ROLE OF POLLINATORS IN ENHANCING THE

CROP PRODUCTIVITY

Supervisor: Speaker:
Amandeep Singh Karmjit singh
(16116011)
(Assistant. Prof.)
M.Sc. Agri (Ento.)
Crop protection division

P. G. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
KHALSA COLLEGE AMRITSAR
 What is pollination
An essential preliminary step for the sexual reproduction of flowering
plants is pollination, or the transfer of pollen from the producing anthers
to the receptive stigma. Pollination is a keystone process in both human-
managed and natural terrestrial ecosystems, and it is critical for food
production and human livelihoods, directly linking wild ecosystems with
agricultural production systems.
 Why pollination is important ?
 Sexual reproduction is important for evolution:

 Sexual reproduction produces variable offspring,

creating diversity and variation among populations
(shuffling of genes)

You need variation for Natural Selection to occur

Sexual reproduction is advantageous to an organism

only if it happens with someone other than itself!

Out breeding = good! (inbreeding = bad…)

“Annual monetary loss of Horticultural/Agricultural
Production due to lack of proper/optimum Bee
Pollination in India is 3000 crores”
Goyal, N. P. (1996)
 What is pollinator?
A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the
male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This
helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower
by the male gametes from the pollen grains. (Fulton 1999)
 Types of Pollinators
Various types of pollination have also been identified based on the
vectors of pollen grains or agents of pollination. These pollinators
are described under two main classifications:

 Abiotic : i.e, nonliving pollinators

 Biotic : i.e, living pollinators

 Abiotic Pollination
• No need to attract pollinators

• No production of nectar, no loss of pollen,

no production of flowers or aromas

• The plant can invest all of its energy into

making lots of pollen

• In tropical regions, usually in seasonally dry

areas, such as in savannas where grasses
form an herb layer.

• Not very common in rainforests

 Abiotic
1. Wind pollination (Anemophily)
Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination
whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Almost all
gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are many plants in the
order Poales, including grasses, sedges and rushes.
(shukla 1998)
 Anemophilous pollen grains are light and non-sticky, so that they
can be transported by air currents.

 They are typically 20–60 micrometres (0.0008–0.0024 in) in

diameter.

 These plants have no nectar (an important food reward for bees
and other pollinating insects)

 They have small, inconspicuous or dull petals - there is no need to

attract insects with bright colours.

Wind pollinated plants include: wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley,

oats etc.
2.Water pollination (Hydrophily)
Hydrophily is pollination by water and occurs in aquatic
plants which release their pollen directly into the surrounding
water. About 80% of all plant pollination is biotic. Of the 20%
of abiotically pollinated species, 98% is by wind and 2% by
water. (Culley 2007)

Egeria densa Eel grass

 Biotic pollination
• Mutualistic relationship benefits both the plant and
the animal
• Animals:
–Benefit from an easy source of food (pollen or nectar)
– Get as much as they can at each stop
– Prefer lots of flowers close together, or a few big ones
(expend less energy on foraging)
• Plants:
– Benefit from dispersal of pollen to as many conspecifics as
possible: the further the better
– Benefit from providing as little “reward” (pollen, nectar) as
possible for animal consumption
 Why do animals pollinate plants?
 They get a REWARD: food! In exchange for moving their pollen to
another flower.

 Nectar – a sugary solution produced in special flower glands called

nectaries.

 Nectar concentration matches energy requirements of the pollinator:

bird- and bee-pollinated flowers have different sugar conc.

 Pollen – is high in protein, some bees and beetles eat it.

 Flowers can produce two kinds of pollen: a normal and a sterile, but
tasty, kind, for the insect.
 Types of biotic pollinators
According to agent of pollinators :

1. Cantharophily (Beetle pollination)

2. Cheiropterophily (Bat pollination)

3. Melittophily (Bee pollination)

4. Myrmecophily (Ant pollination)

5. Ornithophily (Bird pollination)

6. Phalaenophily (Moth pollination)

7. Psychophily (Butterflies pollination)

8. Thripsophily (Thrips pollination)

Major Flower Visiting Insect Orders
 Hymenoptera
 Lepidoptera
 Coleoptera
 Hemiptera
 Diptera

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 Cantharophily
The cross pollination by of flowers by beetles that feed on the pollen or
on some of the juicy tissue of the flowers. Special suitability for
cantharophily is generally not observed among flowers and
beetles. Full, or true, cantharophily is inherent inonly a few plants (for
example, cycads and calycanths). Cantharophily pollination meaning
pollination by coleoptera order.

Coccinella septempunctata on lily flower

 Phalaenophily
Moths as Pollinators
Moths evolved to deal with flowers. Their long, tube-like
tongues are just right for sipping nectar from long-necked
blossoms. Nectar is practically the only food of adult moths,
thus a strong partnership with flowers developed. We are
familiar with butterflies pollinating flowers, but easily forget
about moths. Actually, butterflies are a specialized type of
moths, or, more properly they are all Lepidoptera. (Moisset 2012)

Hummingbird Hawk-moth on Red

Manduca sexta moth on Petunia.
Valerian
 Psychophily
Pollination by butterfly is called psychophily. Pollination occurs
when pollen is moved within flowers or carried from flower to
flower by pollinating animals such as butterfly.

Monarch Butterfly landing on a Purple Cone flower

 Sapromyiophily
The two-winged insects (flies, gnats, mosquitos) is a very large
group. Many of them specifically visit flowers, such as
the Syrphid flies or flower flies. They are not as hairy as bees
and as efficient in carrying pollen, but some are good
pollinators. These pollinators belongs to order diptera.

Tachinid fly on catnip Tachinid fly

 Melittophily
Pollination by bees and other hymenopteran insects
There are over 4,000 species of native bees. Familiar bees visiting
garden flowers are the colourful, fuzzy, yellow-and-black striped
bumblebees, metallic-green sweat bees, squash bees, and imported
honeybee. These flower-seeking pollen magnets purposefully visit
flowers to collect pollen and nectar for food for themselves and their
young.
CROPS AND THEIR POLLINATORS
Common Scientific name Pollinator Commercia Geography of
name l product cultivation
of
pollination
Honey bees (Apis
Abelmoschus
Okra cerana), Solitary bees Fruit temperate
esculentus
(Halictus spp.)
Honey bees,
Actinidia
Kiwifruit Bumblebees, Solitary Fruit
deliciosa
bees
Honey bees, Solitary
Onion Allium cepa Seed temperate
bees
Honey bees, Stingless
bees, Bumblebees, Solit
Anacardium
Cashew ary Nut tropical
occidentale
bees, Butterflies, Flies,
hummingbirds
Custard Annona
Nitidulid Beetles Fruit tropical
apple squamosa
Apium Honey bees, Solitary
Celery Seed temperate
graveolens bees, Flies
Cont…..
Common Scientific name Pollinator Commercial Geograph
name product y of
of cultivatio
pollination n
Brassica alba, Honey bees, Solitary
Mustard Brassica hirta, bees (Osmia Seed temperate
Brassica nigra cornifrons, Osmia lignaria)

Rapeseed Brassica napus Honey bees, Solitary bees Seed temperate

Broccoli Brassica oleracea Honey bees, Solitary bees Seed temperate

Cauliflowe Brassica oleracea

Honey bees, Solitary bees Seed temperate
r Botrytis Group

Brassica oleracea
Cabbage Honey bees, Solitary bees Seed temperate
Capitata Group

Honey bees, thrips,

Papaya Carica papaya large sphinx moths Fruit --
, Moths, Butterflies
Common Scientific name Pollinator Commerci Geograph
name al product y of
of cultivatio
pollination n

Chrysophyllm
Star apple Insects, Bats Fruit tropical
cainito
Cola nitida, Cola
Cola nut Flies Nut
vera, Cola acuminata
Honey
Cucumber Cucumis sativus bees, Bumblebees, Leaf Fruit temperate
cutter bee, Solitary bees
Flies, Solitary
Carrot Daucus carota Seed temperate
bees, Honey bees

Fig wasps (Blastophaga sub-

Fig Ficus spp. fruit
psenes) tropical
 Pollination status at global level
 Fruit, vegetable or seed production from 87 of the world’s
leading food crops depend upon animal pollination,
representing 35 per cent of global food production.
Klein et al. (2007)

 Flower-visiting insects provide an important ecosystem

function to global crop production through their pollination
services.
Losey and Vaughan (2006)
Cont....

 The total economic value of crop pollination worldwide has

been estimated at €153 billion annually
(Gallai et al, 2009).

 The area covered by pollinator-dependent crops has

increased by more than 300 per cent during the past 50
years
(Aizen et al. 2008; Aizen and Harder, 2009)
 Important crops pollinated by bees
A. Fruit crops
Banana Ber Black berry Blueberry
Cherry Citrus Cranberry Currant
Date palm Dewberry Gooseberry Guava
Grapes Litchi Loquat Mango
Nectarine Passion fruit Papaya Peach
Pear Persimmon Phalsa Pineapple
Strawberry Pomegranate Pruns Raspberry
Almond Apple Apricot Avocado
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 Cont....

b) Vegetable crops
For Fruit and Seeds For Seeds

Asparagus Brinjal Turnip Broccoli

Cucurbits Okra Carrot Celery

Pepper Tomato Cole crops Onion

Water melon Radish

c) Pulse crops
Horse bean Field bean Soybean

Green gram Pigeonpea Cowpea

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d) Spices, medicinal and beverage plants
Cardamom Tobacco Cinnamon Clove

Coriander Coffee Nutmeg Tea

Vanilla

e) Forage and fibre crops

Alfalfa Berseem/Clovers Dhaincha Flax

Sweet clover Sunhemp Cotton

f) Nuts
Almonds Cashew Coconut

(Kumar et al , 1998 and Crane & Walker, 1983

30 )
Enhancement of crop production
through bee pollination
25000 species of bees in
the world contribute 65
per cent pollination.

Apis cerana
Apis mellifera

Practices pollination
standardized for many
crops.
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 WORLD STATUS
 15 per cent of the 100 or so crops that
fed the world are pollinated by hive 80 per cent
honey bees

 80 per cent are pollinated by wild 5

bees and other wild life. 15 per
cent

 Additional yield 15-20 times more

than the value of all the hive products
Mohapatra (2010)

 Total value of pollination services

rendered by all insects globally
comes in excess of 100 billion US
dollars annually (valuation 2003) 32
 INDIAN STATUS

 In India, 50 million hectares of land is under bee

dependent.

 Losses in India due to complete absence of bee pollination

has been measured to be somewhere between Rs.10,000 to
Rs.55,000 per hectare in some crops.

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How honey bees most efficient pollinators

Body parts are specially modified to pick up many

pollen grains

Flower fidelity and constancy

Potential for long hours

Maintainability of high populations

Adaptability to different climates and niches

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Qualitative changes Quantitative changes
 Stimulate germination of Increases fruit set
pollen on stigma
Increase viability of seeds Reduces fruit drop
More nutritive and aromatic
fruits Increases the oil content
Stimulate faster growth of
plants Increases number
Increases nectar production
resistance to diseases Increases sizes of seeds
resistance to adverse climatic
conditions Increases yield of crops
Increase in yield
S.No Instalation of Apis Crop Increased in yield
cerana
colonies/acre
1 3-5 bee colonies sunflower 79%
2 3-5 bee colonies mustard 55%
3 3-5 bee colonies niger 33%
4 3-5 bee colonies sesamum 15%
5 3-5 bee colonies safflower 64%
6 3-5 bee colonies cotton 18%
7 3-5 bee colonies litchi 20%
8 3-5 bee colonies coconut 40%
9 3-5 bee colonies gourd crops 20%
36
Mohapatra et al, (2010)
Cont…..

Fruit crops
S. No. Plant Bee Pollinator Effect on crop yield Reference
species
1. Guava A. cerana BP 28.2 fruits/ branch Jyothi (2004)
SP 10.5 fruits/ branch

2. Litchi Apis cerana OP /BP increased fruit set Chaudhary

indica SP not increased et al. (2001)

4. Cashew A. mellifera, BP increased nut yield Freitas and

Centris tarsata Paxton (1998)

5. Sweet and A. mellifera Limiting BP negatively affected Bendek et al.

sour fruit set (1996)
cherry

BP, OP, SP (Bee Pollination, Open Pollination, Self Pollination) 37

Cont…..

Vegetable crops
1. Field bean A. mellifera Increased 49 per cent seed yield Musallam
et al. (2004)

2. Cucumber A. mellifera BP increased 352.7 kg/ha Anjum

Suhail et al.
(2001)

3. Radish A. mellifera OP 81.06 per cent fruit set Mishra et

A. florea SP 56.55per cent fruit set al. (2001)
and other
bees.

4. Onion A. cerana BP 275 kg/ ha seed Kumar et al.

OP 98 kg/ ha seed (1989)
SP 93 kg/ ha seed
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Cont…..

Oil Seed Crops

1. Indian A. cerana OP 85 per cent pod set Sharma and
rape A.mellifera SP 64 per cent pod set Abrol
A. dorsata (2004)
2. Sunflow A. mellifera Increase yield 368 g/ 100 Viraktamath
er plants and Patil
(2002)

3. Linseed A.mellifera Lack of pollination Ladurnor et al

reduced yield and seed (2000)
quality
4. Sesame A. mellifera OP increased yield 167.36 Kumar and
A. dorsata per cent than SP Lenin (2000)
A. florea

39
Cont…..

Oil Seed Crops

1. Indian A. cerana OP 85 per cent pod set Sharma and
rape A.mellifera SP 64 per cent pod set Abrol
A. dorsata (2004)
2. Sunflow A. mellifera Increase yield 368 g/ 100 Viraktamath
er plants and Patil
(2002)

3. Linseed A.mellifera Lack of pollination Ladurnor et al

reduced yield and seed (2000)
quality
4. Sesame A. mellifera OP increased yield 167.36 Kumar and
A. dorsata per cent than SP Lenin (2000)
A. florea

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Miscellaneous Crops
1. Fiber crop A.A. Mellifera Bee pollination increased: Rhodes
Cotton Bolls/ plants (11.1%) , (2002)
Boll weight (16.5%)
Weight of lint (15.8% ),
Seed weight (19.7%)
Seed no./ sample (16.5%)

2. Fodder crop Apis spp. Flowers self incompatible Rodet et al.

White clover Multiple bee visits maximized (1998)
fertilization.

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POSSIBLE CAUSES OF
POLLINATORs DECLINE
Loss of habitat and forage

Nest destruction

Light pollution

Competition with invasive honey bees

Air pollution

Misuse of Pesticides
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 Management of bee hives
for pollination
Strength
Number
Time
Distribution
Attract

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 Avoid pesticide poisoning
 Selective pesticides
 Avoid dust formulation
 Information spraying
 Avoid on peak foraging
time
 Spraying in evening
 Temporarily shifted
 Close the entrance gate

44
MANAGING ORCHARD (OSMIA)
BEES
Collected from natural sites by trap nests
Towards autumn, dormant larval stage is refrigerated till
next spring

45
MANAGING BUMBLE BEES
The use of artificial domiciles for bumblebees has been
proposed as a potentially useful tool for conservation and
for improving pollination services for crops.

46
Gillian C L et al, 2011
MANAGING ALKALI BEES
ARTIFICIAL BEDS

 soil moisture

 soil composition and texture.

 vegetation

47
MANAGING CARPENTER BEES
Use of artificial nest for conservation

48
 Conclusion:

Applied pollination, pollinator management, and managed

pollination are the common efforts recently being
practiced for maximizing production in cross pollinated
crops and to bring the pollinator to the target crop. In view
of great role of bees in pollination of various crops, they
need to be conserved, augmented and supplemented with
hive honey bees.

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