distance between two successive
minimum positions obtained as above.
ix. Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension ‘a’, which will be around 2.286cm
for X-band waveguide.
x. Calculate the frequency by following equation:
c 1 1
f  c 
0 g 2
c 2
Where c  3 10 m / s is velocity of light in free space
8
26
xi. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.

xii. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
6. Calculation:
Measured Calculated Calculated Measured Phase Group Velocity,

Guided Frequency, Wavelength, Guided Velocity,
f  
2
Wavelength, f 0 (GHz) 0 (cm) Frequency, v p  f0g vg  0 0

g (cm) f g (GHz) f 0 g
7. Conclusion:
1. Explain modes of excitation in Rectangular waveguide.

2. Differentiate TE and TM modes.
9. References:
27
Experiment No. : 5
Measurements of VSWR
28
Experiment No. 5
1. Aim: To determine the voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) for different loads.
 Study of generation of Standing waves in waveguides.

 Study of effect of termination on VSWR.
 Study of analytical relation between VSWR and voltages inside waveguide.
Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator,
Klystron mount, Waveguide stand, SWR meter, Slotted line, Tunable probe, Movable
short/termination or any unknown load and BNC cables, S-S Tuner and accessories.
4. Theory:
i) Standing Wave Distribution:
If a transmission lines is terminated in an independence not equal to its characteristic

impedance, the termination is said to be “not matched” to the line. Waves traveling down
the line are partially or wholly reflected from the termination. Total reflection occurs when
the terminal impedance is not dissipative, i.e. a short, open or reactive termination. Standing
waves are the result of two wave trains of equal wavelength incident and reflected along the
line in opposite directions.
ii) High VSWR by Double Minimum Method:
The voltage standing wave ratio of
Vmax
VSWR 
Vmin
where Vmax and Vmin are the voltage at the maxima and minima of voltage standing wave
distribution. When the VSWR is high (the standing wave pattern will have a high maxima
and low minima. Since the square law characteristic of a crystal detector is limited to low
power, an error is introduced if ≥ 5)Vmax is measured directly. This difficulty can be
avoided by using the “double minimum method” in which measurements are take on the
standing wave pattern nearthe voltage minimum. The procedure consists of first finding the
29
value of voltage minima. Next two positions about the position of Vmax are found at which
the output voltage is twice the minimum value. If the detector response is square,
1
VSWR  1 
d 
sin 2 
  
 g 
Where,  g is the guide wavelength and d is the distance between the two points and voltage
is 2Vmin.
5. Procedure:
i) Set up the equipment as shown in fig. 5.1. Set the frequency and amplitude of the
source by using slider and knob respectively. Modulate the signal by using square
modulator.
iii) Select “forward direction” in isolator and adjust the attenuation by using slider in
attenuator.
iv) To analyse the standing wave pattern, terminate the slotted line with given loads i.e
“Short circuited”, “Open circuited”, “Matched Load” and “Unmatched Load”.
v) Move slider of slotted line to measure maxima and minima in the standing wave
pattern.
vi) The voltage corresponding to the distance is shown in the CRO.
Fig.5.1 Experimental arrangement for measuring VSWR
30
6. Observation:
Sr. No. Load VMax VMin VSWR= VMax /VMin

1
2
3
4
7. Conclusion

1. What is VSWR?
2. How VSWR is related to stability?
9. References:
31
Experiment No. : 6
Optical Analog link setup
32
Experiment No. 6
1. Aim: Study the relationship between i/p and received o/p signal by using 650 nm
fiber optic Analog link.
 Study of optical fibre communication.

 Study of analog link setup in optical communication.
 Study of optical analog communication system.
Fiber optic trainer kit, CRO, CRO probes, Function Generator, fibre cable, connecting wires
etc.
4. Theory& Procedure:
Fibre optics links can be used for transmission of digital and analog signals. Fibre optic
links contain three main elements, Transmitter, Optical fibre & Receiver. Transmitter takes
input signal in electrical form and converts into optical (light) signal containing same
information. Optical fibre is the medium to take energy to the receiver.At the receiver light
is converted back into electrical signal.
Fiber Optic Analog Link The fiber optic analog link consists of a transmitter
whichconverts an electrical signal to a light signal, an optical fiber to guide the light and a
receiver which detects the light signal and converts it to an electrical signal. Light sources
are either light emitting diodes (LED's) or laser diodes and detectors are phototransistors or
Photodiodes (fig. 6.1).
Transmitter: The heart of the transmitter is a light source. The major function of a
lightsource is to convert an information signal from its electrical form into light. Today's
fiber-optic communications systems use, as a light source, either light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) or laser diodes (LDS). Both are miniature semiconductor devices that effectively
convert electrical signals into light. They need power-supply connections and modulation
circuitry. All these components are usually fabricated in one integrated package. Transistor
based driver circuit need for this type LEDs
33
Fig.6.1 Optical Fiber Connector
Optical fiber: The transmission medium in fiber-optic communications systems is an

opticalfiber (fig. 6.2). The optical fiber is the transparent flexible filament that guides light
from a transmitter to a receiver. An optical information signal entered at the transmitter end
of a fiber - optic communications system is delivered to the receiver end by the optical fiber.
Fig.6.2 Optical Fiber Cable
Receiver: The key component of an optical receiver is its photo detector. The major
functionof a photo detector is to convert an optical information signal back into an electrical
signal (Photocurrent). The photo detector in today's fiber - optic communications systems is
a semiconductor photodiode (PD). This miniature device is usually fabricated together with
its electrical circuitry from an integrated package that provides power-supply connections
and signal amplification.
34
Fig. 6.3 Fiber Optic Kit
Procedure:
i) Connect the power supply to the board shown in Fig. 6.3

ii) Ensure all the switch faults are off.
iii) Make the connections
a) Connect the Frequency 1KHz sine wave o/p to transmitter end.
b) Connect optical cable between transmitter o/p to receiver i/p.
iv) Switch transmitter to analog mode via switch.
v) Switch on the power.
vi) Observe the i/p to the transmitter end and o/p from receiver end.
5. Observation:
Frequency Vin (V) Vout (V) Gain, G=Vout/Vin Gain(dB)=20logG
The graph obtained from the observations (Gain vs Frequency)
35
6. Conclusion:

1. Which are the Fibre optic links elements?
2. Which are the major components of optical receiver? What is the function?
3. Which are the major components of optical Transmitter? What is the function?
8. References:
1. https://www.pantechsolutions.net/fiber-optics/fiber-optic-analog-link
2. Falcon lab manual
36
Experiment No.: 7
Optical Digital link setup
37
Experiment No. 7
1. Aim: Study the relationship between i/p and received signal by using 650 nm fiber
optic Digital link.
 Study of optical fiber communication.

 Study of digital link setup in optical communication.
 Study of optical digital communication system.
Fiber optic trainer kit, CRO, CRO probes, Function Generator, fiber cable, connecting wires
etc.
4. Theory:
Fiber optics links can be used for transmission of digital and analog Signals. Fiber optic
links contain three main elements, Transmitter, Optical fiber & Receiver.
Transmitter take input signal in electrical form and convert into optical (light) signal
containing same information. Optical fiber is the medium to take energy to the receiver.At
the receiver light is converted back into electrical signal.
Fig. 7.1 Fiber Optic Kit
38
5. Procedure:
i) Connect the power supply to the board shown in Fig. 7.1

ii) Ensure all the switch faults are off.
iii) Make the connections
a) Connect the Frequency 1KHz square wave (TTL) o/p to transmitter end.
b) Connect optical cable between transmitter o/p to receiver i/p.
iv) Switch transmitter to digital mode via switch.
v) Switch on the power.
vi) Observe the i/p to the transmitter end and o/p from receiver end.
6. Observation:
Frequency Vin Vout (V) Gain Gain(dB)=20logG

(V) G=Vout/Vin
The graph obtained from the observations (Gain Vs Frequency)
7. Conclusion:

1. Which is the transmission media for optical communication?
2. Compare the features and characteristics of LED & LASER
9. References:
1. https://www.pantechsolutions.net/fiber-optics/fiber-optic-digital-link
39
Experiment No.: 8
Propagation or attenuation loss in
Optical fibre
40
Experiment No. 8
1. Aim: To measure propagation or attenuation loss in optical fibre.
o Study of total internal reflection in optical fiber.

o Study of mode of propagation in optical communication.
o Study of relation between length of optical fiber and propagation loss.
Fibre optic trainer kit, CRO, CRO probes, Function Generator, connecting wires etc.
4. Theory:
Attenuation is the loss of power. Due to attenuation the signal information loss during the
propagation. Attenuation is specified for a fiber in dB/km. Fiber attenuation ranges from
dB/km(small core-glass fiber) to over 2000 dB/km for large core plastic fiber.The basic
measurement for loss in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of the input power
(Pi) to the output power (Po)
 Pi 
  dB   10 log10  ,  = is loss in dB/meter
 Po 
During transit light pulse lose some of their photons thus reducing their amplitude.
Attenuation for a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. For commercially
available fibers, attenuation ranges from 1db/km for premium small core glass fibers to over
2000 dB/km for a large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In
common usage, discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement for loss
in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of the input power (Pi) to the output power
(Po).
Impairment to the signal, besides attenuation is called dispersion. This effect limits the
highest frequency that can transmitted through a certain length of fiber, and one of its causes
(called „mode‟ dispersion) results from the fact that there are different path lengths for each
ray – those rays with larger values of angle of incidence travel less distance than those with
smaller angle of incidence. Since the light in a fiber contains rays with all angels up to the
critical angle, the time of arrival at the receiver of a short transmitted pulse will be spread
over a time that is determined by the path lengths over which the individual rays travel, as
the speed over a time that is
41
determined by the path lengths over which the individual rays travel, as the speed of the
light is the same in all directions. If the two short pulses are transmitted one after the other
in quick succession, then the spreading of each pulse may cause the two to overlap at the
receiver. Thus dispersion limits the frequency at which pulses can be detected, since the
received could not be easily identified as having been generated from two separate pulses.
5. Procedure:
Connect the power supply to fiber optic kit.

i) Connect Function Generator 1 kHz sine wave o/p to i/p socket of transmitter.
iii) Connect 0.5m fiber cable between transmitter o/p &receiver i/p.
iv) Connect receiver o/p to CRO.
v) Switch on power supply.
vi) Observe the o/p signal from receiver on CRO.
vii) Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted are with the
help of gain adjust pot in amplifier block, note the amplitude as V1.
viii) Now replace the F-O cable with 1m without disturbing any setting.
ix) Measure the amplitude at the receiver o/p.
x) Calculate the propagation (attenuation loss) using,
2
 V1    L1 L 2 
  e
 V2 
 = loss in nepers/meters, 1nepers = 8.686dB
L1- length of shorter cable (0.5m),L2- length of longer cable (1m)
6. Observation:
S.No. FOC i/p voltage o/p voltage 

1
2
7. Conclusion:

1. What are the causes of attenuation?
2. Explain with suitable diagrams the different mechanisms that contribute to

attenuation in optical fibers.
42
3. How many types of dispersion are there in optical fiber?
4. Mention the two causes of intermodal dispersion.
5. Distinguish dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fiber.
9. References:
1. Gerd Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.

43
Experiment No.: 9
Bending loss in optical fibre
44
Experiment No. 9
1. Aim: To measure bending loss in optical fiber.
o Study of bending losses in optical fiber.

o Study of types of bending losses in optical fiber.
o Study of relation between length of optical fiber and bending loss
Fiber optic trainer kit, CRO, CRO probes, Function Generator, connecting wires, mandrel etc.
4. Theory:
There are two types of bends in optical fibers.

(a) Macroscopic loss (having larger radii than that of the fiber diameter)
(b) Microscopic loss (random microscopic bends of the fiber axis)
It is also known as radioactive losses. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending, lower
the radius of curvature more is the loss.
Macro bending Loss:

For slight bends, the loss is extremely small and is not observed. As the radius of curvature
decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a certain critical radius of curvature loss
becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a bit smaller once this threshold point has
been reached, the losses suddenly become extremely large. It is known that any bound core
mode has an evanescent field tail in the cladding which decays exponentially as a function
of distance from the core. Since this field tail moves along with the field in the core, part of
the energy of a propagating mode travels in the fiber cladding. When a fiber is bent, the
field tail on the far side of the centre of curvature must move faster to keep up with the field
in the core, for the lowest order fiber mode. At a certain critical distance xc, from the centre
of the fiber; the field tail would have to move faster than the speed of light to keep up with
the core field. Since this is not possible the optical energy in the field tail beyond x c radiates
away. The amount of optical radiation from a bent fiber depends on the field strength at x c
and on the radius of curvature R. Since higher order modes are bound less tightly to the fiber
core than lower order modes, the higher order modes will radiate out of the fiber first.
Micro bending Loss:
Another form of radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode coupling caused by
random micro bends of the optical fiber. Micro bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations
in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis. They are caused either by non-uniformities in the
45
manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of
the fiber. An increase in attenuation results from micro bending because the fiber curvature
causes repetitive coupling of energy between the guided modes and the leaky or non-guided
modes in the fiber. Micro bending losses can be minimized by placing a compressible jacket
over the fiber. When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be
deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.
Procedure:
i) Repeat the steps from 1 to 8 from propagation loss experiment (Exp. 8) using 1m
cable.
ii) Wind the F.O. cable on the mandrel (clamp) and observe the o/p on a CRO.
iii) With increasing the bend, CRO will show gradual reduction in voltage.
iv) Take readings with a single loop and multiple loop bends on the FOC keeping the
radius constant.
v) Observe the output voltage for both the cases.
5. Observation:
Loop diameter = 4cm
No. of turns o/p voltage (V)

1
2
3
4
6. Conclusion

1. Differentiate between Macro & Micro bending losses
2. Why bending losses known as radioactive losses
8. References:

46
Experiment No.: 10 Numerical
Aperture of the fiber
47
Experiment No. 10
1. Aim: To Measure the Numerical Aperture of the fiber.
 Study of total internal reflection in optical fiber.

 Study of core and cladding in optical fiber.
 Study numerical aperture in optical fiber.
Fiber optic trainer kit, CRO, CRO probes, NA clamp, Function Generator, connecting wires
etc.
4. Theory:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which light incident on the fiber end is
very internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the
rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The
light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance else it is refracted out of
the fiber.
From Snell's law, the minimum angle φmin that supports total internal reflection for the
meridional ray is given by:
n
sin min  2 (1)
n1
Rays striking the core-cladding interface at angles less than φmin will refract out of the core
and be lost in the cladding. By applying Snell's law to the air-fiber face boundary, the
condition of equation 1 can be related to the maximum entrance angle θ0,max through the
relationship
n sin  0,max  n1 sin  c
 (2)
where  c   c
2
Thus those rays having entrance anglesθ0 less than θ0,max will be totally internally reflected
at the core-cladding interface.
Equation 2 also defines the numerical aperture (NA, Fig. 10.1) of a step-index fiber for
meridional rays:
NA  n sin 0,max  n1 2
where n is the refractive index of air, n1 is the refractive index of the core and n2 is the
refractive index of the cladding. The approximation on the right hand side is valid when ∆ is
much less than 1. The numerical aperture is a dimensionless quantity which is less than
48
unity, with values normally ranging from 0.14 to 0.50.
Fig 10.1 : Numerical Aperture
NA refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident as the fiber and is totally
internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The light rays should strike
the fiber end within its core of acceptance else it is refracted out of the fiber. It shows the
light gathering capacity of the fiber it should be always be less than 1.
5. Procedure:
i) Connect power supply to the board.

ii) Connect F-G 1Khz sine wave to i/p of transmitter, adjust its amplitude at 5V P-P.
iii) Connect one end of fiber cable to o/p socket of transmitter 1 cut and other
end to NA measurement jig (clamp).
iv) Screw the other end of FOC on the NA clampat a distance of 5, 10, 15 &
20mmfrom the graph paper (screen).
v) The light emitting from the FOC will resemble a circle on the graph screen.
vi) Record the distance of the screen from the fiber end (L) and note the
diameter W of the spot.
vii) Calculate the NA by using the given formula.
W
NA 
4 L2  W 2
viii) Tabulate the various distances & diameter of the circles and calculate the NA.
49
6. Observation:
Sr. No. W (diameter) L (Distance) NA  sin  

1.
2.
3.
4.
7. Conclusion

1. What do you mean by Snell’s Law?
2. When light passes through air to a medium with a great refractive index (i.e.,
glass), what happens to the light?
3. What do you mean by total internal reflection?
9. References:

50
Experiment No.: 11
Introduction to High Power
Microwaves (HPM)
51
Experiment No. 11
1. Aim: To study fundamentals of pulsed power microwaves and HPM generating
sources.
 Pulsed power terminology

 Applications of pulsed power
 Introduction to a class of HPM sources: virtual cathode oscillators
3. Theory:
High Power Microwaves (HPM) has emerged in recent years as a new technology paradigm.
All microwave generating devices which qualify the following criteria can be called HPM
devices: a) Devices that generate 100 MW or more peak power. b) Devices that span the
centimetre-and millimetre-wave range of frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz. Fig. 11.1
shows the domains of HPM applications.
Fig. 11.1 HPM application domains[1].
Because of its applicability in various fields such as fusion heating, directed energy weapons
(DEWs), plasma heating, particle acceleration, high power radar, industrial & military use
and electronic warfare, the HPM devices have become a part of global attention. This has
allowed new applications and offered innovative approaches towards study and design of
such devices [1-7].
52
In the 1990s it became clear that peakpower is limited by plasma formation and breakdown
inside the sources. The reality today is that sourcesare limited to the range of 100 J to 1 kJ at
most, meaning 1 GW peak output power for amicrosecond or 10 GW for 100 nsec. The limits
are set by a plasma productionin the sources and by breakdowns at high internal electric field
[1,8]
. The problem is that although theoretical efficiencies are high, in practice few devices
have been truly optimized. Efficiency is low because it is hard to maintain resonance
throughout the electrical pulse.
An electric pulse is fed to a HPM device as an input through a pulse forming network which
usually comprises of ‘Marx bank’, peaking switch and a pulse forming line. A typical high
voltage pulse (Fig. 11.2) has fast rise, overshoot, and slow fall time with undershoot.
Durations are typically from 0.1to 10 µs. A HPM source generates similar high voltage pulse
but of high frequencies ranging in few GHz.
Fig. 11.2 Shape of a typical high voltage pulse.
In India, the research on HPM devices is focused towards developing a thorough

understanding and the technological proficiency for indigenous fabrication of such devices in
the future. Most of the current strategic devices have been imports from other nations.
The operation of HPM devices is characterized by the electron beams originating from the
cathode and its interaction with the electric and magnetic fields. These high energy beams
exhibit plasma behaviour and space charge effects. There are various plasma models such as,
single particle, kinetic, fluid, hybrid kinetic/fluid, gyro-kinetic, etc., suitable for different
phenomena and area of application. Particle-in-cell code uses the kinetic model for plasmas
and is suitable to analyze the HPM devices both intrinsically and computationally, if
combined with an electromagnetic field or Maxwell’s equations solver. The time span of a
high voltage pulse usually lies in the range of few nanoseconds to a thousand nanosecond.
This time span perfectly fits into the ‘finite difference time domain’ or FDTD framework.
The simulation workis carried out using Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) and
Particle-In-Cell (PIC) based codes, which involve interactions between space charge and
electromagnetic fields. There are various tools for modelling of plasmas such as, MAGIC3D,
CFD-ACE, COMSOL, LSP, Starfish, etc.
53
Virtual Cathode Oscillator
Virtual cathode oscillator (Vircator) is a class of simple in construction, high power

microwave source useful in a variety of applications (Fig. 11.3). Virtual cathode oscillators
are relatively simple to build, since, no magnetic field is required. These sources are capable
of gigawatt-level output in the 1 to 10-GHz frequency range. They are also considered
tunable because their operation depends only on the charge density of the beam and not on
any resonance condition. The critical factor which can affect the beam-wave interaction is the
electron beam quality. The major advantage of the Vircator over other HPM oscillators is
their simplicity, compactness and manageability. A major drawback of these devices is the
low efficiency.
Fig. 11.3Planer Vircator Geometries. (a) Axial vircator, (b) Coaxial

vircator, (c) Reflex triode vircator
The anode mesh is permeable to some of the electrons emitted from the cathode,that is, the
beam current. The microwave power generation is usually explained by various mechanisms.
It can be simplified into formation of a virtual cathode region due to emitted electrons from
the cathode surface exceeding the space charge limiting current in the AK gap.
54
Space Charge Limited Current
When the injected beam current into the cavity exceeds space charge limiting current the
kinetic energy of electrons reduces to zero, which leads to virtual cathodeformation. The
plasma cloud near the cathode can be considered as an electron source with a work function
of zero. The applied field extracts electrons and accelerates them across the diode gap. The
amount of electrons extracted is limited by the space charge limiting current. Analytical
equations for the space charge limitedcurrent for a planer geometry given was given by Child
and Langmuir, and for cylindrical geometry by Langmuir and Blodgett[1]. For the planer
geometry we have space charge limited current equation as [9]:
3
V2
I SCL  2.33e6 2 s  t  (1)
d
In order to use the above formula to calculate the space charge limited current for the reflex
triode vircator,the voltage and radius must be known. Since the virtual cathode forms below
the anode, the space charge limited current can be calculated reasonably accuratelyonly with
the aid of simulations.
In order to derive the eq.(1), also known as the Child-Langmuir law for vacuum tube diodes,
consider the following problem of parallel conducting plates [10].
Problem 1: Assuming that the AK plates are parallel conducting plates and the electrons
leave the cathode (Fig.11.4) with a zero initial velocity (space-charge limited condition).
What is the relation between current density and applied voltage?
Solution 1:In vacuum tube diodes, electrons are emitted from a hot cathode at 0 V and
collected by anode at V0. Electrons boiled off the hot cathode leave at essentially zero
velocity. Net electric field at cathode is zero. Hence, the initial conditions can be assumed as:
Fig. 11.4 Electron cloud between the two conducting plates
(2)
55
In steady state, current density is given as:
J  a y j  a y   y  u  y  (3)
Where, uis the velocity and  is the charge density.
From Newton’s Law of motion,
du  y  dV  y 
m  eE  y   e
dt dy (4)
Also,
du du dy du 
m m  mu 
dt dy dt dy

d 1 2 dV 
  mu   e 
dy  2  dy 
1 
 mu 2  eV  zero constant of integration   (5)
2 
 2e 
1/2

u  V 
m  



j m  12
hence      j V
u 2e (6)
To find V(y)in the AK region, we need to solve Poisson’s equation.
d 2V  j m  12
  V
dy 2
0 0 2e (7)
Solving the above second order differential equation with zero IC. Gives a nonlinear relation
between current density and AK voltage known as Child-Langmuir law.
4 2e 32
j  02 V0 ( A / m2 )
9d m (8)
3
I 2.34 103  V 2
or 
A d2
V is in MV , d in cm and A is cathode area
It can also be written as,

56
(9)
4. Conclusion
Fundamentals of pulsed power microwave sources has been studied. A class of HPM source
called as Vircator works on the principle of Child’s Law. Derivation of the same has been
done by using the example of parallel conducting plates.
5. References
[1] J. Benford, J. Swegle, and E. Schamiloglu, High Power Microwaves, 2nd ed. New York: Taylor & Francis,
2007.
[2] D. J. Sullivan, "High Power Microwave Generation from a Virtual Cathode Oscillator
(Vircator)," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 3426-3428, 1983.
[3] A. Roy, A. Sharma,V. Sharma, A. Patel, and D. P. Chakravarthy,''Frequency Variation of a Reflex Triode
Virtual Cathode Oscillator'', IEEE Trans. on plasma sc. ,vol.41,no.1,Jan 2013.
[4] A. Roy, A. Sharma, S. Mitra, R. Menon, V. Sharma, K. V. Nagesh, and D. P. Chakravarthy, “Oscillation
frequency of a reflex-triode virtual cathode oscillator”, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 58, no. 2, pp.553–
561, Feb. 2011.
[5] Francis F. Chen, Plasma processing and processing science, National academy press, Washington, D.C.,
1995.
[6] Liu Lie, Li-Min Li, Zhang Xiao-Ping, Jian-Chun Wen, Hong Wan, Ya-Zhou Zhang, “Efficiency
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Department of Electronics & Telecommunication

Student Lab Manual

Institute Vision, Mission & Quality Policy

RAIT’s Mission is to produce engineering and technology professionals who are

Our Quality Policy

 To contribute to social and economical growth of the society and country.

Department Vision & Mission

 To provide a strong foundation for analyzing and designing various

 Students are promoted to participate in industrial training and NGO

 To provide all possible resources to make the student a better engineer

Department Objectives & Goals

 Arrange lectures / seminars / STTPs / Workshops of resource persons from Industries to

 Encourage faculty and staff for acquiring higher qualification.

 To establish a strong industry institute partnership.

Department Program Outcomes (POs)

 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

 PEO-1: To prepare skilled Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering graduates

 PEO-2: To provide in-depth theoretical and experimental knowledge in Electronics

 PEO-4: To develop sound ethical and professional attitude in students to facilitate

Program Specific Objectives (PSOs)

 Knowledge of Engineering Fundamentals: A graduate will be able to acquire in-depth

 Application of Knowledge: A graduate will be able to apply the acquired knowledge

Experiment Plan & Course Outcome

Module Week Course

Study and Evaluation Scheme

Course Code Course Name Examination Scheme

Practical & Oral:

Study of Microwave Components

2. What you will learn by performing this experiment? (Should be in enumerated

 Study of basics of Rectangular waveguide.

Sr. No. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

1. Rectangular Waveguide EIA No. : WR - 90

Table 1. List of required Apparatus and components

i. Rectangular Wave Guide

Fig.1.1 Rectangular Wave Guide

Fig.1.2 Field Distribution of wave inside the guide.

ii. Fixed attenuators

Model No: X-5000

Fig.1.3 Fixed Attenuators

Fig.1.4 Tunable Probe

iv) Wave Guide Detector Mount (Tunable)

Fig.1.5 Wave Guide Detector Mount

Freq. Range (GHz) 8.2 - 12.4

Fig.1.6 Klystron Mount

vii) Multi-hole Directional Couplers

Fig.1.8. Multi-hole Directional Couplers

viii) E Plane Tee

Model No.: X - 3061

Fig.1.9 E Plane Tee

ix) H – PLANE TEE

Fig.1.10. H – PLANE TEE

Fig.1.11. Magic Tee

xi) MATCHED TERMINATION

Model No.: X - 4000, AV Power: 2W, WG

Fig.1.12. Matched Transmission

6. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron