Coding Decoding 4.

I t follows t hat , alt er nat e let t er ar e coded as follows :

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A

So ; A S S A S S I N A T I O N
            
            
A H S Z S H I M A G I L N  AH SZSH I M AGI L N

4. I f ZXV st ands for ACE; what will YZW st and for ?

Solution : Letter s of the wor d ACE ar e decipher ed by decoding ZXV.The letter ar e decoded by substituting
t heir r epr esent ed let t er s in t he nat ur al or der. (i.e., ‘Z’ is 1st in t he r ever se ser ies and ‘A’ is 1st in nat ur al
ser ies)
Z X V  let t er s in r ever se ser ies
A C E  let t er s is nat ur al ser ies
  
1st 3rd 5th  posit ion of let t er s

2. N U M BER CODI N G.
I n t he t ype of coding, digits and it s coded let t er s or vice ver sa ar e alr eady given. We have t o find out answer
t o t he given quest ion t allying t he given code.

Examples
1. I f CH I NA is wr it t en as 38126 and NEPAL is 25769, how is PL AI NE is coded ?

Solution : Clear ly Alphabet s ar e coded as shown :

C H I N A E P L
3 8 1 2 6 5 7 9
H ence, PL AI NE is coded as 796125.
2. I f RESULT is coded as 798206, t hen how L ET will be coded ?
Solution : L et t er s ar e coded by number s, and t o code t he given wor d, select r espect ive coded number s.
R E S U L T  let t er s
7 9 8 2 0 6  code
So, code for L ET will be
L E T  let t er s
0 9 6  code
3. I f Y = 50 and BAT = 46, t hen GOA = ?
Solution : Y = 50, and BAT = 46
I n t he given code, A = 2, B = 4, C = 6 . . . . . T = 40, ...... Y = 50, Z = 52
 GOA = 14 + 30 + 2 = 46
4. I n t he cor r ect ly wor ked out mult iplicat ion pr oblem at t he below, each let t er r epr esent a differ ent digit s.
What is t he value of B ?
A A
A B
— — — —
B B
A A C
— — — —
A 3 B
4.4 Coding Decoding
Solution : B+C =B:C=0 wor d ar e picked up. The common code wor d will
AA ×B = BB mean t hat wor d. Pr oceeding similar ly by picking
up all possible combinat ions of t wo, t he ent ir e
 (10 A + A ) B = 10 B + B message can be analysed.
AB = B , A = 1 Example. I f ‘tee see pee' means ‘Dr ink fr uit juice',
B+A =3 ‘see kee lee' means ‘Juice is sweet ' and ‘fee r ee
 B + 1 = 3,  B=2 mee' means ‘H e is int elligent ', which wor d in t hat
11 language means ‘sweet ' ?
12 Solut ions : I n fi r st and second st at ement s,
— — common wor d is ‘Juice' and common code wor d
22 is ‘see'. So, ‘see' means ‘Juice'. I n second and thir d
110 statements, common wor d is ‘is' and common code
— — i s ‘l ee'. So, ‘l ee' means ‘i s'. Thu s, i n second
132 st at ement , r emaining wor d ‘sweet ' i s coded as
5. I n a cer t ain code language 24685 is wr itten as ‘k ee'.
33776. How is 35791 wr itten in that code ? Example. I n a cer t ain language "t a ki" means
Solutions. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : "come her e"; "po r ui mo" means "ver y far
2 4 6 8 5 away"; and "r ui t a ju" means "far fr om her e".
+1 – 1 +1 – 1 +1 Which find t he wor ds st and for wor d "far "?
3 3 7 7 6 Sol ut i on : Obser ve t h e f ol l owi n g coded
So, 3 5 7 9 1 sentences :
ta ki 
+1 – 1 +1 – 1 +1 come her e
4 4 8 8 2 po r ui mo 
ver y far away
6. I n a cer t ain code ‘256’ means ‘you ar e good’ ; r ui ta ju 
‘637’ means ‘we ar e bad’ and ‘358’ means ‘good far fr om her e
and bad’. Which of t he fol l owi ng r epr esent s H er e wor d ‘far ' i s r epeat ed i n 2nd and 3r d
‘and’ in t hat code ? sent ences and so t he code is ‘r ui’.
Solutions : Given :
‘You ar e good’  ‘256’ ...( i ) 5. M I XED N U M BER CODI N G.
I n this type of questions, a few gr oups of number s
‘We ar e bad’  ‘637’ ...(ii )
each coding a cer t ain shor t message, ar e given.
and ‘Good and bad’  ‘358’ ...(iii )
T h r ou gh a com par i son of t h e gi ven coded
Fr om equations (i ) and (iii ), ‘good’ is coded as ‘5’. messages, taking two at a time, we ar e is r equir ed
Fr om equations (ii ) and (iii ), ‘bad’ is coded as ‘3’. t o find t he number code for each wor d and t hen
Fr om equat ion (iii ), ‘and’ is coded as ‘8’. for mulat e t he code for t he message given.
Example. I n a cer t ain code, ‘786' means ‘st udy
3. SU BSTI TU TI ON .
very har d', ‘958' means ‘hard work pays' and ‘645'
I n t his t ype of quest ions, some par t icular object s
means ‘st udy and wor k '. Which of t he following
are assigned code names. Then a question is asked is t he code for ‘ver y ' ?
t hat is t o be answer ed in t he code language.
Solut ions : I n fi r st and second st at ement s,
Example. I f cook is called but ler , but ler is called common wor d is ‘har d'and common code digit is
manager, manager is called t eacher, t eacher is ‘8’. So, ‘8' means ‘har d’.
called cler k and cler k is called pr incipal, who will In the first and third statements, common word is
t each in a class ? ‘study' and the common code digit is ‘6'. So, ‘6' means
Solutions : A ‘t eacher ' t eaches in a class and as ‘study'.
given ‘t eacher ' is called ‘cler k'. So, a ‘cler k' will Thus, in t he fir st st at ement , ‘7' means ‘ver y'.
t each in t he class. 6. D E CI P H E RI N G I N D I V I D U AL L E T T E R
4. M I X E D L E T T E R CO D I N G (SE N T E N CE CODES BY AN ALYSI S.
CODI N G). I n t his t ype of quest ions, cer t ain sample wor ds
I n t his t ype of quest ions, t hr ee or four complet e ar e gi ven al ong wi t h t hei r codes. We ar e i s
messages ar e given in t he coded language and r equir ed to decipher individual codes for different
the code for a par t icular wor d is asked. To analyse lett er s by compar ing, taking two wor ds at a t ime,
such codes, any t wo messages bear ing a common and then answer the given questions accor dingly.
 Coding Decoding 4.5
Example. I n a cer t ain coding syst em ETTPI st ands for APPL E. What is t he code for DEL H I ?
Solutions : Each let t er of Apple moves + 4 st eps, so r equir ed code for DEL H I is H I PL M .
7. GROU P CODI N G.
I n this type of coding, capital letters A to Z are coded by sing the small letters a to z. With the help of the coding
pattern, we have to find the right code from the columns which is equivalent to the group of capital letters.

8. DECODI N G
I t is t he r ever se of coding. H er e code needs t o be decipher ed wit h t he help of given wor ds.
Each let t er in a wor d ar e r eplaced by cer t ain ot her alphabet s accor ding t o a specific r ule.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (ii ) I f t h e f i r st l et t er i s a vowel an d t h e l ast a
consonant , t he codes for t he fir st and t he last ar e
1. I f TAP is coded as SZO, t hen how is FREEZE
t o be int er changed.
coded?
(iii ) I f no vowel is pr esent in t he gr oup of let t er s, t he
(a) EQDFYG (b) ESDFYF second and t he fift h let t er s ar e t o be coded as .
(c) GQFDYF (d) EQDDYD 6. BARNIS
2. I n a cer t ain code, SI K KI M is wr it t en as TH L JJL . (a) 9 2 # % 4 (b) 9 2 4 # %
H ow is TRAI NI NG wr it t en in t hat code ? (c) 9 2 # % 9 (d) None of t hese
(a) SQBHOHOH (b) UQBHOHOF 7. DMBNIA
(c) UQBJOHHO (d) UQBJOHOH (a) 6 @9 % # 2 (b) 2 @9 % # 6
3. I n a cer t ai n code, M EN TI ON , i s wr i t t en as (c) 2 @9 % # 2 (d) 2 9 % # 2
L N EI TN O. H ow i s PATTERN wr i t t en i n t hat 8. IJBRLG
code? (a) # 8 9 £ S (b) # 8 9 £ #
(a) APTTREM (b) PTAETNR (c) S 8 9 £ # (d) S 8 9£ S
(c) OTAETNR (d) OTAETRN 9. BKGQJN
4. I n a cer t ain code, FORGE is wr it t en as FPTJI . (a) 9 S 7 % (b) 9 S 7 %
H ow is CUL PRI T wr it t en in t hat code ? (c) 9 1 S 7 8 % (d) % 1 S 7 8 9
(a) CSJNPGR (b) CVMQSTU 10. EGAKRL
(c) CVNSVNZ (d) CXOSULW (a) # £ S 2 1  (b) £S213
5. I n a cer t ai n code, T RI PPL E i s w r i t t en as (c) £ S 2 1 # (d) #£S21#
SQH OOK D. H ow is DI SPOSE is wr it t en in t hat 11. I f PAI NT is coded as 74128 and EXCEL is coded
code ? as 93596, t hen how would you encode ACCEPT?
(a) CHRONRD (b) DSOESPI (a) 455978 (b) 547978
(c) ESJTPTF (d) ESOPSI D (c) 554978 (d) 735961
Directions (Q. 6-10) : 12. I f D = 4 and COVER = 63 t hen BASI S = ?
I n each of t hese quest ions a gr oup of let t er s is given (a) 49 (b) 50
fol l owed by four combi nat i ons of number /symbol (c) 54 (d) 55
number ed (a), (b), (c) and (d). L et t er s ar e t o be coded
13. I f DEL H I is coded as 73541 and CAL CUTTA as
as per t he scheme and condit ions given below. You
82589662, how can CAL I CUT be coded ?
have t o find out the serial number of the combinat ion,
which r epr esent s t he let t er gr oup. Ser ial number of (a) 5279431 (b) 5978213
t hat combinat ion is your answer. (c) 8251896 (d) 8543691
L et t er s : Q M S I N G D K A L P R B J E 14. I f ROSE is coded as 6821, CHAI R is coded as 73456
Number : 7 @ 4 # % $ 6 1 2 £ 59 83 and PREACH is coded as 961473, what will be
t he code for SEARCH ?
/Symbol
Condit ions : (a) 246173 (b) 214673
(i ) I f the first letter is a consonant and the last a vowel, (c) 214763 (d) 216473
bot h ar e to be coded as the code of t he vowel.
4.6 Coding Decoding
15. I f t he let t er s in PRABA ar e coded as 27596 and 9. I f ‘TV is called Radio’, ‘Radio is called Aer oplane’,
T H I L A K ar e coded as 368451, h ow can ‘Aer oplane i s call ed H el icopt er ’, ‘H el icopt er is
BH ARATH I be coded ? called Bus’, ‘Bus is called Bike’, ‘Bike is called
(a) 37536689 (b) 57686535 Wat er ’, ‘Wat er i s cal l ed Fr og’, ‘Fr og i s cal l ed
(c) 96575368 (d) 96855368 Tom at o’, ‘Tom at o i s cal l ed F u r n i t u r e’ an d
‘Fur nitur e is called Cigar ett e’, t hen what Tomato
LEVEL-1 sauce made up of ?
1. I f ENGLAND is written as 1234526 and FRANCE (a) Wat er (b) Fur nit ur e
is wr it t en as 785291, how is GREECE coded ? (c) Fr og (d) None of t hese
(a) 381171 (b) 381191
D ir ect ions :
(c) 832252 (d) 835545
I n the following questions study the coded patterns
2. I f SH ARP is coded as 58034 and PUSH as 4658
and select the right option from given alternatives.
t han RUSH is coded as
10. I n a cer t ain code ‘415’ means ‘milk is hot ’; ‘18’
(a) 3568 (b) 3658
means ‘hot soup’ and ‘895’ means ‘soup is tasty’.
(c) 3685 (d) 3583 What number will indicat e t he wor d ‘t ast y’ ?
3. I n a cer t ain code GARI M A is wr it t en as 725432 (a) 3 (b) 6
and TI NA as 6482. H ow is M ARTI NA wr it t en in
(c) 7 (d) 9
t hat code ?
(a) 3256482 (b) 3265842 11. I n a cer t ain code language :
‘dugo hui mul zo’ stands for ‘wor k is ver y har d’;
(c) 3645862 (d) 3658426
‘hui dugo ba ki’ stands for ‘Bingo is ver y smar t’;
4. If PALAM could be given the code number 43, what
code number can be given to SANTACRUZ ? ‘nano mul dugo’ st ands for ‘Cake is har d’,
‘mul ki qu’ st ands for ‘Smar t and har d’.
(a) 75 (b) 85
Which of the following wor ds st and for ‘Bingo’?
(c) 120 (d) 123
(a) jalu (b) dugo
5. I f Z = 52 and ACT = 48, t hen BAT is equal t o
(c) ki (d) ba
(a) 39 (b) 41
12. I f in a cer tain language ‘mu mit es’ means ‘who
(c) 44 (d) 46
is she’ and ‘elb mu es’ means ‘wher e is she’,
6. I f ‘light ’ is called ‘mor ning’, ‘mor ning’ is called t hen what i s t he code for ‘wher e’ i n t hi s
‘dar k ’, ‘dar k ’ i s cal l ed ‘ni ght ’, ‘ni ght ’ i s cal l ed language ?
‘sunshine’ and ‘sunshine’ is called ‘dusk’, when (a) es (b) elb
do we sleep ? (c) mu (d) mit
(a) Dusk (b) Dar k
13. I n a cer t ain code language
(c) Night (d) Sunshine
‘r oi ja kyo t wa’ means ‘M oody is wr iting letter s’
7. I n a cer t ain language, ‘pok ju ja t wa’ means ‘Woody is wr it ing car ds’,
(i ) ‘sun shines br ight ly’ is wr it t en as ‘ba lo sul’ ‘t r n kyo pos un’ means ‘They ar e wr it ing
(ii ) ‘houses ar e br ightly lit’ as ‘kado ulo ar i ba’ and essays’,
(iii ) ‘light comes fr om sun’ as ‘dopi kup lo nor ’. and ‘r oi r us pok’ means ‘let t er s and car ds’.
What wor ds ar e wr it t en for sun and ‘br ight ly’ ? What is t he code wor d for ‘M oody’ ?
(a) lo, ba (b) balo (a) ja (b) twa
(c) sul, lo (d) ba, sul (c) r oi (d) k yo

8. I f whit e is called blue, blue is called r ed, r ed is 14. I n a cer t ain code
call ed yel l ow, yell ow is cal led gr een, gr een i s ‘gr i chr i’ means ‘br and new’,
called black, black is called violet and violet is ‘gyp t woh’ means ‘ver y old’,
called or ange, t hen what would be t he colour of
gr i bur t woh’ means ‘old and new’ and
human blood ?
‘chr i deh gyp’ means ‘old br and car ’.
(a) Red (b) Gr een
What is t he code wor d for ‘new car ’ ?
(c) Yel low (d) Violet
(a) chr i gr i (b) gr i deh
(c) deh gyp (d) t woh deh
 Coding Decoding 4.7

LEVEL-2 9. In a certain code, ‘467’ means ‘Leaves are green’ ; ‘485’

means ‘green is good’ and ‘639’ means ‘they are
1. I n a cer t ain code, ‘247’ means ‘spr ead r ed carpet ’; playing’. Which digit stands for ‘leaves’ in that code ?
‘236’ means ‘dust one car pet ’ and ‘234’ means ‘one (a) 4 (b) 6
red carpet ’. Which digit in that code means ‘dust ’? (c) 7 (d) 3
(a) 2 (b) 3
10. I n a cer t ai n code l anguage ‘851’ means ‘good
(c) 5 (d) 6
sweet fr uit ’ ; ‘783’ means ‘good r ed r ose’ and ‘341’
2. I n a cer t ai n code ‘975’ means ‘Thr ow away means ‘r ose and fr uit .’ Which of t he following
gar bage’; ‘528’ means ‘Give away smoking’ and digit s st ands for ‘sweet ’ in t hat language ?
‘213’ means ‘Smoking is har mful ’. Which digit in (a) 8 (b) 5
t hat code means ‘Give’ ? (c) 1 (d) 3
(a) 5 (b) 8
11. I n a cer t ain code language, ‘479’ means ‘fr uit is
(c) 2 (d) 3 sweet ’ ; ‘248’ means ‘ver y sweet voice’ and ‘637’
3. I n a cer t ain code language, 134 means ‘Good and means ‘eat fr uit daily ’. Which digit st ands for ‘is’
Tast y ’ , 478 means ‘see good pict ur es’ and 729 in t hat code ?
means ‘pictures are faint ’. Which of t he following (a) 7 (b) 9
numer ical symbols st ands for ‘see’ ? (c) 4 (d) can’t det er mined.
(a) 1 (b) 2 D ir ect ion : Below ar e given let t ers A t o Z. Under
(c) 7 (d) 8 each capit al let t er a small let t er is wr it t en which
is t o be used as a code for t he capit al let t er.
Directions (Q. 4 – 7) : A B C D E F G H I
Read t he following infor mat ion car efully and answer p t x q v y r z e
these questions. J K L M N O P Q R
I n a cer t ain coding syst em, 816321 means n a s g c j l u m
‘The br own dog fr ight ened t he cat ’, S T U V W X Y Z
64851 means ‘The fr ight ened cat r an away’ o w k d i b h f
7621 means ‘The cat was br own’ I n each of t he following quest ions, a gr oup of six
capit al let t er s is given and it s code equivalent is
341 means ‘The dog r an’ given in one of t he columns (a), (b), (c) or (d). Your
4. What is t he code for ‘t he dog was fr ight ened’ ? cor r ect answer is (a), (b), (c) or (d) accor ding t o
t he code equivalent of the gr oup of let t er s is found
(a) 8263 (b) 8731
in it .
(c) 5438 (d) None of t hese
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. What is t he code for ‘fr ight ened’ ? muvgt o zcuysm wlhxct ribgpq
(a) 2 (b) 6 xfwlmd r sqwui zcyums mvquot
gwdnje qvlmzi xfdwlm dgjtlq
(c) 3 (d) 8
muqvot dgtjql rigbqp r qswui
6. What is t he code for ‘away’ ? qwjvr x muvqt o r sqiwu wlhzbt
(a) 5 (b) 7 whlcxt gwndej qwjr vx zcsmuy
(c) 6 (d) 1 12. CZVTPR
13. DEPRHW
7. What is t he code for ‘br own’ ?
14. GWXMAD
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8 15. RQEMBS

8. I n a code language, 256 means “ You ar e good” ,

637 means “ We ar e bad” , 358 means “ Good and
bad” . Then, what is t he code of ‘and’ ?
(a) 8 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 5
4.8 Coding Decoding

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 1 2. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. T A P F R E E Z E
– 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
S Z O E Q D D Y D  EQDDYD

2. S I K K I M T R A I N I N G

+1– 1 +1 – 1 +1 – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1  +1  – 1

T H L J J L U Q B H O H O F
3. M EN TI ON P AT TE RN
– 1 – 1
L N E I T NO O TA ET NR

4. F O R G E C U L P R I T

 +1 +2 +3 +4  +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
F P T J I C V N S V N Z
5. T R I P P L E D I S P O S E
– 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1
S Q H O O K D C H R O N R D
6. 9 2 * %# 4
7. Condit ion (i ) is applicable
8. Condit ion (ii ) is applicable
9. Condition (iii ) is applicable
10. Condit ion (ii ) is applicable
11. P A I N T E X C E L
7 4 1 2 8 9 3 5 9 6
ACCEPT = 455978
12. D = 4
COVER = 63
 3 + 15 + 22 + 5 + 18 = 63.
C = 3, O = 15, V = 22, E = 5 and R = 18,
BASI S = 2 + 1 + 19 + 9 + 19 = 50
 Coding Decoding 4.9
13. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : From 3rd code and its sentence neither number
D E L H I C A U T ‘9’ is r epeat ed nor t he wor d ‘t ast y’.
7 3 5 4 1 8 2 9 6 11. Code Sent ence
CAL I CUT  8251896. dugo hui mul zo Wor k is ver y har d
14. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : hui dugo ba ki Bingo is very smart
R O S E C H A I P nano mul dugo Cake is har d
6 8 2 1 7 3 4 5 9 mul ki qu Smar t and har d
SEARCH 214673. Fr om 2nd code and it s sent ence, neit her ‘ba’
15. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : nor ‘Bingo’ is r epeat ed.
P R A B T H I L K 12. Code Sent ence
2 7 5 9 3 6 8 4 1 mu mit es who is she
BH ARATH I  96575368. elb mu es wher e is she
LEVEL-1 Code words ‘mu’ and ‘es’ ar e repeated in 2nd
1. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : sentence. Only code left is ‘elb’which means ‘where’.
E N G L A D F R C 13. Code Sent ence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r oi ja kyo t wa Moody is writing letters
GREECE  381191. pok ju ja t wa Woody is wr iting car ds
2. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : t r n kyo pos un They are writing essays
S H A R P U r oi r us pok let t er s and car ds
5 8 0 3 4 6 ‘M oody’ is in 1st sent ence only. Code wor ds
RUSH  3658. ‘Ja’ and ‘twa’ ar e r epeat ed in 2nd sent ence and
3. Alphabet s ar e coded as follows : ‘k yo’ i n 3r d sent ence. Onl y code wor d ‘r oi ’
G A R I M T N r emains which st ands for ‘M oody’.
7 2 5 4 3 6 8 14. Code Sent ence
MARTI NA  3256482. gr i chr i br and new
4. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : gyp t woh ver y old
A =1, L = 12, M = 13, gr i bur t woh old and new
P = 16 chr i deh gyp old br and car
H ence, A =1, B = 2, C = 3 ...... Wor d ‘new’ is pr esent in 1st and 3r d sent ence
Z = 26 and so t he code ‘gr i’. Wor d ‘car ’ is only in t he
PAL AM =16 + 1 + 12 + 1 + 13 4t h sent ence and code ‘deh’ is not r epeat ed in
= 43 any ot her sent ence.
So, SANTACRUZ = 19 + 1 + 14 + 20 + 1 LEVEL-2
+ 3 + 18 + 21 + 26 = 123 1. H er e 2, 3 and 4 ar e r ecur r ing, so 6 must be dust .
5. L et t er s ar e coded as follows : 2. Same as above
A = 2, C = 6, T = 40, Z = 52 3. By compar ing, we get
So, A = 2, B = 4, C = 6 ...... Z = 52
4 = good, 7 = pict ur es, 8 = see
ACT = 2 + 6 + 40 = 48
So, 8 st ands for see.
BAT = 4 + 2 + 40  46.
4. I n t he pr oblem ‘t he’ is common; so ‘t he’  1.
6. I n t he quest ion, night is called sunshine and we I n 1st and 4t h sent ence, dog is common,
sl eep at n i gh t , t h er ef or e cor r ect an swer i s so dog  3
sunshine.
Similar ly r an  4, cat  6 was  7 br own  2
7. By compar ing all the given sentences, we get sun-
lo and br ightly-ba. away  5 and fr ight ened  8
10. Code Sent ence So, code for ‘t he dog was fr ight ened’ is 8731.
415 M ilk is hot 5. Code for fr ight ened is 8.
18 H ot soup 6. Code for away is 5.
895 Soup is t ast y 7. Code for br own is 2.
4.10 Coding Decoding
8. ar e = 6, 5 = good, 2 = you, 11. Given : ‘Fr uit is sweet ’  ‘479’ ...(i )
bad = 3, 7 = we, 8 = and ‘Ver y sweet voice’  ‘248’ ...(ii )
9. Given : ‘L eaves ar e gr een’ ‘467’ ...(i ) ‘Eat fr uit daily’  ‘637’ ...(iii )
‘Gr een is good’  ‘485’ ...(ii ) Fr om equations (i ) and (ii )
‘They ar e playing’  ‘639’ ...(iii ) ‘sweet’ is coded as ‘4’.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (iii ), From equations (i ) and (iii ),
‘ar e’ is coded as ‘6’ ‘fruit’ is coded as ‘7’.
Fr om equat ions (i ) and (ii ), Fr om equat ion (i ),
‘gr een’ is coded as‘4’ ‘is’ is coded as ‘9’.
Fr om equat ion (i ), 
‘L eaves’ is coded as ‘7’.
10. Given : ‘good sweet fr uit ’  ‘851’ ...(i )
‘good r ed r ose’  ‘783’ ...(ii )
‘Rose and fr uit ’  ‘341’ ...(iii )
Fr om equations (i ) and (ii ),
‘good’ is coded as ‘8’.
Fr om equations (i ) and (iii ),
‘fruit’ is coded as ‘1’.
Fr om equat ion (i ),
‘Sweet ’ is coded as ‘5’.
 5
CHAPTER Blood Relations
Blood-r elat ion pr oblems ar ises t hr ough t he par t icular r elat ions among family member s. I n gener al, t he
pr oblems cont ain t hr ee st ages of family. I t explains t hr ough a st at ement and we have t o analyse t he
r elat ion bet ween t hem.
 To solve such pr oblems, we st ar t fr om gr and father or mother and classify into thr ee stages, we r epresent
t he male member by and female by . I n case of siblings we use — (dash) bet ween t hem.
Example. I n t he family of A, B, C, D, E and F . Ther e ar e t wo mar r ied couple. D is t he gr and mot her of
A and mot her of B . C is t he wife of B and mot her of F . F is gr and daught er of E and A is br ot her of F .
What is C t o A ?
Solution : We st ar t fr om D as follows :

— — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — —

i.e. C is t he mot her of A .

 Some pr oblems ar e also based on r elat ionships bet ween imaginar y people. Sever al st at ement s ar e
given which may confuse a per son and at t imes may also appear cont r adict or y and false. The point is t o
look at each par t of a given st at ement car efully, dr aw a diagr am or t able based on t he st at ement (s) and
ar r ive at a conclusion.
Example. ‘A’s fat her -in-law and B’s fat her is t he husband of B’s mot her. H ow is A r elat ed t o B?’
Solution : They ar e husband and wife.
Example. ‘Point ing t o a lady in t he phot ogr aph Punkuj said, “ She is t he daught er of my gr andfat her ’s
only son.” H ow is she r elat ed t o Punkuj ?
Solution : She is his sist er.

SOM E I M PORTAN T BLOOD RELATI ON S.

 M ot her 's or fat her 's son — Br ot her
 M ot her 's or fat her 's daught er — Sister
 M ot her 's or fat her 's br ot her — Uncle
 M ot her 's or fat her 's sist er — Aunt
 M ot her 's or fat her 's fat her — Gr and fat her
 M ot her 's or fat her 's mot her — Gr and mot her
 Son's wife — Daughter -in-Law
 Daughter 's husband — Son-in-Law
 H usband's or wife's sist er — Sister -in-Law
 H usband's or wife's br ot her — Br ot her -in-Law
 Br ot her 's son — Nephew
 Br ot her 's daught er — N i ece
 Uncle or aunt 's son or daught er — Cousin
5.2 Blood Relations
 Sist er 's husband — Br ot her -in-Law
 Br ot her 's wife — Sister -in-Law
 Gr andson's or Gr and daught er 's daught er — Gr eat gr and daught er
Some I mpor t ant I nfor mat ion for Blood-r elat ion t est .
 M ot her 's sist er - M at er nal aunt
 Fat her 's sist er - Aunt
 Son of mot her or fat her - Br ot her
 Daught er of mot her or fat her - Sist er
 Son of br ot her - Nephew
 Daught er of br ot her - Niece
 Wife of elder br ot her - Sist er -in-law
 H usband of daught er - Son-in-law
 Wife of son - Daught er -in-law
 Sist er of wife - Sist er -in-law
 Br ot her of wife - Br ot her -in-law
 Fat her of fat her -Gr andfat her
 Fat her of mot her - M at er nal gr andfat her
 M ot her of fat her - Gr andmot her
 M ot her of mot her - M at er nal gr andmot her
 Br ot her of fat her -Uncle
 Br ot her of mot her - M at er nal uncle
 Son of fat her 's br ot her - Cousin
 Son of fat her 's sist er - Cousin
 Son of M ot her 's br ot her - Cousin
 Son of M ot her 's sist er - Cousin
 Son of M at er nal gr andfat her - M at er nal uncle
 The only daught er of M at er nal gr andfat her - M ot her
 Wife of mot her 's br ot her or wife or M at er nal gr and fat her 's son - M at er nal aunt
 The only son of gr andfat her - Fat her
 M ot her of wife - M ot her -in-law
 Fat her of wife - Fat her -in-law
 The only daught er of Fat her -in-law or M ot her -in-law - Wife
 H usband of sist er - Br ot her -in-law
 Son of sist er or br ot her -in-law - Nephew
 Daught er of sist er or br ot her -in-law - Niece
 Son of daught er or son-in-law - Gr and son
 Daught er of daught er or son-in-law - Gr anddaught er
 Son of Son or daught er -in-law - Gr andson
 Daught er of son or daught er -in-law - Gr anddaught er
 Only daught er -in-law of Gr andfat her - Mot her
 Only daught er -in-law of fat her - Wife
 H usband of daught er -in-law - Son
 Blood Relations 5.3
TYPES OF BLOOD RELATI ON QU ESTI ON S.
1. D ecipher ing jumbled up D escr ipt ions
I n t his t ype of quest ions, a r ound-about descr ipt ion is given in t he for m of cer t ain small r elat ionships
and dir ect r elat ionship bet ween t he per sons concer ned is t o be decipher ed.
Example. Point ing t o a phot ogr aph, a man said, “ I have no br ot her or sist er but t hat man's fat her is
my fat her 's son.” Whose phot ogr aph was it ?
Solution : Since t he man has no br ot her, his fat her 's son is he himself. So, t he man who is t alking is
t he fat her of t he man in t he phot ogr aph or t he man in t he phot ogr aph is his son.
2. Relat ion Puzzle
I n t his t ype, mut ual blood r elat ions or ot her infor mat ions of mor e t han t wo per sons ar e ment ioned
and infor mat ion about any t wo is ment ioned.
E xample. A and B ar e brother s. C and D are sister s. A’s son is D's br other. How is B related to C.
Solution : B is t he br ot her of A; A's son is D's br ot her. This means D is t he daught er of A. Since C and
D ar e sist er s, C is also t he daught er of A. So, B is t he uncle of C.
3. Coded Relat ions
I n such quest ions, r elat ionships ar e r epr esent ed by cer t ain codes or symbols such as +, – , , ,* ,  et c.
Then r elat ionships bet ween cer t ain per sons, given in t he for m of t hese codes, ar e t o be analysed.
E xample.
1. I f A + B means A is t he sist er of B; A – B means A is t he br ot her of B; A  B means A is the daughter
of B, which of t he following shows t he r elat ion t hat E is t he mat er nal uncle of D?
Solution : E is the maternal uncle of D means D is the daughter of the sister (say F) of E i.e. D  F + E.
2. I f A + B means - ‘A is t he mot her of B'. A B mean - ‘A is t he br ot her of B', A  B means-
‘A is t he son of B' and A – B means - ‘A is t he sist er of B' t hen which of t he following means - ‘C is
t he sist er of D' ?
(a) D – C
(b) D  P – C
(c) C – P  D
(d) P + D  C
Ans. (c)
(a) D – C means D is t he sist er of C
Fr om figur e, D is t he sist er of C but it is not necessar y t hat C is t he
sister of D. C may also be br other of D. H ence, opt ion (a) is nor cor r ect .

(b) D  P – C
(1) D  P means D is t he son of P
(2) P – C means P is t he sist er of C
I f C is supposed t o be a male, t hen he will be t he mat er nal
uncle of D and if C is supposed t o a female t hen she will t he
mat er nal aunt of D. H ence, opt ion (b) is not cor r ect .

(c) C – P  D
(1) C – P means C is t he sist er of P
(2) P  D means P is t he br ot her of D
Fr om Figur e, if P is br ot her of D, t hen eit her D will be a male
or a female. I f D is a male, t hen C is t he sist er of D and if D is
a femal e t hen also C is t he sist er of D. H ence opt ion (c) is
cor r ect .
5.4 Blood Relations

(d) P + D  C
(1) P  D means P is t he mot her of D.
(2) D  C means D is t he br ot her of C.
Fr om figur e, D is t he br ot her of C, so C may be a male or
female. H ence, opt ion (d) is not cor r ect .

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S LEVEL-1
1. A’s mot her is the only daught er of B’s father. How
is B’s husband r elat ed t o A ? 1. A is B’s wife and C is A’s sister. D is the father of C,
while E is D’s son. What is the r elat ion of E to B ?
(a) Uncle (b) Br ot her
(a) Br ot her (b) Br other-in-law
(c) Fat her (d) Grandfather
(c) Cousin (d) Father-in-law
2. A is br ot her of B. B is t he son of C. D is C’s fat her
t hen what is A of D ? 2. Point ing t o a phot ogr aph, a man said, “ I have no
(a) Br ot her (b) Son br ot her or si st er but t hat man’s fat her i s my
fat her ’s son” . Whose phot ogr aph was it ?
(c) Gr andson (d) Grandfather
(a) H is son’s (b) H is fat her ’s
3. A is t he fat her of C and D is son of B. E is br ot her
(c) H is nephew’s (d) H is own
of A. I f C is sist er of D, how is B r elat ed t o E ?
(a) Br ot her (b) Sister 3. K is t he br ot her of X, Z is t he son of X, P, t he
daughter of K , is mar r ied to N, G and X ar e sister s
(c) Br other-in-law (d) Sister-in-law
to one another. Then state how is G r elated to Z ?
4. A and B ar e br ot her s. C and D ar e sist er s. A’s son (a) Sister (b) Aunt
is D’s br ot her. H ow is B r elat ed t o C ? (c) M other (d) Mother-in-law
(a) Fat her (b) Br ot her
4. A is mot her of B and C. I f D is husband of C, t hen
(c) Grandfather (d) Uncle
what is A for D ?
5. A woman int r oduces a man as t he son of t he
(a) Aunty
br ot her of her mot her. H ow is t he man r elat ed t o
t he woman ? (b) M other
(a) Nephew (b) Uncle (c) Sister
(c) Son (d) Cousin (d) Mother-in-law
6. A man said t o a lady, “ Your mot her ’s husband’s 5. I f F is br ot her of A, C is daught er of A, K is sist er
sist er is my aunt ” . H ow is t hat lady r elat ed t o of F and J is br other of C, then who is uncle of J ?
t hat man ? (a) F (b) C
(a) Daught er (c) K (d) A
(b) Gr and-daughter
6. K al yan i i s m ot h er -i n -l aw of Veen a, wh o i s
(c) M other
si st er -i n-l aw of Ashok . Dheer aj i s f at her of
(d) Sister Sundeep, t he onl y br ot her of Ashok . H ow i s
7. I f X is br ot her of t he son of Y’s son, how i s X K alyani r elat ed t o Ashok ?
r elat ed t o Y ? (a) Mother-in-law (b) Aunt
(a) Son (c) M other (d) Wife
(b) Br ot her
7. Pointing to M anju in the photogr aph, Rajesh said,
(c) Cousin
“ She is t he daught er of my gr andfat her ’s only
(d) Grand-son
son” . H ow is M anju r elat ed t o Rajesh ?
8. I f B says t hat his mot her is t he only daught er of (a) Sister
A’s mot her, how is A r elat ed t o B ?
(b) Br other-in-law
(a) Son (b) Grand-father
(c) Uncle (d) Br ot her (c) Son
(d) M other
 Blood Relations 5.5

LEVEL-2 5. Which of t he following is gr oup of br ot her s ?

(a) ABD (b) ABF
Direction (Q. 1-5) :
(c) BDF (d) BFC
Fr om t h e gi ven st at emen t s sol ve t he fol l owi ng
quest ions : 6. I ntr oducing a man, a woman said, “ His wife is t he
(1) I n a family, t her e is six member s A, B, C, D, E only daught er of my mot her ” . H ow is t he woman
and F. r elat ed t o t he man ?
(2) C is sist er of F. (a) Sister-in-law (b) Wife
(3) B is t he br ot her of E’s husband. (c) Mother-in-law (d) Aunt
(4) D is t he fat her of A and gr andfat her of F. 7. I f A’s mot her is B’s mot her ’s daught er t hen how
(5) Ther e ar e t wo fat her s, t hr ee br ot her s and a is B’s mot her r elat ed t o A.
mot her in t he family. (a) M other (b) Aunt
1. H ow F is r elat ed t o E ? (c) N i ece (d) Gr andmot her
(a) Daught er (b) Husband 8. Ther e ar e t hr ee women in t he family. I f t wo of
(c) Son (d) Uncle t hem ar e mot her s and t wo ar e daught er s t hen
how is t he youngest r elat ed t o t he eldest ?
2. Who is E’s husband ?
(a) Daught er (b) M other
(a) A (b) B
(c) Gr and-daughter (d) Gr and-mother
(c) C (d) F
9. Point ing t o a boy a woman says, “ H is fat her is
3. Who is t he mot her ?
fat her -i n-l aw of t hat per son whose fat her i s
(a) A (b) B father-in-law of mine” . Then how boy is r elat ed
(c) D (d) E t o t he woman ?
4. H ow m any m al e m ember s ar e t h er e i n t h e (a) Son (b) Br ot her
gr oup ? (c) Son-in-law (d) Br other-in-law
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b)

E XPL AN AT I ON S

OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 2.

— — — — — — — — — —
1. — — B’s fat her C
— — — — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — — — —
–
— — B’s husband
i.e. A is gr andson of D.
— — — — — — — — — —
A 3. –
— — — — — — — — — —
i.e. B’s husband is fat her of A.
5.6 Blood Relations

3. –
— — — — — — — —
i.e. B is sist er -in-law of E.

4. – i.e. G is aunt of Z.
— — — — — — — — — —
– – 4.

i.e. B is uncle of C. — — — — — — — —

B–
5. –
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. A is mot her -in-law of D.

5. – – A
i.e. M an is cousin of woman. — — — — — — — —

6. – –
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. F is t he uncle of J.

i.e. L ady is sist er of M an. 6.

7. Y — — — — — — — —
— — — — — —
–
— — Y’s son
— — — — — — — — — — i.e. K alyani is mot her of Ashok.
– son 7. Ragesh’s gr andfat her
i.e. X is gr andson of Y. — — — — — —

8. A’s mot her

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
– B’s mot her
— — — — — — — — — — — — Rajesh
B i.e. M anju is sist er of Rajesh.
i.e. A is uncle of B. LEVEL-2
LEVEL-1 (1 – 5).

1.
— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

– – –

i.e. E is br ot her -in-law of B. — — — — — — — — —

–
2.
— — — — — — 6.
— — — — — —
— — — — — —

i.e. Woman is wife of M an.

i.e. F shows t he phot ogr aph of his son M .

 Blood Relations 5.7

7. B’s mot her 9.

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
–
— — — — — — — — — i.e. Boy is br ot her of woman.
A

i.e. B’s mot her is gr andmot her t o A.
8.
— — — —

— — — —

i.e. Youngest is gr anddaught er of t he eldest .

 6
CHAPTER Direction Sense Test

I n t his t ype of t est , t he quest ions consist of a sor t of dir ect ion puzzle. A successive follow-up of dir ect ions is
for mulat ed and we ar e r equir ed t o ascer t ain final dir ect ion or t he dist ance bet ween t wo point s. The t est is
meant t o judge abilit y t o t r ace and follow cor r ect ly and sense t he dir ect ion cor r ect ly.
N 0 30 45 60 90
NW
NE 1 1 3
si n 0 1
45° 45° 2 2 2
45° 45°
W E 3 1 1
cos 1 0
2 2 2
1
SW SE t an 0 1 3 
3
S

Above figur e shows four main dir ect ions :

Nor t h N, Sout h S, East E, West W
Four car dinal dir ect ions :
Nor t h East (NE), Nor t h West (NW), Sout h East (SE), Sout h West (SW)
Pyt hagor as T heor em
This t heor em is applicable only in r ight angle t r iangles, in which one angle is of 90.
AC2 = AB 2 + BC2
wher e, AC is H ypot enuse A

AB is Per pendicular (H eight )

BC is Base
Shor t cut M et hod
1. I f 2 opposit e t ur ns ar e coming t oget her, t hey will cancel each ot her.
e.g. left , r ight and r ight , left . B C

2. I f similar t ur ns ar e coming t oget her t hey will be opposit e t o t he ear lier dir ect ion.
e.g. if a per son is going in Nor t h and t aking t wo left t ur ns it means now he is moving in opposit e of
Nor t h i.e. Sout h.
3. St ar t fr om eit her left side or r ight side.
4. Two opposit e t ur ns will make no change.

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
1. I go 10 m t o t he east , t hen I t ur n left and go 5 m, 2. A boy walks a while facing t owar ds t he sun he
I t ur n left again and go 10 m and t hen again I t ur ns t o his r ight and cont inues t o walk. L at er,
t ur n left and go 10 m. I n which dir ect ion am I he t ur ns left and finally, t ur ning t o his r ight , he
fr om t he st ar t ing point ? st ops. Which dir ect ion is he facing now ?
(a) Nor t h (a) Nor t h
(b) South (b) South
(c) East (c) East
(d) West (d) West
6.2 Direction Sense Test

3. A man tr avels 7 kms towar ds East, then he tur ns 7. A is 40 m Sout h-West of B, C is 40 m Sout h-East
left and travels 8 kms, again he turns left and travels of B t hen, C is in which dir ect ion of A ?
10 kms. Finally, he turns left and travels 2 kms. (a) South
I n which direction is he from his star ting point? (b) West
(a) Nor t h-West (c) East
(b) West (d) Nor th-East
(c) East
8. A man st ar t ed wal k i ng posi t i oni ng hi s back
(d) Nor th-East
t owar ds t he sun. Aft er somet ime, he t ur ned left ,
4. Ravi dr ove 6 km t owar ds East . H e t hen t ur ned then turned r ight and then towar ds the left again.
r ight and dr ove 10 km. H e again t ur ned t o his I n which dir ect ion is he going now ?
r ight and dr ove 6 km. H e t hen t ur ned t o his left (a) Nor t h or Sout h
and dr ove 15 km. At what dist ance is he fr om (b) East or West
t he st ar t ing point and in which dir ect ion ?
(c) Nor t h or West
(a) 25 km, Sout h
(d) Sout h or West
(b) 21 km, Sout h
(c) 15 km, Sout h 9. P, Q, R and S ar e playing a game of car r om. P, R
and S, Q ar e par t ner s. S is t o t he r ight of R who
(d) 21 km, Nor t h
is facing West . Then, Q is facing
5. I f Sou t h -E ast becom es N or t h , N or t h -E ast (a) South
becomes West and so on, what will West ecome ? (b) East
(a) Nor th-East (c) West
(b) South-East (d) Nor t h
(c) Nor t h-West
10. A man went 10 kms t owar ds Sout h. Then t ur ned
(d) South-West
East and cover ed 10 kms and tur ned to t he r ight .
6. A man is facing Nor t h-west . H e t ur ns 90.in t he Again aft er 10 kms he t ur ned t o left and cover ed
cl ock w i se di r ect i on an d t h en 135  i n t h e 10 kms t o r each t he dest inat ion. H ow far and in
ant iclockwise dir ect i on. Whi ch di r ect i on i s he which dir ect ion is he t o his st ar t ing point ?
facing now ?
(a) 20 2 km, Sout h-East
(a) West
(b) Nor t h (b) 20 2 km, Nor t h-East
(c) South
(c) 20 2 m, Sout h-East
(d) East
(d) 20 km, Sout h-East

AN SWE RS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6 (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
 Direction Sense Test 6.3

E XPL AN AT I ON S

1. 10 5.

Starting
point 10
10

End point

2. Finishing
point

6.

Starting
point

3.
10 kms
2 kms

8 kms

Finishing point
7.
Starting point
7 kms

4. Starting 6km
point

10km

6km

8. I n M or ni ng I n Eveni ng
15km t owar ds nort h

Finishing
point
t owar ds sout h
6.4 Direction Sense Test

S 10.
9.

P R

Requir ed distance = ( 20)2  ( 20)2

= 20 2 km
Q

 7
CHAPTER Venn Diagrams
This t ype of quest ions aim at analysing abilit y t o r elat e a cer t ain given gr oup of it ems and illust r at e it
diagr amatically.
I . LOGI CAL DI AGRAM S
I n t his type a few t ypes of Venn diagr ams with t heir implicat ions made clear. L et a gr oup of t hr ee it ems ar e
given.
1. I f items evidently belong t o t hr ee differ ent gr oups, then
Venn diagr am r epr esent ing it would be as shown below.
e.g. Doct or s, Engineer s, L awyer s
These t hr ee it ems bear no r elat ionship t o each ot her.
So, t hey ar e r epr esented by 3 disjoint figur es as shown.
2. I f one item belongs to t he class of the second and second
belongs t o t he class of t hir d, t hen r epr esent at ion is in
t he for m of t hr ee concent r ic cir cles, as shown below.
e.g. Seconds, M inut es, H our s
Seconds ar e a par t of minut es and minut es ar e a par t of
hour s. So, Venn diagr am would be as shown in the figur e
with cir cle A representing Seconds, circle B r epr esenting
M inut es and cir cle C r epr esent ing H our s.

3. I f t wo separ at e it ems belong t o t he class of t he t hir d,

t hey ar e r epr esent ed by t wo disjoint cir cles inside a
bigger cir cle as shown below
e.g. Table, Chair, Fur nitur e
Table and chair ar e separ at e it ems but bot h ar e it ems
of fur nit ur e. So, t hey would be r epr esent ed as in t he
f i gur e wi t h ci r cl e A r epr esent i n g Tabl e, ci r cl e B
r epr esenting Chair and cir cle C r epr esenting Fur nitur e.

4. I f t wo separ at e t hings having somet hing common belongs t o t he class of t hir d, t hey ar e r epr esent ed by
t wo joint figur es inside one bigger figur e is shown below.

5. I f t wo set s A and B ar e par t ly r elat ed and t hir d is differ ent .

 7.2 Venn Diagrams
6. I f A is par t ly r elat ed t o B and B is par t ly r elat ed t o C.

7. I f A, B and C par t ly r elat ed t o each ot her.

I n t his t ype of quest ions, gener ally a Venn diagr am is given.

8. I f A belongs t o B and bot h of t hem is par t ly r elat ed t o C.

2.VEN N DI AGRAM S
Each geomet r ical figur e in t he diagr am r epr esent s a cer t ain class. The candidat e is r equir ed t o st udy and
analyse t he figur e car efully and t hen answer cer t ain quest ions r egar ding t he given dat a.
Example. I n t he following diagr am, squar e r epr esent s gir ls, t he cir cle st ands for t all per sons, t he t r iangle
is for t ennis player s and t he r ect angle st ands for t he swimmer s.

On t he basis of t he above diagr am, answer t he following quest ions :

1. Which let t er r epr esent s t all gir ls who ar e swimmer s but don't play t ennis ?
Solutions : Tall gir ls, who ar e swimmer s ar e r epr esent ed by t he r egion common t o t he squar e,
cir cle and t he r ect angle i.e., G and H . But , accor ding t o t he given condit ions, t he gir ls shouldn't be
t ennis player s. So, r equir ed r egion should not be a par t of t he t r iangle i.e., H should be excluded.
Thus, r egion r epr esent ing t he per sons sat isfying given condit ions is G.

2. Which let t er r epr esent s gir ls who ar e swimmer s, play t ennis but ar e not t all?
Solutions : Gir ls who ar e swimmer s and play t ennis ar e r epr esent ed by t he r egion common t o t he
squar e, t r iangle and r ect angle L e., H . But , it is given t hat t he gir ls shouldn't be t all. So, r equir ed
r egion should not be a par t of t he cir cle. Since H is a par t of t he cir cle.
 Venn Diagrams 7.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S (xv) Cancer, Aids, Disease.

1. Choose t he diagr ams which r epr esent boy, gir l The diagr ams ar e
and a dog. (a)

(b)
(a)

(c)
(b)

(d)
(c)

(e)

(d)
Directions (Q. 4-9) : Each it em is r epr esent ed by a
cir cle. M at ch t he r ight par t s on t he basis of t he
r elat ionship among t he wor ds given in each of t hese
2. The venn di agr am whi ch r epr esent s St at e, quest ions.
Count r y and Blanket is

(a)

(b)
4. Wat er : At mospher e : H ydr ogen
(a) A (b) B
(c)
(c) D (d) E
5. Shir t : Collar : Pocket
(d)
(a) E (b) D
3. Choose the most suitable diagr am for given items. (c) A (d) B
(i ) Dog, cat , animal. 6. English : L at in : Gr eek
(ii ) Sist er, mot her, women. (a) A (b) F
(iii ) Town, st at e, count r y. (c) C (d) D
(iv) Rhombous, Quadr ilat er als, Polygons.
7. Week : Day : Year
(v) English, H indi, L anguage.
(a) F (b) E
(vi ) Women, mot her, widows.
(c) C (d) A
(vii ) Flower s, clot hes, whit e.
(viii ) Kadamkuan, Pat na, Bihar. 8. Fr ame : M odel : Paint ing
(ix) Diesel, pet r ol, fuel. (a) A (b) B
(x) Dogs, cat s, pet s. (c) E (d) F
(xi ) Table, st udy r oom, house. 9. Cit y : Childr en : St at e
(xii ) H ockey, Foot ball, Games. (a) F (b) E
(xiii ) Tennis fans, Cr icket player s, St udent s. (c) D (d) C
(xiv) Boy, st udent , cr icket er.
7.4 Venn Diagrams

LEVEL-1 6. I n t he fol lowi ng di agr am, t r i angle st ands for

Directions (Q. 1-5) : I n t he diagr am given below,
cir cle r epr esent s pr ofessor s in a M edical college,
t r i angl e st ands f or Su r gi cal Speci al i st s whi l e
r ectangle represent s t he M edical Specialist s :
‘Bihar i', squar e st ands for ‘English', and cir cle
st ands for ‘Sanskr it '. Find how many ‘Bihar is'
ar e such who r ead English as well as Sanskr it ?

1. Pr ofessor s who ar e also sur gical specialist s ar e

r epr esent ed by (a) 3
(a) Y (b) l,3,7
(b) C (c) 3,4,5
(c) D (d) 1,3,8
(d) X LEVEL-2
2. Su r gi cal speci al i st s w h o ar e al so m edi cal Directions (Q. 1-8) : St aff employed in a UNESCO
specialist s but no pr ofessor s ar e r epr esent ed by office in Par is ar e r epr esent ed by four int er sect ing
(a) X circles as in the given diagram. Each circle represents
people who can r ead and wr it e english, Fr ench,
(b) Y
Spanish and Russian. St r engt h of people in each
(c) Z cir cle is also shown alongside.
(d) B St udy t he diagr am t o answer t hese quest ions.
3. Col l ege pr ocessor s w h o ar e al so m edi cal
specialist s ar e r epr esent ed by
(a) Y
(b) X
(c) Z
(d) A

4. ‘B’ r epr esent s

(a) Pr ofessor s who ar e not medical specialist s
(b) Pr ofessor s who ar e not sur gical specialist s
(c) Pr ofessor s who ar e neither medical specialists
nor sur gical specialist s
(d) Medical specialists who ar e neither pr ofessor s
nor sur gical specialist s 1. People who can r ead and wr it e English, Fr ench
and Spanish ar e r epr esent ed by
5. ‘C’ r epr esent s
(a) A (b) D
(a) Pr ofessor s
(c) K (d) F
(b) Medical Specialists
2. Peopl e who can r ead and wr i t e al l t he four
(c) Sur gical Specialists
languages can be r epr esent ed by
(d) M edical and Sur gical Specialist s (a) J (b) M
(c) L (d) K
 Venn Diagrams 7.5

3. People who can r ead and wr it e all t he languages 7. H ow many people know only Spanish ?
except Spanish ar e r epr esent ed by (a) 10 (b) 20
(a) K (b) G (c) 40 (d) 60
(c) B (d) I 8. H ow many people can r ead and wr it e any one
language except Fr ench ?
4. Peopl e who cannot r ead and wr i t e Russi an,
(a) 100 (b) 160
English and Fr ench ar e r epr esent ed by
(c) 140 (d) 120
(a) L (b) J
(c) H (d) E 9. I n t h e f ol l ow i n g di agr am , par al l el ogr am
r epr esent s women, t r i angl e r epr esent s sub-
5. People who cannot r ead and wr it e Spanish and
i n spect or s of pol i ce an d ci r cl e r epr esen t s
Fr ench but ar e conver sant wi t h Engl i sh and
gr aduat es. Whi ch number ed ar ea r epr esent s
Russian ar e r epr esent ed by
women gr aduat e sub-inspect or s of police ?
(a) B (b) J
(c) M (d) K
6. Which of t he following languages is known by
t he maxi mum number of peopl e as per t he
diagr am ?
(a) Spanish only (b) Fr ench only
(c) English only (d) Russian only (a) 5 (b) 3
(c) 8 (d) 13

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c)
3. (i ) (e),(ii ) (e), (iii ) (c), (iv) (c), (v) (e), (vi ) (d), (vii ) (a), (viii ) (c), (ix) (e), (x) (e), (xi ) (c), (xii ) (e),
(xiii ) (b), (xiv) (b), (xv) (e)
4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c ) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
(iii)
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. All t he t hr ee ar e fr om differ ent gr oups.

2. St at e belongs t o t he count r y wher e blanket is

fr om differ ent gr oup.

3. (i )

(ii)
(iv)
7.6 Venn Diagrams
(v)
(xiv)

(vi)

(xv)

(vii)

4. At mospher e cont ains bot h H ydr ogen and Oxy-

(viii) gen.
5. Shir t has bot h Collar and Pocket .
6. English, Gr eek and Latin ar e differ ent languages.

7. Year cont ains week, Week cont ains day.

8. Painting is fr amed in a fr ame while model is used

for paint ing.
(ix)
9. Childr en line in a cit y and cit y is a past of st at e.
LEVEL-1
1. Rect an gl e r epr esen t s ar ea f or t h e medi cal
(x) specialist s wher eas t r iangle r epr esent s sur gical
specialist s and cir cle r epr esent s pr ofessor s in a
medical college. Thus ar ea wher e pr ofessor s who
ar e al so sur gi cal speci al i st s but not medi cal
(xi) specialist s is r epr esent ed by D.

2. Su r gi cal speci al i st s w h o ar e al so m edi cal

specialist s but not pr ofessor s is common ar ea of
t r iangle and r ect angle and not cir cle which is
r epr esent ed by Z.

(xii) 3. Col l ege pr of essor s w h o ar e al so m edi cal

speci al i st s i s t he common ar ea of ci r cl e and
r ect angle r epr esent ed by X.

4. B r epr esent medical specialist s who ar e neit her

pr ofessor s nor sur gical specialist s.

5. C r epr esent only sur gical specialist s.

(xiii) 6. Since t he number of Bihar is who r ead English

and Sanskr it bot h, will be the number which will
be enclosed by t r iangle, squar e and cir cle and
such number is 3.
LEVEL-2
1. I n t his gr oup, we consider common ar ea of t he
t r ee cir cles one r epr esent ing t hose people who
 Venn Diagrams 7.7

can r ead and wr it e English, second Fr ench and 6. Given : A = 40

t hir d Spanish. This is shown by t he let t er K in C = 2 A = 80
t he diagr am. I t r epr esent s t hose people who can
r ead and wr it e Fr ench, English and Spanish. 1
E= A = 20
2
2. Thi s ar ea i s common t o al l four ci r cl es and
r epr esent ed by M . G = 2 E = 40 = A
So, maximum number of people used English.
3. I n t his gr oup we consider common ar ea of t he
t hr ee cir cles except Spanish so subr act ing t he 7. Fr om t he diagr am only spanish language is used
cir cle of Spanish fr om r est of t hr ee cir cles. We by t he people who belongs t o E and E = 20
get t he ar ea of peopl e who speak s al l t hr ee 8. Number of people who can r ead and wr it e any
languages except spanish is I . one language except fr ench
4. Peopl e who cannot r ead and wr i t e Russi an. = A+C+E
English and Fr ench ar e r epr esent ed by E. = 40 + 80 + 20
5. B is common ar ea of t hese people who can r ead = 140
and wr it e spanish and Fr ench. 9. The r equir ed r egion is t he one common t o t he
par allelogr am, t r iangle and cir cle i.e. 3.


 8
CHAPTER
I nt r oduct i on
I t helps t o t hink of deduct i ve r easoni ng in t er ms of
syll ogi sms.
A syl l ogi sm i s a deduct i ve ar gument r el at i ng t wo
pr emises and a conclusion, all of which ar e quant ified
pr opositions, i.e. pr opositions joining concepts by using
wor ds such as 'some' and 'all '.
Deduct i ve l ogi c i s used t o der i ve concl usi ons fr om
pr emi ses wher e t he t r ut h of t he concl usi on must
al ways be cont ai ned i n t he t r ut h of t he pr emi ses.
L ear ning Object ives
 To under st and t he st r uct ur e of an ar gument .
 To i dent i fy ar gument s involvi ng deduct ive and
induct ive r easoning.
L et u s st ar t by f i r st u n der st an di n g t er m s l i k e
ar gument , pr emise and conclusion.
A r gu m en t — A n ‘ar gu m en t expr esses a si n gl e
compr ehensive act of t hought which gives judgement
and is suppor t ed by t wo st at ement s. So it consist s of
t hr ee pr oposit ions.
I t is divided int o t wo par t s: Pr emises and Conclusion
Pr emises — Two pr oposit ion which suppor t t he t hir d
pr oposit ion giving judgement ar e called ‘Pr emises’.
Conclusion — The t hir d pr oposi t i on whi ch gives a
judgement and is suppor t ed by t wo pr emises is called
a ‘Conclusion’.
L et ’s consider an ar gument .
1. All st udent s ar e wise.
2. Ravi is a st udent .
3. Ravi is wise.
H er e obviously pr oposit ions 1 and 2 ar e t he pr emises
and t he pr oposit ion 3 which follows fr om t he fir st t wo
pr oposit ions, is called t he conclusion.
D educt ive and I nduct ive L ogic
Consider t he following example.
1. All mammals have lungs.
2. Cow is a mammal.
3. Cow has lungs.
I r r espect ive of any ot her char act er ist ics of a cow, i.e.
it gives milk, it is whit e, et c., t he conclusion t hat a
cow has lungs holds good, if (1) and (2) ar e t r ue.
Syllogism
T his is deduct ive logic.
Some char act er ist ics of deduct ive logic:
• I t i s a vali d ar gument .
• Not hing can fur t her st r engt hen t hi s ar gument ,
i.e. no st at ement can mak e t he conclusion mor e
valid.
• Anot her way of l ook ing at deduct i ve logi c i s t hat
when a ‘specific’ conclusi on is der i ved fr om a set
of gener al st at ement s, t hen it is deduct ive logic.
I n t he pr evious example, if we alt er t he sequence of
sent ences, i.e.
1. Cow is a mammal.
2. Cow has lungs.
3. All mammals have lungs.
The conclusion t hat all mammals have lungs is not
necessar ily valid. However, it is not necessar ily invalid.
Ther e is a pr obabilit y of t his conclusion being t r ue.
T his is induct ive logic.
Some char act er ist ics of induct ive logic.
• The conclusion cannot be said t o be eit her t ot ally
invalid or valid.
• Addit ion of cer t ain ot her pr emises may make t he
conclusion eit her mor e valid or invalid.
• Anot her way of looking at induct ive logic is t hat
when a ‘gener al’ conclusion is der ived fr om a set
of specific st at ement s, t hen it is induct ive logic.
D educt ive L ogic:
T h e pr em i ses i n dedu ct i v e l ogi c can be ei t h er
affir mat ive or negat ive and can also be univer sal or
par t i cul ar. Thus we have basi cal l y four t ypes of
pr emises as summar ized below
Affirmative N egative
U niver sal All P ar e Q No P is Q
Par t icul ar Some P ar e Q Some P ar e not Q
Let us under stand each of these four statement in their
en t i r et y …
All P are Q
This st at ement means t hat t her e is no P which is not
a Q. For t hose who under st and t he language of set s, it
means t hat P is a sub-set of Q.
On e of t h e m ost com m on m i st ak es m ade i n
 8.2 Syllogism

int er pr et ing t his stat ement is t hat t her e ar e cer t ain Q I n fact , t her e ar e FOUR possible venn diagr ams for
which ar e not P. This is false r easoning. I t is just a t his st at ement .
possibilit y t hat t her e ar e cer t ain Q t hat ar e not P but
we cannot be sur e of it . I t is quit e possible t hat t he Q P
P Q
ent ir e set of P and Q over lap wit h each ot her.
Similar ly we also cannot conclude t hat ‘All Q ar e P’ as
t her e is a possibilit y of some Q not being P
Thus t her e ar e t wo possible venn diagr ams for t his P,Q
st at ement :

Q P Q
P=Q P

Some P are not Q

Again her e all t hat we know t hat t her e is at least one
P which is not a Q.
N o P is Q Please not e t he ‘at least ’. I t is quit e possible t hat no P
Thi s st at ement i s t he si mpl est and has j ust one may be a Q. Thus t he conclusion t hat “ some P ar e Q’
int er pr et at ion i.e. t he t wo set s of P and Q ar e disjoint cannot follow t his st at ement .
or do not over lap. To summar ize:
Correct Commonly made
conclusion wrong conclusion
Q All P ar e Q Some Q ar e P All Q ar e P No P is
P Q No Q is P — —
Some P ar e Q Some Q ar e P Some P ar e not Q
Some P ar e — — Some P ar e Q
not Q Some Q ar e not P
Thus we can conclude t hat no P is a Q and also t hat no Now let s move on t o find t he infer ences dr awn fr om
Q is a P. t wo such st at ement s. I deally we will t r y t o eliminat e
t he use of venn di agr ams and t r y t o deci pher t he
Some P are Q
conclusions ver bally. St r ive har d t o visualize t he venn
The meaning of t his st at ement is t hat t her e is at least diagram if r equir ed and not to draw it as venn diagrams
one P which is a Q. ar e not hing but cr ut ches and unnecessar ily t ake t ime.
Thus we can also conclude fr om t his st at ement t hat
St r at egy t o Solve Syllogisms
‘some Q ar e P’ because ther e is at least one entity which
1. St ar t by wor king backwar ds, i.e. fr om t he given
is bot h a P and Q.
choices.
This st at ement is most pr one t o be misunder st ood.
2. Always t ake t he given pr emises t o be t r ue. Do
One of t he most common misunder st andings of t his
not use gener al knowledge her e. Tr ees may not
st at ement is t he conclusion ‘Some P ar e not Q’. Please
be blues and r eds may not be blacks, but t he idea
not e ‘Some P ar e Q’ does not mean ‘Some P ar e not
i s t o fi nd t he l ogi cal connect i on bet ween t he
Q’. Under st and it this way : the facult y of a class knows
pr emises and select t he conclusion. Do not let t he
t wo individuals of t he class per sonally and know t hat
pr emise dist r act you int o gener al knowledge and
t hey ar e int elligent . Thus he is r ight in saying ‘some
vice ver sa.
student s of t his class ar e int elligent ’. At t he same t ime
3. Eliminat e choices wher e a st at ement negat es a
all t he st udent may also be int elligent , it is just t hat
he does not know t hem well. The facult y when he says pr evious st at ement .
t hat some st udent s of t his class ar e int elligent is just 4. Pr act ice enough quest ions, so t hat you don’t need
r efer r ing t o t hose t wo individuals. The facult y is not t o dr aw Venn di agr ams. Avoi d dr awi ng Venn
making a r emar k on t he ot her s. The ot her s may also di agr ams dur i ng t he exam, as t her e i s a t i me
be int elligent . constr aint except in case you wish to validat e your
answer and of cour se, if t ime allows.
 Syllogism 8.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 12.Statements:
Directions for questions 1 to 10: You ar e r equir ed t o Some t ins ar e pens.
choose fr om among t he given four diagr ams — (a), Some pens ar e r ods.
(b), (c) and (d) — t he diagr am t hat best illust r at es a Conclusions:
r elat ionship among t he t hr ee given classes i n t he
I . No r od is t in.
questions.
I I . Some t ins ar e r ods.
13.Statements:
(a) (b) Some sabr es ar e bombs.
K ey is a sabr e.
Conclusions:
(c) (d) I . Some bombs ar e sabr es.
I I . Some keys ar e bombs.
14.Statements:
1. Eat ables, M eat , Venison
All lenses ar e hor ns.
2. Cr iminals, Thieves, M ur der er s
No hor n is colour ful.
3. Bachelor s, Doct or s, H usbands
Conclusions:
4. Food, Spaghet t i, Oven
I . Some lenses ar e colour ful.
5. Food, Rice, Belt
I I . No lens is colour ful.
6. Bever ages, L iquor, Juice
15.Statements:
7. M at t er, Solid, Gas
All flir t s ar e smar t .
8. Chair, Table, Fur nit ur e
All smar t ar e r ot t en.
9. Cut ler y, Spoon, Chair
Conclusions:
10. Cr oissant s, Baked eat ables, Br own br ead
I . All r ot t en ar e flir t s.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n each quest ion,
t wo st at ement s ar e fol l owed by t wo concl usi ons, I I . All smar t s ar e flir t s.
I and I I . You have t o t ake t he given t wo st at ement s LEVEL-1
t o be t r ue even if t hey seem t o be at var iance wit h Directions for questions 1 to 15: I n each quest ion,
commonly known facts. Read the conclusions and then t wo st at ement s ar e fol l owed by t wo concl usi ons,
decide which of the given conclusions logically follows I and I I . You have t o t ake t he given t wo st at ement s
f r om t h e t w o gi v en st at em en t s, di sr egar di n g t o be t r ue even if t hey seem t o be at var iance wit h
commonly known fact s. commonly known facts. Read the conclusions and then
M ark t he answer decide which of the given conclusions logically follows
(a) if only conclusion I follows f r om t h e t w o gi v en st at em en t s, di sr egar di n g
(b) if only conclusion I I follows commonly known fact s.

(c) if bot h I and I I follow M ark t he answer

(d) if neit her I nor I I follows (a) if only conclusion I follows

11. St at ement s: (b) if only conclusion I I follows

Some clouds ar e t hunder. (c) if bot h I and I I follow

All clouds ar e r ain. (d) if neit her I nor I I follows

Concl usions: 1. St at ement s:

I . Those clouds which ar e not t hunder, ar e also All cot s ar e t ablet s.

r ain. Some chimps ar e t ablet s.
I I . Those clouds which ar e not t hunder, ar e not Concl usions:
necessar ily r ain. I . Some cot s ar e chimps.
I I . Some chimps ar e cot s.
8.4 Syllogism

2. Statements: 9. Statements:
All willows ar e net t les. All gr eat scient ist s ar e college dr opout s.
Some t r ees ar e willows. Some cr iminals ar e college dr opout s.
Conclusions: Conclusions:
I . Some t r ees ar e net t les. I . Some cr iminals ar e gr eat scient ist s.
I I . Some t r ees ar e not net t les. I I . All gr eat scient ist s ar e cr iminals.
3. Statements: 10.Statements:
Some dolls blink. Sampr as is a good spor t sman.
All dolls bur ble. Spor t smen ar e st r ong.
Conclusions: Conclusions:
I . Those dolls which do not blink, also bur ble. I . All st r ong per sons ar e spor t smen.
I I . T h ose dol l s w h i ch do n ot bl i n k , don ’t I I . Sampr as is st r ong.
necessar ily bur ble. 11. Statements:
4. St at ement s: All of my classmat es ar e int elligent .
Some fools ar e int elligent . Ravinder is not int elligent .
Some fools ar e gr eat . Conclusions:
Concl usions: I . Ravinder is not my classmat e.
I . Some int elligent ar e gr eat . I I . Ravinder needs t o shar pen up his br ains.
I I . All gr eat ar e int elligent . 12. Statements:
5. St at ement s: All hippopot ami have skin.
Some pumpkins ar e fat . Rojo is a hippopot amus.
Some fat ar e pur ple. Conclusions:
Concl usions: I . Rojo has skin.
I . Some fat ar e pur ple and pumpkins. I I . Animals other t han hippopotamus do not have
I I . Some pur ple ar e pumpkins. ski n.
6. St at ement s: 13. St at ement s:
Some bosses ar e punct ual. Some sunglasses ar e blue.
Some punct ual ar e genial. Ray-Ban is a sunglass.
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . No genial is a boss. I . Some blue ar e sunglasses.
I I . Some bosses ar e genial. I I . Some Ray-Bans ar e blue.
7. St at ement s: 14. St at ement s:
Some sea-men ar e foolish. Some men ar e br oad-minded.
Some sea-men ar e illit er at e. Br oad-minded people ar e educated.
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . All illit er at e ar e foolish. I . All educat ed people ar e br oad-minded.
I I . No sea-men ar e foolish. I I . Some men ar e educat ed.
8. St at ement : 15. St at ement s:
All boys ar e her oes. Some pious people ar e pr iest s.
Sandy is a her o. Joseph is a pr iest .
Concl usions: Concl usions:
I . Sandy is a boy. I . Some pr iest s ar e pious.
I I . All her oes ar e boys. I I . Joseph is pious.
 Syllogism 8.5

LEVEL-2 4. Statements:
Direct ions for quest ions 1 t o 15: I n each of t he 1. Some whit es ar e Canadians.
following quest ions, t hr ee st at ement s 1, 2 and 3 ar e 2. Some Amer icans ar e whit es.
followed by four conclusions I , I I , I I I , I V. You have t o 3. No Amer ican is a black.
t ake t he given st at ement s t o be t r ue even if t hey
Conclusions:
appear t o be at var iance wit h commonly known facts,
and t hen decide which of t he conclusions logically I . Some Canadians ar e Amer icans.
f ol l ow(s) f r om t h e gi ven st at em en t s. F or each I I . Some whit es ar e blacks.
quest ion, mar k t he answer choice t hat you t hink is I I I . Some blacks ar e not Canadians.
cor r ect .
IV. Some whit es ar e not blacks.
1. St at ement s:
(a) I and I V follow (b) I I and I I I follow
1. All bibs ar e r ed.
(c) Only I I I follows (d) Only I V follows
2. All r ed ar e flower s.
5. Statements:
3. No flower s ar e t ablet s.
1. All knot s ar e t ight .
Concl usions:
I . Some flower s ar e bibs. 2. No collar is t ight .
I I . No t ablet s ar e bibs. 3. Some bush-shir t s ar e knot s.
I I I . Some r ed ar e bibs. Conclusions:
IV. Some t ablet s ar e r ed. I . Some bush-shir t s ar e collar s.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow I I . Some bush-shir t s ar e t ight .
(b) I I , I I I and I V follow I I I . Some collar s ar e not bush-shir t s.
(c) Only I and I I follow IV. Some bush-shir t s ar e not collar s.
(d) Only I and I I I follow (a) Only I I and I I I follow
2. St at ement s: (b) Only I I and I V follow
1. Some books ar e bibs. (c) Bot h I & I V follows
2. All biscuit s ar e pencils. (d) Only I V follows
3. No bibs ar e biscuit s. 6. Statements:
Concl usions: 1. All cr ooked ar e spades.
I . Some books ar e not biscuit s. 2. All big ar e jaded.
I I . Some bibs ar e not pencils.
3. Some big ar e cr ooked.
I I I . Some books ar e not pencils.
Conclusions:
IV. Some pencils ar e not bibs.
I . Some jaded ar e cr ooked.
(a) I and I V follow (b) I I and I V follow
I I . Some spades ar e cr ooked.
(c) I and I I I follow (d) I I and I I I follow
I I I . Some cr ooked ar e jaded.
3. St at ement s:
IV. Some spades ar e big.
1. All big ar e novels.
2. Some novels ar e willows. (a) I , I I and I I I follow
3. No willows is pencil. (b) I I , I I I and I V follow
Concl usions: (c) I , I I I and I V follow
I . Some willow ar e big. (d) All follow
I I . Some novels ar e pencils. 7. Statements:
I I I . No willow is big. 1. Some people ar e nice.
IV. Some novels ar e not pencils. 2. Some for eigner s ar e people.
(a) I and eit her I I or I V follow 3. No for eigner is a Canadian.
(b) I , I I I and I V follow Conclusions:
(c) I , I I and I I I follow I . Some for eigner s ar e nice.
(d) Only I V follows I I . Some people ar e Canadians.
I I I . Some for eigner s ar e not nice.
8.6 Syllogism
IV. Some people ar e not Canadians.
(a) Bot h I I and I I I follow
(b) Bot h I I I and I V follow
(c) Bot h I V and I follow
(d) Only I V follows
8. Statements:
1. All goat s ar e boxes.
2. Some goat s ar e flower s.
3. No chocolat e is box.
Conclusions:
I . Some flower s ar e chocolat es.
I I . No goat s ar e chocolat es.
I I I . Some flower s ar e boxes.
IV. Some flower s ar e not chocolat es.
(a) I I , I I I and I V follow
(b) I , I I I and I V follow
(c) Only I I and I I I follow
(d) Only I I I follows
9. Statements:
1. Some I ndians ar e not Amer icans.
2. All Amer icans ar e Asians.
3. Some Asians ar e Amer icans.
Conclusions:
I . Some I ndians ar e not Asians.
I I . All Amer icans ar e not I ndians.
I I I . All Amer icans ar e I ndians.
IV. Some Amer icans ar e I ndians.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I I follows
(c) Only I I I follows
(d) None follows
10. Statements:
1. Some candies ar e paper s.
2. All paper s ar e vanillas.
3. Some vanillas ar e t r ams.
Conclusions:
I . Some candies ar e t r ams.
I I . Some paper s ar e t r ams.
I I I . Some t r ams ar e paper s.
IV. Some vanillas ar e candies.
(a) Only I I and I I I follow
(b) I and I V follow
(c) Only I V follows
(d) I I , I I I and I V follow
11. Statements:
1. No foods ar e mangoes.
2. No or anges ar e pot at oes.
3. All mangoes ar e or anges.
Conclusions:
I . Some foods ar e not or anges.
I I . Some or anges ar e not foods.
I I I . No mangoes ar e pot at oes.
IV. Some or anges ar e foods.
(a) Only I I I and I follow
(b) Only I I and I V follow
(c) Only I and I I follow
(d) Only I I and I I I follow
12. Statements:
1. Some cot s ar e docks.
2. All cot s ar e clocks.
3. No fr ock is clock.
Conclusions:
I . No fr ock is a dock.
I I . No fr ock is a cot .
I I I . Some docks ar e not fr ocks.
IV. Some docks ar e fr ocks.
(a) Bot h I I I and I V follow
(b) Bot h I and I I follow
(c) Bot h I I and I I I follow
(d) I , I I and I I I follow
13. Statements:
1. Some t umbler s ar e capsules.
2. No capsule is a medicine.
3. All medicines ar e syr ups.
Conclusions:
I . Some t umbler s ar e not medicines.
I I . No medicine is a t umbler.
I I I . Some syr ups ar e capsules.
IV. Some syr ups ar e not capsules.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow
(b) I , I I I and I V follow
(c) I I , I I I and I V follow
(d) I and I V follow
14. Statements:
1. All coat s ar e paint s.
2. No paint s ar e shir t s.
3. Some shir t s ar e vest s.
Conclusions:
I . Some vest s ar e shir t s.
I I . Some coat s ar e shir t s.
 Syllogism 8.7
I I I . No coat is a shir t . 15. Statements:
IV. Some vest s ar e not coat s. 1. All chimps ar e monkeys.
(a) I , I I and I I I follow 2. No monkeys ar e mammals.
(b) I and I V follow 3. Some hor ses ar e mammals.
(c) I and I I I follow Conclusions:
(d) I , I I I and I V follow I . Some hor ses ar e not chimps.
I I . Some hor ses ar e not monkeys.
I I I . Some monkeys ar e not chimps.
IV. No chimp is a mammal.
(a) I , I I I and I V follow
(b) I I , I I I and I V follow
(c) I I and I V follow
(d) I , I I and I V follow

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S S

13.
11. S B K1
R1 B
T T
C C K3
R2 K2

Fr om t he above venn diagr am we conclude only I

Hence, clouds which ar e not thunder ar e also r ain. follows.
12. T P 14. H H
C
L L
T
P
R2

H ence, no lens is colour ful.

R1

Some r ods may or may not be t i ns. Some t ins

may or may not be r ods. H ence, none of t he
conclusions definit ely follows.
 8.8 Syllogism

R 6. G2
S
15. F
B P B
S P
F

H ence, all flir t s ar e r ot t en. G1

LEVEL-1 Some genial may or may not be bosses.

I2
1. Ch2 T 7.
T S F S
F
Co Co

Ch1
I1
H ence, some chimps may or may not be cot s.
Some illit er at e may or may not be foolish.
2. N N

T2
8. H H

W S1
W
B
B
T1 S2

Fr om t he above venn diagr am we can conclude

t hat some t r ees ar e definit ely net t les
None of t he conclusions follow.
.
C2
3. Bu2 9. D
D
Bl Bl Bu1 S S
D
D

C1

All dolls, whet her t hey blink or not , bur ble. None of t he conclusions follows.
4. 10. Sp
F I Sp St
F I

Sa Sa

G2

G1 Thus, we can conclude t hat Sampr as is st r ong.

Some int elligent may or may not be gr eat . H ence, 11. I I

neit her conclusion I nor I I follows.

Pur2 R
5. Pum CM
CM
Fat
Pum
Fat H ence, Ravinder is definit ely not my classmat e.

Pur1

Some pur ple may or may not be pumpkins.

 Syllogism 8.9

12. S S
3. I.
P2
H H N W2
B
II.
Rojo
III.
P1
IV.
W1
H ence, we can definit ely concludes t hat Raj has
ski n.
SG
H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
13. B B
SG RB1
RB2 4.
B1 I.

II.
A1 W C
H ence, some blue ar e sunglasses. III.

IV.
B2
M A2
B M E1 E2
B

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.

14. 5.
C3
T I.
C1 K II.
H ence, some men ar e educat ed.
III.
Pi Pr Pi Pr
C2
IV.
BS
J1
15.
J2
H ence, opt ion (b) is t he cor r ect answer.
6. J
Joseph may or may not be pious. H ence, onl y
S I.
conclusion I follows.
II.
LEVEL-2 C B
III.

1. F I.
IV.
R
II.
B T H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
III.
7.
IV. C1
C2 I.

H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer. II.

P N
III.
F2
2.
I. IV.
Bo Bi II. F1

III.
P1 H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
Bis2 Bis1 IV.
P2
8. C2 I.
F
II.
H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer. B G
III.
C1
IV.

H ence, opt ion (a) is t he cor r ect answer.

8.10 Syllogism

9. I1 I. 13.
As S1
I4 M1
II.
Am
III. I.
I2 T
IV. C
II.
I3
III.

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer. M2

IV.
S2
10.
V I.
Only conclusions I and I V follow. The set of ‘syr ups’
T2 C P II. which ar e ‘medicines’ ar e definit ely not ‘capsules’.
III. H ence, opt ion (d) is cor r ect .
14.
T1 IV.
I.
V
S
II.
H ence, opt ion (c) is t he cor r ect answer. P
III.
11. O C
F1 I. IV.

M II.

III.
H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
15.
IV. I.
F2 P H1 Ma
II.

H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer. III.

Ch
I. H2
12. ClK IV.
II. Mon
C D F1
III. H ence, opt ion (d) is t he cor r ect answer.
F2 IV. 
H ence, opt ion (c) is t he cor r ect answer.
 9
CHAPTER Statement Conclusion
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
D ir ect i ons for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each of t he
following quest ions consist s of statements followed by
two conclusions. Read the given statements car efully
and ident ify which of the conclusions dir ectly follow.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if only conclusion I follows
(b) if only conclusion I I follows
(c) if bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) if neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
1. St at ement s:
Shei l a i s an M BA. Some M BAs speci al i ze i n
I nfor mat ion Syst ems M anagement .
Concl usi on:
I . Shei l a speci al i zed i n I nfor mat i on Syst ems
Management .
I I . Not all MBAs specialize in I nfor mation System
Management .
2. St at ement s:
Asphalt is ver y har d. Oil is of t he same densit y as
asphalt.
Concl usi on:
I . Oil is ver y har d.
I I . The density of asphalt and oil can be measur ed.
3. St at ement s:
Mur der is a mor al offence. You have committed a
mor al offence.
Concl usi on:
I . You ar e a mur der er.
I I . M ur der er s ar e immor al.
4. St at ement s:
Ear t h i s a par t of our sol ar syst em. Our solar
syst em is par t of t he milky way galaxy.
Concl usi on:
I . Ear t h is par t of t he milky way galaxy.
I I . M ilky way galaxy is in t he solar syst em.
5. St at ement s:
Wat ching cr icket is one of t he major r ecr eat ional
act ivit ies in I ndia. H e has gone for r ecr eat ion.
Concl usi on:
I . H e has gone t o wat ch cr icket .
I I . Cr icket is somet imes played for pleasur e in
I ndia.
6. St at ement s:
For t he past 10 year s people of K ashmir have lost
t heir peace of mind because of fear of t er r or ist
at t ack. M y uncle who is r esiding in K ashmir has
also lost his peace of mind.
Concl usi on:
I . M y uncle may be fear ing a t er r or ist at t ack.
I I . People staying in Kashmir can not lead a peace-
ful life.
7. St at ement s:
Sachin owns a Fer r ar i. Some Fer r ar is have left -
hand dr ive.
Concl usi on:
I . Sachin had bought a Fer r ar i for himself.
I I . Sachin’s car may have a left -hand dr ive.
8. St at ement s:
The r eason for t he upsur ge in t he incidence of
car di ac di sease among young pr ofessi onal s i s
occu pat i on al st r ess. M r . Si n gh , a y ou n g
pr ofessional r ecently succumbed t o car diac ar r est.
Concl usi on:
I . M r. Si ngh's deat h was due t o occupat i onal
st r ess.
I I . A l ot of y ou n g pr of essi on al s ar e f aci n g
occupat ional st r ess now days.
9. St at ement s:
CET for ms can be pr ocur ed eit her by paying cash
or by submit t ing a DD. M any people pr efer cash.
She has pr ocur ed a CET for m.
Concl usi on:
I . She submit t ed a DD for t he CET for m.
I I . Pu r ch asi n g t h e f or m by m ak i n g cash
payment i s mor e conveni ent t han payi ng
t hr ough a DD.
9.2 Statement Conclusion
10. St at ement s:
Polar bear s do not have fur on t hem. Animal X
doesn’t have fur on it .
Concl usi on:
I . Animal X is fr om t he poles.
I I . Polar bear ’s skin is t hick enough t o pr ot ect it
fr om cold.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n t he following
quest ions, one/t wo st at ement s ar e followed by t wo
concl u si on s 1 and 2. You h ave t o con si der t h e
st at ement s t o be t r ue, even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if neit her conclusion 1 nor conclusion 2 follows
(b) if bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow
(c) if only conclusion 1 follows
(d) if only conclusion 2 follows
11. St at ement s:
1. Alexander visit ed Egypt .
2. Cleopat r a was t he queen of Egypt .
Concl usions:
1. Alexander met Cleopat r a.
2. Egypt was a monar chy.
12. St at ement s:
1. I ndia is a democr at ic count r y.
2. Pakist an is a democr at ic count r y.
Concl usions:
1. I ndia and Pakist an ar e bot h democr at ic.
2. I ndia and Pakist an ar e neighbor s.
13. St at ement s:
1. Cr icket is played wit h r ed balls.
2. Snooker uses many r ed balls.
Concl usions:
1. Snooker can be played wit h cr icket balls.
2. Cr icket can be played wit h snooker balls.
14. St at ement s:
1. M any people ar e r ich and educat ed.
2. M any educat ed people ar e poor.
Concl usions:
1. Rich people ar e educat ed.
2. Poor people ar e educat ed.
15. St at ement :
The gover nment pr ovides subsidies t o help r ich
people.
Concl usions:
1. Rich people need help.
2. Rich people get subsidies.
LEVEL-1
Directions for questions 1 to 10: I n t he following
quest ions, one/t wo st at ement s ar e followed by t wo
concl u si on s 1 and 2. You h ave t o con si der t h e
st at ement s t o be t r ue, even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if neit her conclusion 1 nor conclusion 2 follows
(b) if bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow
(c) if only conclusion 1 follows
(d) if only conclusion 2 follows
1. St at ement s:
1. The company r epor t ed l osses i n t he fi r st
quar t er.
2. The company has been pr ofit able in t he past .
Concl usions:
1. The company will make a pr ofit in t he second
quar t er.
2. The company is going to be bought by a bigger
company.
2. St at ement s:
1. A flag has many color s.
2. I ndia’s flag has 4 color s, including whit e.
Concl usions:
1. I ndia may not be a nat ion.
2. I ndia has t o be a nat ion.
3. St at ement s:
1. Rich people have lot s of fr ee t ime.
2. Rich people buy many car s.
Concl usions:
1. H aving many car s saves t ime.
2. M any r ich people pur chase car s.
4. St at ement s:
1. Air t r avel is mor e expensive t han t r ain t r avel.
2. Tr ain t r avel t akes less t ime t han air t r avel.
Concl usions:
1. To save t ime, one should use t r ain t r avel.
2. To save money, one should use t r ain t r avel.
5. St at ement s:
1. At hlet es like David exer cise for mor e t han a
quar t er of ever y day.
2. For anyone t o become an at hlet e, t hey must
do mor e t han 6 hour s of exer cise ever yday.
Concl usions:
1. D av i d ex er ci ses f or m or e t h an 6 h ou r s
ever yday.
2. Anyone can be an at hlet e.

6. St at ement s:
1. Wat ches ar e used t o keep t r ack of t ime.
2. Clocks ar e made all over t he wor ld t o keep
t r ack of t ime.
Concl usions:
1. Cl ock s and wat ches ar e subst it ut es of each
ot her.
2. Wat ches ar e made all over t he wor ld.
7. St at ement s:
1. The gover nment holds exams t o select people
for var ious post s lying vacant .
2. Many people give these exams t o get their fir st
jobs.
Concl usions:
1. Ther e ar e many post s t hat need t o be filled.
2. M any people ar e unemployed.
8. St at ement s:
1. Nor t h K or ea and Sout h K or ea ar e separ at ed
by wat er.
2. They t hr eat en war on each ot her.
Concl usions:
1. Nor t h K or ea and Sout h K or ea ar e islands.
2. They ar e fight ing over who get s t o keep t he
wat er bet ween t hem.
9. St at ement s:
1. T h e I n t er n et i s a web of i nt er con n ect ed
comput er s.
2. All comput er s have input and out put devices.
Concl usions:
1. The I nt er net is an out put device.
2. A single comput er cannot make an I nt er net .
10. St at ement s:
1. Wat er is necessar y for life t o sur vive.
2. Food is necessar y for life t o sur vive.
Concl usions:
1. Wat er and food ar e life.
2. L ife cannot sur vive wit hout wat er and food.
Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n t he following
quest ions, t wo st at ement s ar e given, followed by t wo
concl u si on s I and I I . You h ave t o consi der t he
st at ement s t o be t r ue even i f t hey seem t o be at
var iance fr om commonly known fact s. You have t o
decide which of t he given conclusions, if any, follow
fr om t he given st at ement s.
11. St at ement s:
1. Due t o cont aminat ion of wat er, lar ge number
of people wer e admit t ed t o hospit als.
Statement Conclusion 9.3
2. The sympt oms wer e of Typhoid.
Concl usions:
I . Cont aminat ion of wat er may lead t o Typhoid.
I I . Typhoid is a cont agious disease.
(a) Only conclusion I is t r ue
(b) Only conclusion I I is t r ue
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I ar e t r ue
(d) Bot h conclusions I and I I ar e false
12. St at ement s:
1. 60% of t he gover nment empl oyees went on
st r i ke.
2. M r. Gopal is a gover nment employee.
Concl usions:
I . M r. Gopal went on st r ike.
I I . M r. Gopal did not par t icipat e in t he st r ike.
(a) Only conclusion I follows
(b) Only conclusions I I follows
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) Eit her conclusion I or I I follows
13. St at ement s:
1. Temple is a place of wor ship.
2. Chur ch is also a place of wor ship.
Concl usions:
I . H indus and Chr ist ians use t he same place for
wor ship.
I I . All chur ches ar e t emples.
(a) Neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
(b) Bot h conclusions I and I I follows
(c) Only conclusion I follows
(d) Only conclusion I I follows
14. St at ement s:
1. I ndia is becoming indust r ialised.
2. Pol l u t i on i s a pr obl em associ at ed w i t h
industr alisat ion.
Conclusi ons
I . Pollut ed nat ions ar e indust r ialised.
I I . I ndia may become pollut ed.
(a) All ar e appr opr iat e
(b) Only I is appr opr iate
(c) Only I I is appr opriate
(d) None is appr opr iate
15. St at ement s:
1. H appiness der ived fr om ext er nal mat er ials is
moment ar y.
2. Ever lasting happiness has to come fr om within.
9.4 Statement Conclusion
Concl usions:
I . Nobody can exper ience happiness fr om outside.
I I . H appi ness exper i enced fr om ci nema i s not
last ing.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I I follows
(c) Neit her I nor I I follows
(d) Bot h I and I I follow
LEVEL-2
D ir ect i ons for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each of t he
following quest ions consist of st at ement s followed by
t wo conclusions. Read t he given st at ements car efully
and ident ify which of t he conclusions dir ect ly follow.
M ark your answer as:
(a) if only conclusion I follows
(b) if only conclusion I I follows
(c) if bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) if neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
1. St at ement s:
The Pl anni ng Commi ssi on i s opposed t o t he
pr oposal . I t feel s t hat t he cost of subsi di zi ng
helicopt er oper at ions will be exor bit ant .
Concl usions:
I . T h e Pl an n i n g Com m i ssi on w an t s t h e
gover nment t o spend less on it self.
I I . H elicopt er oper at ions must be subsidized.
2. St at ement s:
The population below the pover t y line is computed
on the basis of minimum daily calor ie r equir ement
of food and act ual consumpt i on. For t y-ei ght
per cent of I ndi a's popul at i on l i ves bel ow t he
pover t y line.
Concl usions:
I . For t y-eight per cent of t he people in I ndia do
not get t he r equir ed calor ies of food.
I I . Pover t y is I ndia's biggest pr oblem.
3. St at ement s:
The policy of liber alisation will make the rich richer
and t he poor poor er. The dispar it y bet ween t he
r ich and t he poor will widen.
Concl usions:
I . L iber alisat ion is not good for I ndia.
I I . The r ich believe in liber alisat ion.
4. St at ement s:
Nat ional int egr at ion cannot be achieved because
t her e ar e cont r ast s bet ween t he r ich and t he poor
and differ ent r eligious gr oups.
Concl usions:
I . Cont r ast s hinder int egr at ion.
I I . Nat ional int egr at ion is essent ial for I ndia.
5. St at ement s:
A simple DNA t est can pr edict whet her someone
is mor e likely t o lose weight on a low fat or a low
car bohydr ate diet, say US resear chers. Their study
looked at how well people wit h differ ent genes
far ed on differ ent weight loss diet s.
Concl usions:
I . Peopl e’s bodi es r eact t o cer t ai n nut r i ent s
differ ent ly and t his is r elat ed t o t heir genet ic
makeup.
I I . A bet t er u n der st an di n g of on e’s gen et i c
makeup helps in charting out one’s diet patter n
t o lose weight .
6. St at ement s:
Ther e ar e glar ing inequalit ies bet ween man and
man. Laws can ensur e an or der ed society but only
har d wor k wi l l hel p us t o achi eve t he soci al
object ive of economic goals.
Concl usions:
I . On l y h ar d w or k can r em ov e econ om i c
inequalities.
I I . Economi c equal i t y i s mor e i mpor t ant t han
discipline.
7. St at ement s:
The deadlock per sist ed for t he four t h consecut ive
day despite hectic efforts. Then, a meeting between
t he Pr ime M inist er and t he far mer s' leader s was
ar r anged.
Concl usions:
I . The M eet ing wit h t he Pr ime M inist er ended
t he deadlock.
I I . The meet ing bet ween t he Pr ime M inist er and
t he far mer s' leader was t he r esult of t he hectic
effor t .
8. St at ement s:
Beaut y is God’s gift and ever yt hing and ever yone
has beaut y, but not ever yone ident ifies it .
Concl usions:
I . Some people ident ify beaut y.
I I . Beaut y is ubiquit ous.
9. St at ement s:
The funct ion of science is t o supply r eliable and
r elevant infor mation to the society. I ts infor mation
i s r el i abl e due t o i t s el abor at e t ech ni que of
ver ificat ion and also because such infor mat ion is
capable of sur viving for cent ur ies.
 Statement Conclusion 9.5

Concl usions: 13. St at ement :

I . Scient ific infor mat ion is beyond t he scope of
r evision.
I I . Scient ific infor mat ion is ver ifiable.
10. St at ement :
The human or ganism gr ows and develops thr ough
st imulat ion and act ion.
Concl usions:
I . I n er t hu m an or gan i sm can not gr ow an d
develop.
I I . H uman or ganisms do not r eact t o st imulat ion
and act ion.
11. ‘All beggar s ar e poor.’
I f t he above st at ement i s t r ue, whi ch of t he
following conclusions can be dr awn?
(a) All t hose who ar e poor ar e beggar s.
(b) I f A is r ich, t hen A is not a beggar
(c) I f A is not r ich, t hen A is not a beggar.
(d) I f A is a beggar, t hen A is not r ich.
12. St at ement :
No childr en ar e vot er s.
Concl usions:
I . All adult s ar e vot er s.
I I . No vot er s ar e childr en.
(a) Only conclusion I follows
(b) Only conclusion I I follows
(c) Bot h conclusions I and I I follow
(d) Neit her conclusion I nor I I follows
M inist er s ar r ived at t he public funct ion in t heir
car s.
Concl usions:
I . All minist er s ar e r ich
I I . M inist er s have car s.
I I I . M inist er s came t o t he public funct ion.
(a) Only I I and I I I ar e implicit in t he st at ement .
(b) Only I is implicit in t he st at ement
(c) Only I and I I ar e implicit in t he st at ement
(d) Only I I I and I ar e implicit in t he st at ement .
14. St at ement :
Philant hr opes wit h t heir human compassion and
zeal t o help t he needy have cont r ibut ed t o human
welfar e in ever y societ y.
Concl usions:
I . Rich per sons ar e philant hr opes
I I . Poor people cannot act as philant hr opes.
(a) Only I is implicit in t he st at ement .
(b) Bot h I and I I ar e implicit
(c) Neit her I nor I I is implicit .
(d) Only I I is implicit .
15. Fer t ilizer consumpt ion in I ndia in 1984-85 was
8.21 MT. By 1990 it was 13.75 M T and by 2000 it is
expected to r each 16 MT. What is your conclusion?
(a) Fer t ilizer consumpt ion is st eady.
(b) T h er e i s a st eady decr ease i n f er t i l i zer
consumpt ion.
(c) Fer t i l i zer consumpt i on does not show any
t r end.
(d) Ther e i s a st eady i ncr ease i n s fer t i l i zer
consumpt ion.

AN SWE RS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (d)
9.6 Statement Conclusion
EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. None of t he conclusions follow as ‘some’ may mean
al l and t he given st at ement does not gi ve any
cl ar i t y on t he same. Shei l a may or may not
specialize in I nfor mat ion Syst em M anagement .
H ence, opt ion (d) is cor r ect .
2. Conclusion I is incor r ect because t he r eason for
asphalt being har d is not known. I t could be t he
pr esence of fact or s like asphalt ’s composit ion, it s
t ext ur e et c. t hat make it har d. So, even if oil and
asphalt ar e of t he same densit y, oil may not be as
har d as asphalt. Only conclusion I I follows because
t he st at ement clear ly indicat es t hat oil and as-
phalt ar e of t he same densit y and such a st at e-
ment can only be made aft er measur ing t he den-
sit y of t hese t wo subst ances.
3. None of t he concl usions is t r ue. Commit t i ng a
single act of moral offence cannot account for being
cal l ed i mmor al . So concl usi on I I i s i ncor r ect .
Conclusion I does not follow because mur der is
one of t he immor al act s but may not be t he only
immor al act .
4. Only conclusion I follows as ‘ear t h’ is a subset of
‘sol ar syst em’ whi ch i s a subset of ‘mi l ky way
galaxy’. Conclusion I I is incor r ect as ‘solar system’
is a subset of ‘milky way galaxy’ and not vice ver sa.
5. None of t he conclusion follows. Conclusion I is
incor r ect because wat ching cr icket is one of t he
r ecr eational activities but not the only recreational
act ivit y. H e may or may not be wat ching cr icket .
Conclusion I I is incor r ect because in I ndia, cr icket
is watched for pleasu re and not played for pleasure.
6. Only conclusion I follows as it t alks of a possibility
(may). Conclusion I I is incor r ect because the given
statement s r efer to a specified t ime fr ame (over
the past ten years) but conclusion II makes a general
statement which cannot be definitely concluded.
7. Conclusion I is incor r ect because if Sachin owns a
Fer r ar i, it does not necessar ily mean t hat he had
bought one. H e could have got it as a pr esent fr om
his fat her. Only conclusion I I follows as it t alks
about a possibilit y. Since some Fer r ar is have left -
hand dr i ve, i t i s qui t e possi bl e t hat Sachi n’s
Fer r ar i is also left -hand dr ive.
8. Conclusion I does not follow because occupational
st r ess is one of t he r easons for car diac ar r est but
not the only r eason for it. Conclusion I I is incor r ect
because though ther e is an incr ease in the number
of young pr ofessionals affected by car diac diseases,
but it cannot be definit ely said t hat a lot of t hem
have been pr ey t o occupat ional st r ess. The t er m
‘lot ’ cannot be defined as we do not have number s
her e.
9. Conclusion I is incor r ect because t he st at ement s
clear ly say t hat t her e ar e t wo ways of pr ocur ing
t he for m, so she could have chosen eit her of t he
two. Conclusion I I is incorr ect as people may prefer
cash because it is safer or fast er or cheaper.
10. N one of t he concl usi ons fol l ow. I i s i ncor r ect
because t her e could be anot her var iet y of animal
which doesn’t have fur t oo. So, we cannot say that
animal X is fr om t he poles. I I is out of scope as
not hing has been said about polar bear ’s skin.
11. Only conclusion 2 follows, since a queen r eigns
over a monar chy.
12. Onl y concl usi on 1 fol l ows, si nce geogr aphi cal
pr oximit y is not ment ioned.
13. Bot h conclusions 1 and 2 follow, since t her e is no
di ffer en ce bet ween r ed bal l s as used i n t he
st at ement s.
14. Neit her conclusion follows, since not all r ich or
poor people may be educat ed.
15. Neit her of t he conclusions follow. Conclusion 1 is
incor r ect because if gover nment helps someone,
i t does not i mply t hat t hat someone definit el y
needs help. Conclusion 2 is incor r ect because we
cannot say t hat all r ich people get subsidies.
LEVEL-1
1. Neit her conclusion follows, since we don’t know
t he second quar t er r esult s or any plans of bigger
companies.
2. Only conclusion 1 follows, since it is not mentioned
t hat ever yt hing wit h a flag must be a nat ion.
3. Ther e is no r elat ion bet ween car s and t ime in t he
st at em en t s. So con cl u si on 1 i s i n cor r ect .
Con cl u si on 2 does n ot f ol l ow becau se t h e
st at ement mer ely says t hat r ich people pur chase
‘m an y’ car s. Bu t wh et her a few r i ch peopl e
pur chase many car s or many r ich people buy many
car s is not hint ed at .
4. Bot h conclusi ons fol low, si nce accor di ng t o t he
st at ement s, air t r avel is mor e expensive as well
as slower.
5. Only conclusion 1 follows because quar ter of a day
m ean s m or e t h an 6 h ou r s. Con cl u si on 2 i s
incor r ect because not hi ng has been ment i oned
about who all can become an at hlet e.
6. N one of t he concl usi ons fol l ow. 1 i s i ncor r ect
because though a watch and a clock serve the same
pr imar y pur pose but a wat ch can be used on t he
move while a clock is st at ionar y. So, t hey cannot

be used int er changeably. 2 is incor r ect because
nothing has been said about pr oduction of watches.
7. None of the conclusions follow as nothing has been
ment ioned about t he number of post s t hat ar e
vacant and about t he number of people who ar e
unemployed. So ‘many post s’ in conclusion 1 and
‘many people’ in conclusion 2 cannot be deduced
fr om t he given st at ement s.
8. Neit her conclusion follows, since separ at ion fr om
each ot her by wat er is not t ant amount t o being
an island. Also, t he r eason for war t hr eat s is not
given.
9. Only concl usion 2 follows, since I nt er net must
have inter connected comput er s, or mor e t han one
comput er at least . A comput er having input and
output devices does not make the I nter net become
an input or out put device.
10. Only conclusion 2 follows fr om t he st at ement s,
since bot h food and wat er ar e given as necessar y
for sur vival of life.
11. Conclusion I is cor rect as it talks about a possibility.
Conclusion I I is out of scope.
12. M r. Gopal may or may not par t icipat e in st r ike.
So, bot h conclusions ar e possible and one of t hem
must be t r ue.
13. Templ e and Chur ch may or may not over l ap.
Further, no infor mation is given about Hindus and/
or Chr ist ians. Thus, neit her conclusion follows.
14. Conclusion I I t alks about a ‘possibilit y’ of I ndian
becoming pollut ed due t o indust r ializat ion and
hence is cor r ect . Conclusion I cannot be dr awn as
not hi ng has been ment i oned about pol l u t ed
nat ions.
15. Onl y concl usi on I I fol l ows because happi ness
exper ienced fr om cinema cannot be cat egor ized
as happiness coming fr om wit hin one’s soul and
st at em en t 1 cl ear l y st at es t h at ever l ast i n g
happiness comes fr om wit hin.
LEVEL-2
1. I is neither stated nor implied. So, I does not follow.
I I cont r adict s t he idea of planning commission.
So, I I does not follow.
2. We cannot infer fr om the passage whether pover ty
is I ndia’s biggest pr oblem or not . Only conclusion
I follows.
3. The st at ement s do not say anyt hing about I ndia.
H ence, I is negat ed. I I t alks about t he beliefs of
t he r ich and is beyond t he scope of t he ar gument .
Statement Conclusion 9.7
4. The st at ement implies t hat t he wide gap between
the r ich and the poor hinder s national integr ation.
So, I can be concluded. The st at ement does not
make any ment ion of I ndia, so I I is beyond t he
scope of t he ar gument .
5. I t ’s st at ed t hat a DNA t est can pr edict whet her
someone is mor e likely t o lose weight on a low fat
or l ow car bohydr at e di et . Thi s means t hat a
per son’s genet ic makeup det er mines how his/her
body r eact s to cer tain nutr ients and t his may play
a r ole in char t ing out one’s diet pat t er n. H ence,
conclusions I & I I follow.
6. When t he ar gument t alks about inequalit ies, it
does not specify t hat it is mentioning the economic
or t he social ones. We have no clar it y about t he
social object ives of economic goals. Thus I is quit e
f ar f et ch ed an d can n ot be con cl u ded. I I i s
ir r elevant .
7. Neither of the conclusions follow because one does
not know if t he meet ing ended t he deadlock and
whet her it was t he r esult of t he hect ic effor t .
8. ‘Ubiquit ous’ means pr esent ever ywher e. So, I I
definitely follows as t he main st at ement says t hat
“Beauty is God’s gift and ever yt hing and ever yone
has beaut y.” Not ever yone includes the possibilit y
t hat no one ident ifies it . H ence, I does not follow.
9. Only I I follows. I is vague as t he ‘scope of r evision’
cannot be deduced.
10. Both conclusions are incor r ect as nothing has been
said about iner t human or ganisms and about t he
condit ions in which t hey r eact .
11. I f A is a beggar, t hen A is not r ich.
12. The gi ven st at ement i s U ni ver sal N egat i ve.
Conclusion I I is Conver se of it .
13. The use of t er m ‘All’ in t he conclusion I makes it
invalid. We know t hat , definit e conclusion cannot
be dr awn fr om gener al st at ement . M i ni st er s
ar r ived at t he public funct ion in t heir car s. Thus,
mi ni st er s have car s and t hey at t ended publ i c
funct ion. Ther efor e, only I I and I I I ar e implicit in
t he st at ement .
14. Any per son can be philant hr ope whether he is r ich
or poor.
15. The given dat a indicat es t hat t her e is a st eady
incr ease of fer t ilizer consumpt ion.

 10
CHAPTER Statement Assumption
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
Direct ions for questions 1 t o 15: I n each quest i on
bel ow i s gi v en a st at em en t f ol l ow ed by t w o
assu m pt i on s/i n f er en ces n u m ber ed I an d I I . A n
assumption is something supposed or taken for granted
and an infer ence i s somet hing whi ch can be di r ect ly
infer r ed fr om t he given fact s. You have t o consider
t h e st at em en t an d t h e f ol l ow i n g assu m pt i on s/
infer ences and decide which of t hose is/ar e implicit in
t he st at ement . Give answer :
(a) if only I is i mpl icit
(b) if onl y I I is impl icit
(c) if eit her I or I I is impl icit
(d) if neit her I nor I I is i mpl icit
(e) if bot h I and I I ar e impl icit
1. St at ement : 'Do not ent er -avoi d t he r i sk of
get t ing i nfect ed wi t h t he ABC disease'- wr i t t en
out side t he quar ant ine war d no. 2 (meant only
for ABC disease) of a hospi t al.
Assumpt ions :
I . Di sease ABC is cont agi ous.
I I . Al l t he pat i ent s i n war d no. 2 suffer fr om
disease ABC.
2. St at ement : I n cit y Z, peopl e pr efer t o buy Car X
inst ead of Car Y as Car X has Ger man t echnology
which i s ver y advanced.
Assumpt ions :
I . Car s wit h Ger man t echnology ar e per ceived
t o be bet t er t han ot her car s i n cit y Z.
I I . Had German technology been pr esent in Car Y
also, its sales would have cr ossed car X's sales.
3. Statement : Railway does not pr ovide concession
t o an y on e for t r avel l i ng t o cer t ai n hol i day
dest inat ions.
Assumpt ions :
I . Rail way ser vices ar e avail abl e for t r avel li ng
t o t hese holiday dest inat i ons.
I I . Rai l way s pr ovi des con cessi on t o cer t ai n
per sons for t r avel l i ng t o pl aces ot her t han
t hese hol iday dest inat i ons.
4. St at ement : "Tr avel l er s wi t h a t i ck et for t he
second cl ass i f found t r avel li ng in t he fi r st class
compar t ments would be penalized" - Not ice in the
compar t ment s of a t r ai n.
Assumpt ions :
I . Tr avel ler s wi t h a t i cket for t he fi r st class ar e
al so not al lowed t o t r avel i n t he second class
compar t ment s.
I I . I nspect i ons ar e car r i ed out i n t he t r ai n t o
check t he t ick et s.
5. St at ement : The pr ices of pet r ol and di esel have
r emained unchanged only in N iger i a since t he
past t hr ee year s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Pet r ol an d -di esel pr i ces h av e ch an ged
el sewher e i n t he wor l d dur i ng t hese t hr ee
year s.
I I . Befor e t hi s t hr ee year s per i od, pet r ol and
di esel wer e avai lable at a pr ice differ ent fr om
t he pr esent r at es.
6. St at ement : I f par ki ng space i s not availabl e in
offi ce, par k your vehicl es in t he mall and wal k t o
t he office.
Assumpt ions :
I . The mal l is at a walkabl e dist ance fr om t he
office.
I I . The office does not allow vi sit or s' vehi cles in
it s pr emi ses.
7. St at ement : Far mer s must immediat ely swit ch
ov er t o or gan i c f er t i l i zer s f r om ch em i cal
fer t il izer s for bet t er yi el d.
Assumpt ions :
I . Al l t he far mer s use onl y chemi cal fer t il izer s.
I I . Or ganic fer tilizer s ar e r eadily available t o t he
far mer s.
10.2 Statement Assumption
8. St at ement : An adver t i sement by bank X-'Our
int er est r at es for educat i on loans ar e l ower t han
any ot her bank '.
Assumpt ions :
I . Some ot her bank s al so pr ovi de educat i on
loans.
I I . I nt er est r at es char ged on educat ion loans ar e
di ffer ent for di ffer ent bank s.
9. St at ement : For any ki nd of pr oblem wit h your
mobile phone, cont act our help desk immediately.
Assumpt ions :
I . H el p desk h as a sol u t i on t o al l k i nds of
pr oblems r elated to mobile phones or will guide
accor dingly.
I I . Unless t he pr oblem is r epor t ed immediat el y,
it cannot be sol ved.
10. St at ement : U se ou r m edi ci n e t o f i gh t t h e
pr oblem of obesit y.
Assumpt ions :
I . Ot her sl i mming medi ci nes avail abl e i n t he
mar k et do not r educe wei ght .
I I . Obesi t y can n ot be con t r ol l ed w i t h ou t
medi ci nes.
11. St at ement : The number of people l iving bel ow
pover t y l ine i n ur ban ar eas has i ncr eased since
last year.
Assumpt ions :
I . People li vi ng in r ur al ar eas ar e not bel ow t he
pover t y l ine.
I I . A si mi lar sur vey was conduct ed l ast year.
12. Statement : Tr avelling by t r ains r ather t han cabs
is mor e convenient and economical in Par i s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Par i s is an expensive cit y.
I I . Tr ai n ser vi ces ar e r easonabl y good in Par i s.
13. St at ement : A gover nment adver t i sement i n
public int er est -For a child's bet t er ment al healt h,
admi t him/ her t o a school onl y aft er fi ve year s of
age.
Assumpt ions :
I . A chil d cannot l ear n befor e he/she t ur ns five.
I I . Some school admi t chi l dr en who ar e below
fi ve year s of age.
14. St atement : Alt hough he has done M BA t hr ough
a cor r espondence cour se, he i s as smar t as a
per son fr om coll ege X.
Assumpt ions :
I . St udent s fr om col lege X ar e k nown for t heir
smar t ness.
I I . St u den t s sh ou l d do M B A t h r ou gh
cor r espondence i n or der t o become smar t .
15. St at ement : Conveyance faci l i t y pr ovi ded by
or gani sat ion hel ps empl oyees r epor t t o wor k on
t ime.
Assumpt ions :
I . The conveyance faci lit y which i s pr ovide by
t he or ganisat i on al ways r eaches on t ime.
I I . I t i s not possible t o r epor t t o wor k on t i me
unless conveyance facili t y is pr ovided by t he
or ganisat ion.
LEVEL-1
Direct ions for questions 1 t o 15: I n each quest i on
bel ow i s gi v en a st at em en t f ol l ow ed by t w o
assu m pt i on s/i n f er en ces n u m ber ed I an d I I . A n
assumption is something supposed or taken for granted
and an infer ence i s somet hing whi ch can be di r ect ly
infer r ed fr om t he given fact s. You have t o consider
t h e st at em en t an d t h e f ol l ow i n g assu m pt i on s/
infer ences and decide which of t hose is/ar e implicit in
t he st at ement . Give answer :
(a) if only I is i mpl icit
(b) if onl y I I is impl icit
(c) if eit her I or I I is impl icit
(d) if neit her I nor I I is i mpl icit
(e) if bot h I and I I ar e impl icit
1. St at ement : A ver y lar ge number of people st ood
in t he queue for buying t ickets for t he one-day
inter national cr icket match scheduled to be played
in the cit y on the next day.
Assumpt ions :
I . No ot her one-day int er nat ional cr ick et mat ch
may be pl ayed i n t he ci t y for t he next si x
mont hs.
I I . M ajor i t y of t hose who st ood in t he queue may
be abl e t o get t i ck et f or t h e on e-day
int er nat i onal cr ick et mat ch.
2. St at ement : The hi ghway poli ce aut hor it y put
up lar ge boar ds at r egular inter vals indicating t he
speed l imit and danger s of over -speedi ng on t he
highways.
Assumpt ions :
I . M ost of t h e m ot or i st s m ay dr i v e t h ei r
v eh i cl es w i t h i n t h e speed l i m i t on t h e
highways.
I I . M ot or i st s gener all y i gnor e such caut ions and
over -speed on t he highways.

3. St at ement : The empl oyees' associ at i on ur ged
its member s to stay away fr om the annual function
as many of t heir demands wer e not met by t he
management .
Assumpt ions :
I . M ajor i t y of t he member s of t he associat i on
may not at t end t he funct ion.
I I . The management may cancel t he annual
funct ion.
4. St at ement : The sar panch of t he vi llage call ed a
meet ing of all t he heads of t he famil ies t o discuss
t he pr obl em of acut e shor t age of dr i nk ing wat er
in t he vi ll age.
Assumpt ions :
I . The sar panch had ear lier called such meetings
t o discuss about var i ous pr obl ems.
I I . M ost of t he heads of famil ies may at t end t he
meet ing call ed by t he sar panch.
5. St at ement : The muni ci pal cor por at ion advised
all t he people l i vi ng in t he shant i es along t he
beaches t o move t o higher places dur ing monsoon.
Assumpt ions :
I . M any people li vi ng in t he shant ies may l eave
t he ci t y and r elocat e t hemsel ves elsewher e
in t he st at e.
I I . M ajor it y of t he peopl e l iving i n t he shant i es
al ong t he beach may t r y t o r elocat e t o hi gher
pl aces dur i ng monsoon.
6. St at ement : T h e l ar gest dom est i c ai r l i n es
corpor ation has announced new summer schedules
in which mor e number of flight s in tr unk r outes
ar e int r oduced.
Assumpt ions :
I . Mor e number of passenger s may tr avel by this
ai r l ines cor por at i on dur i ng summer mont hs
in t r unk r out es.
I I . Ot her air li nes companies may al so i ncr ease
t he number of fl ight s i n all t he sect or s.
7. St at ement : The Chai r man of t he company
decided to hold a gr and funct ion to celebr ate silver
jubi lee dur i ng t he next weekend and invit ed a
lar ge number of guest s.
Assumpt ions :
I . The company offi ci als may be abl e t o make
al l t he necessar y pr epar at ions for t he si lver
cel ebr at i on.
I I . Major ity of the guests invited by the Chair man
may at t end t he funct ion.
Statement Assumption 10.3
8. Statement : The lar gest computer manufactur ing
company slashed the pr ices of most of t he deskt op
model s by about 15 per cent wi t h i mmedi at e
effect .
Assumpt ions :
I . The company may incur heavy losses due t o
r educt i on i n pr i ces of t he desk t op.
I I . The sal es of desk t op manufact ur ed by t he
company i ncr ease subst ant i al ly in t he near
futur e.
9. St atement : The school aut hor i t y decided t o r ent
out t he school pr emi ses dur i ng weekends and
hol i days for or gani zi n g var i ous funct i ons t o
augment i t s r esour ces t o meet t he gr owing needs
of t he school.
Assumpt ions :
I . The par ents of the school students may pr ot est
agai nst t he deci sion of t he school aut hor it y.
I I . Ther e may not be enough demand for hi r i ng
t he school pr emi ses for or ganizing funct i ons.
10. St at ement : The local civic body has ur ged all
t he r esident s t o volunt ar i ly r educe consumpt i on
of pot abl e wat er by about 30 per cent t o t ide over
t he wat er cr i si s.
Assumpt ions :
I . M any r esi dent s may r educe consumpt ion of
pot able wat er.
I I . M any act i vist s may wel come t he civic body's
move and spr ead awar eness among r esident s.
11. St at ement : The dr iver of t he huge t r uck pull ed
t he emer gency br ak es t o avoi d hi t t i ng t he aut o
r ick shaw whi ch suddenl y came i n fr ont of t he
t r uck.
Assumpt ions :
I . The aut o r ickshaw dr iver may be abl e t o st eer
hi s vehicle away fr om t he oncomi ng t r uck.
I I . The t r uck dr iver may be able t o st op t he t r uck
befor e it hi t s t he aut o r i ckshaw.
12. St at ement : The doct or war ned t he pat i ent
agai nst any fur t her consumpt ion of alcohol, i f he
desi r ed t o get cur ed fr om t he ai lment and li ve a
longer l ife.
Assumpt ions :
I . The pat ient may follow t he doct or 's advice and
st op consumi ng alcohol.
I I . The doct or may be abl e t o cur e t he pat ient
f r om t h e ai l m en t , i f t h e pat i en t st ops
consumi ng alcohol.
10.4 Statement Assumption
13. Statement : The Chair man of t he company ur ged
al l t he empl oyees t o r efr ain fr om maki ng long
per sonal calls dur i ng wor k ing hour s in or der t o
boost pr oduct i vit y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M aj or i t y of t h e em pl oyees m ay r espon d
posi t i vel y t o t he Chair man's appeal.
I I . M ost of t he empl oyees may cont i nue t o make
long per sonal call s dur ing wor ki ng hour s.
14. St at ement : The local cul t ur al club decided t o
or gani se a musi cal event t o r ai se money t he
const r uct ion of t he club bui lding.
Assumpt ions :
I . The local r esi dent s may not all ow t he club t o
or ganise t he musi cal event in t he local it y.
I I . The money collected by or ganizing the musical
event may be subst ant ial enough for t he cl ub
t o st ar t const r uct ion.
15. St at ement : The t r affi c pol ice depar t ment has
put huge not ice boar ds at al l t he major junct ions
of t he ci t y war ning dr i ver s t o r efr ain fr om usi ng
cell phones whil e dr ivi ng or else t heir li cences
wi ll be i mpounded.
Assumpt ions :
I . The dr i ver s of t he vehi cles may i gnor e t he
war ning and cont inue using cell phones while
dr iving.
I I . The t r affic poli ce depar t ment may be abl e t o
nab most of t he offender s and i mpound t heir
l i cences.
LEVEL-2
D irect ions for quest ions 1 t o 10: Each quest i on
below has a st at ement foll owed by t hr ee assumpt ions
number ed I , I I and I I I . An assumpt ion is somet hi ng
supposed or t aken for gr ant ed. You have t o consider
t he st at ement and t he assumpt i ons and decide whi ch
of t he assumpt ions is i mplicit i n t he st at ement . Then
deci de which of t he answer s (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) is
t he cor r ect answer.
1. St at ement : "The r et ur n of count r y X as a ful l-
f l ed ged m em ber of t h e Com m on w eal t h i s
dependent on t he 'cr edibility' of t he election which
w i l l be i n pr ocess n ex t y ear ." - H ead of
Commonwealt h Obser ver s' Gr oup (COG).
Assumpt ions :
I . The 'cr edibil it y' of t he elect ion pr ocess can be
measur ed in t angible t er ms.
I I . The el ect i on pr ocess i n count r y X al ways
r emai ns a mat t er of debat e for t he wor l d
communi t y.
I I I . The wor ld communit y has a common desi r e
t o r est or e democr acy and i t s et hi cs al l over
t he wor l d.
(a) Al l I , I I and I I (b) None
(c) Onl y I (d) Only I I
(e) None of t hese
2. St a t em en t : " T h e I n di an M et eor ol ogi cal
Depar t ment has pr oposed t o hold a br ainst or ming
session of weat her exper t s next mont h t o t r y and
st udy t he causes for t he fai l ur e of t he j ust -
concl uded summer monsoon i n t he count r y."-
Spok esper son of I n di an M et eor ol ogi cal
Depar t ment .
Assumpt ions :
I . The behaviour of t he just -concluded monsoon
was int r igui ng.
I I . Thor ough scient i fi c i nvest igat ion i s lik el y t o
r eveal t he causes of monsoon's fail ur e.
I I I . Br ainst or mi ng sessions or gani sed in t he past
didn't pr ove fr uit ful.
(a) Al l I , I I and I I I (b) None
(c) Only I I (d) Only I and I I
(e) None of t hese
3. St at ement : "Why ar e you look ing sad? Did you
not get bonus t his year too''? - M r. X said t o M r. Y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M r. X is t he wel l-wisher of M r. Y.
I I . The expr ession of sadness on one's face is a
si gn of one's financial cr unch.
I I I . I f one get s bonus, one does not r emai n sad.
(a) All (b) Only I
(c) Only I and I I (d) Only I I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
4. St at ement : "A non-Br ahmi n well-ver sed wi t h
r i t uals could be appoint ed as a pujar i as wel l" -
r uli ng of t he Supr eme Cour t (SC).
Assumpt ions :
I . B r ah m i n s, don 't h av e a m on opol y ov er
per for ming puja in a t empl e.
I I . M er e el igi bil i t y for a post i s enough t o l ay
cl ai m t o candidat ur e for t he post .
I I I . People wi ll comply wi t h t he ver di ct gi ven by
t he SC.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese

5. Statement : "Ever y successful per son who claims
t o have come fr om a village has achieved success
aft er he or she left t he village." - A leader of par t y
X.
Assumpt ions :
I . The aver age I ndian village is a place with little
capit al, l ow t echnol ogy and l i mi t ed mar ket
access.
I I . Oppor tunity for gr owth is mor e in metr o cities.
I I I . Oppor tunities for gr owth are scarce in villages.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Only I and I I
(e) None of t hese
6. Statements : "Today I am rejecting your proposal
to play a cr icket match against your team because
of the absence of Mr. Z but tomor r ow I am ready to
play against your team at any cost." - Mr. X says to
Mr. Y.
Assumpt ions :
I . M r. Z wil l be avail able t omor r ow.
I I . M at ch wil l be pl ayed t omor r ow i r r espect i ve
of avai labi lit y of M r. Z.
I I I . M r. Y wi ll be r eady t o pl ay a mat ch against
M r. X t omor r ow.
(a) All I , I I and I I I (b) Eit her I or I I and I I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
7. Stat ement : "An ast er oi d whi ch bur ned up i n
t h e ear t h 's at m osph er e i n J u n e cou l d h ave
t r igger ed a mi st ak en nucl ear war bet ween I ndia
and Pakist an had it det onat ed over Sout h Asia." -
St at ement of M r X i n a r epor t i n The N ew Yor k
Ti mes.
Assumpt ions :
I . I ndia and Pakist an ar e equipped wit h nuclear
weapons.
I I . N ei t h er I n di a n or Pak i st an h ad t h e
sophisticated sensor s that could deter mine the
differ ence between a natur al NEO (near -ear th
object ) i mpact and a nuclear det onat ion.
I I I . I ndia and Pakist an have no good r elat ionship
wi t h each ot her.
(a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I
(d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) All I , I I and I I I
Statement Assumption 10.5
8. Statement : "A cour t can convict an accused solely
on t he basi s of a dyi ng decl ar at ion but such a
decl ar at i on should be fr ee fr om any doubt and
t h e vi ct i m mak i ng t he st at ement sh oul d be
ment all y fit ." - Supr eme Cour t .
Assumpt ions :
I . One who i s not ment al l y fi t al ways mak es
st at ement s unt r ust wor t hy i n nat ur e.
I I . Declar ation made by t he dying per son is likely
t o be t r ue.
I I I . I t i s possi bl e t o di st i n gu i sh w h et h er a
decl ar at i on is doubt ful or not .
(a) Only I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Only I I I
(e) None of t hese
9. St at ement : "The 'X' st at e cabi net endor sed our
pr oposal t o st agger shoppi ng t i mi ng by allowi ng
mar k et s t o r emai n open t il l 10 PM t o mak e it
mor e dynami c." - A leader of t r ader s.
Assumpt ions :
I . I f i t i s t ak en wel l by t r ader s, t h e st at e
gover nment will per manently alter the closing
t i me for all pr ominent mar ket s in t he cit y.
I I . Ther e is a need t o boost commer cial act i vi t i es
in t he cit y.
I I I . K eeping t he mar k et open t ill l at e i s lik el y t o
enhance sales as well as mak e shopping mor e
convenient for people with late wor king hour s.
(a) Only I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I (d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
10. St at ement : The hi gh cour t of st at e 'X' has
di r ect ed t he st at e gover nment 'X' t o i ssue a
not i fi cat ion mak ing speed gover nor s compul sor y
for al l four -wheel er s i n t he cit y t o check high-
speed dr iving.
Assumpt ions :
I . Speed gover nor s wil l put an end t o accident s.
I I . Speed gover nor s wi l l hel p i n r educi ng t he
possibili t i es of r oad acci dent s.
I I I . H i gh speed of vehicles on t he r oad causes
accident s.
(a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I I and I I I
(d) Onl y I and I I I
(e) None of t hese
10.6 Statement Assumption

Directions for questions 11 to 15: I n each quest i on
below is given a statement followed by two assumptions
number ed I and I I . An assumpt i on i s somet hi ng
supposed or t aken for gr ant ed. You have t o consider
t he st at ement and t he fol l owi ng assumpt i ons and
deci de whi ch of t he assumpt i ons i s i mpli ci t i n t he
st at ement . Gi ve answer :
(a) if onl y Assumpt i on I is impl icit
(b) if only Assumpt ion I I is i mpl icit
(c) if eit her Assumption I or Assumpt ion I I is implicit
(d) i f nei t her Assumpt i on I nor Assumpt i on I I i s
implicit
(e) if bot h Assumpt i ons I and I I ar e impl icit
11. St at ement : A l eading uni ver si t y has begun a
pr actice of displaying r esult s only on t he I nter net
r at her t han on t he main not ice boar ds.
Assumpt ions :
I . Al l t he st udent s enr olled wit h t he uni ver si t y
have access t o I nt er net at home.
I I . M ost of t he st udent s r efer r ed t o t he r esul t s
di splayed on bot h t he int er net as well as t he
not i ce boar ds ear l ier.
12. St at ement : I n or der t o r epleni sh t he nut r i ent s
in t he soil , i t is impor t ant t o gr ow differ ent t ypes
of cr ops ever y alt er nat e season.
Assumpt ions :
I . A cr op can never be gr own for t he second t ime
in t he same fi el d.
I I . I f a differ ent cr op i s gr own i n t he successi ve
season , n o addi t i on al n u t r i en t s su ch as
fer t ili zer s ar e r equir ed t o be added t o t he soil.
13. St at ement : I f far mer s wai t t o i mpr ove t hei r
yiel d, t hey must use or ganic fer t ili zer s i n place of
chemical fer t i lizer s.
Assumpt ions :
I . Chemical fer t i lizer s have cer t ain ill effect s on
health.
I I . Chemical fer t i lizer s do not pr oduce as much
yi el d as t he or gani c fer t i lizer s.
14. St at ement : St or e eat ables in t he deep fr eeze in
or der t o pr eser ve t hese for a l ong t ime.
Assumpt ions :
I . Food mater ial r emains eat able even aft er deep
fr eezing for a l ong t ime.
I I . I t i s not possible t o st or e any eat abl e at r oom
t emper at ur e even for a shor t er per iod of t ime.
15. St at ement : A l eading NGO decided t o open a
li br ar y cont ai ni ng book s and newspaper s of all
major publi sher s in a r emot e vi ll age.
Assumpt ions :
I . All ot her near by villages alr eady have similar
li br ar ies.
I I . Ther e i s adequat e number of l it er at e people
in t he vi ll age.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (e) 2. (a) 3. (e) 4. (b) 5. (e) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (e) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (e) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (e) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (e) 6. (c) 7. (e) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
11
CHAPTER Mathematical Puzzles
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 6. In the following question find the missing number.
1. Find the missing number: 4 6 8
4 3 11 9 15 6 5 7 9
3 4 ?
17 38 65
(a) 5 (b) 6
144 9801 ? (c) 7 (d) 10
(a) 2250 (b) 8100 7. In the following question find the missing number:
(c) 11036 (d) 1216 2 1 3
2. Find the missing number: 3 4 2
5 10 ?
48 12 64 16 ? 15 25 50 100
25 5 81 9 49 7 (a) 12 (b) 15
(a) 75 (b) 60 (c) 18 (d) 20
(c) 30 (d) 90 8. In the following question find the missing number:
3. Find the missing number: 17 23 25
6 8 18
12 6 5 3 2 ?
34 92 150
27 20 18 16 13 12 10 ? 11
(a) 1 (b) 3
13 9 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
(a) 9 (b) 12 Directions for questions 9 and 10: Some equations are
(c) 8 (d) 13 solved on the basis of certain system. Find
4. Find the missing number: out the correct answer for the unsolved equation on that
basis.
27 9 35 7 36 4 9. 3 1 ?
8 4 5
2 3 4 5 7 9
853 471 593

1 2 ? (a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 0
(a) 3 (b) 4
10. 3 5 6
(c) 5 (d) 6
4 8 2
5. Select the missing number from the given responses. 7 4 8
426 643 ?
6 9 4 8 5 8 (a) 554 (b) 693
6 8 ? (c) 184 (d) 717
15 12 16 12 14 11
11. If 92 + 53 = 72 and 31 + 33 = 20, then 52 + 91 = ?
(a) 12 (b) 10 (a) 38 (b) 143
(c) 8 (d) 6 (c) 39 (d) 75
11.2 Mathematical Puzzles
12. If 37 + 17 = 20 and 68 + 42 = 26, then 96 + 63 = ? 6. In the following question, select the number which
(a) 74 (b) 159 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
the given alternatives.
(c) 33 (d) 62
13. If 53 + 21 = 73 and 45 + 32 = 106, then 29 + 63 = ? 3 10 6 186
(a) 150 (b) 49 9 5 3 138
(c) 202 (d) 178 5 7 1 36
14. 5 × 2 × 7 = 752, 4 × 7 × 3 = 347,1 × 4 × 9 = ? 3 2 5 ?
(a) 914 (b) 441
(a) 35 (b) 42
(c) 419 (d) 941
(c) 45 (d) 95
15. If 83 ÷ 42 = 5, 63 ÷ 21 = 6, then 56 ÷ 23 = ?
7. In the following question, select the number which
(a) 11 (b) 6 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
(c) 9 (d) 17 the given alternatives.
LEVEL-1
2 5 7 10 8 11
1. If 52 ÷ 24 = 1, and 83 ÷ 45 = 2, then 41 ÷ 33 = ?
14 9 19 14 20 ?
(a) 1 (b) 0
(a) 14 (b) 15
(c) –1 (d) 2
(c) 17 (d) 19
2. In the following question, select the number which
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from 8. If 6 @ 4 @ 7 = 101 and 2 @ 5 @ 11 = 150, then what
the given alternatives. is the value of A in A @ 8 @ 9 = 289?
(a) 5 (b) 8
3 4 2 (c) 12 (d) 17
2 31 1 2 145 6 1 ? 7 9. In the following question, select the number which
5 3 5 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
the given alternatives.
(a) 43 (b) 49
20 72 90 110 56 ?
(c) 59 (d) 71
2 3 6 3 7 4 1 7 4
3. If 3 @ 3 * 3 = 3 and 48 @ 4 * 3 = 36, then 91 @ 13
*2=? (a) 112 (b) 144
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 156 (d) 186
(c) 10 (d) 14 10. In the following question, select the number which
4. In the following question, select the number which can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from the given alternatives.
the given alternatives.
3 2 625
12 13 156 5 3 4096
14 ? 154 4 2 ?
15 13 195
(a) 216 (b) 1024
(a) 11 (b) 16 (c) 1296 (d) 2024
(c) 21 (d) 31 11. In the following question, select the number which
5. If (3)2 @ 1 * 7 = 98 and (4)2 @ 2 * 16 = 178, then (5)2 can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from
@3*9=? the given alternatives.
(a) 218 3 2 1 2 2 1
(b) 262 5 4 7 6 3 11
(c) 253 1 7 4 2 1 ?
(d) 259 (a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
 Mathematical Puzzles 11.3
12. If 9 * 2 * 5 = 23 and 1 * 4 * 8 = 29, then 1 * 6 * 3 = ? 4. Find the missing number.
(a) 19 (b) 21 2 7 9
7 3 4
(c) 31 (d) 39
9 8 ?
13. In the following question, select the number which 126 168 216
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from (a) 8 (b) 3
the given alternatives.
(c) 6 (d) 36
9 6 8 2 7 3 5. Find the missing number.

18 27 75
41 60 19
117 68 ? 45 45 ?
(a) 20 (b) 30
(a) 48 (b) 52
(c) 15 (d) 35
(c) 55 (d) 58
6. Find the missing number.
14. In the following question, select the number which
can be placed at the sign of question mark (?) from 52 55 63 69
the given alternatives.
2 4 1 49 79 57 ?
5 3 5 (a) 117 (b) 120
7 5 6 (c) 107 (d) 110
39 17 ? 7. Find the missing number shown by the question mark
(a) 11 (b) 31 (?) in the center of the third figure.
(c) 32 (d) 37 22 11 19 9 20 10

11 7 ?
LEVEL-2
1. Find the missing number. 13 13 4 7 12 14
(a) 8 (b) 10
7 12 22
(c) 12 (d) 14
6 45 4 5 93 4 11 99 ? 8. Which of the following number can replace the
question mark in the figure given below?
5 7 3
(a) 3 (b) 33
(c) 22 (d) 9

2. Find the missing number.

2 5 3 (a) 3 (b) 9
3 30 1 4 46 1 6 ? 2 (c) 1 (d) 2
9. Find the missing number.
4 2 8
(a) 111 (b) 113
(c) 36 (d) 288 25 16
49 9
3. Find the missing number.
27 ?
64 125
1 2 2 3
 576 ?
3 4 4 5
(a) 7 (b) 343
(a) 14400 (b) 15600
(c) 216 (d) 6
(c) 23040 (d) 17400
11.4 Mathematical Puzzles
10. Find the missing letters. 13. Find the missing number:
C 12 13 27 24 27 ?
D
A C E ? I
?
G
25 51 64
(a) F, G (b) F, F (a) 35 (b) 36
(c) G, H (d) H, F (c) 37 (d) 38
11. Find the missing number: 14. Find the missing number:

5 3 2 7 6 7 45 20 40
63 41 ?
8 9 5 25 27 35 60 30 40 25 ? 35
6 3 8
30 30 30
(a) 82 (b) 83
(a) 36 (b) 33
(c) 86 (d) 26
(c) 45 (d) 60
12. Find the missing number:
15. Find the missing number:
7 4 9 3 8 5 46 22 69 42 79 38
19 ? 28
9 6 12
(a) 27
(b) 21 24 27 ?
(c) 28 (a) 40 (b) 41
(d) 17 (c) 31 (d) 51

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)

LEVEL-1
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b)

LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b)
 Mathematical Puzzles 11.5

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. 3 8 5 8 5 3
2
1. 4 × 3 = 12 and (12) = 144
11 × 9 = 99 and (99)2 = 9801
15 × 6 = 90 and (90)2 = 8100 1 4 7 4 7 1

2. 12 × 4 = 48
25  5
? 5 9 5 9 3
16 × 4 = 64
81  9

Similarly,  ? = 3.
15 × 4 = 60 10. In column 1,
49  7 (3 + 1) (4  2) (7 – 1) = 426.
3. (27 + 18) – (12 + 13) In column 2,
 45 – 25 = 20 (5 + 1) (8  2) (4 – 1) = 643.
(16 + 12) – (6 + 9) Similarly, in column 3,
 28 – 15 = 13 (6 + 1) (2  2) (8 – 1) = 717.
(10 + 11) – (5 + 4) 11. Expression 92 + 53 = 72  9 – 2 = 7 and 5 – 3 = 2
 21 – 9 = 12 Expression 31 + 33 = 20  3 – 1 = 2 and 3 – 3 = 0.
4. 27 = 9 × (2 + 1)  52 + 91 = (5 – 2) = 3 and (9 – 1) = 8  38.
35 = 7 × (3 + 2)
12. Expression 37 + 17 = 20  3 – 1 = 2 and 7 – 7 = 0.
36 = 4 × (4 + 5)
Expression 68 + 42 = 26  6 – 4 = 2 and 8 – 2 = 6.
5. First figure
 96 + 63 = (9 – 6) = 3 and (6 – 3) = 3  33.
12 – 6 = 6;
13. Expression 53 + 21 = 73  (5 + 3)2 + (2 + 1)2 = 82 +
15 – 9 = 6
32
Second figure
= 73.
12 – 4 = 8;
Expression 45 + 32 = 106
16 – 8 = 8
Third figure  (4 + 5)2 + (3 + 2)2 = 92 + 52 = 106.
11 – 5 = 6;  29 + 63
14 – 8 = 6  (2 + 9)2 + (6 + 3)2 = 112 + 92 = 202.
6. In column 1, 4 × 5 – 3 = 17 14. 5 × 2 × 7 = 7 5 2
In column 2, 6 × 7 – 4 = 38
 In column 3, 8 × 9 – ? = 65
 ? = 7. 4 × 7 × 3 = 3 4 7
7. In column 1, (2 + 3) × 5 = 25
In column 2, (1 + 4) × 10 = 50
 In column 3, (3 + 2) × ? = 100 1 × 4 × 9 = 9 1 4
 ? = 20. Similarly,
8. In column 1, 17 × 6  3 = 34
In column 2, 23 × 8  2 = 92 15. 83 ÷ 42 = 5 (8 – 4) + (3 – 2) = 4 + 1 = 5.
 In column 3, 25 × 18  ? = 150 63 ÷ 21 = 6 (6 – 2) + (3 – 1) = 4 + 2 = 6.
 ? = 3. Similarly, 56 ÷ 23 (5 – 2) + (6 – 3) = 3 + 3 = 6.
11.6 Mathematical Puzzles

LEVEL-1 8. {(5)2 + (4)2} – {(3)2 + (2)2}

= (25 + 16) – (9 + 4) = 41 – 13 = 28
1. 52 ÷ 24 = 1  (5 – 2) + (2 – 4) = 3 – 2 = 1
Similarly, {(8)2 + (4)2} – {(8)2 + (x)2} = 12 (Let x = ?)
83 ÷ 45 = 2  (8 – 4) + (3 – 5) = 4 – 2 = 2
 (64 + 16) – (64 + x2) = 12  x2 = 4  x = 2.
Similarly, 41 ÷ 33  (4 – 3) + (1 – 3) = 1 – 2 = – 1.
9. Corresponding sector have square and cubes of a
LEVEL-2 number.
1. We have 52 = 25, 53 = 125 and 32 = 9, 33 = 27
7 × 5 + (6 + 4) = 45 42 = 16, 43 = 64 and 72 = 49, 73 = 343.
12 × 7 + (5 + 4) = 93
10. A C E G I
Similarly, 22 × 3 + (11 + x) = 99
 x = 22. +2 +2 +2 +2
2. We have C D E F G
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 30
12 + 22 + 42 + 52 = 46 +1 +1 +1 +1

Similarly, 22 + 82 + 62 + 32 = 113. 11. Take the sum of the products of the upper and lower
3. 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24 numbers respectively to get the central number.
24 × 24 = 576 5 × 3 = 15 and 6 × 8 = 48
2 × 3 × 5 × 4 = 120 15 + 48 = 63
120 × 120 = 14400. 2 × 7 = 14 and 3 × 9 = 27
4. Column  1
14 + 27 = 41
2 × 7 × 9 = 126 Therefore,
Column  2 6 × 7 = 42 and 8 × 5 = 40
7 × 3 × 8 = 168
42 + 40 = 82
Column  3
 9 × 4 × 6 = 216 12. 7 × 4 = 28; 19 + 9 = 28.
Hence, 6 should replace the ‘question mark’. 8 × 5 = 40; 28 + 12 = 14
5. The sum of the numbers in a row is equal to 120. 9 × 3 = 27; 27 – 6 = 21
i.e. 18 + 27 + 75 = 45 + 75 = 120 13. 12 + 13 = 25
41 + 60 + 19 = 79 + 41 = 120 27 + 24 = 51
Similarly, 45 + 45 + 30 = 120  ? = 64 – 27 = 37
Hence, 30 should replace the question mark. 14. 25 + 45 + 35 + 30 = 135
6. Difference of the numbers in the bottom row is 135
 27
10 times the difference of the number in the upper 5
row.
60 + 20 + 40 + 30 = 150
 ? – 57 = 10(69 – 63) = 10 × 6
150
 ? = 57 + 60 = 117  30
5
Hence, 117 should replace the question mark.
25 + 40 + 35 + 65 = 165
7. In each figure, sum of the numbers at the right hand
side vertices of the square is subtracted from the 165
 33
sum of the numbers at the left hand side vertices of 5

the square to get the number in the center. 15. 24 + 22 = 46

Therefore, the required number is 27 + 42 = 69
(20 + 12) – (10 + 14) = 8.  ? = 79 – 38 = 41

12
CHAPTER
CU BES
To t est t he abilit y of t he candidat es t o t hink about
3-dimensional figur es, quest ions ar e oft en asked on
t he cube. Two t ypes of quest ions ar e gener ally asked
on t he cube.
1. Var ious faces of the cube having differ ent number s
(usually 1 t o 6) on each face ar e shown side by
si de. The candi dat e i s t hen ask ed t o fi nd t he
number s on some of t he hidden faces. Somet imes
some objects or geomet r ical figur es may be dr awn
on t he faces of t he cube.
e.g. These ar e t he faces of a cube :
6 5 4 1
1 4 3 6 5 6 2 4
Q. Which number appear s on t he face opposit e t o
t he face wit h number 6 in t he cube ?
A. 2. As 1, 4, 3 & 5 ar e neighbour s of 6, only 2 is
t he one opposit e t o it .
2. The faces of a given cube ar e paint ed, eit her in
t he same colour or in differ ent colour s. The cube
is t hen cut int o smaller cubes and one has t o find
out the number of cubes with different specifications.
H er e, one should r emember t hat t he number of
cubes of side 1 unit t hat can be obt ained when a
cube of side L unit s is cut , is L 3 = L L  L . One
has t o visualise t he colour s on t he faces of t he
smaller cubes as t he lar ger cube is cut .
e.g. Given a cube of side 3cm. Opposit e faces of
t he cube ar e paint ed r ed, gr een and blue, each a
differ ent colour. The cube is cut into smaller cubes
of side 1 cm each. Find t he number of cubes wit h
(i ) 3 faces paint ed;
(ii ) one face paint ed; and
(iii ) no face paint ed.
Cubes and Dice
Tot al number of smaller cubes = 3  3  3 = 27
(i ) So, as t he cube has eight cor ner s, only 8 small
cubes will have 3 faces paint ed.
(ii ) The cubes in t he middle of each side will have
one face paint ed. As t her e ar e 6 sides, so t her e
ar e 6 such cubes.
(iii ) Only t he cube in t he exact middle shall have
no side paint ed so, t he answer is 1.
I f a cube of dimension n  n  n is paint ed on all six
suface, t hen smaller cubes for med will have
 Tot al numebr of cubes = n 3
 Tot al numebr of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
 Cubes paint ed on t wo sides = (n – 2)  4  3
 Cubes paint ed on single side = (n – 2)2  6
 Cubes paint ed on no sides = (n – 2)3.
Case I . When n = 3
Int he above figur e
 Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 33 = 27
 Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
 Tot al number of cubes paint ed t wo sides
= (n – 2)  4  3
= (3 – 2)  4  3 = 12
 Cubes paint ed on single side
= (n – 2)2  6 = (3 – 2)2  6 = 6
 Cubes paint ed on no sides = (n – 2)3
 (3 – 2)3 = 1.
Case I I . When n = 4

Red

Green
12.2 Cubes and Dice
In t he above figur e
1. Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 43 = 64
2. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
3. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t wo sides
= (n – 2)  4  3 = (4 – 2)  4  3 = 24
4. Tot al numebr of cubes paint ed on single side
= (n – 2)2 6 = (4 – 2)2 6 = 24
5. Cubes paint ed on no sides.
= (n – 2)3 = (4 – 2)3 = 8.
Case I I I . When n = 5
DI CE S
Dices ar e cubi cal st r uct ur es in which number s or
point s fr om 1 t o 6 ar e mar ked on sides. Pr oblems
based on dices ar e ver y simple in nat ur e.
Nor mally t her e ar e t wo cases:
1. Sum of number s on opposit e sides is seven.
Nat ur ally t he faces opposit e t o each ot her will be
1– 6
2– 5
3– 4
2. When t hr ee differ ent posit ions of dice is given.
I n such cases, fir st of all we will det er mine t he
face which is not adjacent t o t he given number.
That number will naturally be the number s marked
on opposit e face.
Example. 1 A dice wit h it s face number ed 1 t o 6,
is shown in t hr ee differ ent posit ions x , y and z.

In t he above figur e
1. Tot al number of cubes = n 3 = 53 = 125
2. Tot al number of cubes paint ed on t hr ee sides = 8
3. Cubes paint ed on t wo sides = ( n – 2)  4  3
Find opposit e faces.
= (5 – 2)  4  3 = 36
Sol ut ions. Faces adjacent t o 6 ar e
4. Cubes paint ed on single side = (n – 2)2 6
= (5 – 3)2 6 = 56
5. Cubes paint ed on no sides. = (n – 2)3 = (5 – 2)3 =
n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6
num ber of
1. 3 27 64 125 216
cubes = n Nat ur ally 1 will be mar ked opposit e t o 6.
Thr ee si des Faces adjacent t o 4, ar e
pai nt ed cubes
2. 8 8 8 8
=8

Two si des
3. pai nt ed cubes 12 24 36 48
= (n – 2)  4  3 Nat ur ally 2 will be mar ked opposit e t o 4.
Si ngl e sides Thus opposit e faces ar e
4. pai nt ed cubes 6 24 54 96 6– 1
2
= (n – 2)  6
4– 2
No si de 3– 5
5. pai nt ed cubes 1 8 27 64
= (n – 2)3
 Cubes and Dice 12.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
Directions (Q. 1 – 5): A cube is colour ed r ed on Directions (Q. 9 – 10) : Six sides of a cube are coloured
one face, green on the opposite face, yellow on another with different colours. Yellow is opposite white and
face and blue on a face adjacent t o t he yellow face. blue is between red and green. One side is black.
The ot her t wo faces ar e left uncolour ed. I t is t hen 9. Which colour is opposit e blue ?
cut int o 125 smaller cubes of equal size.
(a) r ed (b) black
Answer t he following quest ions based on t he above
statement. (c) gr een (d) None of t hese
1. H ow many cubes ar e uncolour ed on all t he faces? 10. Which colour does not t ouch r ed side ?
(a) 27 (b) 36 (a) gr een (b) yellow
(c) 48 (d) 64 (c) whit e (d) blue
2. H ow many cubes ar e colour ed blue on one face, Directions (Q. 11– 12) : A cube paint ed blue on all
r ed or gr een on anot her face and have four the faces is cut into 125 cubes of equal size. Now answer
uncolour ed faces ? t he following quest ions :
(a) 8 (b) 12 11. H ow many cubes ar e not paint ed on any face ?
(c) 16 (d) 23 (a) 8 (b) 16
3. H ow many cubes ar e colour ed r ed on one face, (c) 27 (d) 54
and have t he r emaining faces uncolour ed? 12. H ow many cubes ar e paint ed on one face only ?
(a) 8 (b) 10
(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 12 (d) 16
(c) 36 (d) 54
4. H ow many cubes have at least one gr een face ?
D i r ect i on s ( Q . 13– 17) : St u dy t h e f ol l ow i n g
(a) 4 (b) 5 infor mat ion and answer t he quest ions given below:
(c) 16 (d) 25 (i ) A r ectangular wooden block is having lenght 6 cm,
5. How many cubes have at least two colour ed faces ? br eadt h 4 cm and height 1 cm.
(a) 23 (b) 21 (ii ) Bot h sides having dimensi on 4 cm × 1 cm ar e
(c) 20 (d) 19 paint ed wit h black colour.
6. Two posit ions of a dice ar e shown below. I f 1 is at (iii )Both sides having dimension 6 cm × 1 cm ar e painted
t he bot t om which number will be on t he t op ? in r ed colour.
(a) 4 (iv) Both sides with dimension 6 cm × 4 cm ar e painted
(b) 3 in gr een colour.
(c) 2 (v) The block is cut int o six equal pair s of 1 cm each
(d) 5 (fr om 6 cm side) and int o 4 equal par t s of 1 cm
each (fr om 4 cm side).
7. I f the cube is tur ned twice to t he r ight , which will
be t he hidden number s? 13. How many cubes will have all thr ee colour s black,
gr een and r ed each at least on one side?
(a) 1, 2, 5
5 (a) 6 (b) 12
(b) 3, 4, 6 3
2 (c) 10 (d) None of t hese
(c) 1, 2, 6 1
14. H ow many cubes will be for med ?
(d) 2, 3, 5
(a) 6 (b) 12
8. Twent y-seven cubes ar e ar r anged in a block as
sh ow n bel ow. H ow m an y cu bes w i l l be (c) 16 (d) 24 of t hese
sur r ounded by ot her cubes on all sides ? 15. I f cubes having only “black as well as gr een” colour
ar e r emoved t hen how many cubes will r emain?
(a) 4 (b) 8
(c) 12 (d) None of t hese
16. H ow many cubes will have t wo sides wit h gr een
colour and r emaining 4 sides wit hout any colour ?
(a) 3 (b) 1 (a) 12 (b) 10
(c) 9 (d) 6 (c) 8 (d) 4
12.4 Cubes and Dice
17. H ow many cubes will have 4 colour ed sides and 2 19. I f dices I , I I I and I V have odd number of dot s
sides wit hout colour ? at t heir t op faces, what would be t he t ot al
(a) 8 (b) 4 number of dot s?
(c) 16 (d) 10 (a) 15 (b) 18
(c) 21 (d) 17
Directions (Q. 18– 22) : Six dices wit h t heir t op faces
erased have been given. The opposite faces of the dices 20. I f even number ed dices have odd number of
have dot s which add up t o t hir t een. Wor k out t he dot s at t heir t op faces, what would be t he t ot al
number of dot s on t he t op faces, accor ding t o t he number of dot s?
quest ion spot your answer fr om amongst t he given (a) 19 (b) 18
alternatives. (c) 17 (d) 16
21. I f dices I , I I and I I I have odd number of dot s
on their upper faces and dices I V, V and VI have
even number of dots on their bottom faces, then
what would be the difference in the total numbers
of t op face dot s bet ween t hese t wo set s?
18. I f t he odd number ed dices have even number of (a) 8 (b) 4
dot s at t heir bottom faces, what would be the total (c) 0 (d) 1
number of dot s? 22. I f dices I I , V and VI have even number of dot s
(a) 20 at t heir bot t om faces, what would be t he t ot al
(b) 22 number of dot s?
(c) 24 (a) 18 (b) 20
(d) 18 (c) 16 (d) 24

AN SWERS
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a)


13
CHAPTER Analytical Reasoning
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 7. In a row of girls facing North, Rajni is 10th to the left
of Paro, who is 21st from the right end. If Meera,
1. In a row of students, Ajay is 12th from the left and
who is 17th from the left end, is fourth to the right of
Vijay is 17th from the right. When Ajay and Vijay
Rajni, how many girls are there in the row?
interchange their positions Vijay becomes 27th from
the right. How many students are there between Vijay (a) 37 (b) 43
and Ajay? (c) 44 (d) Data inadequate
(a) 9 (b) 12 8. Students line up in a queue in which Ashwani stands
(c) 7 (d) 10 fifteenth from the left and Sandeep is seventh from
the right. If they interchange their places, Sandeep
2. Modi is fourteenth from the right end in a row of 40
would be fifteenth from the right. How many students
boys. What is his position from the left end?
are there in the queue?
(a) 25th (b) 27th
(a) 21 (b) 22
(c) 24th (d) 26th
(c) 29 (d) None of these
3. In a row of boys, Jayati is seventh from the start and 9. In a row of children, Hardipak is eleventh from the left
a eleventh from the end. In another row of boys, and Manoj is seventeenth from the right. When they
Bharat is tenth from the start and twelfth from the interchange their places, Hardipak will be thirteenth
end. How many boys are there in both the rows from the left. Which of the following will be the new
together? position of Manoj from the right?
(a) 36 (b) 37 (a) Eleventh (b) Twenty-first
(c) 39 (d) None of these (c) Nineteenth (d) Twenty-ninth
4. Seema is 8 ranks ahead of Sajan, who ranks twenty- 10. Neeta is taller than Sania. Neelima is taller than
sixth in a class of 42. What is Seema’s rank from Neeta. Nitika is taller than Neelima. Mehak is the
the last? tallest of all. If they stand according to their height,
(a) 9th (b) 24th who will be in the middle?
(c) 25th (d) 34th (a) Neeta (b) Neelima
5. In a class, among the passed students, Amita is (c) Sania (d) Nitika
twenty-second from the top and Ramnik, who is 5 11. In a team of five players, Vani is older than Rani. Sita
ranks below Amita, is thirty-fourth from the bottom. is younger than Vani but older than Rani. Nita is
All the students from the class have appeared for younger than Mary and Rani. Rani is older than
the exam. If the ratio of the students who passed in Mary. Whose age is middle of all the five in this team?
the exam to those who failed is 4 : 1 in that class,
how many students are there in the class? (a) Vani (b) Rani
(c) Sita (d) Mary
(a) 60 (b) 75
12. Five persons – R, S, T, U and V – are in a queue
(c) 90 (d) Data inadequate
facing a reservation counter. Immediately behind S
6. In a queue, Sameer is ninth from the back. Wasim’s is U. T is standing between R and V. In between R
place is eighth from the front. Neetesh is standing and U, no one is there. Then, where is S standing in
between the two. What could be the minimum the queue?
number of boys standing in the queue?
(a) First (b) Second
(a) 8 (b) 10
(c) Last (d) Last but one
(c) 12 (d) 14
13.2 Analytical Reasoning
13. In a row of girls, Kamla is 9th from the left and Veena 6. In a classroom, there are 5 rows, and 5 children – A,
is 16th from the right. If they interchange their B, C, D and E – are seated one behind the other in 5
positions. Kamla becomes 25th from the left. How separate rows as follows:
many girls are there in the row? A is sitting behind C, but in front of B.
(a) 34 (b) 36 C is sitting behind E. D is sitting in front of E.
(c) 40 (d) 41 The order in which they are sitting from the first row
14. In a class of boys Rajan got the 11th rank and he to the last is
was 31st from the bottom of the list of boys passed. (a) DECAB (b) BACED
Three boys did not take the examination and one
(c) ACBDE (d) ABEDC
failed. What is the total strength of the class?
7. Suresh is 7 ranks ahead of Ashok in the class of 39
(a) 32 (b) 42
students. If Ashok’s rank is 17th from the last, what
(c) 45 (d) 46 is Suresh’s rank from the start?
15. B is twice as old as A but twice younger than F. C is (a) 16th (b) 23rd
half the age of A but is twice older than D. Who is
(c) 24th (d) 15th
the second oldest?
8. Of the six members of a panel sitting in a row, X is to
(a) B (b) F
the left of Q but on the right of P. Y is on the right of
(c) D (d) C Q but is on the left of Z, Z is to the left of R. Find the
LEVEL-1 members who are at the extreme ends?
1. Ramesh ranks 13th in a class of 33 students. There (a) QZ (b) XZ
are 5 students below Suresh rankwise. How many (c) PR (d) QY
students are there between Ramesh and Suresh? 9. A goldsmith has five rings. Each having a different
(a) 12 (b) 14 weight.
(c) 15 (d) 16 Ring D weighing twice as much as Ring E.
2. In a row of trees, a tree is 7th from the left end and Ring E weighing four and one-half times as much as
14th from the right end. How many trees are there in Ring F.
the row? Ring F weighing half as much as Ring G.
(a) 18 (b) 19 Ring G weighing half as much as Ring H.
(c) 20 (d) 21 Ring H weighing less than Ring D but more than
3. Five girls – M, N, O, P and Q – are standing in a row. Ring F.
P is on the right of Q, N is on the left of Q, but N is Which of the following represents the descending
on the right of M, P is on the left of O. Who is standing order of weights of the rings?
on the extreme right end?
(a) D, E, G, H, F (b) D, E, F, H, G
(a) Q (b) N
(c) E, G, H, D, F (d) D, E, H, G, F
(c) O (d) P
10. Five athletes – A, B, C, D and E – participated in a race.
4. Sita is elder than Swapna. Lavanya is elder than
 B finished before 3 athletes exactly.
Swapna but younger than Sita. Suvarna is younger
than both Hari and Swapna, Swapna is elder than  C and A finished neither 1st nor 5th.
Hari. Who is the youngest?  D did not finish at last.
(a) Sita (b) Lavanya  C finished before A.
(c) Suvarna (d) Hari Who came third?
5. In a row of boys, Srinath is 7th from the left and (a) A (b) C
Venkat is 12th from the right. If they interchange their (c) D (d) E
positions, Srinath becomes 22nd from the left. How
11. Rahul is taller than Saurav, Sachin is taller than Rahul
many boys are there in the row?
and Dhoni is taller than Kaif but shorter than Saurav.
(a) 19 Who is the tallest?
(b) 31 (a) Sachin (b) Rahul
(c) 33 (c) Dhoni (d) Saurav
(d) 34 (e) Kaif
 Analytical Reasoning 13.3
12. Five friends – Ravi, Suhail, Mayur, Aakash and 3. Among five boys, Amit is shorter than Mandar.
Krishna – participated in a race. Aakash finished the Prashant is taller than Vinod but shorter than Amit.
race before Krishna and after Suhail. Ravi finished Mandar is shorter than Pankaj. Who is the tallest in
the race before Suhail and Mayur. Who won the race? the group?
(a) Suhail (b) Aakash (a) Prashant (b) Amit
(c) Ravi (d) krishna (c) Vinod (d) Pankaj
(e) Mayur (e) Mandar
13. Five books are lying in a pile. E is lying on A, C is 4. In a class, Vasu is ranked 16th from the top and 15th
lying under B, A is lying above B, and D is lying from the bottom of a list. How many students are
under C. Which book is lying at the bottom? there in the class?
(a) A (b) B (a) 29 (b) 31
(c) C (d) D (c) 30 (d) 32
(e) None of these (e) 28
14. There are seven flights – A, B, C, D, E, F and G. A 5. Five persons - Keshav, Mahesh, Sameer, Ravi and
lands after F. C lands before G and after B. D lands Piyush– are sitting in a row facing North. Piyush is
after E and before B. E lands after A. Which flight on right side of Keshav and Mahesh. Ravi is to the
landed at last? right side of Sameer. Only Ravi is sitting between
(a) B (b) C Keshav and Sameer. Which of the following pairs
could be sitting at the extreme ends?
(c) A (d) G
(a) Sameer and Piyush (b) Ravi and Mahesh
(e) None of these
(c) Sameer and Mahesh (d) Ravi and Keshav
15. There are five persons – P, Q, R, S and T – sitting in
a row facing North. Q is sitting to the left of S and to (e) Ravi and Piyush
the right of R. No two persons among R, Q and T are 6. In a row of five, A is next to B. E is on right side of A,
sitting adjacent to each other. Who is sitting at the and D is to the immediately left of A. C and E do not
extreme ends of the row? sit together. Who is E’s neighbour?
(a) P and R (b) P and Q (a) A (b) B
(c) Q and S (d) R and T (c) C (d) D
(e) None of these (e) Cannot be determined
LEVEL-2 7. B is heavier than D, who is heavier than A. E is heavier
than C but lighter than D. Who is the lightest?
1. There were 6 friends – A, B, C, D, E and F.
(a) A (b) C
• B is heavier than only E.
(c) E (d) D
• F is heavier than 4 friends exactly.
(e) Cannot be determined
• A or C is not heaviest.
Directions for questions 8 and 9: Answer the questions
• A is heavier than C.
on the basis of the information given below.
Who is 4th heaviest?
I. There are five friends – Alok, Jayesh, Bhagat, Subodh
(a) A (b) C and Pramod.
(c) F (d) D II. They are standing in a row facing South.
(e) None of these III. Jayesh is to the immediate right of Alok.
2. In the following colour sequence, R stands for Red, IV. Pramod is between Bhagat and Subodh.
Y for Yellow, G for Green, B for Blue and W for White.
V. Subodh is between Jayesh and Pramod.
If the sequence is continued, then which colour will
come next? 8. Who is at the extreme left end?
BBRBRWBRWGBRWGYBBRBRWB (a) Alok
RW (b) Bhagat
(a) Red (b) Blue (c) Subodh
(c) Green (d) Yellow (d) Jayesh
(e) White (e) Data insufficient
13.4 Analytical Reasoning
9. Who is in the middle? 13. There are five persons – Aman, Baman, Chaman,
(a) Bhagat (b) Jayesh Raman and Saman. Each of them is of a different
weight and height. Aman is the tallest but not the
(c) Pramod (d) Subodh
heaviest. Saman, who is the lightest, is taller than
(e) Alok exactly two persons. Chaman, who is shorter than
10. Six friends A, B, C, D, E and F are sitting in a row at least two persons, is not the second lightest.
facing East. Only ‘C’ is between ‘A’ and ‘E’, ‘B’ is Raman is the shortest as well as the heaviest. If
just to the right of ‘E’ but left of ‘D’. ‘F’ is not at the Aman is the third heaviest, who is the second
right end. Who are to the right of ‘E’? heaviest among them?
(a) A and B (b) A and D (a) Chaman (b) Raman
(c) B and D (d) D and E (c) Baman (d) Aman
11. Six persons – F, G, H, K, L and M – are of different 14. Five girls are sitting in a row. Sudha is sitting next to
heights. F, G and H are males, while K, L and M are Padma. Krishna is sitting next to Rama who is sitting
females. G is taller than F, who is taller than exactly on the extreme left. Tapti is sitting on the extreme
two persons. K is taller than H, who is taller than right. No body is sitting between Padma and Krishna.
only one female. M is taller than L but smaller than Who is sitting in the middle?
G. The tallest person is not a female. (a) Krishna (b) Padma
Who is the smallest female? (c) Sudha (d) Tapti
(a) K (b) M 15. Five policemen are standing in a row facing south.
(c) L (d) Cannot be determined Shekhar is to the immediate right of Dhanush. Bala
12. Five books—A, B, C, D and E—are placed on a table is between Basha and Dhanush. David is at the
one above another. B is placed below C, A is placed extreme right end of the row. Who is standing in the
above E, D is placed below B and E is placed above middle of the row?
C. Which of the following books touches the table? (a) Bala (b) Basha
(a) B (b) D (c) Shekhar (d) Dhanush
(c) A (d) E

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (e) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. From right end
(i) Vijay’s present position: 27th
(ii) Vijay’s former position: 17th
Now, total number of students between Ajay and
Vijay = 27 – 17 – 1 = 9.
2. Modi’s position from the left end = 40 + 1 – 14 = 27th.
3. Clearly, total number of boys in both the rows
= (Number of boys in Jayati’s row)
+ (Number of boys in Bharat’s row)
= (6 + 1 + 10) + (9 + 1 + 11) = 17 + 21 = 38.
4. Sajan rank 26th and Seema is 8 ranks ahead of
Sajan. So, Seema ranks 18th. Number of students
behind Seema in rank = (42 – 18) = 24.
So, Seema ranks 25th from the last.
 Analytical Reasoning 13.5
5. Amita is 22nd from the top and Ramnik is 5 ranks 14. Rajan’s rank in the class = 11th
below Amita. So, Ramnik is 27th from the top. Also, Also, Rajan’s rank in the class from bottom = 31st
Ramnik is 34th from the bottom.
 Number of boys passed = 41
Number of students passed = (26 + 1 + 33) = 60
Total number of boys = 41 + 31 + 1 = 45.
Total number of students in the class = 60 + 15 = 75.
15. B = 2A
6. Minimum number of students will be possible in the
F = 2B = 4A
following case.
A
Sameer Neetesh Wasim A = 2C  C 
2
  C A
C  2D  D  
2 4
9 8
The correct order is F > B > A > C > D.
 
Hence, the second oldest is B.
6 7
LEVEL-1
Thus, in the above case, total number of students
1. Ramesh’s rank in the class = 13th
= 9 + 6 – 1 = 14.
Total number of student = 33
7. Here, Rajni’s position from the right end = 21 + 10
 Suresh’s rank in the class = 33 – 5 = 28th
= 31st
 Number of student between Ramesh and Suresh
Meera’s position from the right end = 31 – 4 = 27th
= 28 – (13 + 1) = 14.
Meera’s position from the left end = 17th (given)
2. A tree’s rank from the left = 7th and that of from
Thus, the total number of persons in the row
right= 14th.
= 27 + 17 – 1 = 43.
 Total number of trees = 14 + 7 – 1 = 20.
8. Sandeep’s new position is 15th from the right as
3. The given standing position is
well as from the left end of the row.
Left  M N Q P O  Right
Number of students in the queue = (14 + 1 + 14) = 29.
4. The order of eldest to youngest is given below.
9. Manoj’s earlier position from the right end = 17th
Sita > Lavanya > Swapna > Hari > Suvarna.
Manoj’s earlier position from the left end = 13th
Total number of persons in the row = 17 + 13 – 1 = 29 5. 7th 22nd
Srinath Venkat
Manoj’s new position from the right
= 29 + 1 – 11= 19th. 12th

10. On the basis of the given information, we get Total number of boys in the row = 22 + 12 – 1 = 33.
Mehak > Nitika > Neelima > Neeta > Sania 6. From the given information the order is DECAB.
Obviously, Neelima will occupy the middle position. 7. Ashok's rank from last = 17th
11. Vani > Rani  Suresh's rank from last = 17 + 7 = 24th
Vani > Sita > Rani  Suresh's rank from the start = 39 – 24 + 1 = 16th.
Mary, Rani > Nita. 8. The given information can be shown as:
Rani > Mary P X Q Y Z R
 Vani > Sita > Rani > Mary > Nita. 9. Let weight of the ring D be x gm.
12.  Reservation counter.. x
 Weight of E = 2 gm.
S U R T V
x 2 x
13. Kamal’s position from left = 9th Weight of F = 2  9  9 gm.
Veena’s position from right = 16th 2x
Weight of G = 9 gm.
After interchanging their positions,
4x
Kamal’s position from left = 25th Weight of H = 9 gm.
So, that Kamal’s position from right = 16th Weight of D > Weight of H > Weight of F.
 Total number of girls = (25 + 16) – 1 = 40. Descending order of weight of the rings
D > E > H > G > F.
13.6 Analytical Reasoning
10. Order of athletes to finish race is D, B, C, A and E. Hence, Sameer and Piyush could be sitting at the
Hence, C will come 3rd. extreme ends.
11. The order of the heights of the persons according to 6. The arrangement is
the given information will be C D A B E
Sachin > Rahul > Saurav > Dhoni > Kaif So, B is E’s neighbour.
Hence, Sachin is the tallest. 7. Arranging the given information in decreasing order
12. Aakash finished the race before Krishna and after we get B > D > A and D > E > C, but we don’t know
Suhail. Ravi finished the race before Suhail and Mayur. whether A < C or C < A.
Hence, Ravi won the race. Hence, we cannot decide.
13. The sequence of books according to the given For questions 8 and 9:
information will be Bhagat Pramod Subodh Jayesh Alok
E South
A 10. LEFT
B
F
C
D A
so C
Hence, D is at the bottom of the pile. E
14. From the given information, order of landing is: B
FAE D BC G D
Hence, G landed last. RIGHT

15. Since Q is sitting to the left of S and to the right of R, Hence, B and D are to the right of E.
their places are R Q S 11. The order of persons from the tallest to the smallest
Since R, Q and T are not sitting adjacent to each is as follows:
other, T must be to the right of S. G K/M M/K F H L
P is sitting between R and Q. The final arrangement 12. The order of the books from bottom to top is shown
is R P Q S T below.
Hence, R and T are sitting at the extreme ends. A
LEVEL-2 E
1. The order of weight is D > F > A > C > B > E. C
B
Hence, C is the 4th heaviest.
D
2. B | BR | BRW | BRWG | BRWGY | B | BR| BRW |
BRWG Hence, D touches the table.
Therefore, in the above sequence G will be the next 13. The information for weight can be summarised as
letter. Hence, Green will come next in the series. shown below.
3. Arranging the given information, we get Raman > Chaman > Aman> Baman >Saman
Pankaj > Mandar > Amit > Prashant > Vinod Hence, Chaman is the second heaviest.
Hence, Pankaj is the tallest. 14.
Krishna

Padma

RIGHT
Sudha
Rama
LEFT

Tapti

4. Using the formula,

T  RT  RB  1
Hence, Padma is in the middle.
We get,
15.
Dhanush
Shekhar
RIGHT

T = 16 + 15 – 1 = 30.
Basha
David

LEFT
Bala

Hence, there are 30 students in the class.

5. Given information can be shown as:
Hence, Dhanush is standing in the middle.
Sameer Ravi Keshav Mahesh Piyush  North

OR
Mahesh Sameer Ravi Keshav Piyush
 14
CHAPTER
PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
Directions for questions 1 to 15: Each quest ion is
followed by t wo st at ement s, I and I I . Answer each
quest ion using t he following inst r uct ions. M ar k:
(a) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I I alone.
(b) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I alone.
(c) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using bot h t he
st at ement s t oget her, but cannot be answer ed
using eit her st at ement alone.
(d) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using eit her
st at ement I or I I individually.
(e) if t he quest ion cannot be answer ed even using
bot h t he st at ement s t oget her.
1. I s M anish t aller t han Chandr a?
I . Suhas is of t he same height as M anish and
Chandr a.
I I . Chandr a is not shor t er t han Suhas.
2. Buses ar e always punct ual in Delhi cit y. H ow
long, at t he most , will M r Dhir en have t o wait
for t he bus?
I . M r Dhi r en has come t o t he bus st and at
9 a.m.
I I . Ther e is a bus at 10 a.m. and possibly another
bus even ear lier.
3. H ow is Rajesh r elat ed t o Anish?
I . Bikr am is t he br ot her of Anish.
I I . Bikr am is Rajesh’s son.
4. H ow is Shahr ukh r elat ed t o Salman?
I . Aami r ’s wi fe Reena i s pat er nal aunt of
Salman.
I I . Shahr ukh is the br ot her of a fr iend of Reena.
5. Tendulkar r anks t ent h in a class. H ow many
st udent s ar e t her e in t he class?
I . H is fr iend got 58t h r ank which is t he last .
I I . Tendulkar ’s r ank fr om t he last is 49t h.
Data Sufficiency
6. H ow many pages of t he book – The M an Who
Saw Tomor r ow did Sujit r ead on Sunday?
I . The book has 300 pages out of which t wo-
t hir ds wer e r ead by him befor e Sunday.
I I . Sujit r ead t he last 40 pages of t he book in
t he mor ning of M onday.
7. I n a cer t ain language, ‘pit nac nit ’ means ‘r ed
pant shi r t ’. Whi ch wor d means ‘pant ’ in t he
language?
I . ‘nit t im nac sir ’ means ‘he wor e r ed pant ’.
I I . ‘nee jic pit ’ means ‘shir t is dir t y’.
8. I n a code, ‘l ee pee t i n’ means ‘al ways k eep
smiling’. What is t he code for ‘smiling’.
I . ‘t in lut lee’ means ‘always keep left ’.
I I . ‘dee pee’ means ‘r ose smiling’.
9. Among t he five fr iends who is t he t allest ?
I . Dinesh is t aller t han At ul and Char les.
I I . Basu is shor t er t han Ena but t all er t han
Dinesh.
10. When is Tat a’s bir t hday?
I . Tat a’s fat her was bor n on 27t h M ay, 1948.
I I . Tat a is 25 year s younger t han his mot her.
11. On what day in Apr il is H r it hik’s bir t hday?
I . H r it hik was bor n exact ly 28 year s aft er his
mot her was bor n.
I I . H is mot her will be 55 year s 4 mont hs and 5
days on August 18 t his year.
12. At what t ime will t he plane leave t oday?
I . The plane nor mally leaves on t ime.
I I . The scheduled depar t ur e is at 14.30.
13. On whi ch day i n Januar y, Ronal do l eft for
Ger many?
I . Ron al do h as so f ar spen t 10 y ear s i n
Ger many.
I I . Ronaldo’s fr iend Rivaldo left for Ger many on
15t h F ebr u ar y an d j oi n ed Ron al do
20 days aft er Ronaldo’s ar r ival.
 14.2 Data Sufficiency
14. I n which year was Sangit a bor n?
I . Sangit a at pr esent is 25 year s younger t o
her mot her.
I I . Sangita’s br other, who was bor n in year 1964,
is 35 year s younger t o his mot her.
15. H ow many lect ur es wer e deliver ed in t he t wo
days’ pr ogr amme?
I . 18 speaker s wer e invit ed t o give at least one
l ect u r e, ou t of w h i ch on e-si x t h of t h e
speaker s could not come.
I I . One-t hir d of t he speaker s gave t wo lect ur es
each.
LEVEL-1
Directions for questions 1 to 15: Each quest ion is
followed by t wo st at ement s, I and I I . Answer each
quest ion using t he following inst r uct ions. M ar k:
(a) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I I alone.
(b) if the question can be answer ed using statement
I I alone, but cannot be answer ed using statement
I alone.
(c) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using bot h t he
st at ement s t oget her, but cannot be answer ed
using eit her st at ement alone.
(d) if t he quest ion can be answer ed using eit her
st at ement I or I I individually.
(e) if t he quest ion cannot be answer ed even using
bot h t he st at ement s t oget her.
1. Who is t he shor t est st udent in t he class, a boy
or a gir l?
I . Eit her Ram or Shyam is t he shor t est boy in
t he class.
I I . Ram is shor t er t han Shyam, but t aller t han
Sit a in t he class.
2. Four candidat es (A, B, C and D) cont est ed an
elect ion in year 2000. One lost his deposit . Who
won?
I . C got mor e vot es t han A, but less vot es t han
B.
I I . I t was not A who lost his deposit .
3. Do t he car s P and Q t r avel along t he same r out e
for at least par t of t heir jour neys?
I . P goes fr om A t o C via B.
I I . Q goes fr om A t o D via B.
4. H as any one of t hem seen t he pict ur e t wice?
I . A few of t hem saw t he pict ur e t wice.
I I . M ost of t hem saw t he pict ur e only once.
5. P is t he only son of Q. Was P admit t ed?
I . Only the childr en of wor ker s wer e admitt ed.
I I . Q was not a wor ker.
6. H ow is A r elat ed t o D?
I . A is t he son of B.
I I . D is t he daught er -in-law of B.
7. What is Ram’s dat e of bir t h?
I . Ram is exact ly 2 year s elder t o Gaur av who
was bor n on 22-7-1982.
I I . Ram was bor n in year 1988.
8. H ow many Sundays wer e t her e in t he mont h of
M ar ch of a par t icular year ‘k’?
I . 10th Febr uary of that year ‘k’ was a Saturday.
I I . Year ‘k’ was a leap year.
9. Does M r X belong t o Gujar at ?
I . Gujar at is a st at e in I ndia.
I I . M r X is not an I ndian.
10. All who had got medals sat in t he fir st r ow for
t he gr oup phot o. But none who was less t han
five feet in height sat in t he 2nd r ow. (Ther e
wer e only t wo r ows.) Did Amar sit in t he fir st
r ow?
I . H e had not got any medal.
I I . H is height was 4 feet 10 inches.
11. A, B, C and D st ay in a four -st or ey building.
Who st ays on 3r d floor fr om t op?
I . A and C st ay on odd-number ed floor.
I I . D st ays above B.
12. Find code for ‘Jamaica’.
I . ‘Jamaica is wonder ful place’ st ands for ‘Raj
is sheet al’s fr iend’.
I I . ‘Tok y o pl ace w on der f u l i s’ st an ds f or
‘Ramesh’s fr iend is sheet al’s’.
13. H ow many wives does Sheikh have?
I . I n his fami l y t her e ar e five peopl e of hi s
gener at ion.
I I . Sheikh has t wo br ot her s.
14. A was bor n in which year of 19t h cent ur y?
I . H is br ot her was bor n in t he year 1972.
I I . Thr ee digit s of t he year ar e same.
15. What is t he code for ‘economy’?
I . ‘Opening of the economy’ stands for ‘economy
is in doldr ums’.
I I . I n t he above st at ement one wor d has not
been coded.
 Data Sufficiency 14.3

LEVEL-2 I I . Anu walks 2 km t owar ds Sout h fr om st ation

D ir ect ions for quest ions 1 t o 5: I n each of t he
f ol l ow i n g qu est i on s, a qu est i on i s f ol l ow ed by
infor mat ion given in t hr ee st at ement s. You have t o
study the question along with the statements and decide
t h e i nf or m at i on gi ven i n wh i ch st at em en t (s) i s
necessar y and sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
1. H ow many br ot her s does Akash have? (Akash
is a boy)
I . N eel i m a i s A k ash 's m ot h er Su dh i r i s
N eel i m a's h u sban d an d h as on l y on e
daught er Riya.
I I . Riya has t wo younger and one elder br ot her.
I I I . Ak ash is not t he youngest chil d.
(a) Only I I and I I I (b) Only I and I I
(c) Only I and I I I (d) All I , I I , and I I I
(e) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
2. Who among P, Q, R, S and T was t he fir st t o
r each t he st at ion?
I . Q r eached ear l ier t han T; P and R wer e not
t he fir st t o r each.
A and t hen, befor e moving 8 k m t owar ds
nor t h, walks 3 km t owar ds West .
I I I . Befor e movi ng 3 k m t owar ds west , Anu
walk s 4 k m t owar ds Nor t h fr om st at ion A.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Eit her I and I I or I and I I I
(d) All ar e necessar y
(e) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
5. A, B, C, D, E and F ar e sit t ing ar ound a cir cular
t able facing t he cent r e. Who is sit t ing opposit e
t o A?
I . B and C ar e si t t i ng opposi t e t o each ot her.
I I . E may sit ei t her on t he immediat e left of B
or on t he immediat e r i ght of C.
I I I . D cannot si t opposit e E, and A cannot sit
opposit e E.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I

I I . P r eached ear l ier t han bot h R and T, but (c) Only I and I I or I I I
coul d not r each ear li er t han S, who was at (d) All I , I I and I I I
t he st at i on befor e Q. (e) Data inadequate
I I I . R di dn't r each just aft er P. Direct ions for quest ions 6 t o 10: I n each of t he
(a) Only I and I I following questions, a question is followed by information
gi ven i n t hr ee st at ement s. You have t o deci de t he
(b) Only I and I I or I I I
i nfor mat i on gi ven i n whi ch of t he st at ement s i s
(c) Only I I and I I I necessar y and sufficient to answer the given question.
(d) All I , I I and I I I 6. I s t he t ime 6 o'clock now?
(e) None of t hese I . Aft er fift een mi nut es, t he minut e and t he
3. H ow is A r elat ed t o C? hour hands of t he clock will mak e a r ight
angle.
I . M has t wo daught er s. One of t hem is Z, who
is mar r ied t o A. I I . The t r ain which is r unning l at e by exact ly
t wo hour s fr om it s scheduled t ime of ar r ival,
I I . C is t he mot her of V, t he younger si st er of
ie 3 pm, has r eached now.
Z.
I I I . 6 o'clock is t he t i me of depar t ur e of a t r ain
I I I . M is C's husband. and it is st il l on t he plat for m.
(a) Only I and I I (a) Only I
(b) Only I and I I I (b) Eit her I I or I
(c) Only I and eit her I I or I I I (c) Eit her I I I or I I
(d) Any t wo of t he t hr ee (d) Eit her I or I I or I I I
(e) All ar e necessar y (e) All I , I I and I I I
4. Yogendr a is in which dir ect ion wit h r espect t o 7. H ow many sist er s does Neha have? (Neha is a
Anu? gir l.)
I . Yogendr a wal ks 1 km t owar ds N or t h-east I . K r ishna, Neha's mot her, has t hr ee childr en.
fr om st at ion A and t hen, befor e wal ki ng 2 I I . Vinod is t he fat her-in-law of K r ishna and he
km towar ds south, walks 2 km towar ds East. has only one son and one gr andson.
14.4 Data Sufficiency
I I I . Pooja, Neha's si st er, has t wo sibli ngs.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Only I I and eit her I I I or I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
8. Who is t he t allest among P. Q, R, S and T?
I . R is t all er t han Q but not as t al l as T.
I I . P is not t he shor t est .
I I I . P is t all er t han onl y S.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I and I I I
(c) Only I and eit her I I or I I I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
9. On which day of t he week did Anu ar r ive?
I . H er sist er, Tanu, cor r ect l y r emember s t hat
she di d not ar r i ve on Wednesday.
I I . H er fr iend, M anu, cor r ectly r emember s t hat
she ar r ived befor e Fr i day.
I I I . H er mot her cor r ect l y ment i ons t hat she
ar r i ved befor e Fr iday but aft er Tuesday.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Only I and I I I
(d) All I , I I and I I I
(e) Data inadequat e
10. A, B, C, D and E ar e sitting in a row facing Nor th.
Who among t hem is in t he middle?
I . E is at t he r i ght end of t he r ow.
I I . D si t s bet ween A and C.
I I I . Neit her A nor C si t s at an ext r eme end.
(a) Only I and I I
(b) Only I I and I I I
(c) Any t wo of t he t hr ee
(d) All I , I I , and I I I
(e) Data inadequate
D ir ect ions for quest ions 11 t o 15: Each of t he
quest ions below consist s of a quest ion fallowed by t he
t wo st at ement s number ed I and I I given below it You
have t o deci de whet her t he dat a pr ovi ded i n t he
st at ement s ar e sufficient to answer the quest ion. Read
bot h t he st at ement s and give answer
(a) if t he dat a in st at ement I alone is sufficient t o
answer t he question while the data in statement
I I alone is not sufficient to answer t he question.
(b) if t he dat a in st at ement I I alone is sufficient t o
answer t he question while the data in statement
I alone is not sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
(c) i f t he dat a eit her i n st at ement I alone or i n
st at ement I I alone is sufficient t o answer t he
quest ion.
(d) if t he dat a in bot h st at ement s I and I I t oget her
is not sufficient t o answer t he quest ion.
(e) if t he dat a in bot h st at ement s I and I I t oget her
is necessar y t o answer t he quest ion.
11. What colour will be on t he opposit e sur face of
t he br own sur face of a cube? The sur faces of
cube have differ ent colour s, namely r ed, black,
gr een, br own, whit e and blue.
I . The gr een sur face i s bet ween r ed and black
sur faces whi le t he blue sur face is adjacent
t o t he whit e.
I I . The br own sur face i s adjacent t o t he blue.
12. What char acter istic is possessed by t he per son
who is on the left of the weak per son and who is
sitt ing in a r ow of five per sons? I t is given that
other s possess t he following qualities: fat, t all,
fair and intelligent. And each individual possesses
only one quality.
I . The tall per son is on the left of the fair person
and t he weak per son i s sit t i ng bet ween t he
int elli gent per son and t he fat per son, who
is sit t ing on t he r ight of t he weak per son.
I I . One of t he t wo per sons at t he ext r eme ends
is i nt ell igent , and is second t o t he left of t he
fat per son, who is on t he immediat e r ight of
t he weak per son.
13. I f t ika pika mai is t he code for "Renu is PO" in a
code language used in t er r it or y X?
I . I n t he same code language "I want to be PO"
i s wr it t en as jai k ali gai pal i mai , "Renu
needs money" i s wr i t t en as saaj t ik a sik a;
and "H e needs sweet s" is wr it t en as baaj
koko saaj.
I I . I n t he same code l anguage "what he want
t o be" is wr it t en as jai kal i aaj gai koko; "I
want sweet s what Renu needs" i s wr i t t en
as baaj saaj pal i kal i aaj t ik a; and "PO ar e
gent le" i s wr i t t en as bogo mai al i.
14. H ow many car ds does B have? B is playing a
game of car ds wit h A, C, D and E. I t is given
t hat t he t ot al number of car ds is 158.
I . A says t o B, "I f you give me t hr ee car ds, you
wi ll have as many as E has and if I gi ve you
t hr ee car ds, you wil l have as many as D
has."
 Data Sufficiency 14.5

I I . A and B t oget her have 10 car ds mor e t han
what D and E t oget her have. And B has t wo
car ds mor e t han what C has.
15. The book of which subject is at the sixth position
fr om t he t op in a pile of t en books, including 3
books of H ist or y, 3 of H indi, 2 of M at hs and 2 of
English?
I . Star ting fr om above ther e is an English book
bet w een a H i st or y an d M at h s book , a
H i st or y book bet ween a M at h s and an
Engl i sh book , a H i ndi book bet ween an
Engl ish and a M at hs book , a M at hs book
bet ween t wo H i ndi book s and t wo H i ndi
book s bet ween a M at hs and a H i st or y book.
I I . I f we count fr om t he bot t om, t he book which
is at t he fi ft h posit ion i s nei t her M at hs nor
English.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (e) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (e) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (e)
11. (c) 12. (e) 13. (e) 14. (c) 15. (e)
LEVEL-1
1. (e) 2. (c) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (e) 6. (e) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (e) 14. (e) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (e) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. a From statement I, we can conclude that Suhas,
Manish and Chandra are of the same height.
So, Manish is not taller that Chandra. Thus,
only statement I is sufficient to answer the
question. Statement II gives no relation between
Manish and Chandra.
2. c From both the given statements, we find that
Dhiren reached the bus stand at 9 a.m. and a
bus is sure to arrive at 10 a.m. So, Dhiren has
to wait for at the most one hour.
3. c From both the statements together, we find that
Rajesh is the father of Bikram and Bikram is
the brother of Anish. So, Rajesh is the father of
Anish. Thus, both the given statements are
needed.
4. e Clearly, both the statements together are not
sufficient to answer the question.
5. d Statement I reveals that 58th rank is the last
rank in the class. This means that there are 58
students in the class. So, statement I alone is
sufficient. Also, from statement II, we find that
Tendulkar’s rank in the class is 10th and 49th
from the last.
So, there are (10 + 49 – 1) = 58 students in the
class. Thus, statement II alone also is sufficient.
6. c From statements I and II, we find that Sujit
read (300 x ), i.e. 200 pages before Sunday
and the last 40 pages on Monday. This means
that he reads (300 – (200 + 40)), i.e. 60 pages on
Sunday.
7. e Clearly, from each of the statements, we find
that the code for ‘pant’ is either ‘nit’ or ‘nac’. So,
none of them is sufficient to answer the
question.
8. d Comparing the information in the question with
statement I, we find that ‘tin’ and ‘lee’ are the
codes for ‘always’ and ‘keep’. So, ‘pee’ represents
‘smiling’.
Thus, statement I alone is sufficient.
Again, comparing the information in the
14.6 Data Sufficiency
question with statement II, we find that the
common code word ‘pee’ stands for the common
word ‘smiling’. Thus, statement II alone is also
sufficient.
9. c From statement I, we have: D > A, D > C.
From statement II, we have: E > B > D.
Combining the above two, we get: E > B > D >
(A and C). So, E is the tallest.
10. e Clearly, even both the statements together do
not reveal Tata’s birthday.
11. c Clearly, the birthday of Hrithik’s mother can
be found out from statement II and then
Hrithik's birthday can be determined using the
fact given in statement I.
Thus, both the statements are required.
12. e Clearly, even both the statements together do
not reveal the exact time of departure of the
plane today.
13. e Clearly, even from both the given statements,
we cannot conclude the exact date of Ronaldo
leaving for Germany.
14. c From both the given statements, we find that
Sangita is (35 – 25) = 10 years older than her
brother, who was born in year 1964. So, Sangita
was born in 1954. Thus, both the given
statements are needed to answer the question.
15. e From statement I, we find that the no. of
speakers who attended the programme
1
= 18 – of 18 = 15.
6
1 leap year, 3rd, 10th, 17th, 24th and 31st March
From statement II, we find that ( x 15), i.e.
3
five speakers gave two lectures each, But we
don’t know about number of lectures given by
remaining 10 speakers. Because they can
deliver one lecture each or more than two also.
LEVEL-1
1. e Statement I does not mention the girls at all, so
it is insufficient to answer the question.
Statement II does not mention anything about
the height of Sita. Hence, statement II is also
insufficient to answer the question. Putting the
two statements together, we are able to say that
Ram is the shortest boy but it is not yet
comparable to the height of the shortest girl.
2. c From statement I, we get the order of candidates
getting votes as B > C > A.
From statement II, we find that it was D who
has lost his deposit (as A, B, C can’t have lost
their deposit). Hence, the final order of
candidates becomes B > C > A > D. Hence, B
has got the maximum number of votes.
3. e Combining both statements, both cars P and Q
travel from A to B. But we don’t know the
number of roads connecting A and B. Hence,
the question cannot be answered.
4. a From statement I, we infer that a small number
of people saw the picture twice. So, from
statement I alone, we get the answer ‘yes’.
Statement II alone is insufficient to answer the
question.
5. e The father of P was not a worker. But the mother
of P might be a worker. No information in this
regard is available either from the given
statements or from the introductory part. So,
this question cannot be answered.
6. e Statements I and II taken alone are not
sufficient to answer the question. Even when
considered together, the two statements are
not sufficient to answer the question, as D could
be either the wife or sister-in-law of A.
7. a From statement I, it is clear that Ram’s date of
birth is 22-7-1980. Hence, statement I is
sufficient to answer the question. From
statement II, though we get the year in which
Ram was born, we cannot find
out his date of birth.
8. c We get from statement I that 11th February
was a Sunday. Hence, 18th and 25th February
were also Sundays. The next Sunday can be
looked upon as ‘32nd February’ [which is 3rd
March for a leap year, as mentioned in
statement II].
Since statement II mentions that year ‘k’ is a
are Sundays, giving us 5 Sundays in that March.
In a normal year, 4th, 11th, 18th, 25th March
only would have been Sundays. Hence, the
answer for a normal year would be 4. Hence,
we require both statements to answer the
question.
9. c Since Mr X is not an Indian, it follows that Mr X
does not belong to any state in India. As Gujarat
is a state in India, we infer that Mr X does not
belong to Gujarat.
10. b From statement II, we note that Amar’s height
was less than five feet. Hence, we get from the
introductory part that he did not sit in the 2nd
row. As there were only two rows, this means
that he sat in he first row.
(Note: All those who had got medals sat in the
first row. But this does not mean that only those
who had got medals sat in the first row.)
11. c Combining both statements I and II, B and D
stay on 2nd and 4th floors respectively. Since D
is above B, B is on 2nd floor, i.e. 3rd floor from
top.

12. c Combining both statements I and II, when we
compare between statements given, in first half
other than Jamaica, remaining three words are
repeated. Also in the other half of the
statements, three words are repeated. Hence
Jamaica stands for Raj.
13. e This is because we don’t have any information
about his sisters. Hence, using both statements
together we cannot answer the question.
14. e Statement I gives no clue. And statement II gives
indication to 1811 and 1888. If brother was
younger or elder, than it would have been (e)
as the answer.
15. c Statement I in itself is not sufficient, but when
we consider second statement, it is clear that
economy stands for economy only.
LEVEL-2
1. b From I: Neelima and Sudhir have only one
daughter Riya. Also, Akash is their son.
No information regarding other children is
given, so I is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II: Riya has two younger brothers and
one elder brother.
No information regarding sisters is given, so II
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III: no information on Akash’s brothers
Combining I and II  Akash has two brothers
 Only I and II are necessary to answer the
question.
2. e From I: Q came before T and P and R did not
reach first.
No information regarding S is given, so I alone
is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II: P came before R, T but not before S
(who reached before Q)  S reached first.
So II alone is sufficient to answer the question.
From III: no information regarding who
reached first is given.
Only statement II is required to answer the
question.
 None of these.
3. c From I: M(parent) has two daughters . one
daughter is Z whose husband is A.
We know that A is the son in law but no
information on C is given, so I alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
From II: C (mother) of V and Z.
But no mention of A is made, so II alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
Combining I and II, we get A is C’s son in law.
Data Sufficiency 14.7
From III: M is C’s husband .
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III, we get A is C’s son in law.
 The question can be answered using I and
either II or III.
4. c From I: Yogendra is to the South East of station
A.
But no information regarding Anu is given, so I
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II: Anu is to the North West of station A.
But no information regarding Yogendra is given,
so II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Using the position of Yogendra from I and the
position of Anu from II the question can be
answered.
From III: Anu is to the North West of station
A.
But no information regarding Yogendra is given
, so III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Using the position of Yogendra from I and the
position of Anu from III the question can be
answered.
 The question can be answered using I and
either II or III
5. d From I: B and C are opposite to each other
I is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
From II: E is either to the left of B or to the
right of C.
II is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
From III: Both D and A are not opposite E so F
is opposite E.
III is not sufficient to answer the question since
no information regarding the others is given.
Combining I , II and III  D is opposite A.
 All I , II and III are necessary to answer the
question.
6. d From I: it is not 6 o'clock now because at 6:15
the hands are not at an exact right angle.
I is sufficient to answer the question.
From II: it is not 6 o'clock now because the 3
pm train which was 2 hours late has reached
now.
II is sufficient to answer the question.
From III: it is not 6 o'clock now because the 6
o'clock train is still in the platform.
III is sufficient to answer the question.
14.8 Data Sufficiency
The answer is: it is not 6 o'clock now.
 Either I or II or III is sufficient to answer the
question.
7. c From I and III it is clear that Neha has two
other siblings.
But I and III are not sufficient to answer the
question since no information regarding brother
or sister is given.
From II it is clear that Neha has only one
brother.
II is not sufficient to answer the question since
the other siblings are not mentioned.
The answer is: the second sibling is a sister.
 Only II and either III or I are sufficient to
answer the question.
8. b From I it is clear that T is taller than R and Q.
But I alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II no information regarding anyone other
than P is given
So II is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III it is clear that P is taller than S only
 P is shorter than Q, R and T.
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III , we get T is the tallest.
 Only I and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
9. c From I it is clear that it is not Wednesday.
But I alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From II it is clear that it is before Friday.
But II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
From III it is clear that it is before Friday and
after Tuesday.
But III alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining I and III : Anu arrived on Thursday
(which is after Tuesday , it is not a Wednesday
and it is before Friday.)
 Only I and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
10. b From I: E is at the right end.
No information regarding others is given, so I
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From II it is clear that D sits between A and C.
No information regarding others is given, so II
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
From III it is clear that A and C, both are not
sitting at the extremes.
No information regarding others is given, so III
alone is not sufficient to answer the question.
Combining II and III the answer is: among 5
seats the middle 3 are occupied by A, D and C
and D is in the middle.
 Only II and III are sufficient to answer the
question.
11. e From I: More than one combinations of the
given faces are possible, so I alone is not
sufficient to answer the question.
From II: brown is adjacent to blue
But no information regarding other colours is
given so II alone is not sufficient to answer the
question.
Combining statements I and II together we get
 white is opposite to brown.
 Data in both statements I and II put together
is necessary to answer the question
12. c From I: __, Intelligent, weak, fat,__
From II: Intelligent, weak, fat,__, __
From both the statements we can infer that the
person sitting on the left of the weak person is
intelligent.
 Data in statement I alone or statement II
alone is sufficient to answer the question
13. d From I: {I, want, to, be, PO} = { jai, kali, gai,
pali, mai}
{Renu ,needs, money} = {saaj, tika, sika}
{He ,needs, sweets} = {baaj, koko, saaj}
No code for 'is' given, so I is not sufficient to
answer the question.
From II: {what, he, want, to, be} = {jai, kali,
aaj, gai, koko}
{I, want, sweets, what, Renu, needs} = { baaj,
saaj, pali, kali, aaj, tika}
{PO, are, gentle} = {bogo, mai, ali}
No code for 'is' is given, so II is not sufficient to
answer the question.
Both I and II do not have a code for "is". So data
from both I and II together is not sufficient to
answer the question.
 Data Sufficiency 14.9
14. d Both statements I and II give the relation 15. a From I: we can clearly see that the pile of books
between the cards in each person's hand but do is as follows (from top to bottom)
not give the number of cards in any of the five History
persons' hands.
English
So data in both statements I and II put together
Mathematics
is not sufficient to answer the question.
History
English
Hindi
Mathematics
Hindi
Hindi
History
So data in statement I alone is sufficient to
answer the question.
From II: the fifth book from bottom is neither
mathematics nor English.
II is not sufficient to answer the question.
 Data in statement I alone is sufficient whereas
data in statement II alone is not sufficient to
answer the question.

 1
CHAPTER Physics
PH YSI CAL QU AN TI TI ES  Pr essur e  Angular D isplacement
U N I TS C.G.S. : dyne/cm 2 or g.wt /cm 2 radians
 L engt h M.K.S. : newton/m 2 or kg.wt/m 2  Angular Velocit y
C.G.S. : cent imet er M .K .S. or SI Syst em: km/pascal r adians/sec
M .K .S. : met er  Wor k  L uminous F lux
F.P.S. : foot C.G.S. : er g or dyne cm lumen(L n)
 M ass M .K .S. : joule or Nm  Solid angle
C.G.S. : gr am  P ow er steradians(Sr )
M .K .S. : kilogr am C.G.S. : er g/sec  L uminous I nt ensit y
F.P.S. : pound M .K .S. : wat t Candela(cd) or L umens
 T ime  E ner gy
 Candle Power
C.G.S. : second C.G.S. : er g
Candela(cd)
M .K .S. : second M .K .S. : joule
 M agnet ic Pole St r engt h
F.P.S. : second  Acceleration due to gravity (g):
M .K .S. : weber
 Cur r ent M .K .S. : met er /sec2
S.I . : amper e-met r e (A-m)
S.I . : amper e (A)  M oment of F orce:
 M agn et i c I n du ct i on or
 Temper at ur e C.G.S. unit : dyne cm
M agnet ic F lux Densit y
S.I . : kelvin (K ) S.I . unit : newt on met r e (Nm)
newt on/amper e-met r e
 Ar ea  D ensit y:
 I nt ensit y of M agnet ic field
C.G.S. : cm 2 C.G.S. : gr ams/cm 3
C.G.S. : Gauss
M .K .S. : m 2 M .K .S. : kilogr am/m 3
S.I . : Wb/m 2 or t esla
 Vol ume  H eat
 E lect r ic Power
C.G.S. : cm 3 or cc. C.G.S. : calor ie
S.I . : joule (J) joule/sec or wat t
M .K .S. : met er 3
Specific heat  Resist ance
 D ensit y 

C.G.S. : gm/cm 3 C.G.S. : cal/gm °C Ohm

M .K .S. : kg/met er 3 M .K .S. : J/kg°C  Specific Resist ance
 Speed  Cal or i f i c Val u e of Speci f i c Ohm-met r e
C.G.S. : cm/sec ener gy  Quant it y of heat
M .K .S. : met er /sec C.G.S. : cal/gm calor ies
 Vel ocit y M .K .S. : J/kg  Specific heat
C.G.S. : cm/sec  F r equency Cal/gm °C
M .K .S. : met er /sec her t z or Cycles/sec  H ouse hol d consumpt i on of
S.I . : km/sec  Char ge elect r ical ener gy
 M oment um coulombs (C) Kilowat t-hour s
C.G.S. : gm cm/sec  Capaci t y  Electro Chemical Equivalent
M .K .S. : kg.m/sec far ads (F) gm/coulomb
 F or ce  Pot ent i al  Self induct ance
C.G.S. : dyne volts (V) henr y
M .K .S. or SI unit : newt on (N)  Least Count of Screw Gauge  M ut ual induct ance
 T hr ust mm or cm henr y
C.G.S. : dyne or gm wt  U n i ver sal G r a vi t a t i on al  Elect ro M ot ive F or ce
Const ant (G)
M .K .S. : newt on or kg.wt volt s
Nm 2/kg2
 1.2 Physics
VALU ES
 Light year(ly) = 9.46 × 1012 km
 Distance of moon from Earth = 3.85 × 105 km
 Distance between Earth and the Sun = 1.5×1011 km
 N umber of Satellites of Jupitor = 14
 1 Astronomical U nit (1 AU ) = 1496 × 1011 met r es
 Per sec(largest unit of distance) = 3.26 light year
 Velocity of light = 3 × 108 met r e/sec
1 
 Time period of earth = 365 days
4 
 1 metre = 100 cm
 1 kg = 1000 gr ams
 Least count of Vernier callipers = 0.01 cm or 0.1 mm
 1 cubic meter = 1000 lit r es
 1 Litre = 1000 cubic cms
 1 gm/cubic cm = 1000 kg/met r e
 Relative density of mercury = 13.6
 Density of water = 1 gm/cm 3
 1 Square metre = 10,000 cm 2
 N umerical value of G = 6.67 × 10– 11Nm 2/kg2
5
 1 km/hour = met r es/sec
18
 1 newton = 105 dynes
 1 gm. weight = 980 dynes
 1 kg. weight = 9.8 newt ons
 N ormal temperature of H uman body = 36.9°C or
98.4°F
 M elting point of water = 0°C
 Boiling point of pure water = 100°C
 M elting point of wax = 60°C
 Freezing point of mercury = – 39°C
 Velocity of sound in vaccum = 0
 Time period for a seconds pendulum = 2 seconds
 1 H orse Power = 746 wat t s
 1 Kilo watt = 1.34 H or se Power
 1 Watt = 107 er gs/second
 Rat io bet ween coefficient of linear superficial
cubical expansions
 :  :  :: 1 : 2 : 3
 Audible frequency range = 20 H z t o 20,000 H z
 Value of g on M oon = 1.67 m/s2
 Value of g on Sun = 27.4 m/s2
 Value of g on Earth = 9.8m/s2
 For a freely falling body initial velocity = Zer o
 2  radians = 360°
 1 radian = 57°18 or 57°29
 Wave length of ruby laser = 6943Å
 Wave length of H e-N e laser = 6328Å
 Relat ive permeability of air vaccum = 1
 Permeability of free space (0) = 4× 10– 7 henry/metre
 Rel at i ve per m ea bi l i t y of a di am agn et i c
substance r  1
 Rel at i ve per m eabi l i t y of a pa r am a gn et i c
substance r  1
 Rel at i ve per m eabi l i t y of a f er r om a gn et i c
substancer  1
 1 kilo ohm = 103 ohm
1 M ega ohm = 106 ohms
Specific resistance of copper at 20°C = 1.7  10– 8
 Value of M echanical equivalent of heat
= 4.18 joules/calor ies
 1 Watt H our = 3600 wat t -second
 1 Kilowatt Hour = 36  105 watt-second = 3.6 × 106 Joule
 1 M ega watt = 106 wat t
 Electro-chemical equivalent of gold = 0.0006812
gm/Coulomb
 1 M eV = 1.6  10– 12 joules
 1 a.m.u = 931.5 M eV
 Energy gap of a conduct or = zer o
 1 Energy gap of a semi conductor = 1 eV
 Velocity of sound in air at 0°C = 330 m/sec
 Velocity of sound is air at 25°C = 351 m/sec
 1 farad = 106 M icr ofar ads
 Wave-lengt h ranges
(i ) Visible spect r um: 0.4 m t o 0.7 m
(ii ) I nfr ar ed spect r um: 0.7 m t o 100 m
(iii ) M icr o waves: 10 m t o 10m
(iv) Radio waves: 1 m t o 10 km
(v) Ult r a violet spect r um: 0.4 m t o 1 nm
(vi ) X r ays: 0.001 nm t o 10 nm
(vii ) Gamma r ays: 0.0001 nm t o 0.1 nm
 Ratio of Specific heat of air
Cp
  1.4
Cv
 Dielect ric constant value of rubber = 3
 H alf life period of radium = 1600 year s
 Dielect ric const ant value of paraffin = 2
PH YSI CS F ORM U LAS
Mass M 
 Densit y, d =
Volume  V 
Dist ance t r avel led s
 Speed, V =
Time int er val

 Displacement s
 Velocit y, V =
Time t 
 For ce, F = M ass(m)  Acceler at ion (a)
 Physics 1.3
 Weight = M ass(m)  Acceler at ion due t o gr avit y (g)  A  Dm 
sin 
Thr ust T   2 
 Pr essur e, P =  Refr act ive index of t he pr ism,  =
Ar ea  A  A
sin
 Thr ust , T = Pr essur e (P)  Ar ea (A) 2
1
 Boyle's law: PV = Const ant  Power of a L ense, P =
Focal lengt h in mt sf 
 Number of images for med by t wo plane mir r or s at
an angle   Relat ion bet ween I , V, H ; I 2 = V2 + H 2
360  Char ge, Q = CV
n= 1
 Q
 Cur r ent , i =
Size of t he image t
 M agnificat ion = 1 q1 q 2
Size of t he object  Coulomb's inver se squar e law F =
sin i 4 0 r 2
 Snell's law 12 =
sin r  Newt on's law of univer sal gr avit at ion
Relat ion bet ween u, v and f m 1m 2 Fr 2
 (i ) F = G 2 (ii ) G =
1 1 1 r m 1m 2
 
f u v r2
 Relat ion bet ween g and G, g =
 Equat ions of mot ion GM
1  Equat ion of mot ion of a body under gr avit y
(i ) v = u + at (ii ) s = ut + at 2 (iii ) v 2 – u 2 = 2as
2 1
(i ) v = u ± gt (ii ) h = ut ± gt 2 (iii ) v 2 – u 2 = ±2gh
 Wor k, W = For ce (F)  Displacement (S) 2
 Wor k, W = F  S cos   Equat ion of mot ion for a fr eely falling body
Work W  1 2
 Power, P = (i ) v = gt ...(u = 0) (ii ) h = gt (iii ) v 2 = 2gh
Time  T  2
 Pot ent ial Ener gy (P.E.) = mgh  M aximum height r eached by a body t hr own up,
1 2 u2
 K inet ic Ener gy (K .E.) = mv h=
2 2g
 Moment of force, M = Force(F)  Perpendicular distance u
M echanical advant age of wheel and axle  Time of ascent =

g
Radius of t he wheel u
= Time of descent =
Radius of t he axle 
g
 M echanical advant age of scr ew jack
2u
Cir cumference of t he scr ew  Time of flight =
= g
Pit ch of t he scr ew
M ass  Velocit y on r eaching t he gr ound
 Densit y = (i ) v = 2gh (ii ) u = 2gh
Volume
Densit y of t he subst ance Angular displacement
 Specific gr avit y =  Angular velocit y,  =
Densit y of Wat er Time int erval
 Quant it y of heat , Q = mst Also, v = r
Heat pr oduced M agnit ude, L = mvr = m r 2
 Calor ific value = 
Unit mass v2
H eat ut ilised Qu   Cent r ipet al acceler at ion, a =
 Ther mal efficiency = r
Tot al heat pr oduced Q1  mv 2 2
 Cent r al for ce, F =  m r
 Fundamental pr inciple of calorimetr y r
H eat lost by hot body = H eat gained by cold body  v2 
 Banking angle,  = t an – 1  
 Velocit y of sound, V = m   rg 
 Wor k done W 
 Dist ance bet ween a cr est and at r ough =  Elect r ic pot ent ial, V =
2 Char ge Q 
 Distance between two consecutive rests or tr ough =   Potent ial differ ence of cells connect ed in ser ies
 Newt on's for mula : E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + ...
E
Velocit y of sound in a gas, V =  Ohm's law : V = iR
P
 1.4 Physics
l  Beam Balance: To measur e mass of a subst ance
 Resist ance, R = 
A  Density bottle: To det er mine r elat ive densit y or
A specific gr avit y of liquids
 Specific r esist ance,  = R
l  H ydraulic machine: To pr ess bales of cot t on and
 Resist ances connet ed in ser ies, R = R1 + R2 t o pr ess oil seeds for get t ing oil
R1 R 2
 Resist ance ar e connect ed in par allel : R =  Barometer: To measur e at mospher ic pr essur e
R1  R 2  Altimeter: Used in air cr aft t o measur e alt it udes
V2
 Elect r ic power, P = V.i = i R =
2
...(V = iR)  Clinical T hermometer: To measur e t emper at ur e
R of human body
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vq  Six maximum and minimum T hermomet er: To
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vit measur e maximum and minimum t emper at ur e at a
 Elect r ical wor k done, W = Vq = i 2Rt place
i 2 Rt  Pressure cooker: House hold it em or appliance used
 H eat developed, Q = for cooking
J
 Far aday's fir st law : M = Z.i.t  Periscope: U sed in submar ines t o see object s on
 Far aday's second law : t he sur face of wat er
M 1 : M 2 : M 3 = E 1 : E 2 : E 3 = Z 1 : Z2 : Z3  Kaleidoscope: To obser ve a number of images wit h
wonder ful designs and colour s
 i
 M agnet ic induct ion, B = 0  Concave mirror: Used as a r eflect or in head light s
2 r
of vechicles; Dent ist s and ENT specialist s used t o
 For ce act ing on a cur r ent car r ying conduct or placed
see smal l i nner par t s of t hr oat , nose. used as a
in an ext er nal magnet ic field, F = ilB
shaving mir r or
V1 n 1
   Convex mirror: U sed in t el escopes; Ar r anged i n
V2 n 2
fr ont of t he dr iver of a vechicle
V1 i 2 n 1
    M agnetic compass: Used t o know posit ion of ship
V2 i 1 n 2 in mid sea and t o dr ive it in r equir ed dir ect ion for
 Alber t Einstein's mass, ener gy equivalence, E = mc2 r eaching t heir dest inat ions
 Electro magnets: Used in tape r ecorders, speaker s,
dynamos and motors
DEVI CES AN D I TS U SES
 Volt aic cell: Chemi cal ener gy i s conver t ed i nt o
 Sonometer: To measur e fr equency of a t unning for k elect r ical ener gy
 Vernier callipers: To measur e lengt hs accur at ely  Dry cell: Used in radios, torch lights, tape records etc.
 M easuring Jar: To measur e volume of liquids in  Telegraph: Used in sending messages t o a dist ance
millilit r es. place in a ver y shor t t ime
 M easur ing flask and pipet t e: To obt ai n fi xed  Electric iron: To pr ess t he clot hes
amount of liquid
 Soldering gun: To connect var ious element s in a
 Burette: To deliver any required volume of a liquid upto cir cuit
its maximum capacity
 Electric stove: For cooking or boiling of wat er, milk
 Common balance: To measur e mass of a body et c.
 Spring balance: To find weight of an object  H ydrometer: To deter mine specific gr avity of liquids
 Compression spring balance: To find weight of a  Calorimeter: To measur e quant it ies of heat
per son  Bomb calorimeter: To det er mine calor ific value of
 Postal balances: Used in Post offices fuels and foods
 Table or scale balances: Used in fancy shops and  Astronomical telescope: To view dist ant st ar s and
sweet shops planets
 Platform balances: Used in Railway st at ions, I r on  Terrestrial telescope: To view dist ant object s on
and har dwar e shops and in par cel offices t o weight ear t h
heavy weight s  Dip circle: To det er mine dip of a place
 M icro balances: To measur e mass of a subst ance  Gold leaf electroscope: To det ect pr esence of st at ic
upt o one micr ogr am elect r icit y over a body
 Electronic balances: Used in jewellar y shops  Coolidge tube: I n pr oduct ion of X -r ays
 Single pan analytical balance: Used in laboratories  Screw Gauge: To measur e t hickness of a t hin glass
 Clocks: To measur e t ime plat e and diamet er of a t hinwir e or a small spher e

 Gravity meters: To find value of ‘g’ at a given location
 Spring balance: To det er mine weight of a body
 Cent rifuge: To separ at e par t icles of higher mass
fr om t hose of lower mass in a given mixt ur e
 Simple pendulum:: To det er mine ‘g’ value
 Ripple tank: Used for demonst r at ion of waves.
 Ammeter: To measur e cur r ent in amper es.
 Voltmeter: To measur e pot ent ial differ ence in volt s
 Rheostat: Used t o r egulat e t he value of a cur r ent
in a cir cuit
 Resitance: Opposes t he flow of elect r ons t hr ough
t he conduct or
 Tap-key: Used t o make or br eak an elect r ic cir cuit
 Cell, battery: Power sour ces
 Voltameter or Elect rolytic cell: Vessel i n which
elect r olysis t ake place
 Elect ric mot or: Devi ce whi ch conver t s el ect r i cal
ener gy int o mechanical ener gy
 AC D ynamo or AC Gener at or : Devi ce whi ch
conver t s mechanical ener gy int o elect r ical ener gy
 Tr ansfor mer : Devi ce whi ch ei t her i ncr eases or
decr eases magnit ude of an alt er nat ing volt age and
ior n cor e t o minimise power losses
 N uclear reactor: Used in Nuclear Power St at ions
t o dr ive t ur bines of t he elect r ic gener at or syst em
 Diodes: Used in r ect ifier cir cuit s
 P-n junction diode: Used as an elect r onic swit ch
 Light emitting diodes: Used in digit al clocks and
digital calculat or s
 Junciton transistor: Used to stabilise power supplies
 Computer: Used in banki ng, i ndust r y, commer ce
science, educat ion, weat her pr edict ion, war far e et c.
 St op wat ch: U sed in r unning r aces, l abor at or i es
t ype inst itut es
TERM S AN D TH EI R EXAM PLES
 Opaque bodies: st one, met als, wood, human body
 Transparent bodies: glass, wat er
 N atural fibres: cot t on, jut e, wool
 Artificial fibres: nylon, dacr on, or lon
 Self-luminous body: sun, st ar s, bur ning candle
 Fundamental units: lengt h, mass and t ime
 Derived units: ar ea, volume, densit y
 Scal ar quant i t y: l engt h , mass, t i m e, vol um e,
t emper atur e
 Vector quantity: displacement , velocit y, for ce
 Transverse waves: waves pr oduced on str ings, light
waves
 Longit udinal waves: sound waves i n a medium,
vibr at ion in spr ing
 M usical inst r ument s:
(i ) St r inged inst r ument s: sit ar, violen, veena
(ii ) Dr um inst r ument s: mr idangam, tabala
((iii ) Blow t ype inst r ument s: flut e, clar inet
Physics 1.5
 N on-luminous bodies: ear t h, moon, chair
 M edium: air, glass, wat er, vaccum
 Transparent subst ances: gr ound gl ass, l ayer of
par affin wax, oiled paper
 N atural magnets: ear t h, bar magnet , H or se shoe
magnet , r ing magnet
 M agnetic substances: ir on, st eel, nickel, cobalt
 N on-magnet ic subst ances: paper, wood, br ass,
aluminium
 Physical effort: pushing, pulling, t ur ning, bending
 M ental effort: memor ising a poem, solving a pr oblem
 Renewable source of energy: sol ar ener gy, wind
ener gy, wat er power, biomass ener gy
 N on-renewable source of energy: coal, oil, nat ur al
gas
 Energy crisis: solar ener gy, t idal, nuclear ener gy
 Fuels: pet r ol, ker osene, diesel, coal
 Simple machines: wheel and axle, scr ew-jack
 Wheel and axle: winches, capstans, drills, tap handles
 Primary colours: r ed, gr een, blue
 Secondary colours: yell ow, magent a, cyan.
 Lenses: convex, concave
 Optical syst ems: t elescopes, micr oscopes
 Conductors of electricity: copper, aluminium, metals
 I nsulators: r ubber, glass, wood
 Capacit or s: L eydenj ar capaci t or, par al l el pl at e
capacit or, hor izont al t ype capacit or
 Cat hode r ay-t ubes: t el evi si on pi ct u r e t u bes,
comput er display t ubes, t ube light s in t he houses
 Flourescent substances: zinc sulphide
 Gravity meters: boliden gr avit y met er, gulf gr avit y
met er
 L inear mot ion or Tr anslat or y mot ion: mot i on
of t he bus
 Oscillatory or Vibratory motion: pendul um of a
wall clock
 Gaseous laser: helium- neon laser
 Solid laser: r uby laser
 Diamagnetic substances: air, wat er, bismut h, gold
 Par amagnet ic subst ances: oxygen, mangenese,
aluminium, plat inum, chr omium
 Ferromagnet ic substances: ir on, cobalt , ni ck el
 Power sources: cell, bat t er y
 Power consumer: bul b
 Connectors: conduct ing wir es
 H eating effects of electric current: elect r ic ir on,
immer sion heat er, elect r ic st ove, elect r ic bulb
 N at ur al r adi o act i ve subst ances: u r ani u m ,
t hor ium, r adium, act inium
 I sotopes: 2010Ne, 2110Ne, 2210Ne; 1H 1 1H ,21H 3
 I sobars: 4019K , 4020Ca, 136C, 137N
 1.6 Physics
 Radio isotopes: r adio act ive sodium, r adio act ive SCALAR AN D VECTOR QU AN TI TI ES
cobalt , r adio act ive iodine Scalar Quant it ies
 Semi-conductors: gr aphite, pur e ger manium, silicon Physi cal quant i t i es possessing magni t ude onl y ar e
 Trivalent atoms: gallium, indium, aluminium, boron called scalar quant it ies.
 Pentavalent atoms: ar senic, ant imony, phosphor us e.g. ar ea, lengt h, volume, mass and speed ar e scalar
quantities.
M OT I ON
Pr essur e, elect r ic cur r ent s ar e scaler quant it y.
A body if changes it s posit ion wit h r espect t o anot her,
t hen it is called mot ion . Ever y one knows t hat even Vect or Quant it ies
ear t h i s not st at i onar y. H owever, for al l par t i cal Physical quantities that can be r epr esented completely
applicat ions, ear t h is asssumed as st at ionar y. Thus a by magnitude and dir ection ar e called vector quantities.
body can be said in mot ion if it changes it s posit ion e.g. velocit y, acceler at ion, weight , momentum, cur r ent
wit h r espect t o ear t h. densit y and for ce ar e vect or qunt it ies.
Types of M otion VELOCI TY
1. U nifor m mot ion. The r at e of change of displacement i n a par t icul ar
I f a body cover s equal dist ances in equal int er vals of dir ect ion is called velocit y .
t ime, it is said t o be moving wit h unifor m mot ion or I t is a vect or quant it y. I t s unit is m/s.
mot ion of body is unifor m. 
 Displacement s
2. N on-uniform mot ion or Var iable mot ion  
Mathematically, Velocity, V =
Time t 
m /s
I f a body cover s unequal distances in equal int er vals
U nifor m velocit y
of time, then it is said to be moving with non-unifor m
or var iable mot ion. I t a body moving in a par ticular dir ection, cover s equal
dist ances in equal int er vals of t ime, it is said t o be
ORI GI N moving wit h unifor m velocit y. Alt er nat ively a body is
Any ar bit r ar ily select ed fixed point wit h r espect t o said t o be moving wit h unifor m velocit y if it s speed
which t he posit ion changes is known as or igin. and dir ect ion does not change wit h t ime.
DI STAN CE Var iable velocit y
 I t is t he act ual lengt h cover ed by a body dur ing t he
A body is said t o be moving wit h var iable velocit y if it
whole jour ney.
cover s unequal dist ance in equal int er vals of t ime.
 I t is a scalar quant it y.
A body is said t o be moving wit h var iable velocit y if
 I n SI unit s, it is measur ed in met r es(m).
(1) dir ect ion of mot ion changes, or
DI SPLACEM EN T (2) speed changes or
 I t can be defined as t he dist ance t r avelled by a body
(3) bot h dir ect ion and speed changes.
in a par t icular dir ect ion.
 I t is a vect or quant it y. Physi cal Quant ity S.I . U nit s Symbol
 I t is t he shor t est dist ance bet ween any t wo point . Dist ance met r e m
Displacement met r e m
 I n SI unit s, it is measur ed in met r es(m).
M ass kg kg
SPE E D Time second s
 The rate of change of movement (distance) is called speed. Speed met ers per second ms– 1
 I t is a scalar quant it y. Velocit y met ers per second ms– 1
 I n SI units it is measur ed in metr es per second(m/s). Acceleration met ers per second ms– 2
di st ance d  square
 Mathematically, Speed =
Angular veloci ty radians per second rad s
–1
t ime t 
Aver age speed ACCELERAT I ON
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by body per unit t ime. The r at e of change of velocit y is called acceler at ion .
M at hemat ically, Aver age speed  
 Change in velocit y v  u 
Tot al dist ance t ravelled by t he body Acceler at ion, a =
= Time  t 
Time t aken by t he body t o cover Types of Accelerat ion
t he t ot al dist ance
1. U nifor m acceler at ion.
U nifr om speed
I f a body cover s equal dist ances in equal int er vals of I f velocity of a moving body increase by equal amount
t ime, t hen it is said t o be moving wit h unifor m speed. in equal inter vals of time, then it is said to be moving
wit h unifor m acceler ation .

2. Var iable acceler at ion.
I f vel ocit y of a moving body changes by unequal
amount s in equal inter vals of t ime, t hen it is said t o
be moving wit h var iable acceler at ion .
RE TARD AT I ON
I f final velocity of a body is less than the initial speed,
then it is called deceleration and the body is said t o be
u n der goi n g r et ar dat i on . F or al l m at h em at i cal
calculations, it is taken as acceleration with minus sign.
GRAPH S
Gr aphs ar e used for conveni ent ly r epr esent ing t he
given dat a on t wo mut ually per pendicular axes.
For t he pr oper ly plot t ed gr aphs, we can find out t hose
values which ar e not given on t he dat a.
Average velocit y ( vavg)
It is defined as the velocity of a moving body per unit time.
Tot al dist ance t ravelled
M at hemat ically, v avg =
Tot al t ime t ak en
I n t he case of a unifor mly acceler at ed mot ion,
u+v
v avg =
2 I t is t he st udy of mot ion of object s independent of t he
wher e, u = init ial velocit y, v = final velocit y
Angular velocit y (  )
 The r ate of change of angular displacement is called
angular velocit y .
 The velocity of a body moving in a cir cle is measur ed
in r adians/ seconds (r ad s– 1).
Angular displacement i n radians
= or  =
Time t ak en
wher e,  = angular displacement
E quat ions of mot ion
Consi der mot i on of a body, movi ng wi t h uni for m
acceler at ion.
L et u is init ial velocit y and a is acceler at ion of t he
body. Then
Final velocit y of t he body v = u + at
Since body is moving wit h unifor m acceler at ion, t hen
uv
Aver age velocit y of t he body, v ar g =
1 2
Dist ance cover ed by t he body, s = ut  at
2
1
Dist ance cover ed in n t h second s = u  a 2n  1
2
M ot ion under gr avit y
When a body falls t owar ds t he ear t h, it s velocit y goes
in incr easing continuously. The body is said to be falling
under gr avit y.
When a body falls under gr avit y, it cont inuously gains
acceler at ion g.
Thus equat i ons of mot i on of a body fal l i ng under
gr avit y ar e wr it t en as
1 at t r act ion bet ween molecules.
v = u + gt ; s = ut + gt 2 ; v 2 = u 2 + 2gs = u 2 + 2gh
2
I n t hese equat ions, ‘a’ is r eplaced by g.
Physics 1.7
When body goes away fr om t he ear t h, t hen its velocit y
goes on decr easi ng cont i nuousl y. The val ue of g i s
t ak en as negat i ve for such cases for sol vi ng t he
pr oblems of physics
1 2
Thus v = u – gt , s = ut – gt , and v 2 – u 2 = – 2gs
2
or v 2 = u 2 – 2gh
M OM EN T OF A FORCE
The turning effect produced by a force is called its moment .
F1 F2
F 1 l = F 2 l
A B
l l
wher e, F 1 = F 2 = for ces act ing on t he ends of a bar
l = ar m of moment
Unit s : N-m in S.I syst em.
S
= Newt on is a unit of for ce. I t is equal t o t he for ce whi ch
t pr oduces accel er at i on of 1 m/s2 i n a mass of 1 k g
 1 N = 1 kg  m 2; 1 N = 105 dyne
KI N EM ATI CS
causes of mot ion. I t is also gener ally independent of
t he object t hat is moving.
M oment um
I t is equal t o pr oduct of mass and velocit y of a body. I t
is a vect or quant it y and is r epr esent ed by ‘P’.
P=mv
 Unit s : kg-m/sec in SI syst em
t L aw of Conservat ion of M oment um
M oment um can neit her be cr eat ed nor dest r oyed but
can be changed fr om one for m t o anot her for m.
When t wo or mor e bodies int er act mut ually, t hen sum
t ot al of moment um r emains unchanged unless t hey
ar e act ed upon by some unbalanced ext er nal for ce.
F ORCE
...(i ) For ce is agency which pr oduces or t ends t o pr oduce,
destr oys or tends to destr oy, the state of r est or unifor m
mot ion of a body.
I t also changes shape and dir ect ion of a body.
2
I t SI syst em it is measur ed in newt on(N).
For example a ball on a table moves when it is pushed. It
shows that the ball needs a force to change its state of rest.
Types of Force
I n nat ur e we obser ve a number of for ces.
1. M uscular force : I t is exer ted in lifting heavy bodies.
2. Force of friction : It helps us to move on smooth roads.
3. M agnetic force of at t ract ion : I t i s r esponsi bl e
for an ir on r od at t r act ed by a magnet .
4. Gravitational force : I t pulls all bodies towards the
centr e of the earth.
5. Cohesion and Adhesion : Ther e ar e for ces of
6. N uclear force : Ther e ar e ver y shor t r ange for ces
t hat keep t he nuclear par t icles t oget her.
 1.8 Physics
I N ERT I A Angular velocit y (  )
I ner t ia is a measur e of mass of a body. Gr eat er t he I t i s def i n ed as t h e r at e of ch an ge of si n gu l ar
mass of a body gr eat er will be it s iner t ia or vice ver sa displacement of a body.
when any vechicle st ar t s suddenly, the passenger falls I f a body descr ibes a small angle  in small int er val
backwar d. I t is due t o iner t ial pr oper t y of t he body. of t ime t , t hen
I M PU L SE 
The pr oduct of for ce and time for which it acts is called =
t
impulse. I t is a vect or quant it y. Unit of angular velocit y is r adians per second(r ad s– 1).
I mpulse = For ce  Time
TI M E PERI OD
The unit s of impulse is Ns.
The time per iod of a body r evolving about a fixed points
N EWTON ’S LAWS OF M OTI ON is defined as t he t ime t aken by it t o complet e one full
F irst law r evolut ion. I t is denot ed by T.
A body cont inues t o r emain in st at e of r est or unifor m FREQU EN CY ( n)
mot ion in t he same dir ect ion in a st r aight line unless Fr equency of a body r evolving about a fixed point (or a
act ed upon by some ext er nal unbalanced for ces. fi xed axi s) i s defi ned as t he number of compl et e
Second law r evolut ions made by it in a unit t ime.
The r at e of change of moment um of a body is dir ect ly n = 1/T
pr opor t ional t o t he implied for ce and t akes place in Relat ion bet ween Angular velocit y, Time
t he dir ect ion of t he for ce per iod and F r equency
mv 1
i.e F or F = ma  = 2  = 2 n
t T
T hir d law Relat ion bet ween L inear and Angular velocit y
To ever y act ion t hr er e is equal and opposit e r eact ion v=r
i .e. F1 = – F2 M agnit ude of t he linear velocit y of a par t icle moving
F or mulae of M ot ion i n a ci r cl e i s pr oduct of t he angul ar vel oci t y and
 For ce = mass  acceler at ion dist ance of t he par t icle fr om t he axis of r ot at ion.
 M oment um = mass  velocit y CEN TRI PETAL FORCE
 Newt on is a unit of for ce. One newt on is t hat much I t is t he for ce t hat comples a body t o keep moving in a
f or ce w h i ch pr odu ces i n a m ass of 1 k g an cir cular path with a constant speed and is directed along
acceler at ion of 1 m/s2 r adius of t he cir cle t owar ds it s cent r e.
 SI unit of moment um is kgm/s, velocit y is m/s
mv 2
Cent r ipet al for ce F = = mr 2 ...(v = r )
 S.I unit of acceler at ion is m/sec2
r
wher e m is mass of a par t icle moving along a cir cle of
RE ACT I ON r adius r wit h a unifor m speed v.
When t wo for ces act ing on t wo bodies in cont act ar e CEN TRI FU GAL FORCE
equal and opposit e, t hen one of the ot her for ce is called
I t is defined as t he for ce of r eact ion
react ion . 
v
exer t ed by a body moving unifor mly 

v
ROTATORY M OTI ON along a cir clular pat h on t he ext er nal

F O
F

A body is said t o possess mot ion of r ot at ion if agen t w h i ch i s pr ov i di n g t h e

(i ) all t he par t icles of t he body move in cir cles wit h cen t r i pet al f or ce, by vi r t u e of i t s v

t heir cent r es lying on t he axis of r ot at ion, and const ant t endency t o t r avel along a st r aight line pat h.
(ii ) all t he posit ion vect or s sweep out t he same angle The cent r ifugal for ce act s along t he r adius but in t he
in a given t ime int er val. out war d dir ect ion.
Angular D isplacement M OM EN T OF I N ERTI A (M .I .)
I f a par t icle moving in a cir cle, t hen it may be defined M .I . of a r igid body, about a given axis of r ot at ion
as the angle swept out by t he posit ion vect or in a given i s su m of t h e pr odu ct s m r 2 t ak en f or al l t h e
t ime int er val. par t icles const it ut ing t he body, wher e m is mass of a
The S.I . unit of measur ement of angular displacement par t icle and ‘r ’ is it s nor mal dist ance fr om t he axis of
is r adians. Radian is t he angle subt ended at t he ent r e r ot at ion
of a cir cle by an ar c of lengt h equal t o r adius of cir cle.  I = mr 2
S Moment of iner t ia is a scalar quantit y. I ts unit is kg m 2.
360
(in r adian) = ; 1 r adian =  57.3
r 2
 Physics 1.9
WORK, POWER AN D EN ERGY 3. Square of the per iod of revolution of the planet r ound
W ORK t he sun is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o t he cube of t he
aver age dist ance bet ween planet and t he sun, i.e.
When a body is displaced by t he applicat ion of a for ce,
wor k is said t o be done by t he for ce. T2  r 3
Wor k = For ce  Displacement , or W = F  S N ewt on’s law of Gravit at ion
Ever ybody in t his univer se at t r act s ever y ot her body
Unit s : I n S.I syst em – newt on-met r e or joule and
wi t h a for ce, whi ch i s di r ect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he
I n C.G.S syst em – er gs; 1 joule = 107 er gs pr oduct of t heir masses and inver sely pr opor t ional t o
POW E R t he squar e of t he dist ance bet ween t hem.
W m 1m 2 m 1m 2
The r at e of doing wor k is called power. P =
t M at hemat ically, F  ; or F = G
d2 d2
1 joule wher e m 1 and m 2 = mass of two bodies and d is distance
Unit s : wat t and kilo wat t and 1 wat t =
1 sec between them
H orse power is anot her unit of power, G = const ant called uni ver sal gr avi t at i onal
1 H .P = 746 wat t const ant .
EN ERGY Gravitational constant G between sun and earth
The capacit y t o do wor k is called ener gy. N  mt 2
is 6.7  10– 11
Differ ent for m of ener gy ar e int er nal ener gy, kinet ic kg 2
ener gy, pot ent ial ener gy, chemi cal, t her mal ener gy, ACCELERATI ON DU E TO GRAVI TY (g)
elect r ical ener gy et c. I t is t he acceler at ion with which a body falls fr eely it is
Kinet ic ener gy i n depen den t of m ass of t h e body. T h e val u e of
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. acceler at ion due t o gr avit y is not const ant at all par t s
1 on t he ear t h’s sur face.
M at hemat ically, K .E = mv 2 GM
2 The aver age value of g is 9.81 m/sec2. g  2
where, m is mass of the body and v is velocity of the body R
Pot ent ial ener gy Thus we find t hat ‘g’ is independent of mass of a body.
I t is t he ener gy possessed by t he body due t o it s some/ I t depends on mass and r adius of t he ear t h.
r est posit ion. M ass of the Earth
P.E. = mgh gR 2
M=
wher e, g = acceler at ion due t o gr avit y G
h = height of the body above the r efer ence point wher e, M = 5.91  1024 kg
L aw of Conservat ion of Energy R = r adius of ear t h = 6.38 106 m
The total energy of a closed system is constant. I t can G = univer al gr avit at ional const ant
neither be created nor destroyed, but can be converted G = 6.67  10– 11 Nm 2/kg2
into one form to other form.
Variat ions in value of g
Relat ion bet ween M ass and Energy (E inst ein’s
equat ion) 1. Var iat ions wit h alt it ude (height ).
Tot al ener gy of body, E = mc2 gh = g 1  2h 
 g 
wher e, m = r elat ive mass of body
where, gh = acceleration due to gr avity at a height ‘h’.
GRAV I TAT I ON
Al l obj ect s possessi ng mass have t he pr oper t y of The value of ‘g’ decr eases wit h incr easing height
gr avitation. (r adius).
Gr avit at ion is t he for ce of at t r act ion bet ween any t wo 2. Var iat ion wit h dept h.
object s of t he univer se. A chair lying in a r oom att r act s Acceler at ion due t o gr avit y at dept h ‘d’
all ot her object s including t he ear t h.
g = g 1  d 
GRAV I T Y  R
I t is the force of attr action between object and the ear th. The value of ‘g’ decr eases wit h incr easing d.
K epler’s laws 3. Variation due t o shape of the eart h.
1. Each planet moves in an ellipt ical or bit wit h t he Ear t h is not a per fect spher e. I t is slight ly bulging
sun at one of it s foci. at t he equat or and flat t ened at t he poles, whi ch
2. The line joining t he planet t o t he sun sweeps equal means t he pol ar r adi us of ear t h i s smal l er as
ar eas in equal int er vals of t ime (or ) compar ed t o it s equat or ial r adius. Thus value of ‘g’
Velocit y of t he r adius vect or joining planet and t he at poles will be mor e t han it s value at equat or, i.e.
Sun is const ant . gpolar > gequait or ial
 1.10 Physics
Gr avit at ional pot ent ial ener gy F r equency
GM m The time after which the body r etr aces its path is called
P.E = – t ime per iod and t he number of vibr at ions made in one
R
Negative sign of gravitational potential at a point shows second is called frequency .
that for ce is applied opposite to the dir ection of mot ion 1 1
Fr equency, n = or 
as to move the body without acceler ation due to gr avity. Time per iod T
SATELLI TE D isplacement and Amplit ude
Sat ellit e is like a body t hat is r evolving in an or bit The physcial quantity which varies uniformly with time
ar ound a compar at ively much lar ger body. in an oscillat or y mot ion is called displacement .
e.g. moon is a sat ellit e of ear t h. The maximum value of displacement is called amplitude.
Geost at ionar y sat ellit e. SI M PLE H ARM ON I C M OTI ON
I t is t hat sat ellit e which r evolves ar ound t he ear t h A m ot i on i n w h i ch accel er at i on of t h e body i s
wit h t he same angular speed in t he same dir ect ion as pr opor t i on al t o i t s di spl acem ent fr om t he mean
t hat of t he ear t h ar ound it s axis. Such a sat ellit e is posi t i on and i s al ways di r ect ed t owar ds t he mean
also called geosynchronous sat ellit e. posit ion is called simple har monic mot ion .
M ovement of Planet and Satellit es or
4 r 2 Th e m ot i on of f oot of t he
G.M . =
T2 per pendicular dr opped fr om
wher e, r = r adius of t he or bit t h e par t i cl e m ov i n g i n a
T = per iod of r evolut ion cir cle on t he hor izont al and
ver t i cal di amet er s i s call ed
M = mass of t he sun (for planet ) or of ear t h (for
simple har monic mot ion .
an ear t h sat ellit e)
Simple H ar monic mot ion is r epr esent ed by
H eight of Geost at ionary sat ellit e
h = R0 – R  2 
y = A sin  t   ; y = A sin (t + )
wher e, R0 = r adi us of fi xed or bi t ar ound t he ear t h T 
wher e, A = amplitude
(42.250 km)
 = angular fr equency
wher e, R = r adius of ear t h(6380 km)
h = 35,870 km  = phase differ ence
Or bit al velocit y (v0) PH ASE
I t is t hat pr oper t y of wave mot ion which t ells posit ion
I t is t he speed of a sat ellit e in it s or bit of the par t icle at any instant. Phase is measur ed eit her
v0 = gR = 6.4  106  9.8 = 7.92 km/s by t he angle which t he par t icle makes wit h t he mean
Escape velocit y (v e) posit ion or by fr act ion of t ime per iod.
The minimum velocit y wit h which a body should be Energy of a particle execut ing S.H .M .
pr oject ed t o over come the ear t h’s gr avit ational field is 1
called t he escape velocit y. E= m2 A 2
2
v e = 11.2 km/s SI M PLE PEN DU LU M
SI M PLE H ARM ON I C M OTI ON The metal sphere is called bob and the point fr om which
PERI ODI C M OT I ON t h e pen du l u m i s su spen ded i s cal l ed cen t r e of
I t is a mot ion which r epeat it self in definit e int er val of
suspension .
t ime. The dist ance between cent r e of suspension and cent r e
of gr avi t y of t he bob i s cal l ed effect i ve l engt h of
e.g. mot ion of sun ar ound ear t h, mot ion of ar ms of a
clock, mot ion of simple pendulum et c.
pendulum .
Oscillat or y or Vibr at or y mot ion l
Time per iod of t he simple pendulum, T = 2
When a body moves t o and fr o on eit her side of a point g
in definit e t ime int er val, t hen t his mot ion is called Seconds pendulum
oscillat or y or vibr at or y mot ion .
I t is the simple pendulum having a time per iod at 2
T ime per iod seconds. Its effective length is 99.992 cm or approximately
I t is time taken by the body t o complete one oscillation. one meter. On ear th, time period of the pendulum in
e.g. mot ion of a mass suspended fr om a spr ing mot ion mines or up the hills is mor e than that on the sea level
of simple pendulum et c. because at these places ‘g’ is less than that on sea level.
 Physics 1.11
GEN ERAL PROPERTI ES OF M ATTER BU OYAN CY
At mospher ic pr essur e The pr oper t y by vir t ue of which a body immer sed in a
Air exerts pressure which is called atmospheric pressure. liquid exper ience an upwar d thr ust is called buoyancy .
I f ‘h’ is height of t he at mospher ic air, ‘d’ is densit y of Buoyant for ce
t he air and ‘g’ is acceler at ion due t o gr avit y, t hen Whenever a body is immer sed in liquid an upwar d force
Atmospheric pr essur e = hdg = 76  13.6  980 dyne/cm 2 act s on t he body by t he liquid. This upwar d for ce is
called buoyant for ce.
D ensit y
Buoyant for ce depends upon
Densit y of a subst ance is defined as t he r at io of it s
mass t o it s volume. (i ) volume (V) of the solid body immersed in the liquid,
m (ii ) densi t y of t he l i qui d(  ) i n whi ch t he body i s
=
v immer sed, and
Unit s : kg/m 3 (iii ) acceler at ion due t o gr avit y (g)
Relat ive densit y
M at hemat ically, Buoyant For ce = V..g
I t is defined as t he r at io of densit y of t he subst ance t o
Buoyant force = Weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
t he densit y of t he wat er at 4C.
Cent r e of Buoyancy
F l ui d
A fluid may be defined as t hat st at e of mat t er which The point at which t he buoyant for ce act s is called
cannot indefinit ely or per manent ly oppose or r esist a cent r e of buoyancy and is defined as cent r e of gr avit y
shear ing st r ess. of t he displaced liquid.
L iquid KI N ETI C TH EORY OF GASES
I t is a fluid which alt hough has no shape of it s own, M OLECU LE
occupies a definit e volume which cannot be alt er ed, I t is t he smallest par t icle of t he subst ance which has
however gr eat t he for ce applied t o it . al l t he pr oper t i es of t hat subst ance and whi ch can
Cent er of pressure r emain in fr ee st at e.
The point of t he plane (immer sed in a liquid) at which AT OM
the r esult ant pr essur e act s is called center of pressur e. I t is the smallest unit of the substance which is invisible
F luid pr essur e and which can not be dest r oyed.
A liquid cont ained in a vessel exer t s a for ce on t he 13
bot t om of t he vessel and on t he sides of t he vessel.  3A 
Radius of at om, r at om = 
This for ce is nor mal t o t he sur face. The pr essur e is  4  N  
defined as for ce per unit ar ea. Avogadr o’s number
Unit s : newt on/m 2 I t r epr esent s t he number of molecules in one mole of
Ar chimedes’s pr inciple any subst ance.
When a body (t ot ally or par t ially) is immer sed in a I t s value is 6.02  1023 per gm mole.
fluid it appears to lose a par t of its weight and appar ent
loss of weight is equal t o weight of fluid displaced. m
Number of molecules   6.02  1023
Appar ent weight of t he body = Act ual weight of t he M
body – Upt hr ust wher e, m = mass of t he subst ance
L aws of F loat at ion M = moleculer weight
L et a body of weight W is immer sed in a fluid and W  is STATES OF M ATTER
t he upt hrust . Ther e ar e mainly t hr ee st at es of mat t er viz., solid,
1. I f W > W , t hen body will sink. liquid and gas
2. I f W = W , t hen body float s wit h whole of it s volume 1. Solids : The molecules of solid ar e ver y close t o
inside t he liquid. each ot her, t her efor e int er nal for ces of at t r act ion
3. I f W < W , t hen body will float wit h some of it s par t ar e ver y st r ong. M olecules of t he solid can not move
out side t he liquid fr om one place t o another place but they can vibr at e
Pascal’s law simple har monically about t heir mean posit ions.
Pressure applied at any point in the fluid is tr ansmitted 2. Liquids : The molecules of liquids ar e much closer
equally and undiminished t o all par t s of t he fluid. i n compar i son t o t he mol ecul es of a sol i d . The
Boyle’s law inter molecular for ces of at t r act ion ar e smaller than
Volume of a given mass of a gas var ies inver sely as t hat of solid. The molecules of a liquid ar e fr ee to
pressure of gas provided temperatur e remains constant. move with the volume of the liquid but velocit y of
1 the molecules is much less t han that of the gases.
P or PV = const ant .
V
1.12 Physics
3. Gases : I n t his stat e of matt er, t he distance bet ween
t he mol ecules i s ver y l ar ge. The int er molecular
for ces of attr action acting between the molecules ar e
ver y small, ther efor e gases do not have a definite
shape (or ) definite volume.
Kinet ic t heory and Gas pressure
The pr essur e of a gas i s t he r esul t of cont i nuous
bombar dment of t he gas molecules against t he walls
of t he cont ai ner and i s equal t o t ot al moment um
impar t ed per second per unit ar ea of t he walls of t he
cont ainer by t he bombar ding molecules.
TEM PERATU RE SCALE
Kelvin scale
T = (273 + t )  K
I DEAL GAS
I deal gases obey Boyl es and Char l es l aw for al l
condit ions of pr essur e and t emper at ur e. Ther e is no
int er molecular for ce of at t r act ion act ing bet ween t he
molecules of gases.
Gas equat ion : PV = nRT
wher e, P = pr essur e ; T = t emper at ur e ; V = volume
n = number of molecules
R = universal gas constant = 8.31 joule/mole-kelvin
Degree of F reedom
The t ot al number of co-or di nat es or i ndependent
quantities which must be known in order to describe
completely the position of an object or the state of a system
is called degrees of freedom of the object or system.
3 t he value of 32° and steam point is given a value of
M onoatomic gas : U = RT
2
5 between the t wo fixed points. The Fahr enheit scale
Diatomic gas : U = RT
2
7 6
Polyatomic gas : U = RT or RT  3RT
2 2
Vander Waal equation (Equation of state for real
gases)
 a 
 P  2   V  b  = RT
V Conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit to Kelvin scale
H E AT TH ERM OM ET RY
H EAT
I t is an agent which pr oduces t he sensation of war mt h.
When an object i s heat ed, i t s mol ecul es begi n t o move
fast er. H eat al ways fl ows fr om a hot t er body t o a
colder body.
H eat is measur ed in calor ie or K ilocalor ie. SI unit of
heat is joule (J).
H eat ing and Cooling of subst ances
On cooling gases become liquid. When liquids are heated
they change to gases and when solids ar e heated, t hey
change to liquids. Liquids solidify on cooling.
Calor ie.
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of 1 gm of wat er t hr ough 1C.
K i localor i e.
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of 1 kg of wat er t hr ough 1C.
1kcal = 1000 calor ies
T her mal E quilibr ium
When t wo bodies come in cont act in such a way t hat
no t r ansfer of heat t ak es pl ace fr om one body t o
an ot h er , t h en t h e bodi es ar e sai d i n t h er m al
equilibr ium.
T her mal Ener gy
The sum of i nt er nal k i net i c ener gy and i nt er nal
pot ent i al of t he mol ecules of gas i s call ed t her mal
ener gy (or ) int er nal ener gy of t he gas.
T E M PERAT U RE
Temper at ur e of a subst ance is t he degr ee of its hot ness
or coldness. Following t hr ee t emper at ur e scales ar e
commonly used for measur ement of t emper at ur e :
1. Celsius scale (  C) : Thi s scal e was gi ven by
Cel si us. On cel si us scal e t he t emper at ur e of
melt ing ice, i.e. melt ing point of ice is given t he
value 0° and t emper at ur e of st eam i s given by
100°C. This scale has been divided int o 100 equal
par t s of degr ees. Since t her e ar e 100 divisions or
degr ees on t he cel si us scal e, i t i s al so cal l ed
cent igrade scale (cent i = 100 and gr ade = division).
Celsius scale is used par ticular ly in scientific wor k.
2. Fahrenheit scale ( F) : This scale was given by
Fahr enheit. On Fahr enheit scale, ice point is given
212°, so t hat t her e ar e 212 – 32 = 180 degr ees
is gener ally used for household t her momet er s.
3. Kelvin scale (K) : This scale was given by Kelvin.
On t his scale of temper atur e, ice point has a value
of 273 K and steam point has a value of 373 K and
ther e ar e 372 – 273 = 100 divisions between two
fixed points. This is also called absolute scale of
temper at ur e.
C F  32 K  273
 =
100 180 100
Also, K = C + 273
Types of T hermomet ers
1. L iquid t her momet er s
2. Gas t her momet er
3. Plat inum t her momet er
4. Ther moel ect r i c t her momet er
5. M agnet ic t her momet er
6. Opt ical pyr omet er.
Specific H eat
I t is defined as t he amount of heat in calor ies r equir ed
t o r aise t he t emper at ur e of a unit mass of a subst ance
by 1°C(or 1°K).

SI unit : joules per kilograme per kelvin, i.e. J- kg– 1 K – 1.
 Specific heat of wat er is 4200 Jkg– 1 K – 1.
 Specific heat of wat er is maximum.
 Specific heat of copper is 0.093 cal/gm °C, which means
that 0.093 calor ie of heat is r equir ed to r aise the
temperature of 1 gm of copper by 1 degree centigrade.
T her mal capacit y
I t i s t h e am ou n t of h eat r equ i r ed t o r ai se t h e
t emper at ur e of whole body t hr ough 1°C.
Ther mal capacit y = M ass of t he body  Specific heat
S.I unit : jouls per kelvin(J/K ).
The common unit of t her mal capacit y is calor ies per
degr ee, which is wr it t en as cal/ °C or cal °C– 1.
Principle of H eat M easurement
When t wo bodies at differ ent t emer at ur es ar e placed
in cont act wit h each ot her, t hen heat will pass fr om
t he body at higher t emper at ur e t o t he body at lower
t em per at u r e u n t i l bot h r each t o a com m on
t emper at ur e in t his pr ocess.
H eat lost by one body = H eat gained by t he ot her body.
H eat lost or gained by a body is given by
Q = m  s  (T 2 – T 1); Q = m.s.t
Subl imat ion
Dir ect conver sion of solid int o gases st at e i s cal led
sublimat ion .
H oar F rost
Dir ect conver sion of vapour s int o solid st at e is called
hoar fr ost .
M elt ing
Conver si on of sol i d i nt o l i qui d st at e at const ant
t emper at ur e is called melt ing.
Boil i ng
Evapor at ion wit hin t he whole mass of t he liquid is
cal l ed boi l i ng. Boi l i ng t ak es pl ace at a const ant
t emper at ur e called boiling point .
E vapor at i on
Conver sion of liquid int o vapour s at all t emper at ur es
is called evapor at ion . I t is a sur face phenomenon.
Effect of pressure on melting point of a solid
The var iat ion of melt ing point wit h pr essur e is given
by t he for mula
dL JL
 at 4C is maximum.
dt T v 2  v 1 
EXPAN SI ON OF SOLI DS
Solids expand on heat ing. Dur ing t he expansion of
solids, t he dist ance bet ween it s molecules incr eases.
The expansion of solids does not depend on it s mass.
Types of Expansion of solids
I t is of t hr ee t ypes.
1. L inear expansion.
Change in lengt h due t o change of t emper at ur e is
called linear expansion .
Physics 1.13
Coefficient of linear expansion ( ) : I t i s t he
incr ease in lengt h per unit lengt h of a solid when
it s t emper at ur e is r aised by 1°C.
2. Super ficial expansion.
The expansion in ar ea of an object due t o change in
t emper at ur e is called super ficial expansion.
Coefficient of superficial expansion(  ) : I t i s
t he incr ease in ar ea per unit ar ea of solid when it s
t emper at ur e is r aised by 1C.
3. Volume expansion or Cubical expansion(  ).
T h e ex pan si on of v ol u m e du e t o ch an ge i n
t emper at ur e is called cubical expansion.
EXPAN SI ON OF LI QU I DS
L iquids do not have definit e shape and size. Ther efor e
t hey have cubical expansion alone.
Types of Expansion of liquids
I t is of t wo t ypes.
1. Appar ent expansion.
I t is the expansion of a liquid in which the expansion
of it s cont ainer has not been t aken int o account .
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid
(a) : I t is incr ease in it s volume per unit volume
which appear s to have taken place when it is heated
t hr ough 1C in a expandable vessel.
Apparent expansion of t he liquid
a =
Or iginal volume  Temper at ure differ ence
2. Real expansion or Absolut e expansion.
I t is the expansion of a liquid in which the expansion
of it s cont ainer has also been t aken in account .
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid ( r ): I t
is t he incr ease in it s volume per unit volume which
act ually t akes place when it is heat ed t hr ough 1C
Real expansion of t he liquid
r =
Or iginal volume  Temper at ure differ ence
Anomalous Expansion of Wat er
Wat er ex pan ds an om al ou sl y ar ou n d 4  C. I f
t emper at ur e of wat er at 0C i s i ncr eased, t hen it s
volume decr ease upt o 4C, becomes minimum at 4C
and t hen incr eases. The peculiar behaviour of wat er
ar ound 4C is called anomalous expansion of wat er .
Thus volume of wat er at 4C minimum while densit y
EXPAN SI ON OF GASES
Ther e ar e t wo coefficient s of expansion in gases.
1. Volume coefficient (  v)
At constant pr essur e, the change in volume per unit
v ol u m e per degr ee cel si u s i s cal l ed vol u m e
coefficient .
2. Pr essure Coefficient (  P)
At const ant volume t he change in pr essur e per unit
pr essur e per degr ee cel si us i s cal l ed pr essur e
coefficient .
 1.14 Physics
BOYLE’S LAW 2. Convect ion
At const ant t emper at ur e, t he pr essur e of a definit e I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed
mass of gas is inver sely pr opor t ional t o it s volume. fr om one par t of body t o anot her par t by t he act ual
1 movement of heat ed par t icles.
At const ant t emper at ur e, P  or PV = const ant .
V
T H E RM OD YN AM I CS
It is the branch of physics which deals with the conversion Cold
Convection cur rent
of heat int o mechanical ener gy and vice ver sa. Hot
TH ERM ODYN AM I CAL STATE
St and Burner
I t r efer s t o a st at e of a body (or t he syst em) t hat is
com pl et el y def i n ed by pr essu r e, v ol u m e an d 3. Radi at i on
t emper at ur e of t he body. I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed
LAWS OF TH ERM ODYN AM I CS fr om one place t o t he ot her dir ect ly wit hout heating
Zer ot h law of T her modynamics t he int er vening medium.
Wh en ev er t wo bodi es A an d B ar e i n t h er m al e.g. heat fr om Sun r eached ear t h.
equilibr ium wit h anot her body ‘C’, t hen bodies A and Power t r ansmit t ed, P =  A(T 24 – T 14) wat t
B will also be in t her mal equilibr ium wit h each ot her. wher e A = sur face ar ea
F ir st law of T hermodynamics  = emissivit y of t he sur face
The heat ener gy given t o a syst em is equal t o incr ease T 2 = t emper at ur e of t he body
in int er nal ener gy of t he syst em and wor k done. T 1 = t emper at ur e of t he sur r oundings
dQ = dU + dW or dU = dQ – dW  = St ef an s con st an t (5.67  10 8 wat t
wher e, dQ = heat ener gy m et r e2  K – 4 )
dU = change in int er nal ener gy Black body
dW = wor k done A per fect ly black body is one t hat absor bs complet ely
I n case of a cyclic pr ocess, U = 0; t hus all t he r adiat ions falling on it .
K ir choff 's law
dQ = dW
At any t emper at ur e and for par t icular wavelengt h,
Second law of T her modynamics
r at io of t he emissive power t o t he absor pt ive power of
H eat can not flow fr om a colder body t o a hot t er body all subst ances is same and is equal t o t he emissive
wit hout some wor k being done by an ext er nal ener gy. power of a per fect ly black body.
T hir d law of T her modynamics e
i.e. = E
The absolute entr opy of a perfectly crystalline substance a
becomes zero at absolute zero temperature(0K). Now, E  = 1; t hus a = e
M ODES OF TRAN SFER OF H EAT wher e, E  = emissive power ;, a = absor pt ive power
Ther e ar e t hr ee modes of t r ansfer of heat . K ir choff 's law signifies t hat good absor ber s ar e good
1. Conduct i on r adiator s.
I n t his mode of t r ansfer ence, heat is t r ansmit t ed TH ERM ODYN AM I C PROCESS
fr om on e par t i cl e t o t h e ot her par t i cl e i n t he Reversible changes for perfect gas
dir ect ion of fall of t emper at ur e. Ther e is no act ual A reversible change always consists of a succession of states
movement of par t icles. of equilibrium in the absence of any dispersive process.
U nder st abl e condi t ons, t he amount of heat ‘Q’ I sochor ic or I sovolumet r ic pr ocess
flowing in a time ‘t’ at r ight angles to the faces of a I t r efer s t o a pr ocess, in which t her e is no change in
wall of which one face is at temper atur e T 1 while the t he volume of t he syst em pr essur e and t emper at ur e
other face is at temper atur e T 2 (T 2 > T 1) is given by may change in such a pr ocess.
T2  T1 Adiabat ic pr ocess
Q = K .A.  t joules I n t his pr ocess, t her e is change in t he heat cont ent (or
f
wher e, K = t her mal conduct ivit y of t he mat er ial ent halpy H ) of t he syst em, i.e. syst em neit her gains
A = ar ea of faces of t he wall nor losses heat .
Also for a per fect gas, equat ion for r ever sible adiabatic
f = t hickness of t he wall.
change is
Coefficient of thermal conductivity(K). I t is t he
Tv – 1 = const ant (or ) T 1v 1 – 1 = T 2v 2 – 1
amount of heat flowing i n one second acr oss t he
opposi t e faces of a 1 cm cube, mai nt ai ned at a and Tp1– / = constant (or ) T 1p11– / = T 2p21– /
t emper at ur e differ ence of 1C. wher e  = cp/cv
 Physics 1.15
I sot her mal pr ocess For a r ever sible pr ocess, change in entr opy is given by
B
I n t his pr ocess, t he t emper at ur e r emains const ant , dq
ds = SB – SA =  r ev
i.e. dT = 0 T
A
I sobar ic pr ocess For adiabat ic changes, ds > 0
This pr ocess occur s at const ant pr essur e, i.e. dp = 0 This is valid for r ever sible changes only.
Thus w = pdv = nRdT
SOU N D
Q = n.cp dT
WAVE
Efficiency of H eat engine
The differ ent shaped vehicle which is r esponsible for
Q
 = 1 2 t r ansmi ssi on of ener gy fr om one pl ace t o anot her
Q1 t hr ough a medium wit hout any t r anslation of medium
Coefficient of per for mance in case of r efr iger at or is called a wave.
Q2 Q2 Wave mot ion
C.O.P. = 
W Q1  Q2 Pr opagat ion of dist ur bance fr om one place t o anot her
CARN OT CYCLE is called wave mot ion .
I t is a r ever sible cycle and consist s of M ECH AN I CAL WAVES
t wo isot her mal (A  B and C  D) and The waves or iginat ed in an elast ic mat er ial (air, st eel
and wat er ) ar e called mechanical waves.
t wo adiabat ic (B  C, D  A) changes. Types of M echanical waves
These ar e of t wo t ypes.
1. Tr ansver se waves. T h e par t i cl es of m edi u m
vibr at e at r ight angles in t r ansver se waves
e.g. pr opagat ion of waves t hr ough a r ope.
A  B i s an i sot h er m al expr essi on at con st an t 2. L ongit udinal waves. The par t i cl es of medi um
t emper at ur e T 2. vibr at e t o and fr o in longit udinal waves
V e.g. sound waves.
Q2 = w 2 = nRT 2 log B  0
VA E lect r omagnet ic wave
B  C is an adiabat ic change in which t emper at ur e El ect r om agnet i c waves ar e f or med by n at ur al l y
change for m T 2 and T 1 per pendicular vibr at ing elect r ic and magnt ic fields.
w = – n.c dT = – n.c (T 1 – T 2) > 0 Pulse
I t is a wave of shor t dur at ion. I t can also called a wave
C  D i s an i sot her mal compr essi on at const ant
of single dist ur bance.
t emper at ur e T 1.
Ampl i t ude
V
Q1 = w 1 = nRT 1 log d  0 I t is t he maximum displacement of the par ticles of t he
Vc
medium fr om t heir mean posit ion.
D  A is an adiabat ic compr ession. Wavelengt h (  )
w = – n.c.dT = – n.c (T 1 – T 2) < 0 I t is t he dist ance bet ween near est par t icles which ar e
For t he complet e cycle, du = 0 in t he same st at e of vibr at ion.
w BC + w DA = 0 T ime period (T )
Qcycle = Q2 + Q1 = w 2 + w 1 = w cycle I t is defined as t he t ime t aken by any par t icle of t he
V medi um t o compl et e one osci l l at i on. I t i s al ways
Area of cycle, w cycle = nR(T 2 – T 1)log 2
V1 measur ed in seconds.
w Q 2  Q1 Q F requency (f)
Efficiency,  =  = 1 1 Number of vibr at ions per second is called fr equency .
Q Q2 Q2
1
T2  T1 T1 Mathematically, f=
or =  1 T
T2 T2 wher e T is in seconds.
 is less t han one for a car not cycle. Phase
E nt r opy(s). The phase of an oscillating particle at any instant denotes
dq r ev the position and dir ection of motion of the par ticle at
ds =
T that instant. I t is r epr esented either by the angle which
For a cyclic pr ocess, ds = 0 the particle makes with the mean position or by fr action
Unit s: J/K of wavelength or by fr action of time per iod.
1.16 Physics
E poch
I f the particle does not start from mean position at t = 0,
t hen it is said t o possess an init ial phase called epoch .
I nt ensit y of wave
The amount of ener gy flowing per unit t ime t hr ough
unit ar ea per pendicular to t he dir ection of pr opagation
of t he wave is called int ensit y of t he wave.
Unit s : joule/m 2-sec or wat t /m 2
Pi t ch
I t i s t he char act er i st i c of sound t hat depends on
fr equency.
I t det er mines t he shr illness or gr aveness of sound. A
gr ave not e is called low pitched note while a shr ill note
is cal led high pit ched not e. Smaller t he fr equency;
smaller is t he pit ch. Gr eat er t he fr equency, gr eat er is
t he pit ch.
Wave velocity (c)
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by t he wave in one second.
I t is also called velocit y of wave.
M at hemat ically, velocit y of wave, V = n 
wher e,  = wavelengt h of t he wave
n = fr equency of t he wave
I nfr asonic waves
These ar e t he waves wit h fr equencies below audible
r ange, i.e. less than 20 Hz. I nfrasonic waves ar e usually
pr oduced by lar ge sour ces.
e.g. waves or iginat ing fr om ear t hquakes
Audible waves
Sound waves in t he fr equency r ange 20 H z t o 20,000
H z which pr oduces t he sensat ion of hear ing is called
audible waves.
The audible frequency range of dogs is 15 Hz to 50,000 Hz.
U lt r asonic waves
Waves with fr equencies above audible r ange ar e called
ult r asonic waves. Waves wit h fr equency above 20,000
H z is ult r asonic wave.
Refr act ion of sound
When sound waves travel fr om one medium to another,
t hey ar e deviat ed fr om t heir pat h. Refr action of sound
follows t he same laws as t hat of light
sin i v due t o t heir super posit ion, t he r esult ant int ensit y
i .e. = 1
sin r v2
wher e v 1 and v 2 ar e vel oci t i es of sound in t he t wo
mediums.
D iffr act ion of sound
Sound waves easily bend r ound t he edges of t he holes
and t he obst acles, t his is called diffr act ion of sound.
F act ors affect ing Velocit y of sound in air
1. Effect of pressure.
The change of pr essur e have no effect on t he
velocit y of sound in air (or any ot her gas).
2. Effect of densit y.
I f densit y of a gas incr eases, t hen velocit y of sound
in it decr eases.
3. Effect of t emper at ure.
The velocit y of sound in air incr eases on r aising
t he t emper at ur e.
4. Effect of humidit y.
Sound tr avels fast er in humid air and slower in dr y
air.
SH OCK WAVES
I f speed of a body i n ai r is gr eat er t han t he speed of
sound, t hen i t is cal led super sonic speed. Such a body
leaves behind it a conical r egion of dist ur bance whi ch
spr eads cont i nousl y. Such a di st ur bance i s cal l ed
shock wave.
RESON AN CE
When a body i s set int o vi br at i ons by an ext er nal
per iodic for ce whose fr equency is equal t o t he nat ur al
fr equency of t he body, t hen ampl it ude of vibr at i on
i ncr eases at each st ep and becomes l ar ge. Such
vi br at i ons ar e cal l ed r esonant vibr at ions and t he
phenomenon is called r esonance.
Condit ion for Resonance
Because the sound has to tr avel down the tube and
back dur ing one half vibr at ion of the pr ong, length of
the air column for r esonance must be one four th of the
wavelength of the sound emitt ed by the tuning for k.
 2 3
I f lengt h of t he air column is incr eased by , ,
2 2 2
... et c, wher e  is wavelengt h of sound in air, we will
again obt ain r esonance in each case.
SU PERPOSI TI ON OF WAVES
Tw o or m or e pr ogr essi v e w av es can t r av el
simult aneously in t he medium wit hout effect ing t he
m ot i on of on e an ot h er . T h er ef or e r esu l t an t
displacement of each par t icle of t he medium at any
inst ant is equal t o vect or sum of t he displacement s
pr oduced by t wo waves separ at ely. This pr inciple is
called principle of superposition .
Applicat ion of Pr inciple of Super posit ion
1. I nt er fer ence.
When t wo waves of same fr equency t r avel in a
medium simultaneously in the same dir ection, then
at any point of t he medium is differ ent fr om t he
sum int ensit ies of t he t wo waves. At some point ,
int ensit y of t he r esult ant wave is ver y lar ge while
at some ot her point s it is ver y small or zer o. This
phenomenon is called int er fer ence of waves.
2. Beat s.
When two sound waves of near ly equal fr equencies
ar e pr oduced simultaneously, t hen int ensit y of t he
r esult ant sound pr oduced by t heir super posi t on
incr eases and decr eases alter nately with t ime. This
r ise and fall int ensity of sound is called Beat s. The
number of maxima (or ) minima heard in one second
is called beats fr equency.
 Physics 1.17
Applications of Beats : Pencil of light rays
(i ) Fr equency of unk nown t unni ng for k can be I t is a gr oup of inclined r ays of light diver ging fr om a
calculat ed. point sour ce or conver ging t o anot her point .
(ii ) M usical inst r ument s can be t uned by r educing
beats.
3. St at ionar y waves.
Stationar y wave is for med when two waves of same (a) (b)
fr equency t r avel l i ng i n opposi t e di r ect i ons ar e Beam of light
super imposed on each ot her. This is a par t icular As shown in t he figur e t he
phenomenon of inter fer ence of waves. I n stationar y gr oup of par al l el r ays i s
waves, t her e is no flow of ener gy in eit her dir ection. called beam of light .
The medi um get s spl i t up i nt o segment s, each D iver gent r ays
segement vibr at ing up and down a whole.Ther e I f r ays of l i ght ar e di ver gi ng fr om a poi nt sour ce
ar e some par t icles which ar e per manent ly at r est ,
so t hat di st ance bet ween r ays goes on i ncr easi ng
called nodes ‘N’ while others which suffer maximum
as t hey m ove f or war d, t hen t he gr ou p i s cal l ed
displacement fr om t he mean posit ion ar e called
diver gent r ays as shown in fi gur e (a) above.
antinodes.
Conver gent rays
L ongit udinal st at ionar y waves
These can be pr oduced in a long flexible spr ing or in I f r ays of light ar e conver ging t o a point so t hat t he
air column inside a closed end or open end pipe. dist ance bet ween t he r ays goes on decr easing as t hey
move for war d, then t he gr oup is called convergent rays
E lect r omagnet ic waves
as shown in figur e (b) above.
These can be pr oduced by r apid vibr at ion of cur r ent in
a conduct or. I f r esist ance of conduct or is ver y small, Parallel r ays
t hen fr equency of t he oscillat ion is given by I f successive light r ays keep equal dist ance t hr ough,
1 t hen t hey ar e par allel r ays.
f= ...  f  n 
2 L C I M AGE
I f a pencil of diver ging fr om a point ‘O’ is caused by
Spect r um of E lect r omagnet ic waves
r eflect ion (or r efr act ion) t o conver ge or t o appear t o
Fr equency (Hz)  104 106 108 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 diver ge fr om some ot her point I , t hen I is called image
Wavelengt h (m). of t he object ‘O’.
104 102 100 10 – 2 10 – 4 10 – 6 10 – 8 10 – 10 10 – 12 10 – 14 Real image
Radio micro U.V, V.L X-rays,  -r ays I f r eflected (or r efr act ed) r ays fr om fir st point act ually
Visible range is comprised of radiations with frequency meet at the second point, then the second point is called
/ wavelengt h r ange : r eal image of fir st point . Real image can be t aken on
t he scr een.
Fr equency : 3.84  1014 H z < f < 7.69  1014 H z Virt ual image
Wavelengt h : 7.80  10 7 m > l > 3.90  10 7 I f r eflect ed (or r efr act ed) r ays fr om fir st point appear
t o meet at t he second point , t hen it is called vir t ual
r ed violet image of fir st point . I t can not be t aken on t he scr een.
DOPPLER EFFECT REFLECTI ON AN D REFRACTI ON
Whenever t her e is a r elat ive mot ion bet ween sound
Refl ect i on
sour ce and t he obser ver, t her e is an appar ent change
in fr equency of t he sound sour ce. This effect is called I t is bending of l ight t o t he fir st medium fr om t he
Doppler effect . sur face of separ at ion of t he t wo media. The r ays ar e
sen t back by t h i s pr ocess. T h e ph en om en on of
L I GH T r eflect ion of light is shown in t he figur e.
I t is an agent which pr oduces in us t he sensat ion of I ncident ray Reflected ray
sight . I t it self is
invisible but makes t he ot her object s visible. I t may Plane mirr or
be defined as t he r adiant ener gy which pr oduces t he Refr act i on
sensat ion of light . I t is bending of light fr om it s st r aight pat h as it ent er s
M I RROR fr om one medium t o anot her.
I t is a highly polished sur face fr om which most of light
is r eflect ed.
II
RAY OF LI GH T
I t is a st r aight line pat h along which t he t r ansfer of I

light ener gy t akes place.

l
 1.18 Physics
M EDI U M Regular r eflect ion
Opt imal medium When a beam of par allel light r ays falls on a shining
A subst ance or any por t ion of space t hr ough which but plane sur face, t he light r ays ar e r eflect ed back in
light can pass is called opt ical medium . I t can be solid, t he same or der. I t is r egular r eflect ion.
liquid or gas.
H omogeneous or I sot r opic medium I nci dent r ay Reflect i ng r ay
M edium possessing same opt ical pr oper t ies in all t he
dir ect ions is called homogeneous medium . A B
Tr anspar ent body I r r egular r eflect ion
I t is a body t hr ough which light can pass easily, e.g. When light beam falls on r ough but uneven sur face
air, glass et c. t he light r ays r eflect ed back in many dir ect ions. This
Tr anslucent body is known as ir r egular r eflect ion. I t gives scat t er ed or
I t is the body through which light can pass only partially, diffused light.
so t hat object can be seen only indist inct ly, e.g. oiled
paper. I nci dent r ay Reflect i ng r ay
Opaque body
I t is a body which does not allow light t o pass t hr ough A B
i t , e.g. br i ck s, wood et c. N o subst ance i s per fect l y LAWS OF REFLECTI ON
t r anspar ent or per fect ly opaque. The r eflect ion of light fr om a plane sur face like t hat of
L uminous body a plane mir r or takes place accor ding to two laws which
A body that emits light itself is called as luminous body, ar e called t he laws of r eflect ion .
e.g. st ar, sun, fir e et c. F irst law of Reflect ion
N on-luminous body The incident r ay t he r eflect ed r ay, and t he nor mal all
A subst ance t hat does not emit light it self is called lie in t he same plane.
non-luminous body. Second law of Reflect ion
REFLECTI ON OF LI GH T The angle of r eflect ion is always equal t o t he angle of
The pr ocess of sending back t he light r ays which fall incidence.
on t he sur face of an object is called r eflect ion of light . i=r
N N or mal TYPES OF M I RRORS
A B 1. Plane mir r or
I nci dent r ay i Refl ect i ng r ay When a plane mir r or is r ot at ed t hr ough an angle ,
r
  M ir r or t hen t he image is r ot at ed t hr ough an angle 2.
M O M 2. Spher ical mir r or
N I t is t hat mir r or whose r eflect ing sur face is t he par t
I ncident r ay of a hollow spher e of glass. Ther e ar e t wo t ypes
The r ay of light or iginat ing fr om t he sour ce and falling ( i ) Concave mir r or
on t he sur face of a mir r or OA is t he incident r ay. I t is that spher ical mir r or in which the r eflection
Point of incidence of light t akes place at t he concave sur face (or
I t is the point at which the incident r ay comes in contact bent in sur face).
wit h t he mir r or. O is t he incident point . M i r r or
Reflect ed r ay IR
The r ay of light which is sent back by t he mir r or is
called r eflect ed r ay . OB is t he r eflect ed r ay.
N or mal R.R
The nor mal is a line at r ight angles to the mirr or sur face
Concave
at t he point of incidence. ON is t he nor mal.
Angle of incidence (i) Sur face
I t is the angle made by the incident r ay with the nor mal ( ii ) Convex mir r or
at t he point of incidence.
I t is that spherical surface at which the r eflectioin
Angle of reflect ion (r) of l i ght t ak es pl ace i s convex sur face or t he
I t is t he angle made by t he r efl ect ed r ay wi t h t he sur face bulges out war ds.
nor mal at t he point of incidence.
 Physics 1.19
FOCAL LEN GTH L aws of Refr act ion
Focal lengt h of a concave or convex mir r or is equal t o 1. The incident ray, nor mal to the sur face of separation
half of t he r adius of cur vat ur e at t he point of incidence and r efr act ed r ay lie in t he
r same plane.
f=
2 2. Sine of angle of incidence bear s a const ant r at io t o
Relat ion bet ween Conjugat e dist ances (M ir r or t he sine of angle of r efr act ion, i.e
for mul a) sin i
1 1 1 I I = Snell's law 
 
I
sin r
v u f wher e, I I I is r efr act ion index of I I medium wit h
1 1 1
  r espect t o medium I .
I mage dist ance Object dist ance Focal lengt h
TOTAL I N TERN AL REFLECTI ON
L inear M agnificat ion I f angle of incidence is incr eased beyond cr it ical angle,
I t is defined as t he r at io of image dist ance t o object ive t hen t he r ay is r eflect ed back int o t he fir st medium.
distance. This phenomenon is called t ot al int er nal r eflect ion .
v Cr it ical angle
m=
u At a par t i cul ar angl e of i nci dence, t he angl e of
(or ) I t is the r atio which the size of image bear s to the r efr act ion (r ) becomes 90. The angle of incidence(c)
size of object. for which t he angle of r efr action is 90, is called cr itical
I angle.
m= Angle of Disper sion
O
Ar eal magnificat ion The differ ence in angles of deviat ion of any t wo r ays is
M agnificat ion in ar ea is called ar eal magnificat ion. I t called angle of disper sion for t hose r ays.
is given by D i sper si on
Area of image v 2 The separation of white light into its constituent colours
m2 =  by r efr act ion(or ) ot her means is called disper sion of
Area of object u 2
light .
Sign convent ion used in M irrors
A
(1) All dist ances ar e measur ed fr om t he pole of t he
mi r r or. IR
Red
Bl ue
(2) Dist ances opposit e t o t he dir ect ion of incident r ay Whit e l i ght
Yel l ow
ar e t aken as negat ive.
(3) Dist ances in t he dir ect ion of incident r ay ar e t aken B C

as posit ive. D isper sive power

(4) When image is r eal, v is t aken as negat ive.
When image is vir t ual, v is t aken as posit ive.
(5) Focal lengt h of a concave mir r or is negat ive.
Focal lengt h of a convex mir r or is posit ive.
(6) Downwar d dist ances ar e t aken as negat ive (– ve).
Upwar d dist ances ar e t aken as posit ive (+ve).
REFRACTI ON OF LI GH T
When a r ay of light passes fr om one medium t o ot her,
it suffer s a change in dir ect ion at t he boundar y of
separ at ion of t wo media. This is called r efr act ion .
AON = i = angle of incidence
A N Nor mal r ay
I ncident ray
Medium I
O Plane mir ror
M M
Medium I I r 2. Concave lens (diver gent ).
i Refr act ion r ay
N B
NN  = nor mal t o t he sur face at point A
BON = r = angle of r efr act ion
I t is r at io of t he disper sion bet ween any t wo colour s t o
t he deviat ion suffer ed in t he same pr ism by t he mean
r ay.
v  R
W =  1
y
CU RVED SU RFACES
I f cur ved sur faces ar e spher ical, t hen t he lenses ar e
called spher ical lenses.
Types of curved surfaces
Cur ved sur faces ar e of t wo t ypes.
1. Convex lens (convergent ).
The dist inguishing char acter ist ic of a convex lens is
t hat it is t hicker at t he cent r e t han at t he edges.
Focal lengt h of convex lens is posit ive.
The dist inguishing char act er ist ic of a concave lens
is t hat , it is t hinner at t he cent r e t han at edges.
Focal lengt h of concave lens is negat ive.
 1.20 Physics
LEN S H ypermet r opia or L ong sight edness
Power of lens I t is t he defect of t he eye when i t cannot see near
I t is it s abilit y t o conver ge or diver ge t he r ays of light . object clear ly. This defect can be cor r ect ed by using a
I t is measur ed as r ecipr ocal of t he focal lengt h of a conver ging lense of cor r ect focal lengt h.
lens expr essed in met r es. At igmat i sm
1 I t is a defect of t he eye when a st r aight object looks as
Power of lens (P) =
f  mt s cur ved. I t occur s due t o asymmet r ic cur vat ur e of eye
lens. This defect is cor r ect ed by using cylindr ical lens.
L ens formula
T ELESCOPES
The gener al for mula for connect ing object and image
dist ance, for bot h t he convex and concave lens is They ar e used t o br ing t he dist ance object s closer and
hence incr eases t he visual angle (i). I t is an opt ical
1 1 1 inst r ument .
= 
f v u Types of Telescopes
L ens-M aker 's formula 1. Ast r onomical t elescope 2. Ter r est r ial t elescope
For mula for t he r efr act ion t hr ough a lens is 3. Galellion t elescope 4. Reflect ing t elescope.
1  1 1  M I CROSCOPE S
=    1  
f  R1 R 2  M icr oscope is an opt ical instr ument which for ms lar ge
wher e,  = r efr act ive index of t he lens i mage of a cl ose and mi nut e obj ect . Th i s i m age
subt ends a lar ge visual angle at t he eye so t hat t he
N ewt on's formula for lenses
2 object looks lar ge.
x 1x 2 = f
Types of M icroscopes
wher e, x 1 = dist ance of object fr om t he fir st focus
1. Compound micr oscope 2. Simple micr oscope
x 2 = dist ance of image fr om t he second focus.
3. Elect r onic micr oscope
Combinat ion of t wo lenses in cont act
ABERRATI ON OF LEN SES
1 1 1
Focal lengt h f is given by, =  The image for med by t he lense suffer fr om following
f f1 f 2 t wo main dr awbacks :
Power, P = P1 + P2 1. Spher ical aber r at ion
H U M AN EYE Aber r at i on of t he lens due t o which all t he r ays
Human eye for ms r eal image on the r etina. The eyeball passes thr ough t he lense ar e not focussed at a single
is near ly spher ical chamber and can be r ot at ed in t he point and t he image of a point object placed on t he
socket by means of it s six muscles. The out er coat ing axis is blur r ed, is called spher ical aber r at ion .
called scler ot ic consist s of fibr ous whit e t issues. The
fr ont par t of scler ot ic is t r anspar ent . M ar ginal rays
Fm
A nor mal eye has power of accommodat i on whi ch
Par axi al r ays Fp
enables object s as far as infinit y and as close as 25 cm
t o be focussed on r et ina. Fm
N ear point
The shor t est dist ance at which an eye can see clear ly I t can be r educed by using
is called near point . (i ) stops
L east point (ii ) lens of lar ge focal lengt hs
I t is t he dist ance at which an eye can see clear ly. I t is (iii ) plano-convex lenses
t aken as 25 cm for a nor mal eye. (iv) cr ossed lenses
Visual angle (v) combining convex and concave lenses
The angle which an object subtends at our eye is called 2. Chr omat ic aber r at ion
visual angle. The appar ent size of an object as seen by
our eye depends upon t he visual angle. I mage of a whit e object for med by lens is usually
col our ed and bl ur r ed. Thi s defect of t he i mage
M yopia or Shor t sight edness
pr oduced by lens is called chr omat ic aber r at ion .
I t is t he defect of t he eye when it cannot see far -off
WAVE N ATU RE OF LI GH T
object s clear ly.
M yopia occur s due t o Wavefr ont
(i ) elongat ion of t he eye ball, or The focus of all such par t icles of t he medium which
ar e vibr ating in the same phase at any inst ant is called
(ii ) decr ease in focal lengt h of t he lens.
wavefront .
M yopia is cor r ect ed by a concave lens.
 Physics 1.21
I nt erference of light M agnet ic axis
When two light waves of exactly equal fr equency having I t is t he line joining t he t wo poles of a magnet inside
a phase differ ence which is const ant wit h r espect t o it s body.
t ime t r avel in t he same dir ect ion and over lap each M agnet ic mer idian
ot her, t hen t he int ensit y is not unifor m shape. This I t is t he ver t ical plane passing t hr ough axis of fr eely
phenomenon is called int er fer ence of light . suspended magnet .
Polar isat ion of light Geogr aphic mer idian
I t is t he only phenomenon in physics which pr oves I t is t he ver t ical plane passing t hr ough t he axis of
t hat light is a t r ansver se wave. r ot at ion of t he ear t h.
Plane of vibrat ion D eclinat i on
The plane cont aining dir ect ion of vibr at ion and t he I t is t he angle bet ween geogr aphic mer idian and t he
di r ect i on of pr opagat i on of l i ght i s cal l ed plane of magnet ic mer idian at t he place.
vibr at ion . M agnet ic lengt h
Plane of polar isat ion The dist ance bet ween poles of t he magnet is called
The plane passing thr ough the dir ection of pr opagation magnet ic lengt h . I t is denot ed by ‘2 l ’.
an d con t ai n i n g n o vi br at i on s i s cal l ed pl ane of Unit s: met er in S.I . syst em.
polarization .
M agnet ic moment (M )
Br ewest er ’s law I t is pr oduct of t he pole st r engt h (m) and lengt h of
Br ewest er discover ed t hat t her e is a simple r elat ion magnet (2l ) is called magnet ic moment .
bet ween polar ising angle ‘i p’ and r efr act ive index  of
 M = m  2l = 2lm
the mater ial r elat ive t o the sur r ounding medium. This
is called Brewest er ’s law . Unit s: Amper e-met er 2 or joule/t esla
sin i p M agnet ic flux ( )
 = t an i p = The t ot al number of magnet ic lines of for ce nor mal t o
cos i p
a sur face is called magnet ic flux .
The polar ising angle for air glass is 57. Unit s: weber
DOU BL E REFRACTI ON
I ntensity of M agnet ic field (H )
I t was discover ed by Er asmous Bar t hdinous. A r ay of When a magnetic mat er ial is place in a magnetic field,
unpol ar i sed l i ght i nci dent on a cal ci t e (or quar t z) it becomes magnetised. The capability of magnetic field
cr y st al , spl i t s u p i n t o t w o r ef r act ed r ays. T h e t o magnet ise a mat er ial is called magnet ic intensit y of
phenomenon is called double r efr act ion . t he field.
DI FFRACTI ON OF LI GH T B
Bending of light ar ound t he edges of an obst acle, or H =
0
encr oachment of light wit hin t he geomer t ical shadow
Unit s : amp/met r e.
is called diffr act ion of light .
M agnet ic pot ent ial
At mospher e is t r anspar ent t o visible r adiat ion, but
M agnet ic pot ent ial at a point is defined as t he wor k
almost opaque t o infr ar ed r adiat ions.
done car r ying a unit nor t h pole fr om infinit y t o t hat
L ow lying clouds pr event infr ar ed r adiat ions t o pass point against t he field. or
t hr ough t hem and t hey keep t he ear th’s sur face war m
at night . This effect is called gr een house effect . Magnetic potential is defined as a quantity whose space
r at e of var iation in any dir ect ion gives int ensit y of t he
The differ ence bet ween int er fer ence and diffr act ion is
magnet ic field.
t hat super -posit ion effect bet ween wavelet s st ar t ing
Unit s : joule/weber
fr om t wo coher ent sour ces whi l e di r ect i on i s t he
diffr act ion in t he super posit ion. M AGN ETI C SU BSTAN CES
M AGN E T I SM 1. D iamagnet ic subst ances
These ar e subst ances which on being placed in a
M agnet ic Poles (m)
magnet ic field get feebly magnet ised in dir ect ion
When a magnet is br ought near a heap of ir on filling
opposi t e t o t hat of t he magnet i si ng fi el d. Such
t he ends of t he magnet show t he gr eat est at t r act ion.
substances get r epelled when br ought near a st r ong
These ends wher e the magnetic attr action is maximum
magnet. This pr oper t y of diamagnet ic subst ances is
ar e called poles of a magnet .
called diamagnetism .
I n ever y magnet ther e ar e t wo poles e.g. Bi smut h (BI ), H ydr ogen (H 2), Ni t r ogen (N 2),
1. Sout h pole ; 2. Nor t h pole. Water (H 2O), Common salt (NaCl), Diamond (C), Gold
S.I . unit of st r engt h of a magnet ic pole: amper e met er (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) et c
 1.22 Physics
2. Par amagnet ic subst ances connect i ng wi r e, as shown i n Fi g. (b), t he posit i ve
These ar e subst ances which on being placed in a char ge passes on t he ear t h as shown in Fi g. (c). N ow
di amagnet i c fi el d get feebl y magnet i sed i n t he i f we fi r st r emove t he connect i ng wi r e and t hen t he
dir ect ion of t hese magnet ic field. Such subst ances, char ged r od, t he negat i ve char ge spr eads on t he
get at t r act ed t owar ds t he magnet , when br ought whol e conduct or as shown i n Fi g. (d).
near a str ong magnet. This pr operty of paramagnetic I nsulat or + Insulator +
+ + + +
subst ances is called paramagnet ism . B A B A
e.g. Aluminum (Al), Sodium (Na), Plat inum (Pt ),
M anganese (M n), Copper (I I ) chlor ide (CuCl 2) et c Glass r od Glass r od
(a) (b)
3. F er r omagnet ic subst ances +
I nsulat or + + Insulator
These ar e those which on being placed in a magnet ic
B A B A
field get st r ongly magnet ised in t he dir ect ion of t he
magnet ic field. Such subst ances when br ought near Glass r od
t he magnet get ver y much at t r act ed t owar ds t he (c) (d)
magnet . This pr oper t y of fer r omagnet ic subst ances ELECTRI C F ORCE
is called ferr omagnet ism . I t is t he for ce exper ienced by a char ge ‘q’ placed at a
e.g. Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Magnetite (Fe3O4) point in an elect r ic field of int ensit y ‘E’.
E L E CT ROSTAT I CS Mathematically, F = Eq
ELECTRI CI TY Unit s : newt on
Amber, glass, ebonit e, sulphur et c. on being r ubbed Coulomb's I nverse square law
at t r act l i ght bodi es. Thi s pr oper l y i n mat er i al s i s I t st at es t hat t he for ce of at t r act i on (or ) r epul sion
developed due to electrification by friction. On acquiring bet ween two char ges is
t his pr oper ty, the mat er ial is called elect rified and t his
(i ) dir ect ly pr opor tional to the pr oduct of two char ges,
pr oper t y is called electr icity . The elect r icit y developed
on bodies, when t hey ar e r ubbed wit h each ot her is (ii ) inver sely pr opor tional to the squar e of the distance
called fractional elect r icity (or ) stat ic elect r icity . bet ween t hem.
Types of E lect ricit y q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2 qq
i.e. F  or F=  k 12 2
1. Posit ive char ges r2 4 0 d 2 r
2. Negat ive char ges
1
Rules : L ike char ges r epel and unlike char ges at t r act wher e, k
each ot her. 4 0
Test : Repulsion is a super t est of elect r ificat ion. k = constant called permitivity or dielectric constant
E lect r oscope = 9  109 Nm 2/c2
I t is an inst r ument used t o det ect and det er mine t he Value of k depends upon
kind of elect r icit y pr esent on a char ged body. (i ) unit s in which for ce, char ge and dist ance
Electric field (E) (ii ) nat ur e of int er vening medium
The r egion in t he neighbour hood of an elect r ic char ge Unit s : Nm 2/c2
wher e its influence can be exper ienced is called electric
SEM I CON DU CT OR
field.
I t allows t he cur r ent par t ially when t he t emper at ur e
Unit s : newt on/coulomb (or ) volt /met r e
is incr easing conduct ivit y also incr easing r esist ance
CH ARGE I N DU CTI ON wi l l be decr easi ng. Thi s i s t he speci al pr oper t y of
L et a conduct or AB is mount ed on an insulating st and semiconduct or.
as shown bel ow. Br i ng a posi t i vel y char ge i n t he e.g. Ge, Si
conduct or is at t r act ed t owar ds t he glass r od while t he
posit ive char ge is r epelled. Thus near end A of t he ELECTRI C FI ELD I N TEN SI TY (E)
conduct or acquir es negat ive char ge and it s far end B I nt ensit y of t he elect r ic field at a point is defined as
acquir es posit ive char ge. When posit ively char ged r od t he for ce exper ienced by a unit posit ive char ge when
is r emoved, t he conductor against becomes elect r ically placed at t hat point .
neut r al. I f a small t est char ge q0 exper iences a for ce F at a
T h i s sh ow s t h at du r i n g i n du ct i on , equ al an d point in a elect r ic field, t hen int ensit y E of t he elect r ic
opposi t e char ges ar e i nduced at t he t wo ends of field at t hat point is given by
t he conduct or. Holding the positively char ged r od near
E = F/q0
t he conduct or, i f far end is connect ed t o ear t h wi t h a
 Physics 1.23
I t is a vect or quant it y and has t he same dir ect ion as Elect ric pot ent ial energy (U )
t hat of t he for ce on a unit posit ive char ge. Electr ic potential ener gy of a system of char ges is the
Unit : S.I unit of electr ic int ensity is newton/Coulomb. wor k done in br inging these char ges fr om infinity to
ELECTRI C LI N ES OF FORCE near each other to for m the syst em.
The pat h t r aced by a t est char ge fr ee t o move under Pot ent ial ener gy U of a syst em of char ges q1 and q2
t he effect of an elect r ic field is called a line of for ce. separ at ed by a dist ance (r ) a par t is given by
The line of for ce is a cur ve so dr awn t hat a t angent t o
it at any point gives dir ect ion of t he r esult ant elect r ic 1 q1q 2
U= .
field at t hat point . 4 0 r
Pr oper t ies. Capacit or (or ) condenser
(1) A line of for ce st ar t s fr om a posit ive char ge and I t is a device, which is used for st or ing elect r ic char ge.
ends on a negat ive char ge.
Two met al plat es separ at ed by an insulat or const it ut e
(2) No t wo lines of for ce cr oss each ot her. a capacit or or condenser.
(3) I t is always nor mal t o t he sur face of t he conduct or.
Types of Condensers
(4) These do not pass int o a closed conduct or.
1. Fixed condenser 2. Var iable condenser
(5) These cont r act lengt hwise and expand sidewise.
3. Elect r olyt ic condenser 4. L eyden jar
(6) The dir ect ion of for ce is given by t he dir ect ion in
which a fr ee posit ive char ge t ends t o move. Capaci t ance
I t is t he r at io of char ge of a conduct or t o it s pot ent ial
Q
+Q –Q C= far ad
V
CAPACI TY (C)
Electric int ensity at a point in an Electric field The capacit y of a conductor may be defined as t he r at io
I t is equal t o t he for ce in dynes exper ienced by a unit bet ween t he char ge ‘Q’ given t o t he conduct or and t he
positive charge when placed at that point. The dir ection pot ent ial V t o which it is r aised.
of elect r ic int ensit y is t he same as t hat for ce. Q
i .e. C= far ad
1 q V
Elect r ic int ensit y at a point , E =  2 Capacity of conductor is 1 far ad if a char ge of 1 coulomb
4 E d
Unit s : dynes/e.s.u (or ) is r equir ed t o r aise it s pot ent ial 1 volt
ELECTRI C DI POLE 1 coulomb
 1 far ad =
I t is a pair of equal and opposite char ge separ at ed by a 1 volt
fixed dist ance is called elect r ic dipole. Unit : Pr act ical unit of capacit y is far ad.
ELECTRI C POTEN TI AL Far ad is t he capaci t y of conduct or whose pot ent i al
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is r aises by 1 volt when char ge of 1 coulomb is given t o it
measured by the amount of work done in taking a unit 3  109 st at coulomb
1 coloumb
+ve charge from infinity to that point against electric forces. 1 far ad = =
1 volt 1 / 300 st at volt
1 far ad = 9  1011 st at far ad
+Q +Q
Capacit y of a parallel plat e condenser
t
Unit : volt X Y

1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb = 1/300 e.s.u. of pot ent ial

Pot ent ial difference (V)
The potential difference between two points in an electric
field is defined as the amount of wor k done in moving a d
unit posit ive char ge fr om one point to t he other. K 0 A
C= Far ad
I f W amount of wor k is r equir ed t o move a char ge Q d
fr om one point t o anot her in t he elect r ic field, t hen I f t her e i s vacuum (or ai r )
pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t wo point s is given by bet ween plat es, t hen k = 1
W 0 A
V= or W = QV
Q  C0 =
d
S.I . unit Volt
1.24 Physics
I f t her e is a dielect r ic medium (inst ead of vacuum) E lect r omot ive for ce
bet ween t he plat es, t hen capacit ance of t he capacit or I t is t he pot ent ial differ ence at t he poles of t he cell
incr eases k t imes
when no cur r ent is flowing (open cir cuit ).
C = kC
E lect r ic cir cuit
wher e, k = dielect r ic const ant of medium
I t is t he closed pat h along which an elect r ic cur r ent
d = dist ance bet ween t he plat es in cm
flow.
A = ar ea of t he plat e in sq. cm
Cu r r en t f l owi ng t hr ough t he ci r cui t ( cl osed
Capacit or s in Ser ies combinat ion ci r cui t )
When a number of capacitor s having capacit ies C1, C2,
When t he cell is in closed cir cuit , a par t of e.m.f is
C3 ... Cn ar e joi ned i n ser i es, t hen t hei r combi ned
capacity is used up t o over come int er nal r esist ance ‘r ’ of t he cell.
I n such a case, cur r ent flowing t hr ough cir cuit
1 1 1 1 1
=    ...  R
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
+q +q +q +q
i
E
+ v1 v2 v3 vn r
V
Capacit or s in Par allel combinat ion E
i=
When ‘n' number of capacit or s having C1, C2, C3 ... Cn Rr
ar e joined in par allels t heir combined capacit y is wher e, E = e.m.f of t he cell
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn r = int er nal r esist ance of t he cell
Wh en ‘n ’ capaci t or s ar e con n ect ed i n par al l el R = ext er nal r esist ance of t he cir cuit
combinat ion, t hen pot ent ial r emains const ant and t he
I f V is pot ent ial differ ence bet ween t he poles, t hen
r esult ant capacit y should be incr easing.
C1 q1
V = E – ir
Ammet er
C2 q2 I t is an inst r ument used t o measur e elect r ic cur r ent
in amper es.
+q C3 q3 –q Vol t met er
A B
I t i s an i n st r u m en t u sed t o m easu r e pot en t i al
differ ence bet ween t wo point s in volt s.
Cn qn
Ohm’s law
LI GH TN I N G CON DU CTOR
I t st at es t hat cur r ent flowing t hr ough a conduct or is
When a char ged cloud passes by a t all building, t he
direct ly pr opor t ional t o the pot ential differ ence across
char ge on t he cloud passes t o t he ear t h t hr ough t he
it s ends, if t emper at ur e and ot her physical condit ions
building. This causes a big damage t o t he building.
r emain unchanged.
Thus t o pr ot ect t he t all building fr om light ing, t he
light ing conduct or s, (which ar e point ed met al r oads) Vi or V = iR
passes over t he char ge on t he clouds t o ear t h, t hus wher e, V = pot ential differ ence
pr ot ect ing the buildings. i = cur r ent , R = r esist ance
CU RRE N T E L E CT RI CI T Y S.I . unit of r esist ance is ohm .
EL ECTRI C CU RREN T L imit at ion of Ohm’s law
I t is defined as t he r at e of flow of char ge t hr ough any (1) Only small cur rent should be allowed to flow through
sect ion of a conduct or. I f a char ge ‘q’ passes t hr ough
t he ci r cui t so t hat t emper at ur e shoul d r emai n
any sect i on of a conduct or i n t ime t , t hen cur r ent
const ant .
flowing t hr ough it is given by
(2) The conduct or should not be subject ed t o any kind
q
i= of st r ess or st r ain or t ension.
t
ELECT RI C RESI STAN CE
Unit : amper e
The elect r ic r esist ance of a conduct or is t he pr oper t y
When one coulomb of char ge flow t hr ough any sect ion
of t he conduct or by vir t ue of which it opposes t he flow
of a conduct or in one second, t hen cur r ent fl owi ng
of cur r ent t hr ough it .
t hr ough it is called one amper e.
 Physics 1.25
L aws of Resist ance ELECTRI C EN ERGY (JOU LE’S LAW)
Resist ance of t he conduct or, Joule found t hat t he amount of heat (H ) pr oduced in a
R  L engt h of conduct or (l) conduct or is dir ect ly pr opor t ional t o
l (i ) squar e of cur r ent (i) flowing thr ough the conductor,
R
Ar ea of cr oss-sect ion a  (ii ) r esist ance (R) of t he conduct or and
1 (iii ) t ime (t ) for which t he cur r ent flows.
R = 
a
 H  i 2RT
wher e  = specific r esist ance.
This r elat ion is called Joule's law
Specific r esist ance () is also called r esist ance and it s
1 I 2 Rt
r eciprocal   is called conductivity (k) of the mater ial. or H = (in calor ies)
 J
wher e J = 4.18
1 EL ECTRI C POWER
k=

Elect r ic power of an appliance is defined as t he r at e
Specific resist ance (or) Resist ivit y (  ) of consumpt i on of el ect r i c ener gy or as i t s r at e of
I t is defined as t he r esist ance offer ed by 1m lengt h of doing wor k.
the conductor having an area of cross-section of 1 square W
met er. P=
t
Ra wher e, W = elect r ic wor k done in t ime t
=
l Unit : S.I . unit of power is wat t .
Unit s of  : ohm-met er or ohm-cm
1 j oul e
CON DU CTAN CE (C) 1 wat t =
second
1
I t is t he r ecipr ocal of r esist ance, i.e. C = or 1 joule = 1 wat t
R
Unit s : mho or ohm – 1 Commer cial unit of elect r ic ener gy is kilowat t hour
Conduct ivit y (K ) 1 kilowat t hour = 1000J/s  3600 s = 3.6  108 J
Colour code for Carbon Resist ances
T h e val u e of r esi st ances used i n el ect r i cal an d
elect r onic cir cuit s var y over a ver y wide r ange.
R These r esi st ances ar e usual l y car bon r esi st ances
4
t em p and a col our code i s used t o i ndi cat e val ue of t he
r esist ance.
I t is r ecipr ocal of t he specific r esist ance (or ) r esist ivit y
(), i.e. N ot e : You can l ear n t he or der of col our by t he
sent ence,
1
k= “ B B R Y of Gr eat Br it ain has Ver y Good Wife”

L etter s as an Colour F i gur e M ulti plier
Unit s : M ho (or ) ohm – 1
aid to memor y
Super conduct ivit y 0
B Black 0 10
I n case of most of t he met als, t her e occur s a decr ease 1
B Br own 1 10
in r esist ance wit h decr ease in t emper at ur e and t he
2
r esi st an ce appr oach es zer o as absol u t e zer o of R Red 2 10
temper atur e is appr oached. This phenomenon is called O Or ange 3 103
super conductivity . Y Yellow 4 10
4

e.g. r esist ance of mer cur y becomes zer o at 4K . 5

G Gr een 5 10
T her mi st or s 6
B Blue 6 10
T h ese al l ow sem i con du ct or m at er i al s, w h ose 7
V Violet 7 10
r esistance var ies appr eciably with r ise in temper atur e.
8
Ther mist or s ar e used in elect r onics indust r y, e.g. t o G Gr ay 8 10
safeguar d t he heat er of a t elevision t ube against t he W Whit e 9 10
9

var iat ions in cur r ent .

1.26 Physics

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Magnets attract magnetic substances such as ir on,
nickel, cobalt et c. They can also r epel :
1. A Jet engine wor ks on the principle of conser vation
of : (a) par amagnet ic subst ances.
(a) linear moment um (b) angular moment um (b) fer r omagnet ic subst ances.
(c) ener gy (d) mass (c) diamagnet ic subst ances.

2. The sur face t emper at ur e of t he Sun is near ly :
(a) 2000K (b) 4000K
(c) 6000K (d) 8000K
3. I f t he elect r ical r esist ance of a t ypical subst ance
suddenly drops to zero, then the substance is called :
(a) super conduct or (b) semiconduct or
(c) conduct or (d) insulat or
4. A spher ical air bubble is embedded in a piece of
glass. For a r ay of light passing thr ough the bubble,
it behaves like a :
(a) conver ging lens.
(b) diver ging lens.
(c) piano-conver ging lens.
(d) piano-diver ging lens.
5. ‘The st ar s seem t o be higher on t he sky t han t hey
act ually ar e'. This can be explained by :
(a) at mospher ic r efr act ion.
(b) disper sion of light .
(c) t ot al int er nal r eflect ion.
(d) diffr act ion of light .
6. Which one among t he following is not a sour ce of
r enewable ener gy ?
(a) H ydr oelectr icit y
(b) Solar ener gy
(c) Fuel cell
(d) Wind ener gy
7. M ass of B is four t imes t hat of A, B moves wit h a
velocit y half t hat of A. Then B has :
(a) kinet ic ener gy equal t o t hat of A.
(b) half t he kinet ic ener gy of A.
(c) t wice t he kinet ic ener gy of A.
(d) kinet ic ener gy one-four t h of A.
8. I n a pr essur e cooker cooking is "fast er because
t he incr ease in vapour pr essur e :
(a) incr eases t he specific heat .
(b) decr eases t he specific heat .
(c) decr eases t he boiling point .
(d) incr eases t he boiling point .
(d) non-magnet ic subst ances.
10. When a r ay of light is going fr om one medium t o
anot her, it s :
(a) wavelengt h r emains same.
(b) fr equency r emains same.
(c) fr equency incr eases.
(d) wavelengt h incr eases.
11. A body init ially at r est is acted upon by a const ant
for ce. The r at e of change of i t s ki net i c ener gy
var ies :
(a) linear ly wit h squar e r oot of t ime.
(b) linear ly wit h t ime.
(c) linear ly wit h squar e of t ime.
(d) inver sely wit h t ime.
12. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng st at ement s i s
cor r ect ?
(a) Convex mir r or s ar e used by doctor s to examine
or al cavit y
(b) Concave mir r or s ar e used as r eflect or s
(c) Convex mir r or s ar e used as r eflect or s
(d) Convex mir r or s should be used for shaving
13. Bat s can ascer t ain dist ances, dir ect ions, nat ur e
and size of t he obst acles at night . This is possible
by r eflect ion of t he emit t ed :
(a) ult r asonic waves fr om t he bat .
(b) ult r asonic waves fr om t he dist ant object s.
(c) super sonic waves fr om t he bat .
(d) super sonic waves fr om t he dist ant object s.
14. L ight t r avels slower in glass t han in air because:
(a) r efr act ive index of air is less t han t hat of glass.
(b) r efr act ive index of air is gr eat er t han t hat of
glass.
(c) densit y of glass is gr eat er t han t hat of air.
(d) densit y of glass is less t han t hat of air.
15. The lines of for ce of a unifor m magnet ic field :
(a) must be conver gent .
(b) must be diver gent .
(c) must be par allel t o each ot her.
(d) int er sect .
 Physics 1.27

LEVEL-1 m1  m 2
(a) g (b) g
1. As t he speed of char ged par t icl e incr eases in a m1
cycl ot r on, (choose Tr ue (T) or False (F))
m1  m 2 m2
(a) t he par t i cl e moves t o a lar ger ci r cle (c) g (d) .g
m2 m1  m 2
(b) t her e i s r elat ivist ic change in t he mass of t he
par t icle [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) fr equency of t he cycl ot r on has t o be adjust ed 7. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is cor r ect ?
(a) F, F, F (b) T, T, T (a) Speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s
(c) T, F, T (d) T, T, F (b) Speed of light is differ ent for differ ent colour s
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (c) Speed of li ght i s differ ent in differ ent media
(d) Al l of t he above
R1 R 2
2. The for mula R = r epr esent s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
R1  R 2
8. I n H ei sen ber g's U ncer t ai ni t y pr i nci pl e, t he
(a) ser i es connect i on uncer t ai ni t y of moment um and posi t i on of a
(b) par allel connect ion par t icle can be
(c) br idge connect i on (a) r educed usi ng smal ler wavelengt h of pr obing
(d) linear connect i on light
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (b) r educed usi ng lar ger wavel engt h of pr obi ng
3. The ear t h conduct or pr ovides a pat h t o gr ound light
for (c) r educed usi ng hi gh ener gy pr obe par t i cl es
(a) ci r cui t cur r ent (b) leak age cur r ent acceler at ed by cyclot r on
(c) over cur r ent (d) hi gh vol t age (d) can 't be r edu ced as i t i s f u n dam en t al l y
inher ent
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
4. I f t he mass of sun, ear t h and di st ance bet ween
t hem is r espect i vel y M , m and r ; wor k done by 9. The speed of sound in air is approximately equal
t he sun's gr avi t y on ear t h for one r evol ut i on to :
r ound t he sun is (a) 3 × l08 m/sec (b) 330 m/sec
GM m (c) 5000 m/sec (d) 1500 m/sec
(a) zer o (b)
r2 [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

GM m GM m 10. 'When a body is wholly or partially, immersed in

(c) 2 (d) 2 a fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to the
r r2
weight of the fluid displaced'. This is known as:
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Pascal's principle
5. The choke of a t ube light wor k s on t he pr i nciple
of (b) Archimedes principle
(a) bi-met allic (b) capacitance (c) Stoke's law
(c) induct ance (d) ionizat ion (d) Newton's Laws of Motion
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

6. I n t he fi gur e below, what is t he acceler at ion of 11. Which one of the following is not a scalar
body wit h mass m 2, gi ven g i s t he acceler at i on quantity?
due t o gr avit y (assume pulley and sur faces ar e (a) Volume (b) Mass
smoot h) (c) Force (d) Length
m1 [RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
12. The resultant of two forces P and Q acting at an
angle 0, is given by :

m2 (a) P 2  Q 2  2PQt an 

(b) P 2  Q 2  2PQsin 
1.28 Physics
4. What is the boiling point of water in Kelvin Seale?
(c) P 2  Q 2  2PQcos 
(a) 100 K (b) 273 K
(d) P  Q  2PQtan  (c) 373 K (d) 300 K
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

13. A cyclotron is a : 5. Acid r ain is caused by:

(a) Bunch of Gamma Rays (a) CO & CO2 (b) SO2 & O2
(b) High Frequency Oscillator (c) SO2 & N O2 (d) NO2 & O2
(c) Particle Accelerator [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(d) None of these 6. Whi ch pl anet has hot t ur bul ent at mospher e
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] dominat ed by car bon-di-oxide?
14. The nucleus of an atom generally, contains : (a) Venus (b) Mars
(a) Protons and Neutrons (c) Jupiter (d) Nept une
(b) Protons and Electrons [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) Electrons and Neutrons 7. A tunic fork when sounded together with another
t uni ng for k of k nown fr equency of 240 H z, emi t s
(d) Only Neutrons
2 beat s. On l oadi ng t he t uning for k of known
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] fr equency t he number of heat s hear d ar e one
15. A bullet is fired vertically upwards with a velocity per second. The fr equency of the t uning for k is:
of 196 m/sec. What is the maximum height (a) 241Hz (b) 242 H z
reached by the bullet ? (Assuming g = 9.8 m/sec2)
(c) 239 H z (d) 238 H z
(a) 1960 m (b) 196 m
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 980 m (d) 490 m
8. Tachymet er (or Tacheomet er i s an i nst r ument
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] for measur ing-
LEVEL-2 (a) rpm
1. I n a cl assi cal bl ood pr essu r e m easu r i n g (b) Tor que
inst r ument in which t he doct or obser ves t he r i se (c) Rot at ional kinet ic ener gy
and fall of mer cur y, the hand air pump is attached
(d) Dist ances
t o a-
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) I sobar (b) Tr ansducer
9. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s N OT u sed f or
(c) M anomet er (d) M er cur y column
measur ement of t emper at ur e?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Ther mocoupl es (b) Ther most at s
2. Conser vat ion of ener gy cor r esponds t o which law
(c) Pyr omet er s (d) Al l ar e used
of t her modynamics?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Zer ot h l aw (b) Fi r st l aw
10. Al um i n i u m i s comm onl y used as con du ct or
(c) Second l aw (d) Thir d l aw
material in tr ansmission lines compar ed to copper
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] because:
3. I n our house when we swi t ch on heavy l oad (a) I t i s mor e conduct i ve
appl iances, we not i ce t hat t her e is sl ight di p in
(b) I t s t ensi le st r engt h is mor e
t he gl ow of t he bulb t hat was al r eady swit ched
on. Thi s i s due t o- (c) I t i s cost li er
(a) H eavy cur r ent dr awn by heavy load (d) I t i s cheaper and l ight er
(b) Addi t ional r esist ance added t o t he cir cuit [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]

(c) Resi st ance of elect r ical wi r i ng 11. Find t he dist ance of object fr om a concave mir r or
of focal lengt h 10 cm so t hat t he si ze of i t s r eal
(d) Resi st ance of par t of t he ci r cuit decr easi ng
image i s four t imes t he si ze of t he object .
fr om infi nit y t o a posit ive val ue
(a) 7.5 cm (b) 5 cm
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2.5 cm (d) 12.5 cm
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
 Physics 1.29
12. A bar omet er measur es :
4
(a) Absolut e pr essur e 14. The r efr act ive i ndex of wat er is . What is t he
3
(b) At mospher i c pr essur e speed of li ght i n wat er ?
(c) Gauge pr essur e (a) 2.25 × 108 m/sec (b) 4 × l08m/sec
(d) Vacuum [ RR B SSE 2014 RE D (c) 1.5 × l08m/sec (d) 2.67 × 108 m/sec
SH I F T ]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
13. Which one of t he foll owi ng has t he dimensions
15. I f t he electr on in hydr ogen or bit jumps fr om t hir d
of pr essur e ?
or bi t t o second or bit t hen t he wavelengt h ( o f
(a) MLT – 2 t he emit t ed r adi at ion i s given by : (wher e R =
(b) ML – 1T – 2 Rydber g const ant )
(c) ML – 2T – 2 R R
(a)   (b)  
(d) ML – 1T – 1 6 5
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ] 36 5R
(c)   (d)  
5R 36
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
1.30 Physics
AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (* ) 7. (* ) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 10. When a r ay of light is going fr om one medium t o
an ot h er i t s f r equ en cy r em ai n s sam e an d
1. A jet engine wor ks on the pr inciple of conservation
wavelengt h decr eases.
of linear moment um.
11. A body init ially at r est is acted upon by a constant
2. Sur face temper atur e of t he sun in near ly 6000K.
for ce. The r at e of change of it s ki net ic ener gy
3. Wh en t he el ect r i cal r esi st an ce of a t ypi cal var ies linear ly wit h squar e of t ime.
su bst an ce su dden l y dr ops t o zer o t h i s
12. Conver e lense of lar ge focal lengt h is used for
phenomenon is called as super conduct or s.
shar ing. I t is also used in solar cooker.
4. A spherical air bubble behaves like a diverging lens.
13. Emission of r eflect ed super sonic waves fr om t he
6. (c) Fuel cell is not a sour ce of r enewable ener gy. bat can ascer t ain distance, dir ect ions, nat ur e and
7. Suppose mass of A = m size of obst acle at night .
 mass of B = 4m 14. L ight t r avels sloveen in glass t han in air because
Velocit y of A = v r efr act ive index of air is less t han t hat of glass.
15. The lines of for ce of a unifor m magnetic field must
V
Velocit y of B = be par allel t o each ot her.
2
1 LEVEL-1
K inet ic ener gy of A = mv2
2 1. All 3 points are true about charged particle in
2 cyclotron whose speed increases. Particle moves
1  v
K int enic ener gy of B = 4m  
 2
to a larger circle, its relativistic mass changes
2 because of speed change and frequency of
1 v2 cyclotron has to be adjusted.
=  4m 
2 4 2. When two resistances are in parallel, the formula
1 gives the value of combined resistance of the
mv2
= circuit.
2
3. Earth conductor allows path for the leakage
So kinet ic ener gy B = K inet ic ener gy A
current in the body of the equipment or tool to
8. We know t hat ground.
Pr essur e Temper at ur e 4. Work done is zero because force is always
as t he incr ease in vapour pr essur e, incr eases t he perpendicular to the direction of movement of
boiling point . the earth. Also another way to look at this is
9. Magnet s at tr act magnetic substance such as ir on, earth returns to the same point after one
ni ck l e, cobal t et c t hey al so r epel di amagnet i c revolution so work done must be zero as there
subst ances. are no latent energy forms involved.

5. Choke works on inductance principle. The
function of choke is to provide high voltage
enough for ionization to take place in a tube light
and after establishment and sustenance of
ionization, limit the voltage across the tube. That
is the reason why a tube fuses when the choke is
shorted.
6. Force = m.a Here m = m1+ m2 But force applied
is m2g. Therefore acceleration = F/m.
7. All the statements are correct. Speed of light
changes in different media and it is different for
different colours in media other than vacuum.
8. The uncertainty of position and momentum of
particle in Heisenberg's Uncertainly principle
cannot be reduced because it is inherent.
10. Archimedes' principle states that the upward
buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed
in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged,
is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body
displaces and acts in the upward direction at the
center of mass of the displaced fluid.
Physics 1.31
Second law of thermodynamics states hot the
entropy of an isolated system always increase.
Third law of thermodynamics states that
entropy of a system approaches a confound
value as the temperature approaches absolute
zero.
 Option (b) is correct.
3. a Heavy current drawn by heavy load because
it has low resistance and takes more power.
4. c Boiling point of water is 373K.
5. c Acid rain is caused by chemical reaction when
compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides are released into air, these substance
rize very high into atmosphere, where they
mix and react with water, oxygen and other
chemicals to form acid rain.
 Option (c) is correct.
6. * Planet Venus has hot-turbulent atmosphere
dominated by CO2.

11. Force is a vector quantity. F = m.a and the 7. * The frequency of tuning fork is
direction of acceleration will determine the = 240 – 2 = 238 Hz
direction of force.
8. a Tachymeter can measure rpm.
12. Whenever two vector quantities are added, their
resultant vector is given by this formula.  Option (a) is correct.
9. d All devices are used to measure temperature.
2 2
P  Q  2PQ cos 
10. b Copper has highest conductivity but low tensile
13. A cyclotron accelerates charged particles strength compare to aluminium as copper is
outwards from the center along a spiral path. must costly so it is no used for transmission
The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a line.
static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly
varying (radio frequency) electric field. 1 1 1
11. d  
u 4u f
14. Both protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus and are together called nucleons. 5u 1
2

However, electrons revolve in orbits outside of 4u 10
the nucleus.
 u = 12.5 cm.
15. v2 – u2 = 2as
12. b A barometer is an instrument used to measure
 0 – (196)2 = – 2 × 9.8 × S atmospheric pressure.
S = 1960  Option (b) is correct
LEVEL-2 Force mass  acceleration
13. b Pr essure  
1. c Manometer is an instrument in which doctor Area Area
observes the rise and fall of mercury.
M1  L1 T 2
2. b First law also known as law of conservation
L2
of energy, states that energy can neither the
created not be destroyed in an Isolated M1 L1 T 2
system.
 Option (b) is correct
1.32 Physics

C 15. d Emitted radiation

14. a Refractive index 
V
1 1  1 1
  4R  2  2   4R  
4 3  108 4 6   16 36 
 
3 V
 36  16   20 
 4R    4R 
9  10 8  16  36   16  36 
V  = 2.25 × 108 m/s
4 5R
 Option (a) is correct 
36
 Option (d) is correct
 2
CHAPTER Chemistry
Composit ion of M at t er F or mul a
Classificat ion of mat t er I t is a gr oup of symbols of element s which r epr esent s
one molecule of a subst ance
M at t er e.g. H y dr ogen H 2 ; Ox y gen O 2 ; N i t r ogen N 2 ;
Chlor ine Cl 2 ; Car bondioxide CO2 et c.
Pur e subst ances M i xt ur es
Chemical E quat i on
El ement s Compounds H omogenous H et er ogenous I t is a way of wr iting a chemical r eaction inter ms of
1. M atter. Anything that has mass and occupies space chemical symbols and for mulae. The equat ion should
is matt er . r epr esent a tr ue chemical r eactionwhich can be done
in an labor ator y. Reactant s ar e wr it t en on left hand
2. Pure Substance. A subst ance is t he for m of mat t er side and pr oducts on r ight hand side and these ar e
w h i ch h as def i n i t e com posi t i on el em en t an d separ ated by an ar r ow (). Each r eactant and pr oduct
compounds and pur e subst ance. ar e seper at ed by(+) si gn.The physi cal st at es ar e
3. M ixture. A combination of two or more substances in r epr esented in br acket s.  r epr esents heat changes. I f
which the substances r etain their identity is mixture. H is negat ive, t he r action is exothermic and if its is
Types of M ixt ures. posit ive, t he r eact ion is endot her mic. The equat ion
( i ) H omogeneous mixt ur e : I t has a uni for m should be balanced.
composit ion t hr oughout it s mass and no visible e.g. 2H 2(g) + O2(g)  2H 2O(l ); H = – 136 K .cal
bou n dr i es of separ at i on bet w een v ar i ou s N ote: Unbalanced r eaction viocates low of conser vation
const it uent s. of mass.
e.g. solut ion of sugar in wat er.
( ii ) H et erogeneous mixt ure : I t i s a subst ances I on s
having different composition throughout its mass. When electr ons ar e r emoved fr om or added to a neutr al
I t has visible boundar ies of separ ation between atom or molecule, a charged particle called ion is formed
various constituents. or ions ar e for med by the heter olytic fission of a covalent
e.g. mixture of sand and cement bond. An ion that bear s a ‘+’ ve char ge is called cations
4. Element. A subst ance that cannot be separ at ed into while those which bears a ‘-’ ve charge ar e called anions.
simpler subst ances by chemical means is element . Types of I ons
Types of Element s. 1. M onoatomic ions. These cont ain only one at om.
( i ) M etal: It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. e.g. M g+2, Fe+3
( ii ) Nonmetal: It is poor conductor of heat and electricity. 2. Polyatomic ions. These contain more than one atom.
( iii ) M et alloid: I t has int er mediat e pr oper t ies of e.g. OH – , SO4– 2
metals and nonmetals.
5. Compound. A subst ance composed of at oms of t wo I oni c Compounds
or m or e el em en t s ch em i cal l y u n i t ed i n f i xed Neut r al compounds containing cations and anions ar e
proportions is compound. I n compound elements loss called ionic compounds. Cat ions ar e most ly der ived
t heir ident it ies. fr om met al at oms.
Monoatomic anions ar e named by the addit ion of suffix
Symbol -ide t o a st em der ived fr om t he name of element .
I t is an abbr eviat ion or shor t ened for m for t he full e.g. Car bide C– 4, Oxide O– 2, Nit r ide N – 3, Fluor ide F – et c
name of an element . This pr esent syst em of symbols
Polyatomic ions containing oxygen are called oxyanions.
was int r oduced by Ber zelius.
Types of I onic Compounds.
Symbols and t heir L at in names
These ar e of t wo t ypes
English name Symbol L atin name
1. suffix-ate : I t is used for ion wit h lar gest number
Ant imony Sb St i bium of oxygen at oms.
Copper Cu Cupr um
Gold Au Aur um e.g. NO3 – nit r at e
I r on Fe Fer r um 2. Suffix -ite : I t is used for ion with smallest number
L ead Pb Plumbum of oxygen at oms.
Sodium Na Nat r ium e.g. N O 2 – nit r it e
 2.2 Chemistry
When an element for ms mor e than two oxyanions, e.g. 2KCI O3(s)  2K CI (s) + 3O2(g)
the prefix per meaning more and hypo meaning less D i ssociat i on.
ar e used in addition to suffixes-ite and - at e. I t is a r ever sible decomposit ion r eact ion.
e.g. Cl O 4 – per chlor at e; Cl O 2 – chlor it e e.g. PCl 5(s)PCl 3 + Cl 2
3. D isplacement React ions
Cl O 3 – chlor at e; ClO– – hypochlor it e React ions in which one element r eplaced anot her
When t wo or mor e ani ons di ffer i n number of element for m a compound ar e called displacement
hydr ogen at oms, t hey ar e named as hydr ogen or reactions.
dihydr ogen . e.g. Zn(s) + H 2SO4(eq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H 2(g)
e.g. PO 43 phosphat e These ar e r edox r eact ions; i.e. t hey involve t r ansfer
of elect r ons fr om one subst ance t o anot her.
H PO42 hydr ogen phosphat e 4. M etathesis Reactions or Double Decomposition
H 2PO4 dihyr ogen phosphat e React ions in which t wo compounds r eact t o for m
t wo new compounds and no changes in oxidat ion
The subscr ipt of t he cat ion is numer ically equal t o number t ake place ar e called met at hesis r eact ions.
t he char ge on t he anion and subscr ipt of t he anion e.g. pr ecipit at ion r eact ions, neut r alisat ion r eact ion
is numer cially equal t o t he char ge on t he cat ion. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
e.g. sodium car bonat e H Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
Na + CO3– 2
1 2 5. I somer i sat ion
N a2 CO3 The i nt er conver si on of one for m of i somer i nt o
Common name F or mula Systematic name anot her is called isomer isat ion.

Dr yice CO2 Solid car bondioxide e.g. NH 4CNO   NH 2CONH 2
Ammonia NH 3 Tr ihydr ogen nitr ide
Table salt NaCl Sodium chlor ide L aws of Chemical Combinat ion
Caust ic soda NaOH Sodium hydr oxide
1. L aw of con ser va t i on of m ass or L aw of
Caust ic potash K OH Pot assium hydr oxide
indest r uct ibilit y of mat t er
Soda ash Na2 CO3 Sodium car bonat e
I n a chemical change, t ot al mass of t he r eact ant s is
Pear l ash K 2 CO3 Pot assium car bonate
equal t o t he t ot al mass of t he pr oduct s;
Quick lime CaO Calcium oxide
M ar ble CaCO3 Calcium car bonat e
or
Slaked lime Ca(OH )2 Calcium hydr oxide M at t er can neit her be cr eat ed nor dest r oyed;
M ilk of M g(OH)2 M agnesium or
managesia hydr oxide Dur ing a chemical r eact ion, t her e is no det ect able
Baking soda NaH CO3 Sodium hydr ogen loss or gain in t he t ot al mass.
ar bonate
Bleacking CaOCl 2 Calcium oxy 2. Law of definite (or) constant proportions (Proust)
powder chlor ide A chemical compound al ways cont ai ns t he same
L aughing gas N 2O Nit r ous oxide element s combined t ogether in t he same pr opor t ion
Cane sugar Cl 2 H 22 O11 Sucr ose by weight
Epsom salt M gSO4. M agnesium sulphate or
7H 2O heptahydr at e A chemical compound has a fixed composition by weight.
Gypsum CaSO4. Calcium sulphat e 3. L aw of mult iple propor t ions (D alt on)
2H 2O dihydr at e
When t wo element s combine t o for m t wo or mor e
compounds, t he di ffer ent wei ght s of one of t he
Types of Chemical React ions
element s combining with the const ant weight of the
1. Combinat ion React ions
ot her bear a simple r at io t o one anot her.
React ions in which t wo or mor e subst ances combine
t o f or m a com pou n d ar e cal l ed com bi n at i on 4. L aw of combining volumes (Gay-L ussac)
reactions. When gases combine, t hey do so in volume which
e.g. 2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2M gO(s) bear a simple r atio t o one anot her and to t he volume
Synt hesis is t he for mat ion of a compound fr om it s of the product pr ovided all gases are measur ed under
const it uent element s. t he same condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
e.g. N 2(g) + 3H 2(g)  2NH 3(g) 5. L aw of r ecipr ocal pr opor t ions (Rit cher )
2. D ecombinat ion React ions When two elements combine separately with a fixed
React i ons i n whi ch a compound decomposes t o weight of a thir d element, the ratio of their weights in
pr oduce t wo or mor e differ ent subst ances ar e called which they do so is either the same or a whole number
decomposit ion r eact ions. of multiple of the r atio in which they react together.
 Chemistry 2.3

At oms conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) or normal

condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e (NTP).
At om
At STP, 22.4 lit r es of all gases have t he same number
I t is the smallest par ticle of an element that maint ains
of molecul es and mass of each vol ume i n gr ams is
chemical ident it y t hr ough all t he chemical changes.
numer ically equal t o it s molecular mass.
That cannot have a st able independent exist ance.
M ol ecul e Avogadr o’s H ypot hesi s
I t is t he smallest par t icle of an element or compound Equal volumes of all gases under similar condit ions of
t hat can have a st able independent exist ence. t emper at ur e and pr essur e cont ain equal number of
mol ecul es.
At omi ci t y 2  volume densit y = M olecular weight
N umber of at oms const it ut i ng a mol ecul e is cal led
atomicity . Relat ive D ensit y
e.g. Nit r ic acid - 5 H NO3 ; H ydr ochlor ic acid - 2H Cl I t is t he r at io of mass a cer t ain volume of a gas t o t he
Ozone - 3O3 mass of t he same volume of hydr ogen under similar
condit ions of t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
At omic M ass
Mass if cer t ain volume of t he gas
I t is t he r at io of mass of one at om of an element t o 1 Relative density =
Mass of same volume of hydrogen
12
par t of mass of car bon -12 at om.
1 amu = 1.667  10– 24g M ass of 22.4 lit r es of any gas at S.T.P is equal t o it s
molecular mass in gr ams.
or Avogr am = 1.667  10– 31 kg
Aver age At omic M ass Avagadr o’s N umber
I t is an aver age based on t he abundance of isot opes of I t is t he number of at oms pr esent in one gr am at om of
t hat element in nat ur e. an element
e.g. Car bon – 12.01 amu; Clor ine – 35.46 amu or
I t is t he number of molecules pr esent in one gr am
Gram Atomic M ass or Gram Atom molecular mass of a subst ance
I t is the numer ical value of t he atomic mass expr essed
or
in gr ams.
I t is t he number of molecules pr esent in one gr am
M ass of el ement s in gr ams molar volume of a gaseous sust ance.
Number of gram atoms =
At omic mass of t he el ement
I t is denot ed by N A , N 0 or N and has a value of 6.023 
M ol ecul ar M ass 1023 and it s unit is mol – 1.
M olecular mass of a substance (element or compound)
is defined as t he r at io of t he mass of one molecule of L oschmi dt N umber
t he subst ance t o 1/12 par t of mass of car bon-12 at om. The number of molecules pr esent in 1 ml of a gas or
M olecular mass of a subst ance vapour at STP is called L oschmidt number .
M ass of one molecule of t he subst ance I t s value is 2.689  1019 ml – 1
=
1
par t of mass of car bon -12 at om M ol e
12
I t is t he amount of subst ance t hat cont ains as many
M ol e element ar y ent it ies as t her e ar e at oms in 0.012 kg of
The numer i cal val ue of t he mol ecul ar mass of a car bon -12
subst ance when expr essed in gr ams is cal led gr am
molecular weight or gr am molecule or gr am mole or or
molar mass or mole. I t i s t he amount of subst ance whi ch cont ai ns one
Mass of subst ance in grams Avagadr o’s number
Number of moles =
Molecular mass 6.023  1023 of par t icles
No. of at om on M olecules or
Number of moles =
6.023  1023 1 mole r epr esent s 22.4 lit r es of a gas at STP
Volume of gas at STP (in lit re)
Number of moles = Gram atomic mass (or gr am at om).
22.4
M ass of 6.023  1023 at oms of an element .
ST P Condi t ions
0 C or 273K t emper at ur e, 1 at mospher e or 760 mm of Gram molecular mass
K g or 76cm of H g pr essur e ar e cal l ed st an dar d M ass of 6.023  1023 molecules of any subst ance.
 2.4 Chemistry

At omic St r uct ur e (6)The empt y space ar ound nucleus i s cal led ext r a
nucluear part . The volume of atom is about 1015 times
F undament al Par t icles t he volume of nucleus.
The t hr ee basic subat omic par t icles; elect r on, pr ot on
(7)This model is called planetary model as it r esembles
and neutr on which for m the building blocks of all atoms
sloar syst em.
ar e called fundamental par ticles.
At omic number, Z
E lect r on
I t is a subat omic par ticle which car r ies a unit negat ive The at omic number of an element is defined as t he
char ge. I t is discover ed by Sir J.J Thomson dur ing t he number of unit post ive char ges or t he pr ot ons pr esent
st udy of cat hode r ays in a dischar ge t ube. The name in t he nuclues of an at om.
was int r oduced by St oney. Z = number of unit posit ive char ges
e/m of elect r on = 1.76  108 coulomb/g = number of pr ot ons
M ass of elect r on = 9.11  10-28 g or 9.11  10 – 31 kg = number of elect r ons (I n case of at om)
1 = ser ial number of elements in periodic table
I t is the mass of hydr ogen, i.e. 0.0005486 amu M oseley’s r elat ionship is,
1837
 (Nu) = a(Z – b)
Rest mass of elect ron
M ass of moving elect r on = wher e,  = fr equency of X - r ay
2
v 
1   Z = at omic number
c
a and b = const ant s.
wher e, v = velocit y of elct r on M ass number (A)
c = velocit y of light I t is t he t ot al number of pr ot ons and neut r ons pr esent
Pr ot on in t he nucleus of an at om of an element .
I t is a subat omic par t ilce which car r ies a unit post ive A = Z + n (atomic number + number of neutrons)
char ge. or n =A– Z
The name pr ot on was suggest ed by Rut her for d.
A
Char ge = + 1.602  10– 19 coulomb
M ass = 1.007276 amu Z
e/m = 9.58  104 c/g wher e, A = mass number
Goldst ein discover ed t he posit ive r ays or canal r ays. Z = at omic number
N eut r on ‘  ’ = symbol of element
I t is a subat omic par t icle which car r ies no char ge. I t is e.g. 11H , 73 L i, 2311Na, 42H e
discover ed by Chadwick.
I sot opes
M ass of neut r on = 1.675  10– 24 g or 1.675  10– 27 kg
These ar e atoms of same element which have t he same
or 1.008665 amu
at omic number but differ ent mass number s.
Pr ot ons and neut r ons ar e found in t he nucleus at t he
They di ffer i n number of neut r ons pr esent i n t he
cent r e of t he at om. The elect r ons r evolve out side t he
nucleus.
nucleus in shells or ener gy levels called unit .
e.g. 3517Cl, 3717Cl
At omic models
Thomson pr oposed wat er melon model of an at om. H e I sobar s
assumed it to be a spher e of positive electr icity in which The at oms of di ffer ent el ement s whi ch have same
t he elect r ons ar e embedded like seed. mass number but differ ent at omic number s ar e called
isobars.
Rut her for d’s  -r ay Scat t er ing E xper iment They di ffer i n number of el ect r ons, pr ot ons and
H is model of at om is called nuclear model . neut r ons.
(1)At om is spher ical and has a lot of empt y space in it . e.g. 146C, 147N
(2)The entir e mass of at om is concentr ated in its cent r e
which is post ively char ged and lies at t he cent r e. I sot ones
(3)The nucleus is sur r ounded by elect r ons which move These ar e t he at oms of differ ent element s which have
in cir cular pat h called or bit s. t he same number of neut r ons.
(4)Number of elect r ons is equal t o number of pr ot ons. e.g. 146C and 168O
H ence t he at om is neut r al. L i ght
(5)Diamet er of nucleus is 10– 13 t o 10– 12 cm and t hat of L ight is a for m of ener gy. I t i s an el ect r omagnet i c
at om is 10– 8 cm. r adiation.
 Chemistry 2.5
N ewt ons cor puscular t heory of light T ype of Wavelength Gener at ion
Accor di ng t o N ewt on, l i ght i s composed of mi nut e r adiation in Å sour ce
par t icles or cor puscules which t r avel in st r aight lines
in all dir ect ions. Gama r ays 0.01 t o 0.1 Nuclei of
r adioact ive
Wave theory of light
element s
Accor ding t o H uygens, l ight t r avels i n t he for m of
X-r ays 0.1 t o 150 By placing a
waves fr om a luminous object in all dir ect ions.
met al obst acle in
Char act er ist ics of Wave pat h of fast
Wavelengt h moving e –
The dir ect distance between any two adjacent ident ical Ultra violet 150 t o 3800 Sun r ays
poi nt s of t he wave, i .e. t he di st ance bet ween t wo rays
adj acent cr est s or t wo adj acent t r oughs i s cal l ed Visi ble 3800 t o 7600 St ar s, ar c l amps
wavelengt h . I t is denot ed by . light
U nit s : m, cm, A 0 or nm; 1 A 0 = 10– 8 cm= 10– 10 m; I nfr ar ed 7600 to 6 106 I ncandescent
1nm=10– 7cm = 10– 9m r ays object ive
F r equency M icr o 6 106 t o K lyst r on t ube
I t is t he number of wave cr est s or t r oughs passing or waves 3 109
t r ough a given point in one second. I t is denot ed by Raido 3 1014 t o Fr om an
(Nu). waves 3 1014 alt er nat ing
Unit s : cycle per second or H er t z(H z) cur r ent wit h
c c high fr equency
h = c or  or  =
  Quant um t heor y
wher e, c = speed of pr opagat ion of wave A black body is a per fect absor ber of ener gy, i.e. it
Fr equency and wavelength ar e inver sely pr opor t ional absor bs complet ely all t he r adiat ions falling on it .
t o each ot her.
Phot o elect ric effect
Vel ocit y
When a beam of light of suit able fequency falls on t he
I t is t he dist ance t r avelled by a wave in one second.I t
sur face of a met al, elect r ons ar e eject ed fr om it . This
is denot ed by ‘c’.
is called phot o elect r ic effect . This was fir st obser ved
Unit s : cms– 1 or ms– 1
by H er t z. The l i ber at ed el ect ons ar e cal l ed phot o
Velocit y of light is 3  1010 cms– 1 or 3 108 ms– 1. electrons.
Wave number
E inst ein’s concept
I t is t he number of waves in one uni t lengt h. I t is
L ight i s pr opagat ed in space in bundles or packet s
denoted by  (Nu bar ). called phot on . Phot on has no mass, t hus one quant um
1 of light is called phot on .
 
 Ener gy of phot on, E = h 
= c 
wher e, n = element const ent
Unit s : cm – 1 or m – 1
Ampl i t ude Bohr ’s T heor y of H yr ogen At om
H eight of t he cr est or dept h of t he t r ough of a wave is 1. Electr ons r evolve r ound the nucleus in cer tain fixed
called it s amplit ude. I t is denot ed by A. I t is a measur e closed cir cular pat hs called or bit s.
of int ensit y or br ighness of a beam of light .
The angular momentum of or bit becomes quantised.
Spect r um nh
Wh i t e l i gh t i s com posed of sev en di f f er en t 2. mvr =
2
colour s(VI BGYOR). When a beam of whi t e l ight i s
passed t hr ough a pr ism, it split s int o seven colour s; wher e, m = mass of elect r on
t his is called disper sion . This ar r ay of colour s similar v = velocit y of elect r ons
t o a r ain bow is called spect r um . r = r adius of or bit
The r ange of visible r egion is 3800 t o 7600Å. n = number of or bit in which t he e– pr esent .
The r adi at i ons wi t h fr equenci es l ower t han r ed l i ght Angular moment um is an int egr al mult iple of h/2
ar e cal l ed infr a r ed and t hose whose fr equenci es ar e
mor e t han vi ol et ar e cal l ed ult r a viol et r adi at i on . 3. As l ong as an el ect r on r evol ves i n an or bi t , i t
nei t her gai n nor l oses ener gy; such or bi t s ar e
The ar r angement of var i ous t ypes of el ect omagnet i c
r adi at i ons i n t he i ncr easi ng or der of wavel engt h or cal l ed st at i onar y st at es. Ener gy l evel s ar e t he
d ecr easi n g or d er of f r equ en ci es i s cal l ed st at ionar y st at es associat ed wit h a difinit e amount
elect r omagnet ic spect r um . of ener gy.
 2.6 Chemistry
4. The most st able st at e of an at om is it s gr ound or Wave nat ure of elect ron
nor mal st at e. M at t er has dual char act er and it behaves like a wave
5. When an elect r on jumps fr om one st at ionar y or bit and a par t icle. This was pr oposed by de Br oglie.
t o anot her, t he emission or absr opt ion of ener gy DeBr oglie equat ion wavelengt h of r evolving elect r on
takes place. Emission of ener gy takes place in ter ms
h
of light .  =
mv
E = E2 – E1 = h
wher e,  = wavelengt h
When an electr on moves for m inner to outer or bit
by absorbing a definite amount of energy, the electron m = mass of par t icle
is said to be in an excited st ate. v = velocit y of par t icle
Radius of or bit , r = 0.529  10– 8 n 2 cm h = Planck’s const ant
wher e, n = number of t he or bit M oment um, p = mv
When n = 1, r = 0.529 Å or 5.29  109 cm. h
 p=
This is called Bohr ’s r adius and is denot ed by a0. 
Energy of an electron, wher e, = wave nat ur e
2.179  10 11 p = par t icle nat ur e
En = erg per atom
n2 Or bi t
13.6 I t is a well defined closed pat h ar ound t he nucleus in
or En = eV per at om which t he elect r on r evolves.
n2
313.6 Quant um N umber s
or En = k.cal per mol
n2 Electrons of an atom are characterised by four quantum
13.12 numbers.
or En = kJ per mol
n2 1. Principle quant um number (N ei ls Bohr )
The negat i ve val ue of ener gy E n wou l d k eep on I t is denot ed by’n’.
incr easing as t he elect r on moves t o t he ener gy level Values of n = 1,2,3,4 ....... 
near er t o t he nucleus. I f n = 1, K shell
2 e2 I t denot es t he ener gy of r evolving elect r on. I t also
Velocit y of elect r on in nt h or bit , V n=
nh gives t he r elat ive dist ance of el ect r on fr om t he
Split t ing of spect r al lines in an elect r ical field is called nucleus.
st ar k effect and in appli ed magnet i c field is call ed The maximum number of elect r ons t hat can be
Zeeman effect. pr esent in an ener gy shell is given by 2n 2
When an elect r on is excit ed int o n t h ener gy level, t he wher e, n = number of shells.
number of spect r al l i nes for med i n t he emi ssi on H ence K shell has 2 e– n=1
spect r um is given by L shell has 8 e– n=2
n(n  1) M shell has 18 e –
n=3
2 N shell has 32 e– n=4
wher e, n = number of shell in which t he elect r on is 2. Azimuthal quant um number (Sommer feld)
present in excited state. I t is denot ed by ‘l ’.
Values r anges fr om 0 t o (n– 1)
Sommer feld ext ension t o Bohr ’s M odel
l = 0,1,2,..........(n – 1)
Electrons revolve round the nucleus in an elliptical orbits.
They have a major axis and a minor axis with different The main shells ar e made up of ener gy shells called
wavelengths AB and CD respcetively. The nucleus of atom sub ener gy st at es. I t descr ibes shape of t he or bit al
is pr esent at one of t he focii of ellipse.The angular and hence called or bit al quant um number.
momentum of revolving electr on in an elliptical orbit is Shell Value of n Value of l
an integral multiple of h/2 and is given by K 1 0
h L 2 0, 1
mvr = k M 3 0, 1, 2
2
N 4 0, 1, 2, 3
K shell; n = 1, k = 1 cir cular O 5 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
L shell; n = 2, k = 1,2
M shell; n = 3, k = 1,2,3 ellipt ical  l  0, it r epresent ed s  orbit al 
 l  1, it r epr esent ed p  or bit al 
N shell; n = 4, k = 1,2,3,4  
 l  2, it r epr esent ed d  orbit al 
The t ot al ener gy of t he elect r on r emains same in an  
at om.  l =3, it r epresent ed f  orbit al 
 Chemistry 2.7
3. M agnet ic quantum number (L ande) E l ect r oni c Confi gur at i on
I t is denot ed by ‘m’. Ar r angement of el ect r ons i n t he space ar ound t he
Values of m ar e all whole number s r anging fr om nucleus in an at om is called elect onic configuar at ion .
– l t o + l including zer o. Pauli’s exclusion pr inciple
m = – l , – l +1 ...... – 1, 0, +1 ......+ l – 1, + l . No t wo elect r ons in an at om can have t he same set of
Tot al number of values of m = (2l + 1). value for all t he four quant um number s.
This denot es the spat ial or ient ation of t he or bit als. An or bit al can hold a maximum of 2 e- wit h opposit e
4. Spi n qu an t u m n u m ber (U h l en beck an d spins.
Gouldsmit) Aufbau pr inciple
I t is denot ed by m s or s. The newly ent er ing elect r on of an atom enter s int o
I t indicat es dir ect ion of spin of e– . that orbital with lower ener gy among the available ones.
1 1
I t has only t wo values + and – or 
2 2
Par allel spin   : Elect r ons spinning in t he same
dir ect ion. Two elect r ons of par allel spin never be
accomodat e in an or bit al.
Opposite spi n : Electr ons spinning in the opposite
dir ect ions.

Quantum Symbol Per mit ted Total number

values of permitted F i g. M ot her ’s or bit al ener gy di agr am
values The or der of incr easing ener gies of or bit als is found t o
Pr inciple n 1,2,3,4,...... n be
Azimut hal l 0,1,2, ..... n 1s < 2s < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5d < 6s.........
(n– 1) (n+l) r ule is used t o know t he sequence of ener gies of
M agent ic m – l......0....+l 2l+1 or bit als.I t st at es t hat , t he or bit al wit h t he lowest (n+l)
Spin m s or s +1/2 and 2 value is filled fir st . I f t wo or mor e or bit als have same
– 1/2 (n+l) values, t hen one wit h lower ‘n’ is filled fir st .

Per iodic Classificat ion of E lement s

Repr esent at ive L ON G F ORM OF PERI OD I C T ABL E Repr esent at ive element s
I ner t
element s gases
A 0
1 2
H He
1.00797 I I A III A IV A VA VI A VI I A 4.0026
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.939 9.0122 Transit ion met als 10.811 12.01115 14.0067 15.994 18.9984 20.183
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.9898 24.312 III B IV B VB VI B VI I B VI I I VI I I VI I I IB I I B 26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996 54.9380 55.847 58.9332 58.71 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.909 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.905 91.22 92.906 95.94 (99) 107.07 100.905 106.4 107.870 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.9044 131.30
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
 Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cs 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.09 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 (210) (210) (222)
132.905
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra † Ac Rf Ha Unh Uns Uno Une Uun
(223) (226) (227) (257) (260)

I nner t r ansit ion met als

* L ant hani de 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
ser ies Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.907 144.24 (147) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.924 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.97
† Act ini de 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ser ies Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.038 (231) 238.03 (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (249) (254) (253) (256) (253) (257)
 2.8 Chemistry
 L avoisier classified element s simply into met als and
non-met als.
 Dober einer ar r anged gr oup of t hr ee element s such
that the atomic mass of centr al element is ar ithmatic
mean of ot her t wo el ement s. These wer e cal l ed
t r aids.
e.g. L i, Na, K .
 Newland pr oposed law of oct aves which st at es t hat
when element s ar e ar r anged in incr easing or der of
t heir at omic masses, t he pr oper t ies of ever y eight h
element ar e r epet it ion of fir st .
 L ot har M eyer plot t ed a gr aph of at omic volumes
ver sus at omi c wei ght s of di ffer ent el ement s and
showed t hat si mi l ar el ement s occupi ed si mi l ar
post ions on cur ve.
Mass number
At omic volume =
Densit y
M andeleef’s per iodic law
The physical and chemical pr oper t ies of element s ar e
a per i odi c funct i on t o t hei r at omi c wei ght s. The
element s pr edict ed by him ar e called eka element s.
e.g. Scandium is called Eka Bor on .
Per i odi c L aw
The physical and chemical pr opet ies of element s ar e
per iodic funct ion of t heir at omic number s.
Per i odi ci t y
I t is t he occur ance of element s wit h similar pr oper t ies
at r egular int er vals when ar r anged in incr easing or der
of t heir at omic number s.
M odern Periodic law (M osel ey)
The physical and chemical pr oper t ies of element s ar e
a per iodic funct ion of t heir elect r onic configur at ion.
L ong form of Periodic t able
The table is called extended form or long form of periodic
table.
I t h as 18 ver t i cal col um n s cal l ed gr ou ps and 7
hor izontal r ows called per iods. 18 ver tical columns ar e
made int o 16 gr oups or families.
Shortest period. Fir st per iod wit h only 2 element s.
Short period. The second and t hir d per iods ar e called
shor t per iods as t hey cont ain 8 element s.
L ong Per i od
The four t h and fift h per iods cont aining 18 element s
each ar e called long per iods. Each of t hese per iods
cont ains
t wo s-block element s, t en- d-bolck element s and six p-
block elements.
Longest period. Sixt h per iod
I ncomplet e priod. Sevent h per i od.
Classificat ion of E lement s int o Blocks
s-block element s
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
t he s-or bi t al of out er most shel l ar e cal l ed s-bl ock
elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion of s-block element s
ar e ns1-2.
p-block element s
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
t he p-or bit al of t he out er most shell ar e called p-block
elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion of p- block element s
ar e ns2 np1-6.
d- block element s
The elements in which differ enciat ing elect r on enter s
int o d-or bit al of penult imat e shell ar e called d-block
elements.
Gener al electr onic configur ation of d-block element ar e
ns1-2 (n-1)d1-10.
f-block element s.
The element s in which differ enciat ing elect r on ent er s
int o t he ant ipenult imat e shell (n-2) of f or bit als ar e
called f-block element s.
General electronic configur ation of f-block element ar e
ns2 (n-1)d 0 t o 1 (n-2)f 1 t o 14.
Classificat ion of E lement s
Based on el ect r oni c confi gu r at i on, el ement s ar e
classified int o four t ypes.
1. I nert gas element s
Element s in which the out er most s and p subshells
ar e complet ely filled ar e called iner t gas element s.
Gener al el ect r oni c configur at i on is ns2 np 6.
T h ese el em en t s ar e cal l ed r ar e gases. T h ey
const it ut e zer o gr oup of per iodic t able.
2. Repr esent at ive element s.
E l em en t s i n w h i ch t h e ou t er m ost sh el l i s
incompletely filled are called representative elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion is ns1, ns2, ns2,np1
t o ns2 np5.
M etals, non-metals and metalloids come under this
cat egor y. These ar e also called nor mal element s.
3. Transit ion element s
Elements which have incompletely filled outer most
and penultimate shells are called transition elements.
Gener al elect r onic configur at ion is ns1-2 (n-1)d1-9.
4. I nner t ransit ion element s
El ement s i n whi ch t hr ee out er most shel l s, i .e.
valence penultimate and the antipenutlimate shells
ar e incomplet ely filled ar e called inner t r ansit ion
elements.
Gener al el ect oni c con fi gur at i on i s n s2(n -1)d 0-1
(n-2)f 1-14.
 Chemistry 2.9
Per i odi c Pr oper t i es Salt: I t is a subst ances which can neit her give H +
The pr oper t i es whi ch ar e r epeat ed aft er cer t ai n or OH – ions in aqueous solut ions.
i n t er val of at om i c n u m ber s ar e cal l ed per i odi c e.g. NaCl, K 2SO4
properties. Strengt h of Acids and Bases
At omic size I t depends on t he degr ee of dissociat ion().
The di st ance bet ween nucl eus and t he out er most Degr ee of dissociat ion,
elect r on of an at om is called at omic r adius. Number of moles dissociat ed
At omic r adium does not det er mined dir ect ly. =
Tot al number of moles of subst ance
Cr yst al radius or M et allic radius
 St r ong acid : I t pr oduces lar ge number of H + ions
I t is one-half of t he dist ance bet ween nuclei of t wo
in aqueous solut ion.
adjacent met al at oms.
e.g. H Cl, H 2SO4, H NO3
Covalent r adius
Weak acid : I t pr oduces less number of H + ions.
I t is one-half of t he dist ance bet ween cent r es of nuclei
of t wo similar at oms bonded by a covalent bond. e.g. CH 3COOH , H 3BO3

V ander Waal’s r adius [H + ][X – ]

I t is one half of t he int er nuclear dist ance bet ween t wo
at oms faci ng each ot her bel ongi ng t o t wo near est
molecules of t he element in solid st at e.
r covalent < r met allic ; r covalent < r vander waals
I onic r adius
I t is t he effective dist ance fr om nucleus of t he ion upt o
which it has an influence on it s elect r on cloud.
Dissociat ion const ant of a base, K b =
Val ency
N umber of hydr ogen at oms or number of chlor i ne
at oms or double t he number of oxygen at oms t hat
combi ne wi t h an at om of t he el ement . El ect r ons
pr esent in out er most shell ar e called valence electrons.
Acids and Bases
All substances ar e basically classified int o acids, bases
and neutr al substances. Robert Boyle defined acids and
bases based on t heir pr oper t ies.
Aci ds
These substances ar e sour in taste, tur ns blue lit mus
red liberate hydrogen when reacts with metals, conducts
Dissociat ion const ant of acid, K a =
[HX]
Strong base dissociates to a larger extent in aqueous
solution and produces lar ger number of OH – ions
while weak bases dissociates to a lesser extent.
e.g.NaOH , K OH , Ba(OH )2 ar e st r ong bases.
NH 4OH , Ca(OH )2, Al(OH )3 ar e weak bases.
[M + ][OH – ]
[M OH ]
K a and K b ar e lar ge for st r ong acids and bases and
small for weak acids and bases. The K a values of
H Cl , H N O3, H 2SO4, K b val ues of N aOH , K OH
cannot be det er mined as they dissociat e t o a lar ger
ext ent and do not exist in equilibr ium.
N eut r alizat ion.
When acids r eact s with equal quantit y of base, both
l oose t hei r char act er i st i c pr oper t i es and gi ve
neutr al solution. H er e H + ions of acid combine wit h
OH – ions of base t o give undissociat ed wat er.
e.g. H Cl  N aOH    N aCl  H 2O

Acid base salt wat er

electr icity in solut ion st ate and neutr alized bases. About 13.67 K.cals of heat is evolved which is called
B ases heat of neut r alization .
These subst ances ar e bit t er in t ast e, t ur ns r ed lit mus The opposite reaction of neutralisation is Hydrolysis.
blue, soapy t o t ouch, conduct elect r icit y in aqueous 2. Bronst ed- Lowry theory (Pr ot on t heor y )
solut ions and neut r alized acids. An acid is a subst ance t hat exhibit s a t endency t o
M oder n D ef i n i t i on of A ci ds a n d B a ses loose one or mor e pr otons and a base is a substance
t hat exhibit s a t endency t o gain pr ot ons.
(Based on T hr ee T heor ies)
Acid : pr ot on donor
1. Ar r heni us t h eor y (T h eor y of i on i zat i on or
elect r olyt ic dissociat ion.) Base : pr ot on accept or
Acid: I t is a subst ance which cont ains hydr ogen A pr ot on t r ansfer r eact ion is called pr ot olysis.
and ionizes in aqueous solut ion t o give H + ions. When an acid loses a pr ot on, t he r emaining par t
Their gener al for mula is H X. has a t endency t o gain it and it behaves as base.
e.g. H Cl, H 2SO4, H NO3, H SO4, CH 3COOH 
H A  H*  A
 pr oton base
Base: I t i s a subst ance whi ch i oni ses i n wat er
pr oducing hydr oxyl (OH – ) ions and ar e r epr esented 
H Cl   H   Cl 
as M OH .   H O*  A 
H A  H 2 O   3
e.g. NaOH , Ca(OH )2, NH 4OH et c. acid – 1 base– 2 acid – 2 base– 1
2.10 Chemistry
A – is called conjugat e base of acid, H A and H 3O+ is
conjugat e acid of base H 2O.
Conjugate acid-base pair : I t is acid– base pair
differ ing by a pr ot on.
e.g. H Cl + H 2 O 
  H 3O*  Cl 
 e.g. Be(OH )2, Al 2O3, ZnO, Cr 2O3 et c.
H 2O + N H 3 
 NH *4  OH 
 3. L ewis t heory or Elect ronic t heory
These ar e r ever sible r eact ions.
Conjugat e base of st r ong acid is always weak.
N eutralization: Tr ansfer of a pr ot on fr om acid t o
a base is called neut r alizat ion .
e.g. H 3O+ OH +   H 2O + H 2O
Classification of Slovents: These are of four types.
(i ) Pr ot ophilic solvent s : These have t endency t o
accept pr ot ons e.g. wat er, alcohol, liquid NH 3
(ii ) Pr ot ogenic solvent s : These have t endency t o
pr oduce pr ot ons e.g. wat er, H Cl
(iii ) Amphipr ot ic solvent s : These act s as ei t her
pr ot ophilic or pr ot ogenic
e.g. wat er, NH 3
(iv) Aprotic solvents : These solvents which neither
donat e nor accept pr ot ons
e.g. benzene, CCl 4
St rengt h of Acids and Bases : St r ong aci d i s
one whi ch has a gr eat er t endency t o donat e a
pr ot on and i f t he t endency i s l ess, t he aci d i s
weak .
HCl+ H 2O    H 3O+ + Cl

H Cl is a st r ong acid t hen wat er
Cl – is conjugat e base which is a weak base as it has
less t endency t o be at t ached t o a pr ot on.
 H 3 O+ +CH 3 COO 
CH 3 COOH +H 2 O  
CH 3COOH weak acid.
CH 3COO– conjugat e base is a st r ong base as it has
gr eat er t endency t o accept a pr ot on .
The conjugate base of a strong acid and the conjugate
acid of a st r ong base ar e weak. The conjugat e acid
of a weak base and t he conjugat e base of a weak
acid ar e st r ong.
L eveling effect : St r ong aci ds such as H N O3,
H 2SO4, H Cl when pr esent in aqueous solut ion all
of t hem have same st r engt h, because al l t hese
aci ds compl et ely di ssoci at e and donat e H + i ons
easily t o water which exists as H 3O+ in wat er. Since
t hese acids pr oduces H 3O+ ions in wat er and H 3O+
is the st r ongest acid in wat er, the str engt h of above
acids come down t o t he level of H 3O+ st r engt h in
water. Similar ly str ong bases such as NaOH, KOH,
Ba(OH )2 come down t o it s st r engt h of OH – ions
which ar e st r ong bases i n wat er. This i s call ed
levelling effect .
The strength of acid and base depends on the natur e
of t he solvent used.
Amphoteric substances or Ampholyte : These
ar e t he subst ances whi ch can act as an aci d as
w el l as a base, i .e. capabl e of donat i n g and
accept ing a pr ot on.
Acid : An acid is any molecule or ion that can accept
a pair of electr ons and for ms a co-or dinat e covalent
bond.
e.g. H +, AlCl 3, BF 3
Elect r on-pair acceptor.
Base : A base is any molecule or ion that can donate
a pair of electr ons and for ms a co-or dinat e covalent
bond.
e.g. NH 3H 2O, OH –
Elect r on pair donor is a base.
N eut r ali zat ion : F or mat i on of a co-or di nat e
covalent bond bet ween an acid and a base is called
neutralization .
Types of Lewis acids.
(i ) M ol ecul es i n whi ch t he cent r al at om has
incomplet e oct et of elect r ons in valence shell
(i.e. having a vacant or bit al).
e.g. BF 3, SO3, AlCl 3; t he cent r al at oms ar e B,S
and Al.
(ii ) Posit ive heavy met al wit h incomplet e st able
or bitals
e.g. Ag+, Cu +2, Fe+2, Fe+2 et c.
I n cr ease of ch ar ge an d decr ease of si ze
incr eases acidic st r engt h of t he ion.
(iii ) M olecules cont aining double bonds bet ween
differ ent at om
e.g. CO2
All Bronst ed– L owry’s acids are L ewis acids.
Br onsted– Lowry’s acid is a pr oton donor, Lewis acid
is an elect r on pair accept or.
e.g. H Cl is an acid.
H Cl + NH 3  [NH 4] + + Cl –
H Cl fur nishes a pr ot on – Br onst ed L owr y’s acid
The pr ot on of H Cl accept s a lone pair of elect r ons
from NH 3 to for m a co-or dinate covalent bond-Lewis
acid.
Al l L ew i s a ci ds n eed n ot be Br on st ed –
L owr y’s acids.
L ewi s aci d i s an el ect r ophil e. I t i s an el ect r on
deficient molecule or ion.
Br ownst ed – L owr y’s acid is a pr ot on donor and
elect r on pair accept r or but all elect r on deficient
molecules cannot be defined as pr ot on donor s.
BF 3 is a L ewis acid, but not a Br onst ed acid.
 Chemistry 2.11
Types of Lewis bases. wher e, K w is called ionic pr oduct of wat er which is
These are of t hr ee t ypes. influenced by t emper at ur e only. I t s val ue
(i ) All at oms cont aining negat ive char ge; lar ger incr eases wit h t emper at ur e.
t he char ge densit y on t he ion, gr eat er is it s At 25 t he value of K w is 1.0  10– 14.
abilit y t o donat e an electr on pair and st r onger [H +][OH – ] = 1.0  10– 14
is basic char act er. I n pu r e wat er and neut r al sol ut i ons, t he mol ar
e.g. Cl – , F – , O– 2, et c. concent r at i ons of hydr ogen i on [H +] and hydr oxide
(ii ) At oms and molecules cont aining one or mor e ion[OH – ] ar e equal.
lone pair of elect r ons.
(iii ) M olecules having C = C. The cloud of C = C [H +] = [OH – ] = 1.0  10 14 = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
wi l l for m coor di nat e bond t o gi ve compl ex [H +] = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
compound. All Br onsted bases ar e Lewis bases. [OH – ] = 1.0  10– 7 mole/lit r e
 Br onst ed-L owr y’s base is a pr ot on accept or. The r el at i onshi p K w = [H +][OH – ] hol ds good i n al l
L ewis base is an elect r on pair donor . aqueous solut ion.
e.g. br omide is a base H + + Br –  H Br [H +] = [OH – ] neut r al solut ion
 Br omide is pr oton acceptor – Bronsted-Lowr y’s [H ] > [OH ]
+ –
acidic solut ion
base, br omide i s el ect r on pai r donor -L ewi s
[H +] < [OH – ] basic solut ion
base.
As it has 4 lone pair of e– on it and donat es a [H +] = 10– 1 M  10 7 M  10 14 M
acidic neut r al basic
pair t o H +.
The degr ee of acidic or basic nat ur e of a solut ion can
All Lewis bases need not be Bronsted– Lowry’s be expr essed in t er ms of hydr ogen ion concent r at ion.
bases.
L ewis base is a nucleophile. I t is an accept or of all Kw 1.0  1014
[H +] = =
posit ive ions and elect r on deficient molecules. [OH  ] [OH  ]
Br onst ed-L owr y’s base is a pr ot ophile. I t accept s Kw 1.0  1014
onl y pr ot ons. CaO i s a L ewi s base, but not a Similar ly, [OH – ] = +

[H ] [H + ]
Br onst ed base.
Pr ot on concent rat ion of Acids and Bases
N eut r alizat ion. I n solut ion of st r ong acids
An acid and a base r eact t oget her t o for m salt and [H +] = nor malit y of t he solut ion
w at er w i t h t h e l i ber at i on of h eat i s cal l ed
neutralization . or [H 3O ] or [H +] = Molar ity of the solution  Protocity
+

T h e am ou n t of h eat ev ol v ed du r i n g t h e Pr ot ocit y of an acid : I t is defined as t he number of

neut r alizat ion of one gr am equivalent of a base in pr otons pr ovided by each acid molecule upon ionization.
di l u t e aqu eou s sol u t i on i s cal l ed h eat of I t is also called basicit y .
neutralization . I n solut ions of st r ong bases
The heat of neut r alizat ion of a st r ong acid and a [OH – ] = nor malit y of t he solut ion
st r ong base is 13.7 K . cal/mole (at 25C). or [OH – ] = molar it y of t he solut ion  acidit y
Acidi t y of a base : I t i s defi ned as t he number of
I onic Pr oduct of Wat er hydr oxyl ions pr ovided by each base molecule upon in
Th e pr oduct of h ydr ogen i on concen t r at i on an d
ionization.
hydr oxyl i on concent r at i on of pur e wat er or any
aqueous solut ion is called ionic pr oduct of wat er . pH and pOH
The concept was int r oduced by Sor ensen.
H 2O 
 H   OH 
 p H : I t i s n egat i v e l ogar i t h m of h y dr ogen i on
concent r at ion.
H 2O H 2O 
 H 3O  OH 
 1
base acid acid base
pH = – log10 [H +] = log10 [H + ]
 H  OH 
 
 H 3O  OH  
K  K  p OH : I t i s n egat i v e l ogar i t h m of h y dr ox y l i on
 H 2 O H 2OH 2O concent r at ion
2 1
K H 2O  H   OH  or K  H 2O  H 3 O  OH   pOH = – log10 [OH – ] = log10 [H – ]
wher e, K = equilibr ium const ant
For pur e wat er at 25C, pH + pOH = 7 + 7 = 14
Si n ce t he i oni zat i on of wat er i s ver y smal l , t he
concent r at ion of wat er can be t aken as const ant . For pur e wat er and neut r al solut ions
Then K[H 2O] = K w or K [H 2O] 2 = K w (another constant) pH = pOH = 7
K w = [H +][OH – ] or K w = [H 3O+] [OH – ] pH = 0  7  14
Acidic neut r al basic
 2.12 Chemistry
The lower the pH , the mor e acidic is t he solution and 2. Quinonoid t heor y
higher concentr ation of [H +] the higher the pH , the mor e pH r ange of indicat or s.
basic is t he solution and higher concent r ation of [OH].
The pH value can be deter mined exper imentally using I f indicat or is weak acid, H ln + H 2O 
 H 3O + ln
+ –

a pH mat er. On heat i ng, t he i oni zat i on of wat er Dissociat ion const ant of indicat or
incr eases t he concent r at ion of bot h H + and OH – ions.
The value of bot h pH and pOH decr eases. The pH of an [H  ][ln  ]
K ln =
acidic solut ion incr eases upon dilut ion. [Hln]

Buffer Solut i on [ln  ]

Sol ut i ons whi ch can r esi st t he change of p upon H pH = pK ln + log
[H ln]
addit ion of small amount of a st r ong acid or a st r ong
base is called Buffer solut ion . I f pH of solut ion is equal t o or gr eat er t han Pk ln+1
Types t hen solut ion exhibit t he colour of indicat or ions and
Buffer s ar e of t wo t ypes. if pH of solut ion is equal t o or less t han pK n– 1 , t hen
1. Acid buffer : The solut ions wit h const ant pH r ange solut ion exhibit s t he colour of indicat or molecule;
of 0 t o 7 ar e called acid buffer s. t hus aci d-base indicat or s funct i on in p H r ange of
An acid buffer consists of a weak acid and its salt (pK ln+1) t o (pK ln– 1)
with a str ong base.
e.g. CH 3 COOH + CH 3 COO Na; H 3PO4 + NaH 2PO4 Colour pH
I ndicator
2. Basic buffer : The solut ion wit h const ant pH r ange Acid Alkali r ange
of 7 t o 14 ar e called basic buffer s.
M ethyl or ange r ed yellow 3.1 – 4.4
A weak base and it s salt wit h a st r ong acid for ms
basic buffer. M ethyl r ed r ed yellow 4.2 – 6.3
e.g. NH 4OH + NH 4Cl
Fe(OH )3 + FeCl 3 L it mus r ed blue 4.6 – 8.3
Buffer capacit y
The number of moles of an acid or a base added per Bromothy molblue yellow blue 6.0 – 7.6
lit r e of buffer t o change it s pH value by one unit is
Thymol blue yellow pur ple 8.0 – 9.6
called buffer capacity .

Acid – Base I ndicator s Phenolpht halein colour less r ed 8.3 - 10

I ndicat or s ar e used t o find equivalence point bet ween
an acid and a base in volumet r ic analysis. Select ion of I ndicat or
I t depends on t he change in pH value at the equivalence
Types
Ther e ar e t wo t heor ies of indicat or s. poi nt i n an aci d-base neut r al i zat i on r eact i on. The
change of pH just at t he end-point is called pH r ange of
1. Ost wald’s t heor y.
(i ) All indicat or s ar e eit her weak or ganic acids or
t it r at ion . An indicat or will show a shar p change in it s
bases. colour if pH r ange of the indicator is within t he pH r ange
of t he t it r at ion.
(ii ) I n solut ion t hey dissociat e t o give ions which
exist in equilibr ium. T it r at ion.
acid indicator H ln + H 2O  H O + ln 1. Tit r at ion of st r ong acid wit h a st r ong base :
 3
  pH r ange is about 3.3 t o 10.5. All t he indicat or s in
undissociated indicat or ion t he above t able can be used.
indicat or molecule 2. Tit r at ion of weak acid wit h a st r ong base :
base indicat or ln + H 2O  
H in + + OH pH r ange 8 t o 10 phenolpht halein and t hymol blue
indicat or molecule indicat or ion only fall in t his r ange.
(iii ) The mol ecul ar and i oni c for ms of indicat or 3. Tit r at ion of weak base wit h a st r ong acid :
have differ ent colour s.
pH r ange is 6 t o 3 met hyl or ange.
(iv) Depending on [H +], t he ionization equilibr ium
4. Tit r at ion of weak acid wit h a weak base:
shift s eit her t o r ight or left .
pH change near the end point is not shar p and hence
(v) The colour changes with change in pH of the
solution. it cannot be det ect ed wit h an indicat or.
 Chemistry 2.13
Types of salts Sol ut i ons
1. N ormal salt s A sol ut i on i s defi ned as homogenous mi xt ur e of t wo
These ar e obtained by complete neutralization of an or mor e subst ances. Subst ances whi ch mak e up a
acid with a base. sol u t i on ar e cal l ed com ponen t s. Th e component
e.g. NaCl / CaCO3 havi ng t he same physi cal st at e as t he sol ut i on and
2. Acidic salt s pr esent i n excess over t he ot her component i s cal l ed
These ar e obt ained by par t ial neut r alizat ion of a solvent .
pol ybasi c aci d wi t h a base. Gi ves H + i on s on
secondar y ionizat ion. Ot her s whi ch ar e i n same or di ffer ent physical st at es
e.g. NaH SO4, Na2H PO4 and pr esent i n smal l er por t i ons ar e cal l ed sol ut es.
3. Basic salt s For mat i on of a sol ut i on i s a physical pr ocess.
These ar e obt ai ned by par t ial neut r al i zat ion of
polyacidic base. These give OH – ions on secondar y Types of Sol ut i ons
ionization. These ar e of t hr ee t ypes.
e.g. Mg(OH )Br, Zn(OH)I 1. Gaseous solut ion. These ar e sol ut i ons i n whi ch
4. M ixed salt s. gases and vapour s mi x i n al l pr opor t i ons and for m
These ar e obt ained by neut r alizat ion of a mixt ur e homogeneous mi xt ur es.
of t wo acids wit h a base or a mixt ur e of t wo bases Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
wit h an acid.
gas gas at mospher i c ai r
e.g. CaOCl 2, K (NH 4) C2O4 et c.
liquid per fumes
Salt H ydr olysis sol id smok e
The pr ocess in which t he cat ion or anion of t he salt 2. L i qui d sol ut i on. T h ese ar e t h e sol u t i on s i n
r eacts with water to pr oduce acidic or alkaline solution. whi ch sol vent i s l i qui d and sol ut e i s gas, l i qui d or
The fr act i on of t he t ot al salt t hat is hydr olyzed at
sol id.
equilibr ium is called degr ee of hydr olysis.
1. Salt of a weak acid and a strong base Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
Salt s of t his t ype under go anionic hydr olysis. liquid gas aer at ed dr i nk s
salt + wat er acid + base liquid al cohol i n wat er
– + + –
CH 3COO + Na + H 2O CH 3COOH + Na + OH sol id sugar sol ut i on
H ence, CH 3COO– + H 2O CH 3COOH + OH
–
Sol ubi l i t y of a gas i n a l i qui d i s gover n ed by
The aqueous solut ion cont ains fr ee OH ions, hence H enr y’s l aw, whi ch st at es t hat “ at a con st ant
t heir solut ion is basic hydr olysis const ant . t emper at ur e, sol ubi l i t y i s di r ect l y pr opor t i on al
Ot her examples ar e K CN, Na2CO3, H COOK et c. t o pr essur e of gas” .
2. Salt of st rong acid with, weak base 3. Solid solut ion. At oms or molecul es of one soli d
Salt s of t his t ype under go cat ionic hydr olysis. As r epl ace t hose i n t he second sol i d t o for m sol i d
t he aqueous solut i on cont ains fr ee pr ot ons, t he
solut ions.
solut ion is acidic hydr olysis const ant .
Sol vent Sol ut e E xampl e
e.g. N H 4  Cl –  H 2O NH 4 OH + H + + Cl
sol id gas sol i d i ce-cr eam
H ence, NH 4  H 2 O NH 4 OH + H + liquid t oot h past e
sol id all oy
3. Salt of weak acid and weak base
Salt of this type undergo both anionic and cationic Types of Sol ut i ons
hydr olysis. The nature of their solution is almost (Based on r elat ive amount of dissolved solut e
neutral.
pr esent in a solut ion at a given t emper at ur e)
e.g. N H 4 + CH 3COO– + H 2O NH 4OH + CH 3COOH These sol ut i ons ar e of t hr ee t ypes
As bot h H 3O and OH i ons ar e r el eased, t he
+ –
1. Sat urat ed solut ion. I t i s t he sol ut i on cont ai ni ng
solut ion is neut r al wit h PH 7. maxi mum amount of sol ut e i n di ssol ved st at e at
e.g. NH 4CN, CaCO3, AlPO4 a gi ven t emper at ur e. I n t his solut ions t wo phases
4. Salt of st rong acid and strong base ar e in equilibr ium.
Salt of t his t ype do not under go hydr olysis, hence 2. U n sa t u r a t ed sol u t i on . I t i s t h e sol u t i on
nat ur e of t heir solut ion is exact ly neut r al. cont ai ni ng l ess t han t he maxi mum quant i t y of a
The hydrolysis constant (K h) in aqueous solution of sol ut e i n di ssol ved st at e at a gi ven t emper at ue.
these salts is equal to ionic product of water (K w), i.e.
3. Super sat ur at ed sol ut i on. I t i s t he sol ut i on
Kh = Kw
cont ai ni ng mor e amount of sol ut e di ssol ved t han
Na+ + Cl – + H 2O Na+ + OH – + H + + Cl –
i n a sat ur at ed sol ut i on. I t i s met a st abl e and
H ence, H 2O H + OH –
+
becomes sat ur at ed by shak ing or st i r r ing.
e.g. NaNO3, N 2SO4, NaClO4
 2.14 Chemistry

Sol ubi l i t y 2. Percentage by weight. I t is t he number of gr ams

I t is t he amount of solut e r equir ed t o sat ur at e 100 of solut e pr esent in 100 gr ams of solut ion
gr ams of solvent at a given t emper at ur e. weight of solut e
% by weight =  100
Weight of solut e weight of solut ion
Solubilit y =  100
Weight of solvent 3. Volume fraction. I t is t he volume(in ml) of t he
F act or s affect ing Solubilit y of subst ance solut e pr esent in 1.0 ml of solut ion.
1. N ature of Solvent and Solute. I onic subst ances volume of solut e
ar e sol u bl e i n pol ar sol v en t s an d n on -i on i c Volume fr act ion =
volume of solut ion
subst ances ar e soluble in non-polar solvent s.
Rat e of dissolut ion of a solid in a liquid depends on 4. Percentage of volume. It is the volume (in ml) of
( i ) Size of solute particles : I ncrease in surface the solute present per 100 ml of the solution is volume
area increases the rate of dissolution as dissolution volume of solut e
is a surface phenomenon. percent % by volume =  100
volume of solut ion
( ii ) Agitat ion of t he mixture : St ir r i ng speeds 5. M ole fraction. I t is t he r at io of number of moles
dissolution. of a component t o t he t ot al number of t he moles
( iii ) Temperature : Rise of t emper at ur e speeds up of all component s pr esent in solut ion.
dissolut ion as t he t emper at ur e is incr eased, n
M ole fr act ion of slout e, X solut e =
t he k i net i c ener gy and hence t he r at e of nN
diffusion of bot h solut e and solvent par t icles n
incr eases. Some t ime solubilit y decr eases on M ole fr act ion of solvent , X solvent =
nN
I nver se of t emp.
 X +X =1
2. Pressure. The effect of pr essur e on solubilit y of a solut e solvent

gas in a liquid is gover ned by H enr y’s law. 6. M ole per cent age.
M ole per cent age = M ole fr act ion  100
3. Temperat ur e. The sol ubi l i t y of gases i n wat er
generally decreases with increase of temperature. 7. M olality. I t i s t he number of gr am mol es of a
solute pr esent in one kilogr am(1000g) of a solvent.
H eat of Solution
I t is t he amount of ener gy evolved or absor bed when weight of solut e 1000
m= 
one mole of solute is dissolved in large excess of solvent. molecular weight weight of solvent
H eat of solut ion = lat t ice ener gy + hydr at ion ener gy
10  solub ilit y
m=
H ydr at i on E ner gy gram molecular weight of solut e
I t i s t he amount of ener gy r eleased when ions ar e
pr oduced fr om one mole of ionic subst ance in wat er. Unit : mol kg-1
8. M olarity. I t is t he number of gr am moles of solut e
L at t ice E ner gy
pr esent in one lit r e of t he solut ion.
I t is t he amount of ener gy r equir ed t o separ at e one
weight of solut e  1000
mole of ionic cr yst al int o it s const it uent ions. M=
gr am molecular weight  solut ion in ml
If lat t ice ener gy > hydr at ion ener gy, t he syst em cools
weight %  densit y  10
down . M=
molecular weight of solut e
If lat t ice ener gy < hydr ation ener gy, the system heats
up. Unit : mol lit – 1
If lat t ice ener gy = hydr at ion ener gy, t he syst em 9. N ormality. I t is t he number of gr am equivalent s
has little effect of t emper ature of solut e pr esent in one lit r e of solut ion.
weight of solut e  1000
Solubi li t y Cur ves N=
volume of solut ion  eq. (m 1 ) weight of solut e
Cur ves which show t he var iat ion of solubili t y wit h
percent weight
t emper at ur e ar e called solubilit y cur ves. N=
equivalent weight
Concent r at i on
molecular wei ght
The amount of solut e pr esent in definit e quant it y of Equivalent weight =
solut ion is called concent r at ion . n
M et hods of expr essing Concent r at ions Nor malit y = n  M olar it y
1. Weight fr act ion. I t i s t he number of gr ams of U nit : gm eq. lit – 1
solut e pr esent in one gr am of t he solut ion. 10. Formality. I t is t he number of for mula weight
W weight of solut e of solut e pr esent in 1lit r e of solut ion.
Weight fr action = 
w  W weight of solut ion Unit s. for mula weight lit r e-1
 Chemistry 2.15
Char act er ist i cs of E qul i br i um st at e Col l oi dal St at e
1. The equi l i br i um st at e can be obt ai ned fr om bot h Tr ue sol ut i on
di r ect i ons I t i s a homogenous mi xt ur e of sol ut e and sovl ent
2. Chemi cal equi l i br i um i s dynami c i n nat ur e. f or m i n g on e ph ase i n wh i ch t h e m ol ecu l es ar e
mi xed r andoml y. The sol ut e par t i cl es never set t l e
3. Cat al yst cannot shi ft t he posi t i on of equi l i bur i m down size of par t i cl es < 10– 7cm.
but hel ps i n at t ai ni ng i t qui ck l y. e.g. sal t sol ut i on
4. T h e equ i l i br i u m can be sh i f t ed by ch an gi n g Suspen si on .
condi t i ons l i k e t emper at ur e, pr essur e et c. The sol ut i on i n whi ch t he par t i cl es can be seen wi t h
5. The syst em whi ch i s in equil i br i um st at e wi l l be nak ed eye and whi ch set t l e on st andi ng ar e cal l ed
i n equl i br i um as l ong as i t r emains undi st ur bed. suspensions.
Si ze of par t i cl es > 10 – 5cm.
6. At equi l i br ui m st at e t he change i n fr ee ener gy
(G = 0) i s zer o. C ol l oi ds
A col l oi dal syst em i s het r ogeneous and consi st s of
Sur face Chemi st r y
at l east t w o p h ases t h e d i sp er sed p h ase an d
A dsor pt i on di sper sed medi um possessi ng cer t ai n char act er i st i c
T h e pr ocess of accu m u l at i on of a su bst an ce i n pr oper t i es. T h e si ze of par t i cl es r an ges f r om
hi gher condi t i ons at t he sur face whi ch separ at es 10 – 5 -10– 7 cm.
t wo phases. D i sper sed phase
Adsor ben t Subst ances whose par t i cl es ar e di st r i but ed i n a
I t i s t he subst ance whi ch t ak es up or adsor bs t he medi um. I t i s al so cal l ed di scont i nuous phase or
gas or l i qui d. inner phase.
Adsor at e D i sper si on medi um
I t i s t he subst ance whi ch i s adsor bed. The medi um i n whi ch t he col l oi dal par t i cl es ar e
Types of adsor pt i on di sper sed. I t i s al so cal l ed cont i nuous phase or
1. Physi cal or Vander waal ’s adsor pt i on. out er phase.
When a gas i s adsor bed on t he sur face of a sol i d D i sper sed M edium N ame E xample
by weak vander waal ’s for ce, t he phenomenon phase
i s cal l ed ph ysi cal adsor pt i on . M u l t i l ay er ed 1. gas liquid foam soap lather
pr ocess i nvol ves heat of adsor pt i on 1-10 K cal /
m ol e. 2. gas solid solid foam cor k
2. Chemical or Act i vat ed adsor pt i on. 3. liquid gas aerosol fog, cloud,
When a gas i s adsor bed ont o t he sur face of a mist
sol i d by for ces si mi l ar t o t hose of a chemi cal 4. liquid liquid emulsion milk
bond, i t i s cal l ed chemi sor pt i on or L angmui r 5. liquid solid gels cheese
adsor pt i on . I t i nvol ves heat of adsor pt i on 10-
6. solid gas smoke dust
100 K cal /mol e.
7. solid liquid sols proteins
A dsor pt i on
I t i s t he phenomenon of i ncr ease i n concent r at i on 8. solid solid solid sol or gel minerals
t hr oughout t he body al ong wi t h t he sur face.
Sol
Sor pt i on I f disper sion medium is a fluid, it is called sol .
I t i s t h e pr ocess i n wh i ch bot h absor pt i on an d
H ydr osol
adsor pt i on t ak es pl ace. I t i s al so cal l ed r ever se
I f disper sion medium is wat er, it is called hydr osol .
pr ocess.
I f alcohol or benzene ar e used, t hey ar e called alcosol
F act or s affect i ng adsor pt i on or benzosol.
(1) N a t u r e of a d sor ben t a n d a d sor ba t e:
Types of colloids
Per manent gases ar e adsor bed l ess and easi l y
1. Lyophilic colloids.
l i qui fi abl e gases ar e adsor bed much.
These ar e susbst ances which passes int o colloidal
(2) Pr essu r e st ate simply by br inging it in contact with a solvent.
(3) Temper at ur e I t is also called r ever sible colloid.
(4) Sur face ar ea of adsor bent . e.g. gum, gelat in.
2.16 Chemistry
2. Lyophobic colloids.
These ar e insoluble substances which do not r eadily
yield colloidal solut ions when br ought in cont act
wit h solvent . I r r ever sible colloids ar e also called
suspensoids.
I f wat er is used, t hey ar e called hydr ophilic and
hydr ohobic colloids.
M i scel l s
Subst ances behave as nor mal, st r ong elect r olyt es at
low concentr ations but at higher concentrations exhibit
colloidal pr oper ties due to aggregation of par ticles; such
aggr egat ed par t i cl es ar e call ed micelles and t hese
subst ances ar e called associat ed colloids.
e.g. soap or det er gent s
These ar e amphit het ic, i.e. t hey have bot h lyophilic
and lyophobic gr oups.
Br ownian movement
Th e r an dom an d con t i n uou s m ot i on of col l oi dal
par t icles in a disper sion medium is called Br ownian
movement . This er at ic mot ion is a r esult of const ant
bombar dment of colloidal par t icles by t he molecules
of disper sion medium in all dir ect ions. These impar t
moment um t o colloidal solut ion.
Tyndall effect
When a beam of light is passed t hr ough a colloidal
solut ion, it becomes visible as a br ight st r eak. This
phenomenon is called tyndall effect and the illuminated
pat h is called t yndall cone.
EM U L SON S
Emulsions ar e for med by disper sion of one liquid in
another liquid. Disper sion of tiny par ticles of one liquid
in another liquid is called an emulsion and the pr ocess
is called emulsificat ion.
Types of Emulsions
1. Oil in-wat er.
Oi l i s di sper sed phase and wat er i s di sper si on
medium.
e.g. M ilk
2. Wat er-in-oil.
Wat er is disper esed phase and oil is disper sion
medium.
e.g. But t er
Emulsifier s (or) E mulsifying agent s
To get st abl e emul si ons, smal l amount of anot her
subst ances ar e added; t hese ar e called emulsifer s or
emulsifiying agents.
D e- emulsificat ion
T he pr ocess of con ver t i n g an em u l si on i nt o i t s
com pon en t s, i .e. oi l an d w at er i s cal l e de-
emulsificat ion .
Coagul at ion
The phenomenon of change of col l oi dal st at e t o
suspension st at e is called coagulat ion or flocculat ion .
The amount of electr olyte r equir ed to coagulate a fixed
amount of a sol depends on t he valency of flocculat ing
i on.
H ardy-Schulze rule
Gr eat er t he valency of flocculat ingion, higher is it s
capacit y t o cause pr ecipit at ion.
Gold number
Weight in milligr ams of a pr otective colloid to be added
t o pr event t he coagulat ion of 10ml of a given gold
solut ion on adding 1ml of 10% solut ion of NaCl.
D onnan membr ane equlibr ium
The pot ent ial differ ence devel oped due t o unequal
concent r at ion of ions on t wo sides of t he membr ane.
E lect r ophor esi s
When an elect r ic cur r ent is passed t hr ough a colloidal
solut ion cont aining opposit ely char ged solid par t icles
and liquid medium and t he pr ocess in which only t he
sol i d par t i cl es can move i s cal l ed cat aphor esi s or
electophoresis.
Zet a pot ent ial or Elect okinet ic pot ent ial
I t is t he differ ence of pot ent ial bet ween fixed and
diffused par t s of t he double layer.
Gel
Colloidal solut ions cont aining a liquid disper sed in
solid. The pr ocess of for mat ion of gel is called gelat ion .
e.g. cur d, soap, boot polish.
Cat al ysi s
Substances which alter s the r ate of a chemical r eaction
wi t hout under goi ng a chemi cal change i s cal led a
cat alyst and t he phenomenon is called cat alysis.
Char act erist ics of Cat alyst
1. Cat alyst r emains chemically unchanged dur ing a
r eact ion.
2. Small quant it y is enough t o br ing about a r eact ion.
3. I t does not effect equlibr ium of r ever sible r eact ions.
4. I t h as m ax i m u m ef f i ci en cy at i t s opt i m u m
t emper at ur e.
5. I t does not init iat e a r eact ion t hat does not occur.
6. Cat al yst i c pr om ot er s : Su bst an ces w h i ch
incr ease act ivit y of cat alyst ar e called pr omot er s.
7. Specificity : Ever y cat alyst is specific in act ion and
act s only on a par t icular subst r at e.
 Chemistry 2.17

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng i s t he mai n
ingr edient in cement ?
1. The mat er ial used for elect r ic fuse is an alloy of
t in and lead. This alloy should have: (a) Gypsum
(a) high specific r esistance and low melting point. (b) L ime st one
(b) low specific r esistance and high melting point. (c) Clay
(c) low specific r esist ance and low melt ing point . (d) Ash
(d) high specific resistance and high melting point. 9. Glass is act ually :
2. Silver war e tur ns black aft er a per iod of t ime due (a) a cr yst alline solid.
t o for mat ion of : (b) an ionic solid.
(a) nit r at e coat ing on silver. (c) an elast ic solid.
(b) sulphide coat ing on silver. (d) a vitr ified liquid.
(c) chlor ide coat ing on silver. 10. Solutions in test tubes containing H 2O and aqueous
(d) oxide coat ing on silver. NaOH can be differ ent iat ed wit h t he help of :
3. When concent r at ed H 2SO4 spilt s on t he sur face, (a) r ed lit mus. (b) blue lit mus
it should be immediat ely cleaned : (c) Na2CO3 (d) HCl (aqueous)
(a) wit h a piece of clot h. 11. H uman st omach pr oduces acid ‘X' which helps in
(b) by adding cold wat er. digest ion of food. Acid ‘X' is :
(c) by adding solid Na2CO3. (a) acet ic acid. (b) met hanoic acid.
(d) by adding solid BaCl 2. (c) hydr ochlor ic acid. (d) cit r ic acid.
4. A bee-sitting leaves an acid which causes pain and 12. Whi ch one among t he fol l owi ng i s used as a
ir r it at ion. The inject ed acid is : moder at or in nuclear r eact or s?
(a) acet ic acid. (a) Ozone (b) H eavy hydr ogen
(b) sulphur ic acid. (c) H eavy wat er (d) H ydr ogen per oxide
(c) cit r ic acid. 13. Which one of t he following cont ains maximum
per cent age of nit r ogen by mass?
(d) met hanoic acid.
(a) Ur ea
5. I r on nails ar e dipped int o blue copper sulphat e
solut ion. Aft er some t ime ir on nails ar e : (b) Ammonium cyanide
(a) dissolved and blue colour is dischar ged. (c) Ammonium car bonat e
(b) dissolved but blue colour is not dischar ged. (d) Ammonium nit r at e
(c) not dissolved and blue colour is not discharged. 14. Oxygen and ozone ar e
(d) not dissolved but blue colour is dischar ged. (a) Allotr opes (b) isomer s
6. A st udent by chance mixed acet one wit h alcohol. (c) isot opes (d) isobar s
Thi s mi xt ur e of acet one and al cohol can be 15. When applied t o t he affect ed ar ea, which one of
separ at ed by : t he following will r elieve t he pain due t o ant -bit e
(a) filt r at ion. or bee-st ing?
(b) separ at ing funnel. (a) L emon juice (b) Vinegar
(c) fr act ional cr ystallization. (c) Baking soda (d) Caustic soda
(d) fr act ional dist illation.
LEVEL-1
7. Which one among t he following met hods is not
1. H adr ons and Bar yons ar e
effect ive in r emoving ar senic fr om cont aminat ed
gr ound wat er ? (a) I ndust r ial chemicals
(a) Boiling (b) Types of subat omi c par t i cl es
(b) Rever se osmosis (c) Alkalies
(c) I on exchange (d) Cyclot r ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) Coagulation-adsorption
2.18 Chemistry
2. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l owi n g i s a h et er ogen eou s 11. Major contributing activity towards Global
mixt ur e? Warming by Greenhouse gases
(a) Br ass (a) Agriculture
(b) Sugar sol ut ion in wat er (b) Deforestation
(c) Air (c) Energy
(d) Milk (d) lndustry
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
3. A class of compounds which ar e used as fragr ances 12. Electrostatic Precipitators are devices for
when molecular wei ght i s low and ar e nat ur al ly
(a) Particulate Emission Control
occur r i ng fat s when molecular wei ght i s high in
t he ser ies, is call ed (b) Water Pollution Control
(a) amino aci ds (b) ar omat ic compounds (c) Noise Pollution Control
(c) est er s (d) or ganic aci ds (d) Energy Pollution Control
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
4. Disinfection of drinking water is done to remove: 13. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure
(a) Odour (b) Bacterias of
(c) Turbidity (d) Colour (a) Oxygen utilized during oxidation of organic
matters
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(b) Suspended particles in water
5. Global warming is caused by :
(c) Suspended particles in air
(a) N2 (b) CO2
(d) Noise level in air
(c) Ozone (d) None of these
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
14. Biodegradable pollutants are
6. What is the General formula of Alkanes ?
(a) quickly degraded by natural means
(a) CnH2n+2 (b) CnH2n
(b) can not be degraded
(c) CnH2n – 2 (d) CnH2n + 4
(c) can be degraded by burning only
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(d) disposed in flowing water only
7. The pollutant responsible for ozone holes is :
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(a) CO2 (b) CO
15. The state in which molecular attractions are very
(c) SO2 (d) CFC
strong is
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(a) Solid (b) Liquid
8. Ammonia is prepared commercially by the :
(c) Gas (d) Vapour
(a) Oswald process [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
(b) Hall process
(c) Contact process LEVEL-2
(d) Haber process 1. What is t he common pr oper t y bet ween L iAlH 4,
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] Sodium amalgam and NaBH 4?
9. The elements which have same mass number (a) They ar e used in r emoving slag fr om molt en
but different atomic numbers are know as : met als
(a) Isotones (b) Isobars (b) They ar e used in manufact ur ing est er s
(c) Isotopes (d) Halogens (c) They ar e r educing agent s
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (d) They ar e coat ed on welding elect r odes
10. Which one of the following is not a Noble Gas ? [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
(a) Helium (b) Bromine 2. Soaps ar e manufact ur ed by:
(c) Argon (d) Neon (a) React ion of alkalies wit h glycer ol
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (b) React ion of fat s wit h soluble hydr oxides
 Chemistry 2.19
(c) React ion of calcium and magnesium ions wit h (c) su m of t h e n u m ber of pr ot on s an d t h e
dilute sulphur ic acid neut r ons in t he nucleus of an at om
(d) React ion of dodecyl benzene wit h H 2SO4 and (d) number of pr ot ons or elect r ons in one gr am
t hen NaOH of Sodium
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
3. Chemical bonding which r esult s in for mat ion of 10. I sot opes of t he same element have
molecules fr om at oms is basically- (a) Same number of neut r ons
(a) Nuclear for ce (b) Same at omic mass
(b) Shor t r ange for ces (c) Same number of pr ot ons
(c) Elect r ost at ic for ce (d) Differ ent at omic number
(d) Gr avitat ional for ce [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] 11. I n a r eaction between Zinc and I odine. Zinc I odide
4. Glycer ol can be r epr esent ed by chemical for mula: is for med. What is being oxidised ?
(a) C2HSO2 (b) C3H 7OH (a) Zinc ions (b) I odide ions
(c) C3H 5OH (d) C3H 8O3 (c) Zinc At om (d) I odine
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
5. The most ideal di si nfect ant used for dr i nki ng 12. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng hal ogens i s t he best
wat er is : oxidising agent ?
(a) Alum (b) Chlor ine (a) F 2 (b) Cl 2
(c) L i me (d) Nit r ogen (c) Br 2 (d) l 2
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
6. Which one of t he following is gener ally added t o 13. Nit r ogen is used t o fill elect r ic bulbs because it
Table Salt t o make it flow fr eely in r ainy season ? (a) is light er t han air
(a) Ca3(PO4)2 (b) Na3PO4 (b) makes t he bulb t o give mor e light
(c) KCI (d) KI (c) does not suppor t combust ion
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (d) is non-t oxic
7. Valence elect r ons in t he element A ar e 3 and t hat [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
i n el ement B ar e 6. M ost pr obabl e compound
14. Fr ot h float at ion pr ocess for t he concent r at ion of
for med fr om A and B is :
Or es is an illustr ation of t he pr act ical applicat ion
(a) A2B (b) AB2 of
(c) A2B3 (d) A3B2 (a) Adsor ption
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (b) Absor ption
8. At oms of t he element s bel ongi ng t o t he same (c) Coagulation
gr oup of per iodic t able will have :
(d) Sediment ation
(a) Same number of pr ot ons
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
(b) Same number of neut r ons
15. The pr esence of ni t r ogen i n t he pr oduct s of
(c) Same number of elect r ons combust ion ensur es t hat
(d) Same number of elect r ons in t he valence shell (a) Complet e combust ion of fuel t akes place
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (b) I ncomplet e combust ion of fuel t akes place
9. Avogadr o's number, N A means (c) dr y pr oduct s of combust ion ar e analysed
(a) number of pr ot ons in nucleus of an at om (d) air is used for t he combust ion
(b) number of at oms i n one gr am at om of an [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
element
2.20 Chemistry

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 13. I n Ur ea (NH 2 CO NH 2)
1. The mat er ial should have high specific value and 28
Per cent age of Nit r ogen =
 100  46.6%
low melt ing point which is used for elect r ic fuse 60
is an alloy of t in and lead. I n Ammonium Cyanide (NH 4CN)
2. Silver conver t s int o silver sulphide in pr esence 28
of air and H 2S, which is black in colour Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  63.6%
44
 Ag 2S  2H+
2Ag  H2S  I n Ammonium Car bonat e (NH 4)2 CO3
Black
3. When concent r ated H 2SO4 split s on t he sur face it 28
Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  29.2%
should be immediat ely cleaned by adding solid 96
Bacl 2 (Bar ium Chlor ide). I n Ammonium nit r at e (NH 4)2 NO3
4. A bee-sting leaves methanoic acid (HCOOH) which 28
causes pain and ir r it at ion. Per cent age of Nit r ogen =  100  42.8%
98
5. I r on i s mor e r eact i ve t han copper, so r epl ace So, in ammonium cyanide per centage of nit r ogen
copper fr om copper sulphat e solut ion. is maximum
Fe  CuSO4 
 FeSO4  Cu
reddish brown
14. Oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) ar e allotr opic for ms of
blue green
oxygen.
Copper submitted on iron nails by which the colour
of solut ion become light . 15. I n ant bit e and bee st ing for mic acid (H COOH ) is
pr esen t , wh i ch i s r espon si bl e f or pai n an d
6. Acet one and alcohol have differ ent boiling point s
ir r it at ion. For mic acid is a weak acid it can be
so it can be separ at ed by fr act ional dist illat ion.
neut r al so bak i ng soda (sodi um bi -car bonat e-
9. Glass is an elast ic solid. Na2CO3) is used in r elieve in pain due t o ant i-bit e
10. Red lit mus is uneffect ed by wat er (H 2O) because or bee st ing.
it is neut r al in nat ur e while NaOH is basic in
LEVEL-1
nat ur e so r ed lit mus t ur ns int o blue colour.
11. H uman st omach pr oduces H ydr ochl or i c (H cl ) 1. Hadrons and Baryons are types of subatomic
which helps in digest ion of food. particles. Baryons are heavy subatomic particles
that are made up of three quarks.
12. H eavy wat er i s used as moder at or i n nuclear
r eact or s which r educes t he velocit y of neut r ons. 2. Milk is an example of a heterogeneous mixture.
Mixtures can be separated into two (or more)

individual substances by physical means. Our
glass of ice water is a mixture because we can
easily separate the ice from the liquid water by
filtration.
3. A class of compounds which are used as
fragrances when molecular weight is low and are
naturally occurring fats when molecular weight
is high in the series, is called esters.
4. Disinfection of drinking water is done to remove
Bacteria. Water disinfection means the removal,
deactivation or killing of pathogenic
microorganisms.
Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated,
resulting in termination of growth and
reproduction. When microorganisms are not
removed from drinking water, drinking water
usage will cause people to fall ill.
5. CO2 causes green house effect trading to global
warming.
6. The alkanes comprise a series of compounds that
are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms with
single covalent bonds. This group of compounds
comprises a homologous series with a general
molecular formula of C n H 2 n+2.
7. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS)
are mainly responsible for man-made chemical
ozone depletion. The total amount of effective
halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the
stratosphere can be calculated and are known as
the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine
(EESC).
8. The Haber Process combines nitrogen from the
air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural
gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is
reversible and the production of ammonia is
exothermic. The catalyst is actually slightly more
complicated than pure iron.
9. Atoms of chemical elements having same atomic
mass but a different atomic number are called
Isobars. The sum of the number of protons and
neutrons together form the atomic mass.
10. Among the given options, Bromine is not a Noble
Gas.The six noble gases that occur naturally are
helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn).
11. A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits
radiant energy within the thermal infrared
range. Increasing greenhouse gas emissions
cause the greenhouse effect.
Chemistry 2.21
12. Electrostatic Precipitators are devices for
particulate emission control.
13. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD, also called
Biological Oxygen Demand) is the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed (i.e. demanded) by
aerobic biological organisms to break down
organic material present in a given water sample
at certain temperature over a specific time
period. The BOD value is most commonly
expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per
litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20
°C. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a
measure of Oxygen utilized during oxidation of
organic matters.
14. Biodegradable pollutants are quickly degraded by
natural means. Biodegradable pollutants: Such
pollutants are quickly degraded by microbes
(bacteria and fungi) in nature e.g. sewage, ...
Examples of such pollutants are: DDT, mercury,
lead, arsenic, some pesticides, radioactive
substances, glass, plastic, aluminium pieces, etc.
15. Solid has the highest molecular attractions hence
is dense and compact.
LEVEL-2
1. a In organic chemistry we normally learn
about two important reducing reagents,
sodium borohydride (NaBH 4) and lithium
aluminum hydride (LiAlH4 or LAH). We learn
that NaBH4 is a “weak reducing agent” and
can only take aldehydes and ketones to alcohols
easily. NaBH4 can handle esters, but it is very
slow at converting them and thus not
preferable.
2. b Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides;
three molecules of fatty acids attach to a
single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline
solution, which is often called lye (although
the term “lye soap” refers almost exclusively
to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings
about a chemical reaction known as
saponification.
3. c A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between
atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond
may result from the electrostatic force of
attraction between oppositely charged ions as
in ionic bonds or through the sharing of
electrons as in covalent bonds.
2.22 Chemistry
4. d The glycerol chemical formula is C3H8O3 and
its extended formula is CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH.
The IUPAC name for glycerol is 1, 2,
3- Trihydroxypropane or 1, 2, 3- Propanetriol.
5. b The most ideal disinfectant used for drinking
water is Chlorine. Chlorine is one of the most
commonly used disinfectants for water
disinfection.
6. a Ca3(PO4)2 is generally added to Table Salt to
make it flow freely in rainy season.
7. b Valence electrons in the element A are 3 and
that in element B are 6. Most probable
compound formed from A and B is A2B3.
8. d Atoms of the elements belonging to the same
group of periodic table will have Same number
of electrons in the valence shell.
9. b In chemistry and physics, the Avogadro
constant, named after scientist Amedeo
Avogadro, is the number of constituent
particles, usually atoms or molecules, that are
contained in the amount of substance given
by one mole.
10. c The atoms of a chemical element can exist in
different types. These are called isotopes. They
have the same number of protons (and
electrons), but different numbers of neutrons.
Different isotopes of the same element have
different masses.
11. a Zinc powder is added to a solution of iodine in
ethanol. An exothermic redox reaction occurs,
forming zinc iodide, which can be obtained by
evaporating the solvent. In reaction between
Zinc and Iodine. Zinc Iodide is formed. Zinc
atom is being oxidised.
12. a Fluorine is such a powerful oxidising agent
that you can’t reasonably do solution reactions
with it.
13. c Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon
or nitrogen slows down the evaporation of
the tungsten filament compared to operating
it in a vacuum. This allows for greater
temperatures and therefore greater efficacy
with less reduction in filament life.
14. a Froth floatation process for the concentration
of Ores is an illustration of the practical
application of Adsorption.
15. d The presence of nitrogen in the products of
combustion ensures that air is used for the
combustion.
 CHAPTER
3 Biology
Classificat ion of Plant s
PLANT KINGDOM
 These have pr imit ive vascular syst em.

2. Phaner ogamae
Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
(Plants without seeds) (Seed bearing plants)

I t includes all flower ing plant s which bear seeds.

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnospermae Angiospermae
These ar e also called sper mat ophyt es.
Algae Fungi Classificat ion of Phaner ogames
( i ) Gymnosper ms.
Hepaticae Anthocerotae Musci
 These ar e r epr esent ed by cycas, pines and
Psilopsida Lycopsida Sphenopsida Pteropsida
cedar.
 These have t he naked (uncover ed) seeds, i.e.
Cycadopsida Coniferopsida Gnetopsida
seeds ar e not enclosed in a fr uit .
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
 These ar e r epr esent ed by coni fer s, which
Depending on t he pr esence or absence of flower s and gr ow in cool climat e of hills, sometimes using
seeds, ent ir e plant kingdom is divided int o following. melt ing snow as a sour ce of wat er. H owever,
some like cycads and member s of Gnet ales
1. Cr ypt ogamae t hr ive in war m dr y climat e.
I t includes all non-flower ing plant s such as algae,
 Some common gymnosper ms ar e :
fungi, lichens, mosses and fer n.
Abi es, Cedr u s, Pi nu s and ot her t i m ber -
Classificat ion of Cr ypt ogamae yielding species
( i ) T hallophyt a. ( ii ) Angi osper ms.
 Nut r it i on i s aut ot r ophi c i n algae, wher eas
 These have cover ed seeds, i.e. they ar e always
fungi exhibit het er ot r ophic nut r it ion. Algae
enclosed in an ovar y or fr uit .
usually sust ain it self in a var iet y of habit at s
 These r ange i n si ze fr om mi nut e fl oat i ng
such as wet land as well as on ot her plant s
and even ani mal s. Some gr ow i n mar i ne duckweeds to giant eucalyptus and silk cotton
wat er and ar e called seaweeds. t r ees and include plant s of gr eat var iet y and
for m-cact i, wat er lillies, sunflower s, or chids,
( ii ) Br yophyt a. pit cher plant s, I ndian pipe et c.
 This gr oup der ives it s name fr om t he mosses
 These ar e seed-bear ing plant s well adapt ed
whi ch gr ow on t he r ock s, wal l s and t r ee
to t he ter r estr ial life and they occur in diver se
t r unks in moist and shady places.
habit at s like cold t undr a t o hot t r opical and
 These lack r oot s, flower s and seeds.
even deser t ar eas. They also t hr ive well in
 M osses also r et ain moist ur e like the sponges. aquat ic habit at s.
 M em ber s of t h i s gr ou p r epr odu ce bot h  These plants repr esented by trees, shrubs and
v eget at i v el y t h r ou gh f r agm en t at i on , her bs ar e eit her monocot yledons or dicot y-
gemmae and t uber s, as wel l as by sexual ledons. They have a body well differ ent iat ed
met hods. int o r oot , st em and leaves.
( iii ) Pt er idophyt a.  These ar e mainly classified int o t wo main

 These occur in humid and t r opical climat es classes :

and usually gr ow on soil, r ocks, in ponds and (a) Dicot yledons
as epiphyt es on ot her plant s. (b) M onocotyledons
 3.2 Biology

Classificat ion of Animals

Animal Kingdom Chrodata

Protozoa Metazoa
(unicellular/acellular) (multi cellular) Protochordata / Acraniata Vertibrata / Craninta

Parazoa / parifera Eumetazoa

Hemichordata urochordata cephalochordata Agnatha Gnathostomata
(Jawless) (with true jaw)
Super class
Diploblastic Triploblastic
(having 2 germinal layers) (having 3 germinal layers)
e.g. Porifera and coelenterata Ostacodermi Cyclostomata Pisces Tetrapoda
(Extinct) Classes
Classes
Acoelomata Pseudoeoelomata Eucoelomata
Placodermi Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes
(Extinct)(cartilaginous fishes) (Bony fishes)

Protostomia or, Schizocoelom Desstrostomia or, Enterocoelom

(e.g. Annelida, Arthropoda and (e.g. Echinodermata
Mollusca) and chordata)
Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

 Based on t he pr esence or absence of not ochor d at Phylum – Pr ot ozoa (Pr ot ista)

some st age in t heir life, animals ar e categorised int o
 Wor d meaning is fir st animals.
t wo major gr oups :
(1) Non-chor dat es ; (2) Chor dat es  These protozoans ar e micr oscopic called animalcules.
 Th e ani mal k i n gdom i s di vi ded i nt o 35 Phyl a  Common feat ures are : Encystment and Pher omer an
(singular : Phylum) of which 11 ar e consider ed as of r egener at ion
major Phyla.  H umidit y is needed in life span.
 Ani mal K i ngdom (Ani mal i a) i ncl udes about 1.2  Exo– skelet on is absent except Pohyst omela.
million known species.
 Endo– skelet on is absent .
D i f f er en t i at i on bet w een N on - ch or da t a a n d  L ocomot ar y or ganellae ar e pseudopodia / flagella /
Chor dat a cillia / absent .
S.N o. Char acter N on Chor data Chor data  Nut r it ion may be holozoic / holophit ic / par asit ic.
F un damental Char act er s  Digest ion is int r acellular.
1 Notochor d or Absent in ever y Pr esent i n any st age of
(chor da dor sali s) st age of li fe cycle l ife cycl e
 Respir at ion occur s by plasmalemma.
2 Gil l Slit s Absent in ever y Pr esent i n any st at e of  Excr et ion t akes place by plasmalemma.
st at e of l ife cycle l ife cycl e  Cont r act ile vacuole is pr esent for osmor egulat ion
3 N er vous syst em Vent r al, Double N er ve – cor d Dor sal, (however it is absent in parasitic pr otozoa and mar ine
and Solid Singl e and H oll ow
ner ve – cor d pr ot ozoa).
4 Post and t ai l Absent Pr esent  Cir culat ion by cyclosis.
5 M outh Gener ally in fi r st Aft er fir st segment in  Asexual r epr oduct ion by binar y fission / mult iple
segment ant er ior r egi on
fission / spor ulat ion .
6 Anus Gener ally in l ast Befor e l ast segment
segment poster ior r egion  H ologamy t ype of sexual r epr oduct ion is pr esent .
7 L i ver Absent Pr esent
Phylum – Porifer a
8 H ear t Dor sal Vent r al
 Animals ar e pores bear ing.
9 R.B.C. Absent Pr esent
10 Ci r culat or y Open / closed / Closed  I ncur r ent por es ar e ost ia, mor e in number, small in
system absent size, cont r olled by por ocyt e cells and equal t o mout h.
11 Posit i on of Dor sal to nerve Vent r al t o ner ve cor d  Excur r ent por es ar e osculum, one or few in number,
ali ment ar y canal cor d
large in size, controlled by myocytes and equal to anus.
12 Symmetr y All t ype Bil at er al
 Cells ar e loosely ar r anged.
13 Gr ade All t ypes Or gan syst em
14 Body wall Di pl obl ast ic / Tr i pl obl ast i c Out er wall is pinacoder m made up of pinacocyt es
Tr ipl oblast ic (pinacoderm cells)
15 Coelom All t ypes Ent er ocoeli c I nner wall is choanoder m made up of choanocyt es or
16 Repr oduct i on M ainly asexual Sexual collar ed flagellat ed cells.
17 L ar vae Gener ally pr esent Gener all y absent  Bet ween t hese t wo layer s, mesenchyma (mesohyl
18 Regener at i on M or e L ess layer ) is pr esent in which amoebocyte cells ar e ther e.
19 Temper at ur e Cold bl ooded Col d blooded / war m
blooded
Choanocyt e cells ar e r esponsible t o t r ansfer sper ms
20 Tot al animals 95-97% 3-5%
t o ovum.

 A m oebocy t es ar e com i n g f r om bot h l ay er s
(pinacoder m and choamoder ms).
 Cent r al cavit y is spongocoel or par agast r ic cavit y.
 Endoskeleton is present (secr eted by scleroblast cells).
 Animals ar e sessile or sedent ar y or not locomot e.
 Digest ion is int r acellular (in choanocyt e cells)
 Respi r at i on and excr et i on t hr ough gener al body
sur face by difussion.
 Animals ar e mainly bisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 I n body spicules pr esent , may be mega scler es or
micr o scler es.
 Spicules ar e for med by act inoblast cells.
 Spicules ar e of monoaxon t o polyaxon t ype (diaxon
is absent ).
 Commonly called sponges.
 M ost ly mar ine.
 Animals of t hese phylum ar e maximum act ive in
animal kingdom.
 Nut r it ion is holozoic.
 Chr omat ocyt es cells pr esent .
 Food is st or ed in t hesocyt e cells.
 Olynt hus is ancient sponge, pr esent in life cycle of
most of t he sponges.
Phyl um– Coel ent er at a
 Centr al cavity is coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity,
which is helpful in nut r it ion and cir culat ion.
 H et scheck named it Cnidar ia.
 St inging cells or Nematoblast or Cnidocyt es pr esent
for offence and defence.
 Out er layer is epider mis
I nner layer is gast r oder mis
Bet ween t hem mesoglea is pr esent .
 M out h is meant for ingest ion and egest ion.
 Digest ion is int er – cellular and int r a– cellular bot h.
 Respir at ion t hr ough gener al body sur face.
 Ner vous system is diffused type, ner ves brain absent.
 Asexual r epr oduct ion by budding (gemmat ion)
 M ostly bisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development is indir ect .
 Planula lar va is common.
 M et agen esi s i s pr esen ce of gen er at i on , i .e.
polymor phism is pr esent .
Classificat ion
These ar e mainly of t wo for ms :
1. Pol yp.
I t is long, cylindr ical body, sedent ar y and colonial,
hollow, wit hout velum t hin.
M esoglea wit hout st at ocyst and as asexual for m.
2. M edusa.
I t is umbr ella shaped, fr ee swimming and solit ar y
velum.
Biology 3.3
Reef
Cor al r eefs (cor al + algae) ar e of t hr ee t ypes :
( i ) Fringing reefs : Closest to sea shor e and wit hout
cagor m.
( ii ) Barrier reefs : 1/2 t o 10 miles a way fr om sea
shor e and having lagoon.
( iii ) Atoll : I t is cir cular cor al r eef having lagoon. I t
is called cor al island.
N ote : The lar gest cor al r eef is The Gr eat Bar rier Reef
of Aust r alia (about 1920 kms.)
Phylum – Plat yhelmint hes
 Body is dor so vent r ally flat t ened.
 Commonly called flat wor ms.
 Epider mis is syncit ial.
 M uscles pr esent in t he for m of bundle.
 Digest ion is int er cellular.
 I ncomplet e aliment ar y canal is pr esent or absent .
 Gener ally par asit es.
 M ainly anaer obic r espir at ion occur.
 Excr et or y or gan ar e
Flame cells or pr ot onephr idia or solenocyt es.
 Ner vous syst em is ladder shape.
 Ganglions ar e for med for t he fir st t ime.
 Bisexual.
 Sex duct s pr esent .
 Sucker s or hooks or bot h pr esent .
 Power of fer t ilit y is mor e.
 L ife cycle is complicat ed.
 Digenet ic.
 Vitelline glands give nour ishment to zygotes and also
helpful t o give out zygot es out of ut er us.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 M any lar vae ar e pr esent .
 Polyembr yony pr esent , i.e. fr om one zygot e many
embr yos ar e for med.
Phylum – Aschelmint hes
This phylum is similar toplatyhelminthesin charactersexcept
 Commonly called r ound wor m / t r ue wor m
 Pseudocoelome is pr esent .
 Unisexual in nat ur e
 M onogenet ic / Digenet ic
 Excr et or y or gans ar e coelomoduct s.
 I n ner vous syst em r ing is for med.
 M aximum adapted for par asit ism.
 Cleavage is spir al and det er minat e.
 Eut yly is comont at ur e. i.e. number of cells ar e fixed
and show incr ease in size only (auxet ic gr owt h).
 Complet e and st r aight aliment ar y canal is pr esent .
 3.4 Biology
Phylum – Annelida
 Body is met amer ically segment ed.
 Segment at ion is ext er nal by annuli.
 Segment at ion is int er nal by coelosept a.
 Tr ue coelom is pr esent
 Complet e aliment ar y canalis pr esent
 L ocomot ar y or gan ar e set ae
 Sacker s ar e pr esent in leech.
 Digest ion is int er cellular.
 Respir at ion by body wall / gills / par apodia.
 Excr et or y or gans ar e nephr edia.
 Cir culat or y syst em is closed t ype.
 Ner ve r ing pr esent .
 Animals ar e bisexual / unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development is indir ect .
 Haemoglobin or erythroqruorine is desolved in plasma.
Phylum – Ar thr opoda
 Fir st lar gest phylum r egar ding populat ion (consist s
of mor e t han 80% of animal kingdom)
 Joint ed legs pr esent .
 H aemocoel is pr esent .
 Cir culat or y syst em is open t ype.
 Exoskelet on is made up of chit in.
 Endoskeelt on is pr esent .
 Respir at ion by t r achea / gills / book lungs.
 Excr et ion by malpighian t ubules / gr een glands or
ant ennar y glands / coxal gland.
 Br ain pr esent .
 Unisexual in nat ur e.
 Fer t ilizat ion is int er nal.
 I n most of ani mal s (except i nsect ) haemocyni ne
disolved in plasma.
 Cillia t ot ally absent .
 Ecdysis / moult ing / exuviae is common.
 Compound eyes ar e pr esent her e.
Phylum – M ollusca
 Soft bodied animals.
 Body i s cover ed by mant l e, whi ch i s hel pful i n
r espir at ion and secr et ion of shell.
 I n shell conchalin pr ot ein pr esent .
 Second lar gest gr oup.
 Torsion and detorsion may pr esent i.e. twisting of
viscera ar ound axis, so animals become asymmetrical.
 Cir culat or y syst em open.
 Coelom is maximum r educed.
 Exo skelet on is made up of calcium car bonat e.
 M uscular foot pr esent .
 I nt er cellular digest ion.
 Respir at ion by ct enidia / pulmonar y sac.
 Excr et ion by coxal gland / renel gland / keber 's gland
/ met anephr idia / coelomoduct / or gan of bajonus.
 Br ain pr esent .
 Unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion ext er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 Glochidium / velliger / t r ocophor e lar vae ar e pr esent.
 Hepat opancr eas pr esent.
 Body is differ ent iat ed int o head, viscer a and foot .
 Balancing or gans ar e st at ocyst .
 Osphar idium is chemor ecept or.
 K idney is sac like.
 I n hear t 1– 2 aur icles and 1 vent r icle pr esent .
 Cleavage is spir al and det er minat e.
 Redula ar e t eet h like st r uct ur e, may pr esent .
Phylum – E chinoder mat a
 Animals ar e exclusively mar ine.
 Skin is spiny.
 Commonly called swimming pebbles.
 Exo sk el et on and endo sk el et on ar e made up of
calcar ius ossicles.
 L ocomot ion by t ube feet .
 Respir at ion by tube feet / der mal pappulae/bursae.
 Excr et ion by wat er vascular syst em.
 Wat er vascular syst em consist s of
(i ) Teidmann's bodies
(ii ) S– shaped stone canals.
 No br ain, Unisexual.
 Fer t ilizat ion is ext er nal.
 Development indir ect .
 Lar vae pr esent ar e Pinnaria / bipinaria / oricularia /
echinopluteus
 M out h pr esent on or al sur face.
 Anus pr esent on abor al sur face.
 Cover ing of body is echinocar dium.
Algae
They ar e simple, t hallose, aut ot r ophic non– vascular
pl ant s havi ng uni cel led sex or gans and no embr yo
for mat ion.
Algae occur in following var iet ies of habit at s:
1. F r esh wat er for ms
They occur in r iver s, ponds, pools, lakes and ditches.
Some for ms occur as passively float ing and dr ift ing
flor a (phytoplanktons),
e.g. diat oms
2. M arine for ms
M ost of t he member s of br own algae, r ed al gae,
some gr een and blue– gr een algae occur in sea.
3. Ter r est r ial for ms
Sever al member s of gr een and bl ue– gr een al gae
and a few ot her s occur on damp soi l . Osci l lat or i a
and N ost oc occur on al k al i ne and cal car eous
soi l .

4. U nusual or Specialised habit at s
Algae Repr oduct ion
M et hods involved in r epr oduct ion ar e
1. Vegetative reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction
3. Sexual r epr oduct ion.
F un gi
 The br anch dealing wit h t he st udy of fungi is called
mycology.
 Fungi do not have chlor ophyll and t her efor e t hey do
not pr epar e t heir own food mat er ial.
They have t o obt ain it fr om ext er nal sour ces: eit her
from dead or ganic matter (sapr ophytes) or fr om other
living plant s and animals (par asit es).
Some fungi have symbiot ic r elat ionship wit h ot her
plants.
 The t hal l us i s made up of t hi n, l ong, br anched
filaments called hyphae. The mass of hyphae is called
mycelium .
I n Basidiomycet es, t he sept a ar e br oad in t he cent r e
sur r ounded by a double membr ane (par ent hesome)
on each side. Such a bar r el– shaped sept um is called
dolipor e sept um .
 Except slime molds all ot her fungi have cell walls.
The cel l wal l i s made up of cyt i n. I n t he cl ass
Oomycet es, t he cell wall is of cellulose.
 The fungi lack chlor ophylls but have car otenoids.
 The hyphae may be septate or unseptate. Unseptate
hyphae have nucl ei scat t er ed in cyt opl asm. Thi s
condi t i on i s cal l ed coenocyt ic. H owever, i n such
hyphae, sept a ar e for med at the t ime of for mat ion of
r epr oduct ive or gans or in older por t ions of hyphae.
N ut r it ion
On t he basis of nut r it ion, fungi ar e divided int o t wo
categor ies :
(i) Parasites
(ii) Saprophytes
Some fungi live in associat ion wit h ot her gr oups of
pl an t s f or m u t u al ben ef i t . T h ese ar e cal l ed
symbiont s. e.g. lichen, mycor r hiza
A plant body which consist s of a single cell and is
conver t ed complet ely int o a r epr oduct ive st r uct ur e
is called holocar pic e.g. Synchyt r ium .
But if only a par t of t he t hallus is used up in t he
for mat ion of r epr oduct ive st r uct ur e, it is called as
eucarpic.
Repr oduct i on
I n fungi r epr oduct ion is of t hr ee t ypes :
(i ) Veget at ive
(ii ) Asexual
(iii ) Sexual
The r eser ve food mater ial in fungi is glycogen which
is soluble polysacchar ide. Glycogen is also found in
animal cells and hence called animal st ar ch.
Biology 3.5
E conomic I mpor t ance
 Fungi like Agar icus, Clavat ia, M or chella ar e used
as human food.
 M or chella is commonly called sponge mushr oom.
 Tr ufflels is edible fungus and pr oduces it s fr uit ing
body embeded in soil.
L i ch en s
 I t is a composit e t halloid st r uct ur e, made up of an
alga and a fungus.
 Algal component of a lichen is called phycobiont ,
and fungal component is called mycobiont .
 T h e al gal com pon en t i s u su al l y a m em ber of
cyan oph y ceae or ch l or oph yceae. T h e f u n gal
component i s usual l y a member of ascomycet es,
r ar ely of basidiomycet es.
 The algal and fungal par t ner s ar e benefit ed by t his
associat ion (symbiosis or mut ualism). The fungus
der i ves n ut r i t i on fr om t h e al ga, wh i l e al ga i s
pr ot ect ed fr om desiccat ion by t he fungus.
 L ichens can t oler at e ext r emes of climat e and ar e
found ever ywher e r anging fr om hot deser t s t o cool
mountains.
 A sex u al r epr odu ct i on (i n cl u di n g v eget at i v e
r epr oduct ion) t akes place by fr agment ation, sor edia,
isidia and conidia.
 Sexual reproduction occurs only in the fungal partner.
The female r epr oductive or gan is a car pogonium and
male r epr oduct ive or gan is a sper mogonium.
 The fr uiting bodies ar e eit her apothecia or per ithecia
containing asci. Each ascus develops eight ascospor es.
Gymnasper m
 Fr uit -less seed plant s.
 Char act er ized by pr esence of naked seeds pr oduced
in cones. L eaves ar e dimor phic (scaly leaves and
foliage leaves)
 Pollinat ion is anemophilous (by wind)
 Embr yo development is mer oblast ic.
 Pol y em br y on y i s ch ar act er i st i c f eat u r e of
gymnosper ms.
 Endosper m is haploid, gamet ophyt ic t issue and is
for med befor e fer t ilizat ion fr om megaspor e.
 Gymnosper ms and angiosper ms r esemble in having
siphonogamy.
 Wood of Cycas is manoxylic and polyxylic while t hat
of Pinus is Pycnoxylic.
 Cycas is also called sagoplam.
 I n r achis of cycas, vascular bundles ar e ar r anged in
t he for m of inver t ed omega.
 Tr ansfusion t issue meant for conduct ion of wat er is
pr esent in leaflet s of cycas and leaves (needles) of
Pinus.
 Gr owt h of male plant in Cycas is sympodial while of
female plant is monopodial.
 3.6 Biology

T he Cell D iffer ences Bet ween Animal and Plant

 All life begins ar e a single cell. A number of or ganism Cel l s
ar e made of single cell, t hey ar e called uni/acellular.
S . C h a r a ct e r s P r ok a r y ot i c E u k a r y ot i c C e l l
e.g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Acet abular ia, Yeast . N o. C ell
 Cells ar e gr ouped into t issue, tissue into or gans, into 1 C ell W a ll C el l w al l absen t C el l w al l p r esen t
or gan syst em, r esult in Division of L abour. i n an i m al cel l . on l y i n p l an t cel l
 All t he cells int r act and co-oper at e wit h each ot her (B act er i a con si d er
and r emain par t ially dependent on each ot her. as p l an t s d u e t o
p r esen ce of CW )
 The cells having a common or igin and per for ming a
2 P l a st i d s P l ast i d s or ch l o- P l ast i d s p r esen t s
similar but specific funct ion const it ut es a t issue
r op l ast s absen t i n i n p l an t cel l s.
e.g. muscle an i m al cel l . (ex cep t F u n gi )
 Sever al t ypes of t i ssues j oi n t o for m an or gan N o-ch l or op h y l l
e.g. liver, kidney, leaf, r oot s, et c. 3 C e n t r osom e C en t r osom e fou n d C en t r osom e ab-
 Sever al or gans const it ut e an or gan syst em i n an i m al cel l s absen t i n pl an t
(ex cep t L ow er cel l
e.g. digest ive syst em, excr et or y syst em, et c. p l an t s)
 Cells var y widely in size and shape. I f bact er ia ar e
4 V a cu ol e s A bsen t bu t sm al l , Sap / T r u e v acu o-
among the or ganisms wit h smallest cells, lar gest cell t em p or ar y v acu o- l es ar e p r esen t i n
of all is t he yolk of an ost r ich egg. l es m ay p r esen t s. p l an t cel l s.
Pr ok ar yot ic cell 5 C ell Cyt ok i nesis by C el l di v i si on by
 Pr okar yot ic cells nuclear mater ial i.e. DNA, RNA, D i v i si on const r i ct ion for m - cel l pl at e f or m or
pr ot ei ns, et c. i s not bound by a defi ni t e nucl ear at ion or fu r r ow i n g. p h r agm op l ast
membrane. 6 R e se r v e R eser v e food i s M ai n l y st ar ch i s
 Cytoplasm lacks well defined cyt oplasmic or ganelles f ood ce l l s gl y cogen i n an i - r eser v e food i n .
m al pl an t cel l s.
e.g. en dopl asm i c r et i cu l u m , gol gi com pl ex ,
mit ochondr ia, cent r ioles et c.
Cell Wall
 These cells ar e r epr esent ed by bact er ia, blue- gr een
algae, mycoplasma or PPL O (pleur o pneumonia-like  Pr ovides shape t o plant cell r igidit y t o cells.
or ganism), spir ochet e and r icket t siae.  Funct ions as a bar r ier t o ent r y of pat hogens int o
 These cells ar e supposed t o be far smaller t han t he cell s.
euk ar yot i c cel l s. H owever, t hey mul t i pl y mor e  Pr ovides pr otection to protoplasm against mechanical
r apidly as compar ed t o most of t he eukar yot ic cells. injur y.
 These cells have r emar kable amount of var iat ion in  Cont r ol ent r y of exit of mat er ials.
shape and size.
 Funct ions as apoplast which is per meable t o wat er
E ukar yot ic cell
and miner als dissolved in it .
 These cells have a nucleus which cont ains nuclear
mat er ial enclosed by a double layer ed membr ane.  Plasmodesmat a pr oduce a pr ot oplasmic cont inuum
All plant and animal cells fall under t his cat egor y. bet ween adjacent cells.
 Component s of Eukar yot ic cells :  Bur st ing of cells on endomit osis.
Cell wall (absent in animals cells and some pr otist s), Pr ot opl ast
plasma membr ane, cyt oplasm and or ganelles
 I mpor t ant cyt oplasmic or ganelles: Plastid
Mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosomes, vacuoles, golgi complex, centrioles, etc.
Plasmalemma Cytosol Nucleus
Cell T heor y
Five fundament al facts:  Cell wit hout cell membr ane (H enst ein)
1. Body of living organisms consists of different types of  I t cont ains 1 or mor e vacuoles.
cells and their products, i.e. cell is structural unit of life.  I n mat ur e plant cells, pr ot oplast for ms a per ipher al
2. Single cell per for m all t he vit al act ivit ies, i.e. cells layer called pr imor dial ut r icle.
is funct ional unit of life.  I n animal cells pr ot oplast fills t he whole cell.
All act ivit ies of living or ganisms occur due t o t he
met abolic act ivit ies of t he cell. M i t ochondr i a
3. Cell is her edit ar y unit of life.  L ife span of mit ochondr ia is 5-10 days.
4. Cells ar e living or cell has life.  Aver age number of mit ochondr ia in each cell is 1000
(Each cell is made of a small mass of pr ot oplasm – 1600/cell
cont aini ng a nucl eus i n i t s i nsi de and a pl asma
 U sual l y pl ant cel l s have fewer mi t ochondr i a as
membr ane with or without a cell wall on its outside).
compar ed t o animal cell.
5. New cells ar ise fr om pr e-exist ing cell.

Shape and Size
 M it ochondr ia ar e spher ical or filamentous in shape.
 Smallest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in yeast (< 1).
 L ar gest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in Rana pipens
(20-40 )
 I n human body lar gest mit ochondr ia ar e pr esent in
pancreatic cells (10).
 Si ze depen ds on act i v i t y of cel l . A ct i ve cel l s
(mer ist emat ic cells) have lar ge mit ochondr ia.
 M it ochondr i al DNA can code t he synt hesi s of 10
differ ent types of pr oteins (Membrane pr oteins). Rest
of t he pr ot ei ns and enzymes of mit ochondr ia ar e
synt hesized under t he cont r ol of nuclear genes.
 Enzymes for r eplicat ion and t r anscr ipt ion of DNA
like DNA- polymer ase and RNA polymer ase.
 I n mit ochondr ia, 70s t ypes r ibosomes ar e pr esent ,
whi ch ar e cal led mit or ibosomes (M it ochondr ia of
mammals have 55s r ibosomes)
 I n scur vy disease, sever al mit ochondr ia fuse to for m
lar ge bodies called chondr iospher e.
F unct ions of M it ochondr ia
1. Cell oxidation. M it ochondr ia plays an impor t ant
r ole in ATP synt hesis dur ing aer obic r espir at ion.
M it ochondr ia ar e called Power house of cell because
t hey st or e ener gy in for m of ATP. ATP is ener gy
cur r ency. I n ATP t wo high ener gy bonds ar e pr esent
which ar e called pyr ophosphat ase bonds.
2. M i t ochondr i a hel p i n Vi t el l ogenesi s i n oocyt es,
M it ochondr ial K inase makes t he yolk viscous and
insoluble for a longer duration stor age. Mitochondria
of oocyt es called Yolk nuclei.
Golgi Appar at us
 Golgi in plant s is called lipochondr ion.
 Golgi body pr esent in all eukar yot es but absent in
mat ur e RBCs of mammals, sieve t ubes, br yophyt es
et c.
 Number of Golgi body :
One t o many in a cell locat ed near nucleus.
M aximum number of golgi body pr esent in r hizodial
cells of char a
(gr een algae = 25,000)
E ndoplasmic Ret iculum (E R)
Clternae Veslcles Tubules
Biology 3.7
 I t is a diffused cell or ganelle.
 I t consist s of t hr ee st r uct ur e :
1. Cisternae : L ong flatt ened and unbr anched unit s
ar r anged in st acks. 40– 50 nm t hick.
2. Vesicles : 25– 500 nm in diamet er.
3. Tubules : L ong, isolat ed, br anched unit s. 50– 190
nm t hick
 St r uct ur e of E.R. is like t he Golgi body but in E.R.
ci st er nae, vesi cl es and t ubul es ar e i sol at ed i n
cyt oplasm and t hese do not for m complex.
 Golgi body is localised cell or ganelle while E.R. is
widespr ead in cyt oplasm.
F unct ions of E.R.
1. Mechanical support : Par t icipates in t he for mation
of cytoskelet on with micr o-filaments, micr otubules
and int er mediat e filament s.
2. I nt r acel l ul ar exchange : For ms i nt r acel l ul ar
conduct i ng syst em. Tr anspor t of mat er i al s i n
cyt oplasm fr om one place t o anot her may occur s
t hr ough t he duct s of E.R.
3. Rough E.R. : Par t icipat es in pr ot ein synt hesis.
4. Lipid secretion : Lipid synthesized by the agranular
por t ion of E.R. (smoot h E.R.), st or ed int o t he Golgi
befor e finally being ext r uded int o t he cyt oplasm
as lipid dr oplet and t hence t o t he out side of cell.
5. Release of Glucose from Glycogen : Polymer isation
of glucose to for m glycogen granules probably occur
in t he hyaloplasm not in t he wall of E.R. but t he
r et iculum seems t o play a r ole in t he br eakdown
of glycogen (glycogenolysis).
6. Cellular metabolism : Membr anes of the r eticulum
pr ovi des an i n cr eased su r f ace for m et abol i c
act ivit ies wit hin t he cyt oplasm.
7. For mat ion of nuclear membr ane : Fr agment ed
vesicles of disint egr at ed nuclear membr ane and
ER elements ar r ange ar ound chr omosomes to for m
a new nuclear membr ane.
8. For mat ion of cell plat e.
9. For mat ion of lysosomes and Golgi body.
10. Det oxi f i cat i on : Sm oot h E R con cer n ed w i t h
det oxificat ion of dr ugs and st er oids.
Pl ast i ds
These ar e pr esent in plants and few pr otists (Euglena).
Classificat ion
On t he basis of funct ion plast ids ar e of t hr ee t ypes:
1. L eucoplast ; 2. Chlor oplast ; 3. Chr omoplast
 Al l t ypes of pl ast i ds have common or i gi n fr om
pr oplast ids, sac like non-lamellar st r uct ur es.
 Differ ent t ypes of plast ids may t r ansfor m fr om one
for m t o anot her. But chr omoplast s never t r ansfor m
t o chlor oplast s.
Plastid
Leucoplast Chloroplast Chromoplast
 3.8 Biology
R i bosom e
 Also called pr ot ein fact or y and engine of t he cell .
 Ribosomes ar e smallest cell or ganelles (150  250 Å)
 Unit membr aneless cell or ganelle.
 Ri bosom e can be seen on l y t h r ou gh el ect r on
micr oscope, i.e. after electr on micr oscopes invention,
r ibosomes wer e discover ed.
 Having negative char ge due to pr esence of phosphate
gr oup (H 3PO43– ).
 Palade coined t he t er m Ribosome.
 Except mammalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes.
 Pr ot eins in r ibosomes ar e negat ively char ged.
 r -RNA is synt hesized in Nucleolus.
Nucleoulus is called Ribosome fact or y.
 Ribosomes ar e univer sal cell or ganelle, pr esent in
all pr okar yot es and eukar yot es.
Cell Cycle
A growing cell under goes a cell cycle t hat is comprised
of essent ially t wo per iods
1. I nter phase.
2. Per iod of division. (M it osis/M eiosis)
Str uctur e of Cell
N ucl eus
 I n major it y of t he cells, nucleus lies in t he cent r e.
H owever, it may also be in t he per ipher y of t he cell
as in t he case of plant cells. The liquid pr ot oplasm in
t he nucleus is called nucleoplasm , which is bound by
a membr ane called nuclear membr ane.
 I t cont ai ns a net wor k of fi br ous mat er i al cal l ed
chr omat in . The condensed chr omat in is in t he for m
of fibr e like st r uct ur es called chr omosomes, which
help in inher it ance or t r ansfer of char act er s fr om
t he par ent s t o next gener at ion.
 L ar gest component of t he cell.
 N u cl eu s i s dou bl e m em br an e bou n d den se
pr otoplasmic body that contr ols cellular metabolism,
enclose all t he genet ic infor mat ion, and is able t o
t r ansmit t he same t o t he next gener at ion.
 Except mat ur e mammalian R.B.C. and Sieve cell of
phloem, ever y living cell have a nucleus.
 Pr ocar yotes have incipient nucleus devoid of nuclear
membr ane, nucl eol us and hi st one. Such t ype of
nucleus is called nucleoid.
 Nucleus of undividing cell is called interphase nucleus.
 The pr ot oplasm bet ween nucleus and t he plasma
membr ane is called cyt oplasm .
 L ar gest among t he or ganelles in t he cell ar e plast ids
found in plant cells. These cont ain pigment s.
 Ther e ar e r od shaped or spher ical or ganelles called
mit ochondr ia.
 I n t he cyt opl asm t her e ar e dr opl et s of subst ances
di ssol ved i n wat er. U nder t he mi cr oscope, t hese
dr opl et s appear as empt y spaces and ar e t er med as
vacuoles.
 I n amoeba, t he vacuoles cont ain food par t icles and
ar e called food vacuoles.
 M ost of t he pl ant cel l s have l ar ger vacuol es as
compar ed t o animal cells.
N umber, Size, Position and Shape
 Nor mally a cell has single nucleus, this condition is
called Uninucleate / Mononucleate / Monokaryotic.
 Som et i m es a cel l m ay h ave t wo n u cl ei cal l ed
Binucleat e / Dikar yot ic cell
 Nucleus usually occupies 20% of cells mass. I t s size
depend upon ploidy, cell mat ur it y and cell funct ion.
 N ucl eus l i es near geomet r i c cent r e of t he cel l ,
per iphar al nucleus pr esent in adipocyt es and plant
cell s.
 Nucleus is rounded in young plant s and polygonal in
animal cells, oval or ellipt ical in mat ur e plant cells.
Cel l D i visi on
 I t is t he pr ocess by which a cell called par ent cell ,
divides int o t wo cells, called daught er cells.
 Cell is usually a small segment of a lar ger cell cycle.
 I n meiosis however, a cell is permanently transformed.
 Cell division is t he biological basis of life. For simple
unicellular or ganisms such as t he amoeba, one cell
division r epr oduces an ent ir e or ganism. On a lar ger
scal e, cel l di v i si on can cr eat e pr ogen y f r om
mult icellular or ganisms, such as plant s t hat gr ow
fr om cut t ings. But most impor t ant ly, cell division
enables sexually r epr oducing or ganisms t o develop
fr om the one-celled zygote, which itself was pr oduced
by cell division fr om gamet es. And aft er gr owth, cell
division allows for cont inual r enewal and r epair of
t he or ganism.
 T h e pr i m ar y con cer n of cel l di v i si on i s t h e
maintenance of t he or iginal cell’s genome. Befor e
division, the genomic infor mation which is stor ed in
chr omosomes must be r eplicat ed, and duplicated
genome separ ated cleanly between cells. A gr eat deal
of cel l ul ar i nfr ast r uct ur e i s i nvol ved i n k eepi ng
genomic infor mation consistent between gener ations.
M i t osi s
I t i s t h e pr ocess of cel l di v i si on w h er eby t h e
chr omosomes ar e duplicat ed and dist r ibut ed equally
t o t he daught er cells.
 Biology 3.9
I t is a cont inuous pr ocess which t akes place in five N ut r i t i on
phases :
(i ) Pr ophase; ( i i ) Pr o-met aphase; ( i i i M et aphase;
Aut ot r oph
(iv ) Anaphase; (v ) Telophase  T h ese ar e l i v i n g or gan i sm s t h at sy n t h esi s
M eiosis or gan i c subst ances fr om i n or gani c m ol ecu l es
I t occur s in t he ger m cells, which ar e dest ined t o for m usi ng l i ght .
gamet es in sexually r epr oducing or ganisms.  These ar e pr imar y pr oducer s, i.e. all gr een plant s
Binar y F ission and many plankt ons ar e aut ot r ophs.
Prokaryotic cell division process is called Binary fission .  Some bact er i a use chemi cal ener gy of sul phar
Difference bet ween M it osis and M eiosis compounds t o synt hesis or ganic subst ances.
M i t osi s M ei osi s H et er ot r oph
1. The cel l di vi des onl y 1. There are two
These ar e living or ganisms t hat do not synt hesis food,
once aft er one r ound successive cell
of D N A r epl i cat i on. divisions: animal, fungi et c.
Fi r st and t he second
Phot osysnt hesi s
m ei ot i c di vi si ons.
2. M i t osi s t ak es pl ace 2. M ei osi s t ak es pl ace  Por e openings of plant leaves ar e called st omat a.
i n t h e som at i c cel l s. i n t he ger m These open in day and close at night .
(r epr oduct i ve cel l s)  I t occur s in visible light 4000 t o 7500 Å
cel l s.
(does not occur in I nfr a-r ed and ult r a-violet light ).
3. I t occur s i n bot h 3. I t occur s onl y i n
sexu al l y as wel l as sexual l y r epr oduci ng  Red, blue and violet wavelengt hs ar e absor bed by
asexual l y or gani sm s. t he pigment s.
r epr oduci ng  Temperatur e range :
or gani sm s.
35C (for conifer s) t o + 75 C for (Algae)
4. DN A r epl i cat es once 4. DN A r epl i cat es once
for one cel l di vi si on. for t wo cel l di vi si ons. I t t akes place at r apid r at e bet ween 10 C t o 35 C.
5. Cel l di vi des onl y 5. Ther e ar e t w o cel l  Cer t ain bact er ia and algae can also capt ur e light
once and t he di vi si ons bu t chr om o- ener gy and use it t o make food
chr om osom es al so som e di vi de onl y e.g. phot osynt het i c bact er i a cont ai ns chl or ophyl l
di vi de onl y once. once. i n t i n y bod i es cal l ed ch r om at op h or es . I n
6. Chr om osom e 6 Chr om osom al chr omat o-phor es component s ot her t han wat er
num ber r em ai ns num ber i s r educed
ar e combi ned wi t h CO2 t o for m sugar. N o oxygen
const ant at t he end fr om di pl oi d t o t he
of m i t osi s. hapl oi d. i s r el eased.
7. Gen et i c const i t ut i on 7. Genet i c const i t ut i on Essent ial Element s in Plant s
of daught er cel l s i s of t he daugh t er cel l s Car bon – 45%
i den t i cal t o t h at of usual l y di ffer s fr om
par ent cel l . The t wo t hat of t he par ent Oxygen – 3%
dau ght er cel l s ar e cel l due t o cr ossi ng
Hydr ogen – 6%
for m ed. over . Each
chr om osom e of Nit r ogen – 1.3% et c.
daught er cel l s
usual l y cont ai ns a Gr owt h St imulat or s
m i xt ur e of m at er nal I ndole acet ic acid
and pat er nal genes.
It incr eases t he t endency of cut t ing t o t hr ough out
8. N o cr ossi ng over of 8. Cr ossi ng over of
genes. genes t ak es pl ace. r oot s.
9. I t r equi r es l ess t i m e. 9. I t r equi r es l onger E t hylene
t i m e. I t acceler at es r ipening of fr uit s
3.10 Biology
Composi t i on of F ood
Food can be classified int o
1. Car bohydr at es and fat s : ener gy giving food
2. Pr ot eins : Body building food
3. M iner als and Vit amins : Pr ot ect ive foods
Carbohydrates U|
V|
Protein M acr o nut r ient s
Fat W 
UV M icr o nut r ient s
Vit amins
MineralsW
M iner als and Vit amins
4. Wat er
1. Car bohydr at es
Gener al for mula : (C,H , O  Cx (H 2O)y
 These pr ovide ener gy t o body
 B asi c un i t i n si m pl e su gar m ol ecu l e (m on o
sachar ide) is GlucoseC6H 12O6.
 One gm of glucose yields 4.2 k cal ener gy
 Car bohydr at es cont r ibut e about 45% of calor ies
in most diet s.
 L iver conver t s Glucose t o Glycogen.
5. M iner als
Gl ycogen is cal led animal st ar ch because it i s
for med in animals not in plant s. I t is st or ed in
liver and muscles.
Types of Carbohydr at es.
(i ) M ono Sacharides (C6H 12O 6) :
H uman body can make use of car bohydr at es
only in t he for m of monosachar ides.
e.g. Glucose, Galact ose, Fr uct ose (Fr uit sugar )
(ii ) Disacharides : C12H 22O11
Common disachar ides ar e maltose, sucr ose and
lact ose.
(iii ) Poly Sacharides : (C6H 10O5)n
St ar ch, Glucose and Glycogen.
2. F at s
 These ar e mixt ur e of L ipids [Tr iglycer ides].
 L ipids mixt ur e is solid at 20C.
 Veget able fat s ar e highly unsat ur at ed.
 Animal fats ar e satur ated and cause blood pr essure
and hear t disease.
 I t is made of C, H , and O alt hough, O is ver y less.
Gener al for mula  C57 H 110O6.
One gm fat = 9.0 k.cal.
 Fat s ar e st or ed in Adipose t issues.
3. Pr ot ei ns
 T h ey con t ai n N i t r ogen , Car bon , H ydr ogen ,
Oxygen
 These ar e pr imar y foods.
 I t is essent ial for gr owt h
 I t is made up of aminoacids
 These r egulat e met abolism
 These make 12 t o 15% of diet calor ies.
 Out of 22 Amino acids :
9 for adult s and 10 for childr en ar e t o be supplied
in the diet fr om outside and r est ar e manufactur ed
by t he body.
1 gm pr ot eins = 4.2 k. cal.
I t cannot be st or ed in human body.
Pr ot eins for m lar gest molecule in nat ur e

 These pr ovide base for manufact ur ing enzymes,
har mones and ant ibodies et c.
 It's deficiency causes Kwashiorker (Red haired body).
 Wat er usually for ms 75-90% of cyt oplasm.
 70 t o 90 per cent of living cells is wat er.
 I n humans about t wo-t hir d of t he body is for med
of wat er and of t hese, about 55 per cent (20-22
lit r es) is confined t o cells as int r acellular wat er.
The r emainder is found in ext r acellular fluids like
blood, t issur e fluid and lymph.
 I t is good solvent and thus it is needed in the body
 Minerals are requir ed
(i ) t o car r y out met abolic pr ocess.
(ii ) maint ain pr oper osmot ic pr essur e.
(iii ) for pr eser vat ion of physical shape.
 M iner als ar e inor ganic subst ances
 At least 29 element s ar e found in our body.
 M iner als have no ener gy value but imbalance of
miner al level in t hebody may cause diseases.
I mpor tant R equi r ement
M i ner als
Cal ci um Pr oper clot t ing of blood
Calcium (Ca) & Pr ot ect ion of t eet h
Phosphorus (P)
Potassi um (K) & pr oper muscular
Magnesium (Mg) cont r act ion
Sodi um (N a) M aint aining wat er bal ance
in body.
I odi ne (I ) Healthy functioning of
thyroid gland
Cobal t (Co) Utilization of vitamin (B12 esp.)
Zi nc (Zn) H ealt hy funct ioning of
t ongue
I r on
 I t is essent ial for haemoglobin.
 I t gives r ed colour t o RBC
 I t t r anspor t s oxygen t o human body
 Biology 3.11
6. Vit amins  I f concent r at ion of glucose r ises above 160 mg per
VI TAM I N S 100 cm 3 of blood glucose, it is excer et ed by t he
kidneys in ur ine. I f it falls below 40 mg/100 cm 3 of
blood, t he br ain cells may be affect ed.
Wat er soluble Fat soluble
B, C & P A, D, E, & K (cannot be washed) Element Found in N ormal H uman Body
I f t hey ar e t aken I f t aken in excess it causes
in excess t hey ar e a condit ion called E l em en t P er cen t E l em en t P er cen t
washed away hypervitaminous Ox y gen 65.0 Sodi u m 0.15
 Car bon 18.0 Ch l or i n e 0.15
 L oss of hair H y dr ogen 10.0 M agn esi u m 0.05
 Enlar gement of liver N i t r ogen 3.0 I r on 0.004
 Cr acked mout h Cal ci u m 2.0 I odi n e 0.00004
 Glycogen in the liver is a short ter m stor e. I f no Ph osph or ou s 1.1 M an gan ese 0.00013
other glucose supply is available, it will last the body Pot asi u m 0.35 Copper 0.00014
for about six hours.
Su l ph u r 0.25 Cobal t 0.00000016
 Excess glucose not stor ed as glycogen is conver t ed
int o fat and st or ed in t he fat cells.

Communi cabl e D i seases

N ame Cause T r ansmi ssi on I ncubati on P er i od
AI DS (Acquir ed H uman I mmunodeficiency Sexual r elat ions; shar ing of Sever al year s
I mmune Deficiency vi ew (H I V) syr inges; blood t r ansfusion
Syndr ome)
Br ucellosis Br ucellus abor t us or B cat t le or goat s 3-6 year s
melit eusis bact er ia
Chick enpox Var icella zost er vir us (U S) I nfect ed per sons; ar t icles 10-21 days
Var icella H er pes zost er vir us (U K ) Cont aminat ed by dischar ge fr om
mucous membr ances
Choler a Vi br io choler ae bact er ium Cont aminat ed wat er and seafood a few hour s-5 days
Common cold N umer ous vir uses Respir at or y dr oplet s of infect ed 1-4 days
per son
Diphit her ia Cor nybact er ium Respit ar y secr et ions and saliva 2-6 days
Di pht her ia bact er ium of infect ed per sons or car r ier s
Encephalit is Vi r uses Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 4-21 days
Gas gangr ene Cl ost r idium Welchii Soil or soil-cont aminat ed ar t icles 1-4 days
bact er ium
Gonor r hoea N eisser ia gonnor r hoeoe U r et hr al or vaginal secr et ions of 3-8 days
bact er ia infect ed per sons
H epat it i s A H epat it i s A vir us Cont aminat ed food and wat er 15-50 days
(I nect ious)
H epat it i s B H epat it i s B vir us I nfect ed blood; par ent er al 6 week s-6 mont hs
(Ser umt ype B) I nject ion
I nfluenza N umer ous vir uses (t ypes Dir ect cont act ; r espir at or y 1-4 days
A,B,C) dr oplet s, possi bly air bor ne
L epr osy M ycobact er ium lepr ae Dr oplet infect ion (minimally Var iable
bacillus cont agious)
M al ar ia Pl asmodium pr ot ozoa Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 6-37 days
M easles (r ubeola) Rubeola Vir t ual Dr oplet infect ion 10-15 days
M eningit is Var ious bact er ia and Respir at or y dr oplet s var ies wit h causat ive
vi r uses (Vir al meni ngit is) (bact er ial meningit is)
agent
M umps Vi r us Dir ect cont act wit h infect ed 14-21 days
per sons; Respir at or y dr oplet s
and or al secr et ions
3.12 Biology

N ame Cause T r ansmission I ncubation

P er iod
Par at yphoid fever s Salmonella bact er ia I ngest ion of cont aminat ed food and wat er 1-14 days
Pneumonia St r ept ococcus Pneumoniae Dr oplet infect ion 1-3 week s
Bact er ium
Poliomyeli t s Polio vir uses Dir ect cont act wit h nasophar yngeal 7-21 days
secr et ions of infect ed per sons; vomit
Rabies Vir us Bit e fr om r abid animal 10 days-6
mont hs
Rubella (Ger man Rubella vir us Dir ect cont act or dr oplet spr ead of 14-21 days
measles) nasophar yngeal secr et ion
Scar let fever Gr oup A haeolyt ic Dir ect or indir ect cont act wit h infect ed 1-5 days
St r ept ococcus bact er ia per sons, or dr oplet infect ion
Smallpox (Var iola) Poxvir us var iola Dir ect cont act ; dr oplet 7-14 days
Syphilis Tr eponema pallidum Sexual r elat ions; cont act wit h open 10-90 days
bact er ia lesions; blood t r ansfusion
Tet anus (lockjaw) Clost r idium t et ani bacil lus Animal faeces and soil 3-21 days
Tuber culosi s M ycobact er ium Dr oplet spr ead; ingest ion fr om var iable
t uber culosis baci llus cont aminat ed mil k
Typhoid fever Salmonella t yphi baci llus Cont aminat ed food and wat er 7-24 days
Whopping Cough Bor det ella por t ussi s Dr oplet spr ead 10-21 days
(per t ussis) bact er ium
Yellow fever Ar bovir us Bit e fr om infect ed mosquit o 3-6 days

D efi ci ency and D iseases

Vitamin Function D eficiency Sour ces
A Ret inol  For normal gr owt h in  Roughness and dr y skin. Fish, liver , oil, but t er , mil k,
childr en  I nabili t y t o see in dim light . egg, veget able yellow
 To maint ain conjuctiva  Xer opht hlmia leading to veget able and
aidsnight vi sion blindness (cor nea becomes
 To maint ain skin and r ough and dr y)
mucous membr ane.  N ycta l opi a (Night bl indness)
B Complex
B1 Thiamine st
 1 vit amin t o be Ber i-Ber i Yeast , bacon, veget ables, eggs
discover ed by Ezkman’ Checks gr owt h in childr en and liver s.
in 1897
 Essent ial for healt hy
ner ves & mucous
membrane
 (Dest r oyed by high
t emperat ur e & baking
soda)
B2 Riboflavin To obt ain st eady and  Checks gr owth M ilk , cer eals, veget ables,
cont inuous r elease of  Skin becomes r ough and r ed yeast , meat
ener gy  Diar r hoea & digest ive upset s
B3 Niacin ‘or ’  Essent ial for healt hy  Diar r haea.
Nicot inous digest ive funct ion.  A condit ion known as
Acid  H elps to cont r ol ‘Pel l agr a’
cholest er ol level.
Cholestr ol :
LDL ® Low Density lipo protein ® > 160 mg per 100 CmB of blood
H DL (H igh densit y l ipo prot ein), > 40 mg per , 100 CmB of blood
 Biology 3.13

V i t am i n F unct i on D efi ci ency Sour ces

B6 Pyr idoxine  Pr ot ein met abolism U seful dur ing r adio t her apy
Folic Acid  Aids in for mat ion of RBC
Anem i a Pr epar ed fr om
Biot in, cholin, mosit ol pant ot henic acid & par amino benzoic cid ar e al so st ept omycine cult ur e.
member s of vit amin B complex
B 12 Cyt amen For RBC P r eni ci ous Anaem i a M eat , l iver , fish
(cynocobalamin)
C Ascor bic  For pr oper for mat ion of  Scu r vy  Cit r us fr uit s, t omat oes,
Acid collagen in connect ive  Capillar y bleeding Gr een leaf, vegetable and
t issues  Check s gr owt h in childr en potato (newone)
 For mat ion of bones and  Decr eases wi t h age.
t eet h
D Calcifer ol N ecessar y for absor pt ion  R i ck et s  Can be for med by sun
D 2 D 3and met aboli sm of calcium  Oest eom alaci a : Defective l ight
U sed for r at and phosphor us deposition of enamel, leadi ng t o  But t er , cheese et c.
poi soni ng ul tr a violet
li ght nat ur al found dent al car r ies.
in animal food
E Tocopher ol  Essent ial for maint aining Wheat , Animal, Food.
fir mness of sk in
 Blood t hinner
K Philloquine For pr oper clot t ing of blood  Jaundice Gr een plant s Gr een peas,
 Can be made by body only in cabbage
t he pr esence of bile.
P H esper idin  H elps in maint aining 
nor mal capillar y
r esist ance.
 Deficiency may cause
int er nal bleeding.
 Sour ces – Gr eens
veget able and cit r ous
fr uit s.

N ut r i t i on Small I ntenstine (D uodenum + I lleum)

 I t is 20 feet long.
D i gest ive Syst em
 Villi pr ovides mor e sur face ar ea (600 times) for better
I t consist of absor pt ion.
 Mouth
 At t he place wher e small and lar ge int enst ine ar e
 Oesophagus joined, t wo or gans ar e found.
 St omach
 Small int enst ine Duodenum + I lleum
1. Caecum UV
L ost t heir ut ilit y
 L ar ge I nt enst ine  (Colon)
2. Appendix W
 Food in t he small int est ine is called chyle.
L ar ge I nt enst i ne
 I t is 5 feet long and 2-5 inches in diamet er
 I t has t hr ee par t s :
1. Coecum
2. Colon : I t i s t hi ck er t han smal l i nt est ine and
t hinner t han coecum.
— I t does not secr et any enzymes
— Digest ed r esidue is st or ed.
— I t absor bs wat er fr om r esidue.
 3.14 Biology
3. Rect um :
— I t secr et s no enzymes. I t st or es di gest i ve
r esidue and absor bs wat er fr om r esidue.
— I t is last par t of t he aliment r y canal.
D igest ion I n Buccal Cavit y
 I n buccal cavit y, food get s mixed wit h saliva fr om
salivar y gland dur ing chewing.
 Composit ion of Saliva :
99.4% H 2O, 0.6% ot her compounds which includes
inor ganic (NaCl, K Cl, Na2H PO4, CaCO3 ), mucous,
salivar y amylase or Pt yline, lysozyme.
pH : 6.8
 Tot al amount :1– 1.5 lit .
 Wit h saliva, Pb, H g and t heir iodides ar e excr et ed
out .
 Secr et i on of sal i va i s under cont r ol of M edul l a
oblongat a.
 Par a sympat het i c syst em i ncr eases secr et i on of
saliva.
 Sympat het ic syst em decr eases secr et ion of saliva.
 F unct ions of Saliva
(i ) To t ie food par t icles.
(ii ) To make food moist and slimy.
(iii ) Lysozyme and Thiocyanat e dest r oy bact er ia.
(iv) Pt yline conver ts st ar ch into maltose, isomaltose
and limit dext r ines.
(v) H elpful in det ect ing t est e.
(vi ) H elpful in wat er r egulat ion.
N ote : On feeling t hir st , O.P. of body fluid is incr eased.
N ow food is li k e a ball call ed bolus whi ch r eaches
st omach by perist alsis.
D igest ion in St omach
 Spal l anzani expl ai ned di gest i on i n gener al and
Beaumont explained it in man.
 As food comes in st omach, gast r ic juice is secr et ed
by 350 l ak h gast r i c gl ands. Gast r i c gl ands ar e
st imulat ed by gast r in hor mone secr et ed by G– cells
of pylor ic par t .
 Quant i t y of gast r i c j ui ce becomes maxi mum i n
1  The r eact ion is called saponificat ion .
1 t o 1 hour s.
2  Bile salt s ar e helpful in absor pt ion of Vit amin A, D,
 Composit ion of Gast r ic juice :
99% H 2O, 1% ot her s which include inor ganic salt s,
mucous, H Cl (0.4%), pepsinogen, pr or ennin, gast r ic
lipase, int r insic fact or of De Cest ello.
pH : 1.0– 1.5
 Tot al amount : 1– 3 lit ./24 hr s.
Functions of H CL
(i ) To pr ovide acidic medium.
(ii ) To kill har mful bact er ia.
(iii ) To dest r oy living par t of food.
(iv) To avoid r ot t ening of food.
(v) To act ivat e enzymes.
Pepsinogen    Pepsin
Pr or ennin   Rennin
F unct ions of Pepsin
Pepsin
Pr ot ein 
 Pept one+Pr ot eoses
F unct ions of Rennin or Rennet or Cymosin or
Cur ding enzyme
Caseinogen Renni
n  Casein — Ca

—  Par acasseinat e
F unct ions of Gast r ic lipase
I t is negligibly act ive.
Fat L I PASE
 Fat t y acids + Glycer ol
Now food is called chyme, it comes in Duodenum. Her e
ent er ogast r one is secr et ed which st ops digest ion in
st omach
M easur es against Aut odigest ion of St omach
 Ther e is a basic layer of mucous on mucosa.
 Tight junct ion ar e pr esent bet ween cells.
 Cells of mucosa ar e r eplaced at t he int er val of 2– 3
days.
N ote : A bact er ium H elicobact or pylor i is r esponsible
for pept ic ulcer.
D igest ion in D uodenum
 I t r eceives bile juice and pancr eat ic juice.
 H epat ocr ine st imulat es synt hesis of bile juice.
 CCK st imulat es cont r act ion of gall bladder.
 Secr et i n (di scover ed by Beyl i s & St ur l i ng) and
pancreozymine stimulate secretion of pancreatic juice.
 Fir st bile juice r eact s on food by making the medium
alkaline
Composit ion Bile juice
89% H 2O, 11% others which includes mucous, inorganic,
bi l e jui ce (Sodi um or Pot assi um t aur ochol at e and
glycholat e) , bile pigment , cholest er ol, lecit hin.
pH : 7.7 – 8.6
 Tot al amount : 500 – 1000 ml / 24 H r.
 Bi l e sal t s ar e hel pful i n emul si fi cat i on of fat s.
Emulsified fat molecules ar e called micelles.
E and K .
 Bile pigment , cholest er ol and lecit hin ar e excr et or y.
Pancreat ic juice – Complet e juice
Composit ion :
98.5% H 2O and 1.5% ot her s which includes inor ganic
salt s, mucous, chemot r ypsinogen, car boxypept idase,
ami n opept i dase, t r ypsi n ogen, amyl ase, mal t ase,
i somal t ase, l i mi t Dext r i nase, l i pase or st eapsi ne,
cholest er ol est er ase, polynucleot idase.
pH : 8.0
 Biology 3.15
Total amount : 500 – 800 ml / 24 hr s. Absor pt ion fr om St omach
H er e gl ucose, H 2O, al cohol and vi t ami ne B 12 ar e
Ent er ok inase absor bed.
Tr ypsinogen  Tr ypsin
Absor pt ion fr om I nt est ine
Trypsin
Chemot rypsinogen  Chemot r ypsin  Villi ar e helpful.
 Vilicr inine st imulat es it .
car boxypept idase
Poly/Tr i/Di pept ide  Amino acid  I n villi b.v. and lect eals pr esent .
Aminopept idase
 Car bohydr at e and pr ot ein ar e absor bed by b.v.

I somalt ase  L i pi d i s absor bed by l ect eal s, col our l ess l ymph
I somalt ose  Glucose
 becomes milky due t o for mat ion of chilomicr ones. I t
M alt ase r eaches t o hear t fir st .
M alt ose  Gl ucose
 Car bohydr at e and pr ot ein r each t o liver.
Dext rinase  Fr uct ose is absor bed by facilit at ed diffusion.
L imit dext rin  Glucose
 M annose and pent ose by passive t r anspor t .
Sucr ase  Glucose and Galact ose by act ive t r anspor t
Sucrose  Glucose  Fruct ose
I nver t ase
H 2O by osmosis.
L act ase D.A.A. by passive t r anspor t .
L act ose  Glucose  Galact ose
L .A.A. by act ive t r anspor t .
L ipase
I mulsified fat  Fat t y acid  glycer ol Vit amins A and D by simple diffusion.
I n columnar cells, acids phasphot ase enzyme pr esent ,
Ch. est erase
Cholest erol  Est ers of cholest erol shows act ive pr ocess for absor pt ion.
Polynuclect idase E gest i on
Nucleic acid  Nucleot ides

 To give out undigest ed food fr om aliment ar y canal.
D igestion in Small I ntest ine  Faeces can r emain in colon for 36 hr s t hen moving
H er e f ood get s su ccu s en t er i cu s st i m u l at ed by int o r ect um by gast r o-colic r eflex.
ent er okr inine har mone.
 Faeces consist s of 3/4 H 2O and 1/4 solid.
Composit ion of succus ent ericus :
 I n solid par t , 3% bact er ia, 30% r oughage, 20% fat ,
98.5% H 2O, 1.5% ot her s whi ch i ncl udes mucous, 15% inor ganic and 3% pr ot ein ar e pr esent .
i n or gan i c sal t s, er apsi n , m al t ase, i som al t ase,
 Dead mu cosal cel l s, mucou s, chol est er oal al so
l i m i t D ex t r i n a se, su cr a se, l ect a se, l i p a se,
pr esent . NH 3, CH 4 ar e negligible.
polynucleot idase, phasphot ase, nucleosidase
 Br own colour is due to stercobilin and stercobilinogen .
Erapsin
Tr i/Di/Pept ide   A.A.  Foul smell is due t o sket ol , I ndol and t r ept ophan .
Aminopept idase
dipept idase Teet h
Teet h ar e har d, yellow subst ance sur r ounding pulp.
Nucleot idase
Nucleot ides
 Pent ose  Nit r ogenous base Types of Teeth
Each half of t he jaw hold four t ypes of t eet h
D igest ion of Cellulose 1. I ncissor s
 I n m an di gest i on of cel l u l ose t ak es pl ace i n 2. Canines
her bivor ous.
3. Pr e molar s
 Cy st ase an d cel l u l ose con v er t cel l u l ose i n t o
4. M olar s
cellulobiose.
M ilk Teet h (Decidious t eeth)
 I n r abbit it is not complet ed in one inst ance. Rabbit
feeds on i t s eveni ng faeces. I t i s copr ophagy or N umber Age U sed for
pseudor umination. Such animals ar e copr ophagous. 1. I ncissors 8 7– 9 Slice and cut
 Food passes fr om aliment ar y canal t wo t imes, t his mont hs pieces
phenomenon is cest r ophy. 2. Canines 4 18 Tear food
mont hs it ems
Absor pt i on of F ood 3. Pre molars 8 24 mont hs Rip t ough food
Absor pt ion fr om M out h 4. Molar s 12 6-20 year s Gr iding
H er e negligible t obacco, alkohal and some medicines Total 32
as isopr enaline glycer ol t r i-nit r it e is absor bed.
3.16 Biology
Permanent t eet h 2. Appendicular skelet on (126 bones)
 The appendicular skelet on is made up of bones of
t he ar ms and legs and t heir suppor t s.
 Shoulder gir dle : I t consist s of
(i ) Scapula (shoulder blade)
(ii ) Clavicle (collar bone).
 Skelet on of t he ar m : I t is divided int o
(i ) H umer us (upper ar m)
 L ower t eet h come ear lier t han upper. (ii ) Radius and Ulna (for ear m) : Ulna is sit uat ed
 Dentine Har d yellow substance that sur r r ounds the t owar ds t he lit t le finger side, wher eas r adius
pulp. t owar ds t he t humb side.
 Other parts : Enamel, cementum, periodontal ligament. (iii ) Car pals (wr ist bones)
 Enamel : Pr otects teeth fr om sensitive heat and cold. (iv) Metacarpals (palm)
(v) Phalanges (finger s)
Teeth in Animals  Thumb has t wo bones.
 Cats, dogs and most other mammals have heterodont
 Ot her finger s have t hr ee bones :
t eet h which have differ ent uses.
 U nl i k e ot her mammal s fi sh an d r ept i l es h ave (i ) Pr oximal
homodont t eet h. All ar e of same size and shape and (ii ) Middle
have only one use). (iii ) Distal
 Fi sh and r ept i l es l oose and r epl ace t hei r t eet h  Bones of t he leg : I t consist of
cont inuously. (i ) Femur (t high)
 Snakes have teet h that cur ve back t owar d thethr oat. (ii ) Tibia and fibula (leg)
I n poisonous snakes cer tain teet h have a canal or
gr oove, thr ough which poison can be ejected. (iii ) Tar sals (back of t he foot )
 Bir ds, t oads, t ur t les, and some t ypes of insect s and (iv) M et at ar sals (for efoot )
whales do not have t eet h. (v) Phalanges (toes)
 L eg is at t ached t o t he t r unk by a pelvic gir dle
Skelet al Syst em made up of t wo hip bones; each consist s of t hr ee
 The human endoskelet on is made up of bones and bones :
car t ilage of var ious t ypes.
(i ) I llum
 Bone is a har d connect ive t issue in which gr ound
subst ance is ver y har d and cont ains calcium salt s. (ii ) I schium
 M ar r ow of t h e l on g bon es i s t h e si t e f or t h e (iii ) Pubis.
haemopoiesis, i.e. for mation of blood and blood cells. These bones ar e fused in adult s.
Classificat ion.
Classificat ion of Skelet al syst em Bones of appendicular skeleton may be classified as :
1. Axial skeleton (80 bones) ( i ) U pper ext remit y :
 I t consist s of skul l, ver t ebr al column, r i bs and
Shoulder gir dle (clavicle or collar bones, scapula)
st er num, i.e. skelet al element s which ar e pr esent
along t he longit udinal axis of t he body. Humerus; Ulna; Radius; 8 car pals; 5 metacarpals;
 Ther e ar e 80 bones in axial skelet on.
14 phalanges.
 M andible is t he only movable bone in t he skull of
( ii ) L ower ext remit y :
man. Pelvis gir dle (2 hip bones divisions of each – ilium,
ischium, pubis; anter ior joint is symphysis pubis)
Ver t ebr al column.
 I n humans, 26 ver tebr ae ar e pr esent serially along Femur of t high bone (longest bone)
the length of the trunk starting behind the occipital Pat el l a (sesamoi d); Ti bi a; F i bul a; 7 t ar sal s
bone of t he skull. (cal caneus i s heel bone) ; 5 met at ar sal s and
 Ver t ebr al column is main axis of t he body, which 14 phalanges.
ar ticulates with skull, pector al gir dle, pelvic gir dle N ote : (i ) Femur i s t he longest and heaviest
and t he r ibs. bone of t he body.
 Each ver t ebr a is cent r ally hollow. (ii ) Femur, tibia and fibula bones together
 Ver t ebr al column gives suppor t t o t he t r unk and suppor t shank of t he leg.
pr ovides places for t he at t achment of the r ibs and (iii ) Tibia is lar ger t han fibula and bear s
bones of pelvis as well as it per mit s movement major body weight .
and pr oject s t he spinal cor d.

E xosk elet ons
The har d mat er ial is for med mat er ial is for med
mainly on t he outside of the body and is oft en called
exoskeleton .
I n sect s su ch as beet l es or dr agon f l i es an d
cr ust aceans l i k e cr abs or l obst er s have a har d
cover ing t o t heir bodies called cut icle.
H uman Skelet on Syst em
Biology 3.17
 I t manufact ur es ur ea as wast e pr oduct of
pr oteins.
 I t st or es ir on, vit amin A and vit amin D.
 M anufact ur er of Fibr inongen {essent ial for
clot t ing of blood}.
 I t r egulat es sugar level in t he blood in r ange
of 80 – 150 mg/100 cm 3 of blood.
 I t act s as det oxificat ing agent in body.

H uman skelet on consist s of 206 pieces of bones.  Conver sion of stor ed fat for use by the tissues.
Ther e ar e 22 bones in human skull ( ii ) M ucous membr ane
 Cranial bones  I t sit uat ed in r espir at or y glands.
 F acial bones  I t secr et e st icky subst ances.

 E ar s  M ucous t r aps dust par t icles fr om air.

 T hr oat  I t also moist ens air which is br eat hed.
Ther e is one bone ( iii ) K i dneys
 Shoulder gir dle  These develop fr om mesoder m of the embryo.
Ther e ar e four bones  These r emoves a major par t of waste pr oducts
 T hor ax fr om t he body.
Ther e ar e 25 bones  T h ese ar e t wo bu t j u st on e k i dn ey can
 Ver t ebr al column per for m all funct ions.
Ther e ar e 26 bones  These ar e made up of special cells nephr ons
 Ar ms (each one is 5 cm long) and t ubular in shape.
Ther e ar e 6 bones  These r emoves foll owi ng subst ances fr om
I mpor t ant bones Radius, ulna, H umer us. blood uricacid: Ur ea, NH 3, NaCl, Phosphat es,
 H ands H ar mones et c.
Ther e ar e 54 bones :
Palm or metacarpal bines : Renal medulla

Finger bones or phalanges : Posterior vena cava

Rental artery and vein Kidney
Renal pelvis Renal cortex

 Pelvis Aorta

Ther e ar e t wo bones Ureter

Urinary bladder Ureter

 L egs. Urethra

Ther e are 8 bones I mport and bones Femur, Tibia,  These help in maint aining alkaline nat ur e of
Fibala, Pat ella blood by r emoving acidic pr oducts fr om blood.
 Feet.  The di sease t hat effect s k i dneys i s cal l ed
Ther e r ar e 52 bones : Nephrit is or Brightsdisease.
Ankle (t arsal) bones :  K idney and sweat glands co-or dinat e t heir
I nst ep bones : activities. I n summer, sweat gland sweat mor e
M et at ar sal boen (5  2) and r ole of kidney is r educed, but in wint er it
is r ever sed.
Toe bones :
2. E ndocr ine Gland Syst em
Gland Syst em Secr et ion is dir ect ly dischar ged t o blood. Secr et ion
Gland is an or gan in animal's body which synt hesises ar e called har mones. Secr et e in small qunat it y.
su bst an ces such as har mones, wh i ch ar e ei t h er Chemical N at ure of H ormones
dischar ged int o blood st r eam by endocr ine glands or
Ami nes.
car r ied out side t hr ough duct s by exocr ine gland
H or mones of pineal gland (melat onin) and adr enal
Gland can be divided as follows :
medulla.
1. E xocr ine Glands Syst em M odified Amino acids.
Secr et ions ar e car r ied t hr ough duct s. Secr et ion is H or mones of t hyr oid ar e iodinat ed t hyr onine. e.g.
called enzyems. Secr et es lar ge quant it y t hyr oxine.
I t consist s of following or gans : Pept i des.
( i ) L iver Hormones of hypothalamus (ARH, TRH, GRH, GI H),
 L iver is lar gest gland in t he body. int er mediate (MSH ) and poster ior lobes of pituit ar y
 Pr oduct ion of bi le, a gr een yellow alkal ine (ADH , oxyt ocin). ACTH of ant er ior pit uit ar y and
fluid t akes place in t he liver. calcit onin of t hyr oid belong t o t his cat egor y.
 3.18 Biology
These ar e fur ther classified as 8. M elanocyt e Releasing hor mone (M RH ) :
(i ) Shor t pept ides e.g. oxyt ocin, ADH I t stimulates intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland
(ii ) L ong pept ides e.g. calcit onin, ACTH to secrete its melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).
Pr ot ei ns. 9. M elanocyt e I nhibiting hor mone (M I H) :
H or mones of following ar e pr ot einaceons : It inhibits secretion of melanocyte stimulating hormone
from the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland.
(i ) Pancr eas (e.g. insulin, glucagon)
Tar get cells. Neur ohor mones act on t he cells of t he
(ii ) Gast r oint est inal t r act
pituit ar y gland.
(iii ) Some female hor mones (e.g. r elaxi n of ovar y
and hCG of placent a)
S.N . R elea si n g of C on t r ol a n d
(iv) Par at hor mone (PTH )
I n h i bi t i n g R egu la t i on of
(v) M ost hor mones of ant er i or pi t ui t ar y except H or m on es Sp eci fi c
ACTH H or m on es
(e.g. TSH , FSH , L A, LTH , GH ) Secr et i on
St er oi ds. 1 T h yr ot r opi n St i m u l at es
Hormones are derived from cholesterol and other steroids r el easi n g h or m on es t h yr ot r opi n
e.g. al dost er one, cor t isol , sex cor t i coi ds (adr enal (T RH ) st i m u l at i n g
cor tex), testosterone, estr adiol, progester one (gonads h or m one r el ease
except r elaxin, placent a except hCG). 2 Gr ow t h h or m on e St i m u l at es gr ow t h
r el easi n g h or m on e h or m one r el ease
H ypot hal amus (GH RH )
 I t develops fr om t he ect oder m of t he embr yo. 3 Gr ow t h h or m on e I n h i bi t s gr ow t h
 I t l i es bel ow or i nfer i or t o t he t hal amus. I t i s i n h i bi t i n g h or m on e h or m one r el ease
connect ed t o t he ant er ior lobe of pit uit ar y gland by (GH I H )
hypophysial por t al veins, however it is connect ed t o 4 Gon adot r opi n St i m u l at es r el ease
t he poster ior lobe of pit uit ar y gland mainly by axons r el easi n g h or m on e of fol l i cl e
of neur osecr et or y cells. (Gn RH ) st i m u l at i n g
h or m one an d
N eur o H or mones l u t ei n i si n g h or m on e
The neur osecr etor y cells (neur ons) of hypothalamus 5 Pr ol act i n r el easi n g St i m u l at es
secr et e hor mones call ed neur ohor mones (r el easi ng h or m on e (PRH ) pr ol act i n r el ease
factor s). 6 Pr ol act i n i n h i bi t i n g I n bi t i s pr ol act i n
1. Adrenocorticotropic Releasing hormone (ARH ) : h or m on e (PI H ) r el ease
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o 7 A dr enocor t i cot r opi c St i m u l at es
secr et e it s adr eno-cor t icot r opic hor mone (ACTH ). h or m on e r el easi n g adr en ocor t i cot r opi c
2. Thyr ot r opin Releasing hor mone (TRH ) : h or m on e (CRH ) h or m one
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o 8 M el anocyt e St i m u l at es
secr et e it s t hyr oid st imulat ing hor mone (TSH ) or st i m ul at i n g m el an ocyt e
thyr o-tr ophin. h or m on e r el easi n g st i m u l at i n g
3. Somat ot r opin Releasing hor mone (SRH ) : h or m on e (M RH ) h or m one r el ease
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pihlit ar y gland t o 9 M el anocyt e I n h i bi t s m el an ocyt e
r elease it s gr owt h hor mone (GH ) or somat ot r opin. st i m ul at i n g st i m u l at i n g
h or m on e i n h i bi t i n g h or m one r el eas
4. Growth I nhibiting hormone (GI H) somatostatin (SS) :
h or m on e (M I H )
I t inhibit s secr et ion of gr owt h hor mone fr om t he
ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland.
5. Gonadot r opin Releasing hor mone (GnRH ) : Pit uit ar y Gland (H ypophysis Cer ebr i)
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o  I t develops fr om ect oder m of t he embr yo.
secr et e t wo gonadot r opic hor mones :  I t i s l ocat ed j ust bel ow t he hypot hal amus. The
(i ) Follicle st imulat ing hor mone (FSH ) pit uit ar y gland is sit uat ed in a depr ession t he sella
(ii ) L ut einising hor mone (L H ) t ur cica of sphenoid bone of t he skull.
6. Pr olact in Releasing hor mone (PRH ) :  I t is t he smallest endocr ine gland. I t is about 1.3 cm
I t st imulat es ant er ior lobe of t he pit uit ar y gland t o in diamet er and weighs about half a gr am.
secr et e it s pr olact in.  I t is attached to the br ain by a stalk the infundibulum
7. Pr olact in I nhibit ing hor mone (PI H ) : which is continuous with the hypothalamus above
I t inbihit s secr et ion of pr olact in fr om t he ant er ior Adenohypophysis or par s dist alis and t he post er ior
lobe of pit uit ar y gland. lobe or neur ohypophysis or par s ner vosa.

H armones of Pit uit ary gland
1. H or mones of Ant erior lobe.
The anteriorlobe of the pituitary gland secretes following
hormones, most of them are trophic hormones.
(i ) Somat ot r opi c hor mone or Gr owt h hor mone
(STH or GH ) or Somat ot r opi n (Soma- body,
t r ophe nour i shment )
(ii ) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or Thyrotropin
(iii ) Adr enocor t icot r opic hor mone (ACTH )
(iv) Pr ol act i n hor mone (PRL ) or M ammot r ophi n
hormone (MTH) or Luteotr ophic hormone (LTH)
(v) Gonadot r opic hor mones :
(a) Follicle-st imulating hormone (FSH )
(b) L uteinizing hor mone (L H )
2. H ormone of t he I nt ermediat e lobe.
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) or intermedin
causes dispersal of pigment granules in the pigment
cells, ther eby darkening the colour in certain animals
like fishes and amphibians. I t is believed that it is
associ at ed wi t h t he gr owt h and devel opment of
melanocytes in man which give colour to the skin.
Tar get cells. M elanocyt es in skin.
3. H ormones of t he Post erior lobe.
( i ) Oxyt ocin (OT; Pitocin) :
Oxyt ocin pr omotes cont r action of the uter ine
muscle or labour pain and cont r act ion of the
myoepi t hel i al cel l s of t he l act at i ng br east ,
squeezing milk into the large ducts behind the
nipple. In late pregnancy the uterus becomes very
sensitive to oxytocin. The amount secr et ed is
increased just befor e and dur ing labour and by
sucking of the baby. Because of its r ole, oxytocin
is called birth hormone and milk ejecting hormone.
Tar get cells. Cells of mammar y glands.
( ii ) An t i di u r et i c h or m on e (AD H ) or
Vasopressin or Pit r essin :
This hor mone has t wo main funct ions :
(a) Antidiuretic effect : I t incr eases r eabsor ption
of wat er i n t he di st al convol ut ed t ubul e,
collect ing tubules and collect ing duct s of the
n eph r on s of t h e k i dn ey s. A s a r esu l t ,
r eabsor pt ion of wat er fr om t he glomer ular
filt r at e is incr eased.
(b) Pressor effect : I nvoluntar y muscles in the
walls of the intestine, gall bladder, ur inar y
bladder and blood vessels are stimulated to
contr act by ADH. Contraction of the walls of
the blood vessels raises the blood pressure and
this may be its most impor tant pressor effect.
Tar get cells. Cells of kidneys.
T hyr oid Gland
 I t develops fr om endoder m of t he embr yo.
 I t is the lar gest endocr ine gland located anter ior to
the thyr oid car tilage of the lar ynx in the neck.
Biology 3.19
 I t is bilobed or gan. The t wo lobes ar e connect ed by a
nar r ow st r uct ur e called ist hmus.
 M i cr oscopi c st r uct ur e of t he t hyr oi d gland shows
t hyr oid follicles composed of cubical epit helium and
filled wit h a hor monous mat er ial called colloid.
 Smal l amount of l oose connect i ve t i ssue for ms
st r oma of t he gl and. Besi des cont ai ni ng bl ood
capi ll ar ies, t he st r oma cont ai ns small clust er s of
specialized par afollicular cells or ‘c’ cells.
 I t can st or e enough hor mones in t he for m of colloid
t o supply t he body (for about t wo mont hs).
H ar mone Secr at ion
Thyr oid gland secr et es following hor mones.
1. T hyroxine (T 4) and Tri-iodot hyronine (T 3).
 These ar e secr et ed by t he t hyr oid follicular cells.
 T 4 and T 3 cont ain four and t hr ee at oms of iodine.
 T 3 is secr eted in smaller amounts (10%) but it is
more active and several times more potent than T4
 T 4 is conver t ed int o T 3 by r emoval of one iodine in
t he liver, kidneys and some ot her t issues.
 T 4 and T 3 have similar effect s on t he t ar get cells,
t hey ar e gener ally consider ed t oget her under t he
name, t hyr oid hor mone (TH ).
 Thyr oid gland is t he onl y gland t hat st or es it s
hor mones in lar ge quant it y.
 T 4 and T 3 ar e synt hesised by at t aching iodine t o
t he aminoacid t yr osine.
2. Calcit onin (CT ).
 I t is secr et ed by C-cells of t he t hyr oid gland.
 I t is secr et ed when calcium level is high in t he
bl ood. I t t h en l ow er s t h e cal ci u m l ev el by
suppr essing release of calcium ions from the bones.
Thus calcitonin has an action opposite t o that of
the par at hyr oid hor mone on calcium metabolism.
T hyr oid D isor der s
1. H y per t h y r oi di sm (H y per secr et i on of t h y r oi d
hor mone)
2. Hypothyroidism (Hyposecr etion of thyr oid hor mone)
(i ) Cr etinism (in childr en)
(ii ) M yxoedema or Gull’s disease (in adult s)
(iii ) Simple Goit r e
(iv) H ashimot o’s disease
Par at hyr iod Glands
 They develop fr om t he endoder m of t he embr yo.
 The parathyroid glands consist of four separate glands
locat ed on t he post er ior sur face of t he lobes of t he
t hyr oid gland.
 Cells of parathyroid glands are arranged in a compact
mass and ar e of t wo t ypes :
(i ) Small chief cells (or pr incipal cells)
(ii ) L ar ge oxyphil cells (or eosinophil cells).
3.20 Biology
 The cells ar e enclosed by a delicate connective t issue
capsule. The chief cells ar e much mor e numer ous
t han t he oxyphil cells. The lat er ar e absent in t he
young and appear a lit t le befor e t he age of puber t y.
H or mone
Chief cells of the par athyr oids secr ete a hor mone called
par at hyr oi d hor mone (PTH ) or par at hor -mone or
Collip’s hor mone.
 PTH r egul at es cal ci um and phosphat e bal ance
bet ween blood and ot her t issues.
 PTH inhibit s collagen synt hesis by ost eoblast s and
bone r esor pt i on by ost eocl ast s. I t mobi l i ses t he
r elease of calcium int o t he blood fr om t he bones.
 PT H i n cr eases cal ci u m absor pt i on f r om t h e
int est ines. I t incr eases calcium r esor pt ion fr om t he
nephr ons (and inhibit s phosphat e r esor pt ion) of t he
kidneys.
Par at hyr oid D isor der s
1. H ypopar at hyr oidism (deficiency of PTH ).
2. H yper par at hyr oidism (excess of PTH ).
Pancr eas
 I t is der ived fr om t he endoder m of t he embr yo.
 The pancr eas lies infer ior t o t he st omach in a bend
of t he duodenum.
 I t is bot h an exocr ine and an endocr ine gland i.e.
het er ocr ine gland.
 A l ar ge pancr eat i c duct r uns t hr ough t he gl and,
car r yi ng enzymes and ot her exocr i ne di gest i ve
secr et i ons fr om t he pancr eat ic acinar cells t o t he
small int est ine. The t issue of t he pancr eas has in
addit ion t o t he acinar cells, gr oups of cells called
islet s of L anger hans.
Types of cells ident ified in the islets
1. Alpha cells (about 20%)
2. Bet a cells (about 70%)
3. Delt a cells or D-cells (about 5%)
4. PP cells or F-cells (5%)
H or mones
1. Glucagon (secr et ed by – cells).
 I t st imulat es t he liver t o conver t st or ed glycogen
int o glucose.
 Glucagon is cont r olled by feedback in accor dance
wit h t he level of glucose in t he blood. When blood
sugar r ises, secretion of the glucagon is suppr essed
and when it dr ops, secr et ion of t he glucagon is
st imulated.
Tar get cells : Glucagon act s on t he cells of t he liver
and adipose t issue.
2. I nsulin (secr et ed by  – cells).
 I t was fir st pr epar ed / found by Benting and Best .
 A. F. sanger coined t he t er m insulin and pr oposed
t he molecular st r uct ur e of insulin (cow's insuline)
 H uman insulin was synt hesized by Tsan.
 I nsulin was t he fir st pr ot ein t hat was ar t ificially
synt hesized in labor at or y and is cr yst allized.
 One molecule of insulin is made up of 51 amino
acids t hat has t wo chains :
(i ) – chain : I t is made up of 21 aminoacids.
(ii ) – chain : I t is made up of 30 amino acids.
Both the br anches or chains ar e bind together with
cr oss bonds of disulphide bonds.
 F unct ions :
(i ) I t i s an t agon i st i c t o gl u cagon . I n su l i n
decr eases t he level of glucose in t he blood. I t
act s by incr easing t he r at e at which glucose
is t r anspor t ed out of t he blood and int o cells
and by st imulat ing muscle cells t o t ake up
su gar f r om t h e bl ood an d con ver t i t t o
glycogen.
L ike glucagon, insulin is pr imar ily r egulat ed
by f eedback f r om t h e bl ood gl u cose
concentr at ion. When blood sugar level dr ops,
t he secr et ion of insulin is suppr essed. When
blood sugar level incr eases, t he secr et ion of
insulin is st imulat ed.
(ii ) I t pr omot es pr ot ein synt hesis in t issue fr om
amino acids.
(iii ) I t r educes cat aboli sm of pr ot ei ns. I t is an
anabolic hor mone.
(iv) I t incr eases synt hesis of .fat in t he adipose
t issue fr om fat t y acids.
(v) I nsulin r educes br eakdown and oxidat ion of
fat.
3. Somat ost at in (SS).
I t r egulat es secr et ion of insulin and glucagon.
Tar get cells : Bot h somat ost at i n and pancr eat i c
polypept ide act on t he cells of t he pancr eas.
4. Pancr eat ic Polypept ide (PP).
 I t appear s that pancr eatic polypeptide inhibits the
r elease of digest ive’ secr et ion of t he pancr eas.
 Both somatostatin and pancr eatic polypeptide ar e
r el at i vel y newl y di scover ed hor mones of t he
pancr eas, and bot h ar e st ill being st udied.
D isor der s of t he Pancr eas
D iabet es mellit us (H ypoinsulinism)
The insuli n-dependent diabet es mel lit us (I DDM ) is
caused by a failure of the Beta-cells to pr oduce adequate
amounts of insulin while non-insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NI DDM ) appear s to involve failur e of insulin
to facilit ate the movement of glucose into cells.
1. Hypoinsulinism (H yper glycemia)
2. H yper insulinism – H ypoglycemia

Pineal Gland (E piphysis Cer ebr i)
 I t develops fr om t he ect oder m of t he embr yo.
 T h e pi n eal gl an d i s l ocat ed bet ween cer ebr al
hemispher es, wher e it pr ot r udes fr om t he r oof of
t hir d vent r icle.
 Pineal gland is a small rounded body which consist s
of
(i ) Pineal cells
(ii ) Suppor t ing glial cells.
H or mone :
1. Melatonin
2. Ser ot onin
T hymus Gland
 I t is der ived fr om endoder m of t he embr yo.
 Thymus gland is located in the upper part of the thorax
near the hear t. I t is a soft, pinkish, bilobed mass of
lymphoid tissue. I t is a pr ominent gland at the t ime
of bir th but it gr adually at r ophies I n t he adult.
 H assal l ’s cor puscl es ar e spher i cal or oval bodi es
pr esent i n t he t hymus. They ar e phagocyt i c i n
funct ion.
H or mone
 Thymus secr et es a hor mone named t hymosin which
st imulates t he development of cer tain kinds of white
blood cells involved in pr oducing immunit y. I t also
hast ens at t ainment of sexual mat ur it y.
 Thymosin hor mone stimulates the lymphocytes to
destroy the antigens produced by bacteria or pathogen.
I t self may be destr oyed by these lymphocytes.
Gonads
 These develop fr om t he mesoder m of t he embr yo.
 These ar e sex glands (ovar ies and t he t est es). These
pr oduce ova and sper ms r espect ively, i.e. cyt ogenic
in nat ur e but also secr et e hor mones.
1. Ovar ies
Following hormones are produced by the ovaries :
(i ) Oest r ogens
(ii ) Pr ogest er one
(iii ) Relaxin
(iv) I nhibinlactin
2. Test es
A pair of test es is situat ed in the scr otum of male.
T h e con n ect i v e t i ssu e pr esen t bet w een
seminifer ous t ubules in a t est is cont ain small
clust er s of endocr ine cells called inter st itial cells
or L eydig’s cells.
These cells secr et e var ious male sex - hor mones
cal l ed andr ogens. The pr i nci pal andr ogen i s
testosterone.
Biology 3.21
Funct ions of Test ost er one :
 I t st imulat es gr owt h and development of male
secondar y sex or gans l i k e semi nal vesi cl es,
pr ost at e and penis. I t also helps t o maint ain
t heir nor mal funct ions. Because t hese or gans
do not pr oduce gamet es (sper ms) and only help
in r epr oduct ion ar e, t her efor e called secondary
sex or gans.
 These also stimulates t he development of male
secon dar y sex u al ch ar act er s l i k e bear d,
moust ache and low-pit ch male voice in man.
 Test ost er one al so st i mul at es for mat i on of
sper ns in the seminifer ous tubules of the testes.
 This hor mone pr omot es gr owt h of many body
t i ssues such as bones and muscl es. I t i s due
t o t his fact t hat male has a higher st atur e t han
t he femal e.
Disor der s of t he Gonads
1. H ypogonadi sm
 I n adequ at e gon adal f u n ct i on i s cal l ed
hypogonadism .
 I t is due t o defect s in, or injur y t o t he hypo-
thalamus, pituitary gland of the testes or ovary.
2. Pr ecocious Puber t y
 Ear ly mat ur at ion of ovar ies and t est es wit h
pr oduct ion of ova, befor e t he age of 9 year s
in gir ls or sper ms befor e 10 year s in boys is
called sexual pr ecocit y.
3. E unuchoi di sm
F ai l u r e of t est ost er on e secr et i on cau ses
eunuchoidism.
A eunuch has undeveloped and non-functional
secondar y sex or gans like pr ost r at e, seminal
v esi cl es an d pen i s, l ack s ex t er n al sex
char act er s such as bear d, moust ache and low
pit ch voice and does not pr oduce sper ms.
4. Gynaecomast ia
(Gr. gyne = woman, mast os = br east )
 Excessive development of male mammar y
glands is called gynaecomast ia.
 Somet i mes t hese secr et e mi l k . I t r esul t s
when t he secr et ion of oest r ogens i s mor e
t han andr ogens.
Respi r at ion Syst em
Respi r at i on
 When body is at r est : aer obic r espir at ion.
 When involved in har d physical wor k : aer obi c +
anaer obic r espir at ion.
Glucose  CO2 + L act ic acid + Ener gy.
 The human r espir at or y syst em consist s of
exter nal nar es or nostr ils, nasal cavity, nasophar ynx,
lar ynx, t r achea, br onchi, br onchiole and lungs.
3.22 Biology
 The air enter s into t he nasal cavit y t hr ough nost r ils. Types of Circulat or y Syst ems
 L ungs ar e chief or gan in t he r espir at ion. Ther e ar e t hr ee t ypes of cir culat or y syt ems :
 Each lung cont ains millions of small air chamber s 1. No cir culat or y syst em
called alveoli . 2. Open cir culat or y syt em
 Pharynx (back of the noset and mouth), Larynx (voice 3. Closed cir culat or y syt em
box) and t r achea (wind pipe) ar e air passages t hat The cir culat or y syst em of all ver t ebr at es, as well as of
connect nose mout h t o lungs. annelids and cephalopods ar e closed, i.e. blood never
 Pharynx is also connected t o ear by Euschatian tube. leaves t he system of blood vessels consisting of ar ter ies
capillar ies and veins.
I nhaled air Exhaled ai r
Ar t er ies br ing oxygenat ed blood t o t he t issues (except
N itr ogen – 79% N itr ogen – 79%
pulmonar y ar t er ies), and veins br ing deoxygenat ed
Oxygen – 20.9% Oxygen – 16% blood back to the hear t (except pulmonary veins). Blood
CO2 – 0.04% CO2 – 4.04% passes fr om ar ter ies to veins thr ough capillaries,which
ar e t hinnest and most numer ous of t he blood vessels
 Nor mal r at e of r espir at ion in adult = 18/minut e. and these capillar ies helps t o join tissue with ar ter ioles
 Pulse r at e = 72/minut e. for t r anspor t at ion of nut r it ion t o t he cells.
 Nor mal r at e of r espir at ion in a baby = 40/minut e
Component s in Cir culat or y Syst em
Sequence of Breat hing 1. Bl ood.
I nhalation  Exhalation  Pause (Nor mal br eathing) Pumped body fluid, liquid medium.
I nhalat ion  Pause  Exhalat ion 2. H ear t .
(sickness, i.e. inver se br eat hing) Cen t r al pu m pi n g or gan ; m ai n com pon en t of
Capacit y of L ungs cir culat or y syst em.
Air capacity of lungs of male is about 10%higher than female.
3. Blood vessels.
Male lung capacity  4500 – 5000 ml. Syst em of channels which pr ovides pat hways for
Female lung capacity  4000 – 4500 ml. cir culation of pumped body fluid.
Tot al air B l ood
The amount of air that is exchanged in lungs in a quiet  Cir culat es body heat .
1
or nor mal br eat hi ng i s equal t o of capaci t y of  Car r ies nut r ient s and t r anspor t oxygen.
10
 Removes wast e pr oduct s fr om body cell.
lungs.
Vital capacity (VC) of Lungs  Car r ies ant ibodies t o fight against infect ions.
I t is t he volume of air t hat can be made t o pass int o  Gen er al l y bl ood m ak es 5% of body wei gh t i n
and out of l ungs by t he most for ceful r espi r at i on human bei ngs. An adul t of 80 k g wi l l have 5 k g
(inspir ation and expir at ion). bl ood.
I n adult male it can be 4 t o 4.5 lit r e Composit ion of Blood
I n female it can be 3.5 t o 4.0 lit r es. 1. Pl asma.
Vit al capacit y of lungs is measur ed by an inst r ument  St r aw colour ed.
cal l ed Spiromet er.  50 t o 60% of t ot al blood by volume.
Cellular Respir at ion  Plasma consist of 90% wat er and r est hundr eds
 I t involves ser ies of chemical r eact ions t hat occur in of substances (pr oteins, har mones, nut r ient s etc.)
t he pr esence of oxygen.  Cont ains fibr onogen (helps in blood clot t ing).
 Cells can obt ain some ener gy wit hout oxygen by a  H aemoglobin if high, immune syst em is high.
chemical pr ocess called glycolysis.
2. R.B.C. (Red Blood Cells).
 Glycolysis conver t s glucose molecules in t o smaller
 I t also called er yt hr ocyt es
r molecules called pyr uvic acid. This act ion r eleases
ener gy whi ch i s capt ur ed i n a compound cal l ed  L ar gest number of cells in blood.

adenosine triphasphate (ATP).  I n one dr op of blood, 5 t o 6 million of R.B.C.

 Cont ains mainly haemoglobin (gives r ed colour ).
Ci r culat or y Syst em
 Affinit y t o car bon mono oxide (CO) is 200 t imes
I t is an or gan syst em t hat moves subst ances t o and mor e t han t hat of O2.
fr om cells.
 R.B.C. count in male > female (10% less)
I t can also help st abilize body t emper at ur e and pH
 L ife of R.B.C. is 120 days
(par t of homeost asis).
 Biology 3.23
Diseases associat ed wit h R.B.C. Blood Groups
( i ) Polycyt haemia or E ryt haemia : I t is based on ant igens.
 R.B.C. count goes abnor mally high. 1. ABO syst em.
 Blood becomes t hicker and moves slowly. S. Blood To To
Antigen Antibody Genotype
 Skin becomes bluish. No. Group take give
( ii ) T halassemia [her edit ary disease] 1 A A B A, O A, AB IA IA / IA i
 Body is not able to make enough haemoglobin. 2 B B A B, O B, AB IB IB / IB i
 Regular blood tr ansfusion [ever y 3 to 4 weeks] A, B,
3 AB AB — AB IA IB
common in I ndia in Sindis and Punjabis AB, O
 Came in I ndia fr om Alexander ’s Ar my. A, B,
4 O — AB O ii
( iii ) Anaemia : AB, O
 Deficiency of ir on, folic acid or pr ot iens  Discover ed by L eindst einer.
3. Whit e Blood Corpuscles (W.B.C.).  O gr oup was discover ed by De cest ello and st ur li.
 I t is also called L eucocyt es.  A t t h e poi n t of i n j u r y, ser ot on i n e an d
 Types of W.B.C.
t hr omboplast in (lipopr ot ein) ar e r eleased.
Ther e ar e 3 t ypes of W.B.C.  Ser ot onine is helpful in vaso const r ict ion.
(i ) Gr anulocytes – 70%  manufact ur ed in  T h r om bopl ast i n h el ps i n t h e f or m at i on of
 pr ot hr ombinase.
(ii ) M onocyt es – 5%  r edbone-mar r ow.
 I n pr esence of pr ot hr ombinase, pr ot hr ombin is
(iii ) Lymphocytes – 25% : m an u f act u r ed i n conver t ed int o t hr ombin.
lymphgland (Thymous gland).
 Thr ombin r eact s wit h fibr inogen in pr esence of
 These ar e non pigment al (colour less).
air and Ca++ t o for m fibr in.
 L ar ger in size t han RBC but small in number.
 Net wor k of fibr in for ms clot .
 I n one dr op of blood – 7500 W.B.C.
 I n pr esen ce of XI I f act or (H agm en f act or /
R.B.C. glycopr ot ein) danse net is for med.
Rat io of = 600 : 1
W.B.C.
 These dest r oy t he pat hogens. 2. Rh syst em.
 Discover ed by L eindst einer and Winner. (1900)
 Dur ing infect ion W.B.C. count incr eases.
 Leukemia : I t is mor e common in childr en .  Race and Taylor wor ked in it .

(i ) Caused because of cancer of Red bone mar r ow.  Rh fact or comes fr om Rhehsus monkey.

(ii ) Abnor mal incr ease in W.B.C. and decr ease in  I f Rh fact or pr esent , Rh posit ive 97% in I ndia
R.B.C. and 80% in wor ld.
Remedies :  I f Rh positive blood is given to Rh negative per son,

(i ) Bone t r ansplantation first time no agglutination second time death occur.

(ii ) Radiation t r eat ment .  I f Rh negat i ve mot her i s havi ng Rh posi t i ve
embr ouy, disease is er yt hr oblast ois foet alis.
4. Plat elet s or T hr ombocyt es.  People who have Rh ant igen on the RBC ar e Rh +.
 Non nucleat ed like R.B.C.
 People who lack Rh ant igen an t he RBC ar e Rh – .
 Non pigment ed like W.B.C.
 90% people ar e Rh +, and Ot her s Rh – .
 L ife – 10 days.
 Plasma has no natur al antibody to the Rh ant igen
 Smaller in count .
, i.e. Rh + cannot pr oduce only ant ibody. But Rh –
 M anufact ur ed in Red bone mar r ow. may build up ant ibodies called Ant i Rh if t hey
W.B.C. r eceive Rh + blood.
 Rat io = =2:1
Thrombocytes  I f an Rh – pat ient r eceives Rh + blood, it causes
ant i Rh t o at t ack Rh + blood .
 Essent ial for blood clot t ing.
 Vi t am i n K i s essen t i al f or pr odu ct i on of If
|RS M other Foetus |UV  Pr oblem
T| Rh W|

Pr ot hr ombin. –
Rh +

Bl ood Gr oupi ng I f i t happens, no chance of chi l d bi r t h, onl y

 Developed by K ar l L andst einer in 1900.
 Membr ane of RBC contains pr oteins called Antigens
(mor e t han 300 ant igens have been ident ified).
M ainly t wo ant igens ar e impor t ant .
(i ) A fact or
(ii ) B fact or
abor t ion in second or subsequent t imes.
Remedy : vaccine ant i– D, so t hat mot her does
not develop ant i Rh.
 D est r u ct i on of RB Cs of f oet u s becau se of
unmat ched Rh fact or is called Er yt hr oblast osis.
 I n ot her cases t her e is no pr oblem.
3.24 Biology
H uman H eart (M ammalian H ear t)
 Situat ed in thor acic cavit y in per icar dial cavity close
t o it s fr ont wall. I t s br oad base faces upwar d and
backwar d. I ts nar r ow apex faces downwar d, for war d
and slight ly t o t he left side and r est s on diaphr agm,
below car diac not ch of left lungs.
 Shape : Some conical.
 Colour : Dar k r ed.
 Chamber : 4 (2 aur icles and 2 vent r icles)
 Size : Roughy 12 x 9 cms.
 Weight : Aver age weight is about 300 gm in male,
250 gm in female.
 H ear t is a hollow, muscular,somewhat conical four -
chamber ed for ce pump, enclosed in a fibr ous bag.
 Wall of t he hear t is made up of car diac muscle fibr e,
connect ive t issues and t iny body vessels.
 H ear t is sit uat ed in t he chest bet ween t he lungs.
I nt er nal St r uct ur e
 Wall of aur icles ar e t hi n t han wal l of vent r icl es,
because t hey have t o push t he blood t o vent r icles
only sit uat ed close t o t hem.
 Walls of vent r icles ar e t hick as t hey have t o pump
t he blood quit e far away. Wall of left vent r icle is 3
times thicker as it has to pump t he blood t o complete
body.
 H ear t has t wo pumps :
( i ) L eft pump : I t l eads oxygenat ed bl ood whi ch
i s r ed in col our.
( ii ) Right pump : I t l eads deoxygenat ed bl ood
(pur pl e in col our ). Bl ood bet ween t wo pumps
does not mi x dir ect ly. H owever i n foet us t her e
i s an openi ng, so t wo pumps meet as l ungs ar e
not funct i oni ng. So foet us get s oxygen fr om
mot her but just befor e bi r t h openi ng is cl osed.
I f t he openi ng i s not cl osed, t hen condi t i on of
blue baby i s r eached, and immediat e sur ger y i s
r equir ed.
 Auricle : Smal l er i n si ze and t hi nner muscul ar
valves.
 Vent ricle : L ar ger i n si ze and t hi ck er muscul ar
walls.
 L eft ventricle : Pumps oxygenat ed bl ood t o r est of
t he body.
– Taller t he per son, lower the blood pressure in adult.
– M ale have l ower bl ood pr essur e t han femal e.
 I n wal l of vent r i cl e, t endi nous cor ds pr esent .
 I nner wal l of vent r i cle i s r ai sed int o l ow muscul ar
r idges as columnae car neae and few lar ge muscular
el avat i on as papi l l ar y muscl es.
 B et w een v en t r i cl es i n t er v en t r i cu l ar sept u m
pr esent , bent t o r ight side.
 L umen of left vent r i cle i s l ar ge and l umen of r i ght
vent r i cl e i s smal l and semi l unar shape.
 Bet ween aur icl es and vent r i cles A.V. node pr esent .
 Bet ween 2 aur icles, int er aur icular sept um pr esent .
I n emr byo i n i t for amen oval i s aper t ur e pr esent ,
t hat conver t s int o a fossae oval is on bi r t h t i me.
 Right auricle : I n t hi s 2 openi ng pr esent pr e caval
and post caval (i n r abbi t 3 openi ngs).
On openi ng of pr e cavals eust achi an valve pr esent .
Behi nd i t cor onar y si nus opens on i t Thebasi us
val ve pr esen t . Ri gh t au r i cl e open s i n t o r i gh t
vent r i cl e.
 L eft aur icle : I n t hi s pul menar y vei ns open by
com m on aper t u r e (w i t h ou t v al v e). I t br i n gs
oxygenat ed bl ood fr om l ungs i nt o l eft aur i cl e.
 Ri ght aur i cl e S.A. node or pace mak er or hear t of
hear t or node of K eit h and Flack pr esent . I t is made
up of car di ac muscl es and st i mul at e hear t beat . I t
i s connect ed t o vagus ner ve.
 Bot h aur i cl es open i nt o vent r i cl es by aur i cul o
vent r icular valve.
 I n r ight side, it is made up of t hr ee flaps :
(i ) tr icuspid valve
(ii ) lower edges of valve are fixed to papillar y muscles
of vent r icle wall by chor dae t endinae fibr es.
 I n left side it is bicuspid or M it r al valve.
 Bot h valves ar e one way, i.e. allow blood fr om A t o V
not vice ver sa.
 Some F act s
Taller per son has lar ger hear t .
H uman hear t is fully developed about 8 week aft er
conception (star ts beating after 4 week of conception).
 Fish have a t wo chamber ed hear t :
(i ) Atr ium
(ii ) Vent r icle.
 Bir ds and animals have 4 chamber ed hear t (H ighly
developed).
H ear t Beat
Th e spont an eou s an d r hyt hm i c cont r act i on and
r elaxat ion of hear t t o pump out and r eceive blood is
called heart beat . So systole and diastole are collectively
called hear t beat .

Types
H ear t beat is of t wo t ypes.
1. N eurogenic : Cont r oled by ner ve
2. e.g. lower animals – Ar t hr opoda, M ollusca.
2. M yogenic : By own muscles
2. e.g. var t ebr at es including man and r abbit .
Some F act s
 Neur ogenic par t is less
 I t is under cont r ol of upper par t of medulla.
 Sympat hat ic acceler at e hear t beat .
 Par a sympat hat ic or vagal inhibit hear t beat .
 Adr enal, t hyr oxine incr eases hear t beat .
 H ear t beat is
210/ minut e in r abbit .
72 / minut e in man.
500 / minut e in mice.
800 / minut e in shr ew.
25 / minut e in elephant .
8 / minut e in belenopt er a.
 I n left vent r icle pr essur e is 115– 125 mm H g.
 I n r ight vent r icle pr essur e is 25– 30 mm H g.
 I n man car diac cycle is of 0.8 sec.
 H ear t beat below nor mal is br achae car dia.
 H ear t beat above nor mal is t achae car dia.
Origin of heart beat.
Mammalian hear t is myogenic (myo = muscle, genic
= or iginating fr om) i.e. hear t beat or iginat es fr om a
muscle (however, it is r egulated by t he ner ves). The
hear t beat or iginat es fr om t he sinoat r ial node (SA
node)— pace maker, which lies in t he wall of the r ight
atrium near opening of the superior vena cava. SA node
is a mass of neur omuscular tissue. Sometimes SA node
may become damaged or defect ive, so beat does not
function properly. This can be remedied by the sur gical
gr afting of an art ificial pace maker in the chest of the
patient. The ar tificial pace maker stimulates the hear t
at r egular inter vals to maintain its beat.
Conduction of H eart beat .
A n ot h er m ass of n eu r om u scu l ar t i ssu e, A t r i o-
Ventricular node (AV node) is situated in the wall of the
r ight atr ium. AV node picks up the wave of contr act ion
pr opagated by SA node. A mass of specialized fibr es,
bundle of His, or iginat es fr om the AV node.
Bundle of H is divides int o t wo br anches ; One going t o
each vent r icle.
Wit hin t he mycocar dium of t he vent r icles, br anches
of bundle of H is divide int o a net wor k of fine fibr es
cal l ed Pur k inje fibr es. The bundl e of H i s and t he
Pur kinje fibr es convey impulse of cont r act ion fr om AV
node t o t he myocar dium of t he vent r icles.
Regulat ion of H eart beat .
The rat e of hear t beat is regulated by two mechanisms.
1. N ervous regulat ion :
Car diac cent r e lies in t he medulla oblongat a of t he
br ain.
Biology 3.25
Car diac cent r e is for med of t wo par t s :
(i ) Car dio-inhibit or
(ii ) Car dio-acceler ator
Car dio-inhibitor is connected with the heart through
vagus ner ve (i t car r i es— par asympat het i c ner ve
fibres) and car dio acceler ator through sympathetic
n er ve f i br es. Sen sor y f i br es ext en d f r om t h e
receptors pr esent in the vena cava, aorta and car otid
si nuses t o t he car di ovascul ar cent r e of i n t he
medul l a obl ongat a. I mpul ses r ecei ved fr om t he
aorta and carotid sinuses decrease the hear t rate,
whereas impulses fr om the vena cava increase the
heart rate.
2. H or monal r egulat ion.
A dr en al i n (epi n eph r i n e) an d N or adr en al i n
(n or epi n eph r i n e) h or m on es ar e secr eat ed by
m edu l l a of t h e adr en al gl an ds. N or adr en al i n
acceler at es t he hear t beat under nor mal condit ions
while adr enalin does t his funct ion at t he t ime of
emer gency. These hor mones dir ect ly influence t he
SA node.
Thyr oxi ne hor mone secr eat ed by t hyr oi d gl and
i ncr eases oxi dat i ve met aboli sm of t he body cel l s.
Thi s r equi r es mor e oxygen and t hus i ndi r ect l y
i ncr eases hear t beat .
H eart rat e
Pulse per mi nut e i s cal l ed hear t r at e. H uman hear t
beat s about 72 t i mes per mi nut e i n an adul t per son
at r est , t hi s is hear t r at e of t hat per son. H ear t r at e
i ncr eases dur i ng exer ci se, fever, fear and anger.
Because smal l er ani mal s have t he hi gher met abol i c
r at e, t hei r hear t r at e i s hi gher t han l ar ger ani mal s.
An el ephant has nor mal hear t r at e of about 25 per
mi nut e wher eas mouse has a nor mal hear t r at e of
sever al hundr eds per mi nut e.
Car diac (H ear t ) Out put
The amount of bl ood pumped by hear t per mi nut e i s
cal led car diac out put . H ear t of a nor mal per son beat s
72 t i m es per m i n u t e an d pu m ps ou t abou t 70
mi ll i l i t r es of bl ood per beat . Thus car di ac out put i s
72  70 or 5040 mi ll i l i t er s per mi nut e, i.e. about 5
l i t r es per mi nut e whi ch i s equi val ent t o t ot al body
bl ood vol ume (about 5.5 l i t r es).
I n t he day hear t pumps about 7,600 l i t r e of blood.
P u l se
Pul se i s r hyt hmic cont r act i on and r el axat i on i n t he
aor t a and i t s mai n ar t er i es. Thus pulse i s a wave of
i ncr ease whi ch passes t hr ough ar t er i es as t he l eft
vent r i cl e pumps i t s bl ood i nt o t he aor t a. Pul se is a
r egul ar jer k of an ar t er y. Ther efor e, it i s al so cal l ed
ar t er ial pulse. The pulse r at e i s exact ly same as t he
hear t r at e i.e. 72 because an ar ter y pulses ever y t ime
t he hear t beat s. Pul se is usual ly t ak en on t he r adial
and ul ner ar t er y i n t he wr i st but i t can be t ak en on
any ar t er y t hat fl ows near enough t o t he sur face of
t he body t o be fel t l ik e neck , t empl es and ankl es.
3.26 Biology
F act ors affect ing Pulse rat e
1. Pulse r at e in childr en is mor e r apid t han in adult s.
2. Pulse r at e is mor e r apid in t he female t han in t he
male.
3. When t he per son is st anding up, pulse r at e is mor e
r apid t han when he/she is lying down.
4. When any str ong emotion is exper ienced, then pulse
r at e is incr eased
e.g. anger, exict ement , fear et c.
5. Any excer cie incr eases r at e of t he pulse.
Car di ac Cycl e
The car diac cycle consist s of one hear t beat or one
cycle of contraction and r elaxation of the car diacmuscle.
Dur ing a hear t beat, ther e is contr action and r elaxation
of at r ia and vent r icles. The cont r act ion phase is called
systole while r elaxation phase is called diastole. When
bot h at r ia and vent r icles ar e in diast olic or r elaxed
phase, t his is joint diast ole.
Successive st ages of Cardiac cycle
1. At r ial syst ole.
The at r i a cont r act due t o a wave of cont r act ion,
st imulat ed by t he SA node. The blood is for ced int o
t he vent r icles as t he bicuspid and t r icuspid valves
ar e open.
2. Beginning of vent r icular syst ole.
The vent r icles begin t o cont r act due t o a wave of
contr action, stimulated by the AV node. The bicuspid
and t r icuspid valves close immediat ely pr oducing
par t of t he fir st hear t sound.
3. Complet e vent ricular syst ole.
When vent r i cl es compl et e t hei r cont r act i on, t he
blood flows int o t he pulmonar y t r unk and aor t a as
t he semilunar valves open.
4. Beginning of vent ricular diast ole.
The vent r icles r elax and t he semilunar valves ar e
closed. This causes second hear t sound.
5. Complet e vent r icular diast ole.
The tricuspid and bicuspid valves open when pressure
in t he ventr icles falls and blood flows fr om atr ia into
t he vent r icles. Cont r act i on of t he hear t does not
cause t hi s bl ood fl ow. I t i s due t o t he fact t hat
pr essur e wit hin t he r elaxed vent r icles is less t han
t hat in t he at r ia and veins.
H ear t Sounds
The beating hear t produces characteristic sounds which
can be hear d by placing the ear against the chest or by
usi ng st et hoscope (an i nst r ument which magni fies
sounds and conduct s t hem t o ear ).
I n a normal person, two sounds ar e pr oduced per heart
beat.
1. F irst sound.
This is caused par t ly by t he closur e of t he bicuspid
and t r icuspid valves and par tly by t he contr action of
t he muscles in t he vent r icles.
The fir st sound lubb is low pit ched not ver y loud
and of long dur at ion.
2. Second sound.
This is caused by the closur e of the semilunar valves
and mar ks t he end of vent r icular syst ole.
The second sound dup is highly pit ched, louder,
shar per and shor t er in dur at ion.
Deffects of H eart
1. Blue Baby syndrome (Cyanosis).
Due t o per sist ing for amen ovalis in at r ial sept um
even aft er bi r t h, t he i mpur e bl ood fr om r i ght
aur icles comes t o left aur icle and t hen int o left
vent r icle fr om wher e it is supplied t o t he body
incr easing t he bluishness of t he body.
2. H ear t block (Cardiac arrest ).
I f S-A node becomes defective it cannot gener ate
i mpul se pr oper l y and t he hear t beat becoems
irr egular or may stop. This is cor r ected by implant-
ing ar tificial electr onic pacemaker in t he chest.
3. M ur mur ing hear t .
Due t o defect s in valves inst ead of the nor mal lub-
dup sound, mur mur i ng sound appear s as t he
sympt om.
4. M it r al st enosis.
Due t o defect of mit r al valve, passage of blood
t hr ough A-V aper t ur e, becomes impr oper.
5. Regur git at ion.
Due to improper closure of A-V aperture, some blood
dur ing ventr icular systole r eenter s the aur icle.
Car diac valves may be defect ive by bir t h or may
get damaged due t o st aphyl ococcal i nfect i on
(rheumatic fever ). This can be r epair ed or r eplaced
sur gically.
6. Angina pect or is.
 Due t o bl ock age or t hi ck eni ng of cor onar y
vessel’s wall, t her e is inadequat e blood flow t o
hear t muscles associ at ed wi t h pai n i n hear t
dur ing exer t ion or emot ional t ension.
 The bl ock age may be du e t o deposi t i on of
ch ol est er ol , sm ok i n g, di abet es or var i ou s
ot her fact or s. Si mi l ar defect i s al so cal l ed
cor onar y t hr ombosi s when cor onar y vessel s
ar e blocked by blood clot s.
7. Brown’s heart disease (Br own’s at rophy).
Excess lipid (or lipofuschin) level in blood causes
it s deposit ion in cor onar y vessels which at r ophy
and causes sympt oms as above.
8. H ooping hear t .
Sometimes impr oper r hythms in hear t beat occur,
t his is gener ally t he indicat ion of hear t at t ack.
9. M yocar dial infarct ion (H eart at t ack).
I nsufficient blood and O2 supply t o par t of car diac
muscl es may cause deat h of t hat par t . Fr om
damaged hear t muscle cells, cer tain enzymes leak

hence t heir pr esence i n plasma is ver y simpl e
diagnostic feat ur e for hear t att ack, t hese enzymes
ar e lact at e dehydrogenase and t ransaminase.
10. D ext r ocar di a.
I f hear t is placed towar ds r ight side in the thoracic
cavit y as bor n defect .
11. E ct opia cor dis.
Somet i mes hear t becomes l ocat ed out si de t he
t hor acic cavit y as bor n defect .
Blood Pr essur e
 I t is t he r esult of t he sum of
(i ) Osmot ic colloidal pr essur e of blood
(ii ) Elast ic r ecoil of blood vessel’s wall.
(iii ) Pumping for ce of hear t .
 First measured by British physiologist Stephan Hales
(1733) in car ot id ar t er y of mar e.
 I n human it was first measured by Vaivre (1856) using
L udwig mer cur y manomet er.
 Riva Rocci (1896) discovered sphygmomanometer, the
inst r ument t o measur e B.P.
 Nor mal r ange of B.P. is 120 / 80 mm H g.
(120 m m H g = sy st ol i c pr essu r e; 80 m m
H g = diast olic pr essur e)
 The di ffer en ces bet ween syst ol i c and di ast ol i c
pr essur e is called pulse pr essur e (40 mmH g).
80 mmHg  age in year s
 I t is is calculated as, B.P. =
50 mmHg  age in year s
 I n any age it shouldn’t exceed 150/100 mm H g and
shouldn’t be below 80/50 mmH g.
 The abnor mal r ise in B.P. (hyper t ension) occur s due
t o defect of any of t he above t hr ee component s. Wit h
incr easing age, r igidit y of t he ar t er ial wall causes
high B.P.
 H ypot ension (low B.P.) may be due t o
(i ) Chr onic vasodilat ion
(ii ) Anemia
(iii ) Blood loss and impr oper hear t act ion.
 B.P. is slight ly lower in female t han male unt il t he
menopause.
 Dur ing sleep, t he pr essur e falls by 20-30 mmH g and
may r each 180-200 dur ing exer cise.
Blood Coagulat ion
The pr oper ty of blood to change fr om fluid to gel st ate
within a few minutes of its coming in contact with air is
called blood coagulation or blood clotting or haemostasis.
Ai m
To pr event excessive loss of blood fr om an injur y.
Blood Clot t ing
 The clot begins t o develops in 15 t o 20 seconds but is
ful l y for med wi t hi n 3 t o 6 mi nut es i n a nor mal
per son.
Biology 3.27
 I t is a nat ur e's device t o check t he excessive loss of
blood fr om an injur y.
 Cl ot t ing is a bio– chemical r eact ion, explained by
H obel.
 Clot t ing t heor y is given by cascode.
 Vit amin K is essent ial for clot t ing.
 Bleeding t ime is 1– 3 minut es.
 Clot t ing t ime is 2– 6 minut es.
 Pr ocess of cl ot t i n g i s i n i t i at ed by pl at el et s /
Thr ombocyt es.
 Aft er clot t ing r emaining par t is ser um.
Ant icoagulant s
1. H eparin (hepar = liver ).
I t is synt hesized by mast cells of connect ive t issue
and l i ver cel l s. I t i s a het er opol ysacchar i de. I t
increases effectivity of antithrombin I I I (a – globulin)
which inactivat es t hr ombin, so pr event s conver sion
of fibr inogen int o fibr in.
2. H ir udin.
I t is an anticoagulant pr esent in the saliva of salivar y
glands of leech and is mixed with blood of host dur ing
it s st or age in it s cr op.
3. War far in.
I t is an ant icoagulant of plant or igin, which when
gi v en t o a pat i en t , l ow er s t h e f or m at i on of
pr ot hr ombin and fact or s VI I , I X and X fr om liver
cells by lower ing t he act ivit y of Vit amin K .
4. Sodium oxalat e, sodium cit rat e and EDTA.
(Et hylene diamine t et r a acet ic acid)
These ar e used as ant icoagulant s in blood banks as
these bind Ca++, so t hese ar e called chelating agent s.
5. Chilling of blood.
Also delays blood clot t ing as it lower s act ivit y of t he
enzymes involved in blood clot t ing.
Role of Vit amin– K in Blood Clot ting
 Vit amin K is also called anst i-haemor r hagic fact or.
 I t is a fat soluble vit amin and is essent ial for t he
for mat ion of pr ot hr ombin fr om t he liver.
 Deficiency of vitamin K causes hypopr othrombinemia
which int er fer es wit h blood clot t ing.
 Vitamin K is also synthesized by intest inal bact er ia.
Bl ood Vessel s
These are of t hr ee t ypes.
1. Ar t er ies
 Car r y blood away fr om hear t (oxygenat ed blood)
 A l l ar t er i es car r y oxygen at ed bl ood except
pulmonar y art ery , which car r ies blood fr om Right
vent r icle t o lungs.
L ar gest ar t er y  Aor t a ,which car r ies blood fr om
L eft vent r ical t o ot her par t s of t he body.
 Ar t er ies have capacit y t o cont r act and expand on
t heir own, t her efor e also for ce t he blood for war d.
3.28 Biology
 They have thicker muscular wall and smaller diameter.
 Flow of blood in ar t er ies is int er mit t ent flow.
 Pulmonary artery and Aorta are called great vessels.
2. Veins
 All veins car r y deoxygenat ed blood towar ds hear t.
 These cannot cont r act and expand on t heir own.
 Flow of blood is cont inuous.
 These have thinner muscular wall of larger diameter.
 These ar e pr ovided with valve to pr otect back flow.
 A l l v ei n s car r y deoxy gen at ed bl ood ex cept
pulmonar y vein, which car r y blood fr om lungs t o
left at r ium.
 L ar get vein is
(i ) Super ior vena covae, which br ings t he blood
fr om head and ar ms.
(ii ) I nfer ior vena cavae, which car r ies blood fr om
t r unk and legs.
3. Capill ar ies
 Th ese ar e hai r l i k e, t hi n bl ood vessel s t h at
connect s ar t er ies and veins.
 These have no muscular wall.
Lymphat ic Syst em
This system retur ns fluid from body tissues to the blood
st r eam.
I t consist s of
(i ) Lymph fluid
(ii ) Lymph gland
(iii ) Lymph vessels.
Lymph fluid
 Lymph nodes look like bump with diameter 1 to 25 mm.
 Pale fluid r esembling blood plasma.
 Cont ains WBC but r ar ely RBC.
 Cir culates in lymph vessels and bat hes t he body cell.
 Lymph fr om all but upper r ight quar t er of t he body
r eaches t he t hor aci cduct , t he l ar gest l ymphat i c
vessel which lies along t he fr ont of spine.
E l ect r ocar diogr am (E CG)
 I t is a gr aphic r ecor d of the electr ic cur r ent pr oduced
by excitation of the car diac muscles. The instr ument
used to r ecor d t he changes is electrocar diogr aph.
Waller (1887) first recorded the electrocardiogr am but
Einthoven (1903) st udied ECG in details, t her efor e,
he got Nobel Pr ize in 1924 for discover y of ECG. He
is also consider ed "fat her of elect rocardiography".
Pacem ak er
SA node is called natural pacemaker . When SA node does
not send impulses to the atria, ventricles fail to receive
atrial impulses. The conducting system of the heart is
disrupted. I n such patients normal heart beat can be
restored and maintained with an artificial pacemaker .
Tempor ar y Pacemaker
I t is used in emergency such as arr ythmia contr ol (e.g.
br adycar dia – slow hear t beat). Electr odes of temporary
pacemaker is introduced from jugular, sub clavian and
femoral veins as well as from veins of the upper extremity.
Per manent Pacemaker
I t i s used i n at r i ovent r i cul ar (AV) bl ock , SA node
dysfunct i on, et c. I n t he pat i ent s of St ok es adams
syndr ome (vent r icular escape or vent r icular asyst ole)
at r ial impulse suddenly fails t o be t r ansmit t ed t o t he
vent r icles. I n such pat ient s, per manent pacemaker is
implanted.
Ar t ificial Pacemak er
I t is an artificial electr onic device which r egular ly sends
small amount of elect r ical char ges t hat st imulat e t he
hear t .
I t consist s of
(i ) a pulse – gener at or cont ai ning cel l (sol i d st at e
lit hium cell) t o pr oduce elect r ical impulse,
(ii ) lead in t he for m of a wir e which t r ansmit s t he
impulse and
(iii ) elect r ode, which is connect ed t o t he por t ion of t he
hear t wher e impulse is t o be t r ansmit t ed.
Repr oduct i ve Syst em
1. M ale Repr oduct ive Syst em
H uman male r epr oduct ive syst em is composed of a
pair of testes, genital duct s, sever al accessor y glands
and penis.
Test es (Test icles).
 Test is is pr imar y male r epr oduct ive or gan. I t lies
in small sac-like muscular st r uct ur e out side t he
abdominal cavit y called scr ot um.
 I n adult males, each testis is a small, pinkish and
oval.
 2 in number (Diar chic)
 4– 5 cms long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 cm t hick.
 M esoder mal.
 I n em br yon i c st age at t ach ed t o k i dn ey by
mesor chium membr ane.
 I n embr yo at 7t h mont h of division descend down
in scr ot el sac. Condit ion is ext r a abdominal, due
t o it 3C less t emper at ur e is available, helpful in
sper mat ogenesis.

 Bot h scr ot el sac int er nally separ at ed by sept um
scr ot i. Ext er nal by a scar -like r aphe.
 I n scr ot el sac fat layer i s absent , i nvol unt ar y
muscles ar e der t os t unic pr esent .
 Lumen of scr otel sac is vaginal coelome, in it testes
pr esent .
 Vaginal coelome is connect ed t o main coelome by
inguinal canal.
 I n some cases t est es do not descend down in sac,
condition is cr yptor chidism such animals ar e high
flanker s (sper m ar e not pr oduced)
 Test es is at t ached t o pr e posit ion by sper mat ic
cor d (gonadial ar t er y, gonadial vein, ner ve and
connect ive t issue pr esent ).
 Test is is at t ached t o wall of scr ot el sac by elast ic
st r uct ur e i.e. guber naculum cor dis.
Biology 3.29
Seminal vesicles.
 I t is sit uat ed behind t he bladder.
 About 70% of the semen in seminal fluid pr oduced
by seminal vesicles.
Penis.
 I nt r omit t ent or gan.
 Er ect ile, it s apex is penis glanse.
 Cover ed by pr epuce (par t of skin).
 Main function is insemination (to tr ansfer sper ms
in vagina in deep).
 I n T.S. 3 cor ds pr esent , 2 on dor sal side cor pus
cover nosus, 1 on ventr al side cor pus spongiosum.
 Bet ween cor pus caver nosus sept um pr esent .
 Thr ough cor pus spongiosum ur et hr a passes.

 U ni t of t est i s i s semi ni fer ous t ubul e wh er e  Wal l of cor pus spongi osum ar e spongy due t o
sper ms are manufactur ed by sper matogenesis. All t r abeculae, having power of collect ion of blood at
t ubul es for m a cor d of 200– 400 met er. These t he t ime of er ect ion.
t ubules ar e spr eaded in connect ive t issue.  Penial ar t er y supply blood.
 I n t i ssue i nt er st i t i al cel l s or cel l s of L eydi ng
pr esent . T hese cel l s secr et e t est ost er on e or Semen.
andr ogen hor mones t o cont r ol secondar y sexual  Sper m s an d secr et i on of accesor y gl an ds
char act er s. collect ively called seminal fluid or semen .
 Out side each seminifer ous t ubule, t unica pr opr ia  I t is milky, semi-solid in natur e having par ticular
pr esen t . I n si de i t ger m i n al epi t h el i u m or smel l.
basement membrane present. Made up of cuboidal
 pH : 7.35 – 7.5
epit helium.
 Epit helium consist s of P.G.C. Pr imor dial ger m  Specific gr avit y : 1.028
cells and few ser t oli cells. 2. F emale Reproduct ive Syst em
 P.G.C. ar e endoder mal in nat ur e.
Female Reproductive Systems
 P.G.C. ar e r esponsible for sper mat ogenesis.
 Different stages of formation of sperms can be seen
Main organ Accessory organs
as Sper matogonia Ovaries Fallopian tube
(i ) Pr imar y sper mat ocyt e Uterus
Vagina
(ii ) Secondar y sper mat ocyt e ar e Ext. genitilia
(iii ) Sper matid Bartholins gland
Breasts
(iv) Sper ms.
Pr ost at e Gland.
 I t i s si t u at ed ar ou n d t h e f i r st par t of t h e
ur et hr a.
 Englar gement of pr ost at e r esult s in pr ost at it is
i.e. ur inat ion is difficult or impossible.
U r et hr a.
 I t is a thick walled muscular duct and is a common
passage for bot h ur ine and semen.
 Ur et hr a t r aver se and open at t he t ip of penis.
 F or pr odu ct i on of sper m s t est es r equ i r e –
t emper atur e 1°C less t han the body temper at ur e. Ovar ies
Types of sperms: Sper ms ar e of t wo t ypes  2 in number (didelphic).

(1) (2)  whit e / pinkish, almond like.

L ar ge sper ms Small sper ms  3 cm long, 2 cm wide, 1 cm t hick.

car r y X cr omosomes car r y Y cr omosomes  L i e i n t he l ower par t of abdomen at t ached t o
rd
23 pair of chromosomes is called sex chromosome. dor sal wall by mesovar ium.
3.30 Biology
 At t ached t o ut er us by ovar ian ligament .
 I n wall of ovar y viscer al per it onium, ger minal
epit helium, and t unica albuginea pr esent .
 Ger minal epit helium is made up of P.G.C.
 Gr ound par t of ovar y is st r oma differ nt iat ed in t o
out er cor t ex and inner medulla.
 M esoder mal in or igin.
 P.G.C. of ger minal epit helium is endoder mal in
or igin.
 Fir st of all fr om P.G.C. follicle cells ar e for med.
 Fuse to form egg nest. One is developing ovum,
r est cells ar e destr oyed t o give nour ishment t o
developing ovum. Destr oyed cells are atratic cells.
This phenomenon is at r asia.
 Fir st it is single layer ed called pr imar y follicle.
Soon it becomes double layer ed, i.e. secondar y
follicle. I t is soon conver t ed int o gr affian follicles
or mat ur e follicle.
 I t 's for mat ion is folliculogenesis under cont r ol of
FSH and L H .
Graffian F ollicle.
 I t appear s as knob or st igma in medulla.
 I t is r ound, discover ed by Gr aff .
 I t is cover ed by t wo layer s :
(i ) Thecae ext er na
(ii ) Theca inter na : Fr om t heca inter na, est r ogen
i s secr et ed t o con t r ol secon dar y sexu al
char at er s i n femal e. I nsi de t heca i nt er na,
membr ana gr anulosa is pr esent .
 Secondar y oocyt e is at t ached t o cover ing layer by
gr oup of cells, i.e. discus pr oliger ous. The point
of discus pr oliger ous close t o secondar y oocyt e is
H ill of follicular cells or cumulus oophor us.
Secondar y oocyt e i s cover ed by zona pell uci da
(pr i mar y egg membr ane) and cor ona r adi at a
(secondar y egg memebr ane).
 Cavit y of follicle is ant r um of H imor or follicular
cavit y filled wit h follicular fluid.
 Gr affian's follicle is r ept ur ed, secondar y oocyt e
come out of ovar y fr om st i gma poi nt fi r st i n
coelome. I t is ovulation. This t ime L.H. is secr eted
mor e.
 After r eptur ing rest part of gr affian's follicle which
i s yel l ow col our ed i s cal l ed cor pus lut eum . I t
consist s of clot t ing, fibr in, lut ein cells.
 L .H . i s helpful in for mat i on of cor pus l ut eum.
Cor pus lut eum secr etes pr ogest eron and r elaxin .
 Pr ogest er on is helpful in implant at ion, t o st op
ovulat ion dur ing gest at ion per iod.
 Relaxin is helpful t o r elax pelvic muscles dur ing
parturition .
 I f fer t ilisation occur s, t hen cor pus luteum var ium
is used. I f not t hen cor pus lut eum spor er um is
used.
 Aft er for mat i on of pl acent a, cor pus l ut eum i s
degener ated and conver ted into white scar corpus
albicanse.
F allopian T ube.
 Fer t ilisat ion occur in it . 10– 12 cm long muscular
t ube.
 I t is suppor t ed by double fold of per it onium.
 I t shows four r egions :
(i ) I nfundibulum :
Br oad, funnel shaped pr oximal par t .
 I t mar gin bear s fimbr iae.
I n funnel ost ium aper t ur e pr esent .
 Fr om it eggs ent er int o duct .
(ii ) Ampulla : L ong, wide, t hin walled.
(iii ) I st hmus : Ver y shor t , nar r ow t hick wall ed
str aight par t .
(iv) Ut er ine part : I t is nar r ow, communicate with
ut er ine cavit y.
U terus (Womb).
 L ar ge, pyr ifor m, highly elast ic.
 Development of embr yo t akes place in it .
 I t i s l ocat ed above and behi nd t he ur i nnar y
bladder.
 Att ached t o body wall by mesometr ium ligament .
 I n nullipar ous woman, it is about 8 cm long 5 cm
wide 2 cm thick, weighting 10– 15 gms, some what
lar ger in mult ipar ous woman.
 I t shows four r egions :
(i ) Upper wide dom shaped fundus t hat r eceives
fallopian t ubes.
(ii ) Cor nuae t he upper cor ner s wher e oviduct s
ent er int o ut er us.
(iii ) Middle large body or cor pus which is the main
par t.
(iv) Lower nar r ow cer vix that pr ojects into vagina.
 Cer vix communicat es wit h ut er us by int er nal os.
and wit h vagina by ext er nal os.
 Cavit y of cer vix bet ween ext er nal and int er nal
os. is cer vical canal. I t is 2.5 cm long.
 Cer vi x i s composed of t he bi ggest and most
power ful sphinct or muscles i n t he body. I t i s
st r ong enough t o hold about 7 k g of foet us fl ui d.
 I n t he wall of ut er us out er layer is per imet r ium,
middle myomet r ium and inner endomet r ium.
 M yomet r ium consist s of inner and out er of longe
muscles and middl e cir cular muscl es. L ongest
involunt ar y muscles pr esent her e.
 The cavit y of ut er us can be expanded 500 t imes
dur ing pr egnancy fr om 10 cm 3 t o 5000 cm 3.

Vagina.
 M edian, elast ic, muscular t ube 7.5 cm long. Open
int o vest ibule by vaginal or ffice.
 Uter us opens into an elast ic muscular tube called
vagina.
 Vagina is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium
wit hout any glands.
 D u r i n g r epr odu ct i v e l i f e,v agi n a con t ai n s
Lactobacillus acidophilus which keeps vaginal pH
bet w een 4.9 an d 3.5 by pr odu ci n g l act i c
acid fr om glycogen.
 The lining for ms vaginal r ugae.
 Space bet ween vaginal wall and cer vix is for nix .
Ext ernal Genit alia.
 Vest ibule is cover ed by t wo pair s of lips :
(i ) L abia major is
(ii ) L abia minor is
 At t he ant er ior junct ion of labia minor is, a small
er ect ile clit or is pr esent , homologous t o penis.
 A m em br an ou s f ol d f ou r ch et t e con ect s t h e
post er ior ends of t he labia minor is.
 Ar ea bet ween four chet t e and anus is per inium .
 Ur et hr a and vagina open by separ at e aper t ur e,
t he ur et hr al and vaginal or ffice int o vest ibule.
 Vagi nal or ffice i s cover ed by a membr ane, i.e.
hymen.
 A slit in hymen allows menst r ual flow to pass out.
 A fl eshy el evat i on above t he l abi a maj or i s i s
monsvenesis or mons pubis.
Ber t holian Glands.
 1 pair in number.
 Analogous t o Cowper 's gland of male.
Br east s.
 1 pai r, t hei r devel opment i s under cont r ol of
pit uitar y.
 Nipples pr esent (absent in pr ot ot heir a).
( iii ) M enst rual or Bleeding cycle :
 Ar ound ni pple ar eola mammar y pr esent , i n it
melanin is maximum.
 M ilk is synthesized by lectogenesis under contr ol
of pr olect in.
 M ilk is secr et ed under cont r ol of oxyt ocin.
 Ear ly milk is r ich in miner als, i.e. colust r um .
 M odified sweat gland.
 Glands open on t he nipples by lact ifer ous duct s.
 Just under nipple, lact ifer ous sinuses pr esent t o
st or e milk.
Onset of Pubert y in Female.
At t ains at t he age of 13 by est r ogen hor mone. I t
includes :
 Gr owt h of br east s
 Gr owt h of ext er nal genit ilia
Biology 3.31
 Br oading of pelvis
 Gr owt h of pubic hair
 I ncr ease in sub cut aneous fat
 St ar t ing of M .C., i.e. menar ch
Disorder s of female r eproduct ive syst em.
 St erility
 Menstr ual irr egularit y : This may be amenor r hea
(absen ce of M .C.) or ex cessi v e bl eedi n g
(dysmenor r hea).
Phases of menst rual cycle :
M enst r ual cycle consist s of t hr ee phases :
( i ) F ollicular (Pr olifer at ing) phase :
I t last s for about 14 days.
I t compr ises following event s :
 L evel of FSH is incr eased in t he blood ear ly in
t he cycle.
 FSH stimulates gr owth of the selected pr imar y
ovar ian follicle.
 FSH st imulat es follicle t o secr et e est r adiol.
 E st r adi ol i n h i bi t secr et i on of F SH an d
st imulat e secr et ion of L H .
 L H induces gr affian follicle t o bur st and eject
its egg in to fallopian tube. I t occurs after about
14 days.
 Est r adiol st imult es t he ut er us t o pr epar e for
implant at ion and nour ishment of foet us.
 Lining of fallopian tube becomes t hick t o move
ova int o ut er us.
( ii ) Luteal or secretory phase :
This phase last s for 10 days.
I t involves following event s :
 L H st imulat es gr affian follicle t o conver t int o
cor pus lut eum.
 Cor pus lut eum secr et es pr ogest er on and lit t le
amount of est r adiol.
 Pr ogester on inhibits the r elease of FSH so that
it may not develop additional follicle and eggs.
I t last s about for 4 days.
I t involves following event s :
 I f fer t ilization does not occur, secondar y oocyte
under goes aut olysis.
 I n some wall of ut er us secr et es a lut eolysine.
I t r eaches t o ovar y wher e it causes aut olysis
of cor pus lut eum.
 St r atum functionalis of endomatr ium is given
out wit h bleeding.
 M enst r ual flow cont inues for 3– 5 days.
 Endomatr ium tissue, unfer tilised egg and 500–
600 ml of blood ar e lost dur ing t his per iod.
 M enst ur al i s oft en descr i bed as funer al of
unfer t ilized egg or weeping of ut er us for t he
last ovum.
 3.32 Biology
Artificial I nsemination. Sex of Child
 I t is a t echnique t o make a female pr egnant by X + Y  XY M ale
ar t ificially int r oducing semen int o t he vagina.
X + X  XX Femal e
 Advant ages :
(i ) Semen of good qualit y male is used. Fir st 22 pair s of chr omosomes bet ween M and F ar e
(ii ) Pr eser ved semen can be t r asnpor t ed t o same but 23r d pair is differ ent .
distant place. M F
 Ar t ificial inseminat ion can be used in human. X Y X X

 I t may be AI H (Ar t ificial insesment husband).  Fat her det er mines t he sex.
 I t may be AI D (Ar t ificial inseminat ion donor ).  When an ovum is fertilized by sperm
 Childr en pr oduced by ar t ificial inseminat ion ar e +   Zygot e
called tube babies.
 30-hr s aft er fer t i l i zat i on, zygot e under goes cel l
F er t i l i sat i on division (2 divisions)
Progest erone – Sex hormone Embr oy
 I t st imulat es ut er us t o develop blood capillar ies t o
I t is called embr yo, unt il t he human char act er ist ics
r eceive and nour ish, t he fer t ilized ovum and also
ar e shown.
suppr esses, r elease of fur t her pr oduct ion of ova.
 When human char act er ist ics ar e shown, it is called
 Pr ogest er on e con t r ol s l ast t w o w eek s of
menst r uat ion cycle. foetus (Fr om 2nd and 3rd month of pr egnancy till bir th
it is called foet us).
 Secr et ion of pr ogest er ones is st opped if ovum is not
fer tilized. The cont r act i on of ut er us aft er deliver y is call ed
 T he dest r oyed capi l l ar i es of ut er u s r esul t s i n
involution.
menst r uat ion blood. Pl acent a
E est r ogen A common t issue of foet us and mot her (ut er us) which
 I t is cont inuously secr et ed. is physical, physiological and endocr inal connect ion is
 I t cont r ols fir st t wo weeks of menst r ual cycle. called placenta.
F unct ions
Sex D iffer ent iat ion M echani sm 1. To pr ovide nut r ient s t o foet us.
 Pr imit ive gonads ar e ident ical in bot h sexes upt o 6 2. To r emove met abolic wast e.
weeks of gest at ion pr essur e.
3. H elpful in r espir at ion.
 This gonad is called bipot ent ial pr imor dial gonad.
4. St or e food in t he for m of glycogen.
 I t is differ ent iat ed int o cor t ex and medulla.
5. I t pr oduces est r ogen, pr gest er on and r elaxin.
 Formation and devlopment of gonad is gonadogenesis.
N ote : A placent a consist s of 6 t issues. Thr ee fr om t he
 I n mal e, devl opement of t est es i s cont r ol l ed by foet al walls and 3 fr om mot her 's ut er us.
Y-chromosome.
F oet al t issues
 Test icular differ ent iat ion begins in t he 7t h week of
 Foet al endomet r ium, i.e. blood capillar ies.
gest at ion.
 Connect ive t issue.
 Differ ent iat ion of ovar ies occur lat er in female in
compar ision t o male or t est es. I t begins in t he 11t h  Chor ionic epit helium
or 12t h w eek of gest at i on u n der con t r ol of M at er nal t issue
XX chr omosomes.  M ucous epit helium of ut er ine walls
 Test es descend down in scr ot um in 7t h – 8t h mont h.  Connect ive t issue
 Ext er nal genit ilia appear in male by t he 5t h mont h.  M at er nal endot helial

Sper m Ovum (egg) N er vous Syst em

1. X and Y 1.Only X chr omosomes. H uman ner vous syst em consist s of t hr ee cont r ast ing
chr omosomes. funct ional subsystems.
2. Sur vive 2– 3 days. 2. Survive for only 24 hrs.
3. Mobile, i.e. capable 3.I mmobile.
of moving on its own.
4. Pr oduced in lar ge 4.Produce very few in
life time numbers
equal to (500 to 600 in
whole life).

1. Cent r al nervous syst em
 I t is is called main swit ch boar d .
 All t he ner ves ar e for med befor e t he bir t h.
 Ner ves gr ow up t o t he age of 5 year s and st op by
t he age 19– 20 year s.
 Consumes 20% of oxygen i nhal ed and 20% of
glucose int ake.
Parts of central nervous System
Biology 3.33
C.S.F. (Cer ebr ospinal fluid).
 Chor oid plexus is r esponsible t o for m C.S.F.
 I t is for med 20 ml/hr mainly by chor oid plexus and
ependyma of vent r icles.
 I t comes out of medulla oblongat a by for amen of
magendie and for amina of lushka.
 I t is slight ly alkaline and has specific gr avit y 1.005.
 Dir ect i on of movement of C.S.F i n br ai n is fr om
ant er ior t o post er ior.

Br ain Spinal cord St r uct ur e

 BRAIN
Medul a

Cerebrum
Mid Brain Hind Brain
Fore Brain
or or
or
2. Aut onomic ner vous syst em Prosencephalon Mesen cephalon Rhombencephalon
 Oldest par t of ner vous syst em.
1. Olfactory lobe 1.Optic Lobes 1.Cerebellum or
 Contr ols basic activities of life like hunger, thir st, metencephalon
2. Cerebrum or
hear t beat , br eat hing, feat , anger, hot , cold et c. Telencephalon 2. Medulla oblongata
 I t cont ains 3 par t s : or Myelencephalon
3. Diencephalon or
(i ) Medulla oblongata : I t contr ols br eathing and Thalamencephalon
hear t beat s.
(ii ) H ypot halamus : I t cont r ols - t emper at ur e, F or e Br ai n
sleep, hunger, t hir st et c. 1. Olfact or y L obes
(iii ) Thalamus:I t cont r ols level of concent r at ion.  1 pair, ver y small, solid, club shaped, separ at ed
3. Per ipher al ner vous syst em. fr om each ot her.
 Car r ies all t he messages sent bet ween cent r al  Fully cover ed by cer ebr al hemispher es on dor sal
ner vous syst em and r est of t he body. side, clear ly visible only in vent r al view.
 I t consist s of 12 pair s of ner ves t hat or iginat e in  Each olfact or y lobes consist s of
the br ain plus 31 pair s of ner ves of the spinal cord. (i ) Ant er ior olfact or y bulb
These ser ve as telephone wir e that car ry message
(ii ) Post er ior olfact or y t r act .
to and from every receptor and effector in the body.
 I n sh ar k an d dog, ol f act or y l obes ar e wel l
Br ai n (E ncephel on) developed.
 The br ain is sit uat ed in t he cr anial cavit y of skull.  Piscian br ain wit h lar ge olfact or y lobes is called
I t s shape i s oval and col our i s l i ght yel l ow or nose br ain.
cr eamish yellow.
 Their funct ion is t o r ecieve sense of smell.
 I t weighs 1200 - 1400 gms (98% of C.N.S) and has
100 billion neur ons. M i d Br ain
Part of Neuron  Optics lobes ar e found in it which ar e four in number,
t her efor e t hey ar e called Cor por a quadr igemina. I n
fr og t hey ar e t wo in number, hence called Cor por a
Cell body Axon Dendrites
bigemina.
M at t er
 They ar e solid and do not have opt ocoel.
 The br ain is composed of outer gr ey matter and inner
 2 super ior coculi and 2 infer ior coculi ar e pr esent .
whit e mat t er in t he ar eas of cer ebr um, r oof of mid-
br ain and cer ebellum.  Opt i c l obes ar e at t ached t o each ot her by cr ur a
cerebri.
 I n t he r est , gr ey mat t er is inner and t he olfact or y
lobes ar e made up of gr ey mat t er only.  Funct ions :
(i ) Super i or cocul l i ar e concer ned wi t h sense of
M eninges (Singular – M eninx) sight .
 The cover ings of br ain ar e called meninges. These
(ii ) I nfer ior coculi ar e concer ned wit h hear ing.
ar e t hr ee in number. These menings ar e int er nally
lined by squamous epit helium N ote : Br ain wit h lar ge opt ic lobes is avian br ain.
3.34 Biology
H ind Br ain or Rhombencephal on
1. Cer ebellum or M et encephalon
 I t is a small par t which lies below t he post er ior
par t of cer ebr u m an d abov e t h e m edu l l a
oblongat a.
 I t has a median lobe called vermis and t wo later al
lobes called cer ebellar hemispher es.
 There are three Arbor vit ae or t ree of life (made of
whit e mat t er ) in t he cer ebellum, of which t wo
ar e pr esent in t he t wo lat er al lobes and one is
pr esent in t he median lobe.
 I n cer ebellum flask shaped cells ar e pur kenje's
cell s.
 I t is sur r ounded by cer ebr al cor t ex.
 Funct ions :
I t s funct ions ar e equilibr ium and coor dinat ion of
movement of muscles in walking.
N ote : Cer ebellum is mor e developed in aves.
2. M edulla oblongat a or M yelencephalon
 I t is t he lower most par t of t he hind br ain and is
conical in appear ance.
 I t s lumen is called met acoel or 4t h vent r icle.
 An oval mass pons var ol i l i es above medul a
oblongat a. I t connect s medulla t o higher br ain
cent r es. I t cont r ols r espir at ion.
 F unct ions :
(i ) Car diac cent r e
(ii ) Respir at or y cent r e.
(iii ) Regulator of vasodilation and vasoconstr iction.
(iv) Regulator of per ist alsis and deglutinat ion.
(v) Regulat or of glandular secr et ion.
Some I mpor t ant F act s
 I n br ain glut amic acid met abolism is common
 I n latimar ia br ain's size is smallest in r atio of body
size.
 I n man 500 ml C.S.F. per day is absor bed.
 I n Br ain 750 ml. blood/ minut e flows.
 I n br ain's vent r icle 125 ml C.S.F. is pr esent out of
t ot al 150 ml.
 Vausois's sphinctor connects optic lobes to cerebellum.
 Bar r body is pr esent in t he neur ons in females.
 Aft er r emoving cer ebr al hemispher e deat h t akes
place.
 Amnesia is a condit ion in which memor y is lost
par t ially or complet ely.
 L oss of sensat ion is called anaest hesia.
 Neur in pr ot ein is at t ached t o t he inner sur face of
br ain.
 Br ain st em – medulla, pons var oli & mid br ain
collect ively for m br ain st em. A diffuse net wor k of
ner ve cel l s ext end t hr ough i t . I t i s r et i cul ar
activating syst em (RAS)
 Amygdal a i s found on t he vent r al sur face of
par acoel. I t is r elat ed t o r ecent and new memor y.
 L imbic syst em :
Limbic lobe (area of temporal lobes) + hippocampus
+ hypot halamus + par t of t halamus + amygdala
for m it .
I t i s concer ned wi t h behavi or emot i on, r ecent
memor y, food habit and sexual behaviour.
 Medulla oblongat a comes out of foramen magnum
in t he for m of spinal cor d.
Spinal cor d (M yelon)
 I t is a par t of t he CNS which is 45 cms long ( in
women 43 cms) and weighs 35 gms.
 I t or iginat es fr om lower par t of medulla oblongat a
and is pr esent on dor sal side in t he neur al canal of
ver t ebr al column up t o 1st lumbar ver t ebr a.
 I t is long, cylindrical, convex dorsally and flat ventrally.
 I t s last par t is conical, i.e. conus t er minalis which in
t he end becomes t hr ead like, i.e. filum t er minalis.
 I t is having br achial and lumbo sacr al swelling at
t he point of or igin of for e leg and hind leg.
M eninges
 The same t hr ee meninges cover t he spinal cor d also.
 Similar to br ain, epidur al space is also pr esent which
is filled wit h fat and connect ive t issue.
M at t er
I n cont r ast t o br ain, gr ey mat t er is found on t he inner
side and whit e mat t er is found on t he out er side.
C.S.F.
Dir ect ion of cir culat ion of C.S.F is fr om post er ior end
t o ant er ior end.
St r uct ur e
 Spinal cor d is hollow, it s lumen is cent r al canal or
neur ocoel filled wit h C.S.F.
 Canal is lined by ependyma of ependymal cells.
 Gr ey mat t er is but t er fly or H -shaped.
 Ther e ar e t hr ee pair s of cor nuae or hor ns :
(i ) dorsal
(ii ) ventr al
(iii ) lat er al hor ns.
 Dor sal, vent r al and lat er al funiculli lie close t o t he
whit e mat t er ar ea.
 Dor sal hor n for ms dor sal ar ch while vent r al hor n
for ms vent r al ar ch.
 On dor sal side dor sal sulcus wit h sept um is pr esent
and on vent r al side vent r al fissur e is pr esent .
 Funct ions :
I t conduct s i mpul ses t o and fr om t he br ai n and
cont r ols r eflex act ion .
Cr anial N er ves
 Ther e ar e 12 pair s of cr anial ner ves (t ot al weight
12 gms) in Amniotes and only 10 pairs in Anamniotes.

 Nat ur e of t hese ner ves may be sensor y or mot or or
mixed.
They can t he ident ified as follows:
1, 2, 8, – sensor y
3, 4, 6, 11, 12 – mot or
5, 7, 9, 10 – mixed
3, 7, 9, 10t h at t ached t o ANS also.
Spinal N er ves
 These ar e 31 pair s in number and all ar e of mixed
t ype. T hey wei gh a t ot al of 150 gms. and ar e
composed of medullat ed ner ve fibr es.
 At t he base of or i gi n of spi nal ner ves, gl and of
swammar dam or calcar ious ganglion is pr esent .
 Classificat ion
1. Cer vical – 8 pair s 4. Sacr al – 5 pair s
2. Thor acic – 12 pair s 5. Coccygeal – 1 pair
3. L umber – 5 pair s
 Each spinal ner ve or iginat es fr om spinal cor d fr om
dor sal r oot and vent r al r oot .
 I n dor sal r oot , r oot ganglion is pr esent .
 Bot h r oot s fuse in neur al canal t o for m spinal ner ve.
 I t comes out of ver tebr al column fr om inter ver tebr al
for amen.
 Out side vertebral column, each spinal nerve is divided
into t hree par t s
1. Dor sal br anch or Ramus dor salis
2. Vent r al br anch or Ramus vent r alis
3. Viscer al br anch or Ramus communicans
 I n r abbit 37 pair s spinal ner ves pr esent :
1. Cer vical – 8 pair s 4. Sacr al – 4 pair s
2. Thor acic – 12 pair s 5. Caudal – 6 pair s
3. L umber – 7 pair s
 I n rabbit caudal nerves combine with filum terminalis
t o for m cauda equina.
A.N .S.
 The t er m A.N.S was given by L angley.
 I t i s par t i al l y i ndependent syst em cont r ol l ed by
hypot halamus and it contr ols involuntar y actions as
hear t beat , br eat hi ng, homeost asi s, per i st al si s,
secr et i on of gl ands. So a gangl i oni c syst em t hat
cont r ols involunt ar y act ion is A.N.S.
 I nt er nal or gans r eceive fibr es fr om t wo sour ces :
1. Sensor y 2. M ot or
 Nerve of sensory region originates from dorsal root and
nerve of motor region is originated from ventral root.
 Viscer al mot or fibr es ar e divided int o t wo par t s
(i ) Pr eganglionic : M edullat ed (whit e mat t er )
(ii ) Post ganglionic : Non– M edullat ed (gr ey mat t er )
Reflex Act i on
 I t is funct ional unit of C.N.S. which was discover ed
by M ar shal H all and defined by Best and Taylor.
Biology 3.35
 I t is sudden, immediat e involunt ar y act ion against
ext er nal st imuli.
 I n man it is poly– synapt ic.
 I f we pr ick needle on skin, somatic sensor y ner ves
br i ng i mpul ses t o gr ey mat t er. H er e t hese ar e
analysed and or der is given to muscle by motor ner ve.
 The path fr om which impulse is passed is reflex arch .
 Minimum t ime is consumed in it since it is not under
cont r ol of br ain.
 Some common Reflexact ions :
Coughi ng, yawni ng, sneezi ng, k nee-j er k r efl ex,
blinking of eyes, scr at ch r eflex, flow of bile fr om gall
bladder, per ist alsis, hear t beat .
 Significance :
(i ) I t enables animal t o r espond immediately t o t he
har mful st imuli so t hat no har m is caused it .
(ii ) I t gives mor e t ime t o br ain t o wor k.
I mmune Syst em
Syst em of body which pr event t he body fr om diseases
and cancer is called immune syst em.
(I mmune = Exempt or Fr eedom)
Types of I mmunit y
I mmunit y is of t wo t ypes
1. Congenital immunity or I nnat e immunit y or Non-
specific immunit y.
2. Acquired immunity or Adaptive or specific immunity.
Accuir ed immunit y is of t wo t ypes
( i ) Passive acquir ed immunit y.
When readymade antibodies are given in immuno
supressive individual this is called passive immunity.
I n passive immunit y t r ansfer of ant ibodies t o a
r ecipient in a r eady– made for m.
( ii ) Act ive acquir ed immunit y.
 Thi s i mmuni t y devel op aft er i nfect i on or
vaccinat ion.
 I t is gener at ed due t o pr evious cont r act ion of
disease.
 I n many cases it is life long (against measles).
 I t is involved in act ive funct ioning of per sons
own immune system-leading to the synt hesis
of ant ibodies.
Ant igen or Agglut inogen
 For eign subst ances like pr ot ein or polysacchar ide
which stimulat es pr oduction of ant ibodies ar e called
antigen.
 Toxin of pat hogen, white of egg, feather s, fr uit , meat,
dr u g i n du ces t h e i m m u n e sy st em t o pr odu ce
antibodies.
 Si t e over t h e ant i gens t h at ar e r ecogn i sed by
ant ibodies and r ecept or s found on B and T cells ar e
called ant igen deter minants/epit opes.
 An ant igen may have one to sever al t ypes of ant igen
det er minants.
3.36 Biology
 Epitopes can bined specifically to antigen binding site
(par at ope) of t he ant i body mol ecul e and T cel l
r ecept or s.
 Epit opes ar e smallest unit of ant igenicit y.
 Each det er minant can st imulat e t he for mat ion of
antibody or effector cell. Thus a pur e pr ot ein antigen
may give r ise to many distinct antibodies and effector
cell s.
Ant i bodi es
 RBCs of all A, B, O blood gr oup possess a common H
ant igen which is pr ecur sor for for mat ion of A and B
antigens.
 I t i s a com pl ex gl y copr ot ei n secr eat ed by B -
I ymphocyt es in r esponse t o an ant igen. I t is also
called agglut inin.
 These ar e complex glycopr ot ein molecule made up
of 4 polypept ide chain :
Two light and t wo heavy chain.
 These t wo chain held t oget her by disulphide bond
in shape of Y– molecule.
 Two t op t ips of t his molecule bind wit h ant igen like
lock and key fashion and make ant i gen-ant ibody
complex.
 Ant ibodies for ms t hir d line of defence.
 Ant i bodies ar e pr ot einaceous subst ances occur in
blood plasma and pr oduced by immune syst em t o
over come t oxic effect of ant igens.
 Each ant i body has at l east t wo heavy and l i ght
polypeptide chains.
 H eavy chain is also called H chain wher eas light
chain is also called L chain which may be eit her
L ambda or K appa t ype.
 H eavy chain consist s of 440 amino acids wher eas
light chain consist s of 220 amino acids.
 Ther e is a var iable por t ion for binding t o ant igen
t hr ough el ect r ost at i c i nt er act i on and a const ant
portion that deter mines its adher ence and diffusivity.
 Var iable r egion also called V– region / antigen binding
fr agment / Fab.
 Const ant r egi on al so cal l ed const ant fr agment /
cr yst alline fr agment / Fc.
 Fc lacks t he abilit y t o bind t o ant igen and can be
cr ystallized.
 A n t i bodi es ar e al so cal l ed i m m u n ogl obu l i n s /
gammaglobulins.
 Ant ibodi es ar e pr oduced in r esponse t o ant igenic
stimulat ion.
 Antibodies ar e pr oduced by B lymphocyte and plasma
cell s.
Cells of I mmune Syst em
 They ar e lymphocyt es and ant igen pr esent ing cells
like macr ophages.
 A healt hy human has about a t r illion lymphocyt es.
 Lymphocyt es ar e of t wo t ypes :
(i ) T– lymphocyt es (T– cells)
(ii ) B– lymphocyt es (B– cells).
Both of these develop in bone mar r ow (in foetus fr om
yolk cells and t hen fr om liver spleen complex) fr om
lymphat ic st em cells.
 For mat ion of lymphocyt es is called haemat opoiesis.
 Some of young lymphocytes migr ate into t hymus for
processing. They are called T– lymphocytes afterwards
they pass on to all t he lymphoid tissues of the body.
 The ot her t ypes of l ymphocyt es r emai n i n bone
mar r ow and get pr ocessed t her e. They ar e called B–
lymphocyt es because in bir ds t hey ar e pr ocessed in
l ymphoi d di ver t i cul um of cl oaca cal l ed bur sa of
Fabr icius. Aft er pr ocessing B– lymphocyt es migr at e
t o all t he lymphoid t issues of body.
Ant i body F unct i ons
1. N eut r alisat ion
Some antibodies function as antitoxins and neutralise
the toxins pr oduced by pat hogens/for eign chemicals.
2. Agglut i nat i on
Ant ibodies called agglut inins cause immobilisat ion
and clumping of antigens (pr ecipitation) and antigen
cont aining pat hogens.
3. Opsoni sat ion/Adher ence
Ant ibodies called opsonins (I gG) at t ach t hemselves
t o sur faces of ant i gen cont ai ni ng cel l s, so as t o
r ecognised by phagocyt es.
4. Complement mediat ed cell lysis
Ant igen cont aining cells ar e per for ated by enzymes
pr oduced with the help of lysin antibodies (I gM– I gG)
and cyt ot oxic T– cells.
5. Phagocyt osi s
The l ysed i mmobi l i sed cl umped pat hogens ar e
engulfed by phagocyt es.
Vaccinat ion and I mmunisat ion
 I t is t he phenomenon of incr easing specific ant ibody
pr oduct ion and development of memor y B– and T–
cells against t he pot ent ial at t ack of a pat hogen.
 I t is car r ied out t hr ough vaccinat ion and inject ion of
ant iser um.
 When an i mmuni sed per son i s at t ack ed by t he
pat hogen, t hen exi st i ng ant i bodi es i mmedi at el y
at t ack t he ant igen while memor y T and B cells give
r ise to a massive cr op of lymphocyt es and anitbodies.
Vacci nat i on
Vacci ne
 I t i s t h e su spen si on of i n act i vat ed pat h ogen s
or ant i geni c pr ot ei n of pat hogen whi ch i s t ak en
or al l y or i nj ect ed t o pr ovi de i mmuni t y for t hat
pat hogen.

 Second gener at ion vaccines : I nst ead of at t enuat ed
pathogen, their antigenic polypeptides were separated
and used as vaccines.
Wit h t he help of genet ic engineer ing or r ecombinant
DN A t echnol ogy, ant i geni c pol ypept i des of t he
pat h ogen s ar e got sy n t h esi sed i n t r an sgen i c
or ganisms, e.g. hepatit is– B vaccine fr om t r ansgenic
yeast .
 Thir d generation vaccines : These ar e pur e synt het ic
ant igenic polypeptides or their genes extr act ed fr om
t he pat hogens.
I mmune Syst em D isor der s
I mpr oper funct ioning of immune syst em may cause
di scomfor t (al ler gy), di sease (AI DS) or even deat h
(anaphylactic shock).
These ar e divided int o t hr ee classes :
1. H yper sensit ive disor der or aller gy
 2 in number (didelphic).
 When a per son show hyper r esponse or hyper
sensitiveness for a common antigen or agent then
it is called aller gy.
 The agents which cause allergy are called allergens.
Common aller gens ar e :
pol l en gr ai n s, f ood (egg. f i sh ), m edi ci n es
(penicilline), cold, heat , sunlight , fibr es.
M anifest at ions (effect ).
I mpor t ant allergic r eact ions :
Sneezing ; Coughing ;Wat er ing of Eyes ; Oedema :
Accumulat ion of t issue fluid below skin ; Br onchial
Ast hma ; H ay fever ; Anaphylat ic shock ; Eczema
2. Aut o immune disor der
When i mmune syst em does not di scr i mi nat es
bet ween self and non-self ant igen, ant ibodies ar e
for med against t he self ant igen. These ant ibodies
destr oy self ant igen and also self tissue of t he body.
So, antibody for mation against self antigen is called
aut o immunit y.
Some subst ances/t i ssues of t he pat i ent 's body
develop antigenic act ivit y and hence ar e called self
ant igens /aut oant igens.
E xamples.
M yast heni a gr avi s ; Per ni ci ous (Dest r uct i ve)
an aem i a ; H ash i m ot o di sease ; Rh eu m at oi d
ar t hr i t i s ; I .D.D.M (I nsul i n dependent di abet es
mallit us) ; M ult iple scler osis.
3. I mmuno D eficiency D isor der
I t may be due t o gene mut at ion, gene deficiency,
infect ion, nut r it ional deficiency and accident s.
Biology 3.37
1. S. C.I . D . ( Sever e C om bi n ed I m m u n o
D eficiency)
 This disor der is due t o gene mut at ion or gene
deficiency of enzyme adenosine deaminidase.
 Tr eat ment : Gene t her apy
2. A.I .D .S. ( Acqu i r ed I m m u n o D ef i ci en cy
Syndr ome)
 I t is characterised by reduction in the number of
CD4 or hel per T 4– l ymphocyt es because of
infection of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
 I t i s al so call ed slim disease. ARC i s AI DS
r el at ed compl ex whi ch i s char act er i sed by
swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweat s and
weight loss.
 I t is of t wo t ypes :
H I V– I (mor e common i n I ndia, Eur ope and
Amer ica) and
H I V– I I (mor e common in Afr ica).
 I n India the first AI DS case was reported in 1986.
 Spread of disease :
The disease is rapidly spr eading thr oughout the
wor ld.
H i gh r i sk gr oups i ncl ude pr ost i t ut es, dr ug
addicts, homosexual males, per sons with extr a-
mar it al r elat ions and r ecipient s of unscr eened
blood t r ansfusions.
AI DS does not spr ead t hr ough
M osqui t o bi t es, H uggi ng, K i ssi ng, Shar i ng
meal s, Toi l et s t owel s or ut ensi l s, Shak i ng
hands, Coughing, Sneezing, Looking after AI DS
patients.
 Tr ansmission : Ther e ar e t hr ee r out es of
t r ansmission :
( i ) Par ent er al r out e : I t i s t hr ough bl ood
contact involving unscr eened tr ansfusion of
blood, t at toeing, infect ed r azor s of bar ber s,
poor l y st er i l i sed den t al i n st r u m en t s,
shar i ng of i nj ect i on needl es and or gan
tr ansplant.
( ii ) Sexual route : I t account s for 85% of H I V
i nfect i on due t o mul t i pl e sex par t ner s,
pr ost i t ut es, homosexual i t y and ar t i fi ci al
inseminat ion. Vir us is pr esent in sufficient
st r engt h in semen and vaginal secr et ions
of infect ed per sons.
( iii ) Transplacental route : I nfect ion can occur
fr om i nfect ed mot her t o foet us (ver t i cal
transmission) across placenta and to infants
t hr ough milk (per inat al t r ansmission).
3.38 Biology

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 12. Cor k cells ar e imper vious t o wat er because of
t he pr esence of
1. I n whi ch of t he fol l owi ng ar e M i t ochondr i a
absent? (a) Cellulose (b) Cutin
(a) Fungi (b) Angiosper ms (c) Lignin (d) Suber in
(c) Gr een algae (d) Blue-gr een algae 13. The biotic relationship between insects and plants
wit h r efer ence t o pollinat ion is called
2. Eucar yot ic or ganisms ar e t hose t hat cont ain
(a) Commonsalism (b) Mutualism
(a) DNA thr eads (b) Plastids
(c) Par asitism (d) Sapr ophytism
(c) Tr ue nucleus (d) Vacuoles
14. Phot osynt hesis gener ally t akes place in which
3. Wi t h whi ch of t he fol l owi ng i s Azot obact er
por t ions of t he plant ?
associat ed ?
(a) L eaf and ot her chlor oplast bear ing par t s
(a) Car bon fixat ion (b) Nit r ogen fixat ion
(c) Fer ment at ion (d) Root nodules (b) St em and leaf

4. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng mi cr onut r i ent s pl ays (c) Root s and chlor oplast bear ing par t s
an impor t ant r ole in t he nit r ogen met abolism of (d) Bar k and leaf
plant s, especially in t he r educt ion of nit r at e? 15. Opium is obt ained fr om
(a) Bor on (b) Copper (a) Poppy leaves
(c) Molybdenum (d) Zinc (b) L at ex juice
5. Plant development is influenced by (c) Tablet t ype lat ex
(a) Qualit y of light only (d) Seed capsule of opium poppy
(b) Qualit y and quant it y of light
LEVEL-1
(c) Qualit y and dur at ion of light
1. I n t he cont ext of genet ics, DNA st ands for
(d) Qualit y, quant it y and dur at ion of light
(a) Di -Neur o Acid
6. Edible par t of t omat o is
(b) Dai ly N ews Analysis
(a) Endocarp (b) Fleshy t halamus
(c) Det oxic N eur o Acid
(c) Mesocar p (d) Whole fr uit
(d) Deoxyr ibo N uclei c Acid
7. Xylem is a complex t issue, consisting of differ ent [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
t ypes of cells. Which of t he following per for m t he
2. M at ch t he foll owing:
funct ion of conduct ion of wat er and miner als?
(1) Cell wall (a) Animal cell
(a) Fiber s (b) Par enchyma cells
(b) Pl ant cell
(c) Tracheary elements (d) None of t hese
(2) ATP (a) M it ochondr ia
8. The edible por t ion of mango is
(b) Genes
(a) Embr yo (b) Endocarp
(a) l – (a), 2 – (a) (b) l – (a), 2 – (b)
(c) Endosper m (d) Mesocar p
(c) 1 – (b), 2 – (a) (d) l – (b), 2 – (b)
9. The r ice gr ain is [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) A seed (b) One seeded fr uit 3. Synapses and Dendr i t es ar e associ at ed wi t h
(c) M any seeded fr uit (d) Mult iple seeded fr uit (a) cor t ex (b) epit helium
10. I n which of the following ar e plastids not pr esent? (c) r etina (d) ner ve-cell s
(a) Aer nechyma (b) Collenchyma [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

(c) Par enchyma (d) Schler enchyma 4. A tissue that connects muscle to bones in humans
11. Bamboo is a is call ed

(a) H er b (b) Gr ass (a) Tendon (b) Fibr e

(c) Axon (d) Femur
(c) Shrub (d) Tr ee
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Biology 3.39
5. H aemat ology is t he st udy r el at ed t o 14. Nephrons are connected with
(a) Pl ant r epr oduct i on syst em (a) Respiratory System
(b) Blood (b) Nervous System
(c) Food habi t s of ani mals (c) Circulatory System
(d) Bones (d) Excretory System
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
6. Which of the following is not a food bor ne disease? 15. Sight of delicious food usually makes mouth
(a) Amoebiasis watery, it is a
(b) Choler a (a) Hormonal response
(c) I nfluenza (b) Neural response
(d) H epat it i s A (c) Optic response
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (d) Olfactory response
7. A pher omone secr et ed by an animal [RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]

(a) infl uences t he behaviour of ani mal s of same LEVEL-2

species
1. Accor ding t o I PCC, t hr ee fact or s cont r ibut ing t o
(b) pr ot ect s it fr om pr edat or s
Global war ming ar e :
(c) at t r act s t he vict ims for i t s food
1) CO2 emissions
(d) none of t he above
2) Change of land use defor est at ion
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
3) Non-veg food
8. Secretion of Insulin Hormone is by :
Place t hem in t he or der of t heir cont r ibut ion t o
(a) Thyroid (b) Pituitary
global war ming.
(c) Adrenal (d) Pancreas
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 3, 2
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
(c) 3, 1, 2 (d) 2, 1, 3
9. Earthworm belongs to which of the following
Animal Phyla ? [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]

(a) Arthropoda (b) Mollusca 2. St omat a ar e locat ed in-

(c) Annelida (d) Protozoa (a) Red blood cells (b) Chlor ophyll
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (c) St omach (d) L eaves
10. The total number of bones in the average adult [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
human skeleton is : 3. Bile is secr et ed by-
(a) 350 (b) 206 (a) St omach (b) L iver
(c) 115 (d) 540 (c) L ar ge int est ine (d) Gall bladder
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
11. Identify the disease which is caused due to
4. I n t he cont ext of act ion of medicines on human
deficiency of Protein ?
body, mat ch t he following:
(a) Scurvy (b) Beri-Beri
1. Recept or s a. Catalysts
(c) Night-Blindness (d) Kwashiorkor
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ]
2. Enzymes b. Neur ologically act ive

12. In humans, bile juice is secreted by 3. Tr anquilizer s c. Pr ot ei ns

(a) pancreas (b) small intestine (a) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b (b) 1-a, 2-c, 3-b

(c) esophagus (d) liver (c) 1-b, 2-a, 3-c (d) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]

13. Which of the following is connected with 5. Which of t he following t issues t r anspor t s wat er
transport of water in plants ? and mi ner als fr om r oot s t o ot her par t s of t he
(a) Phloem (b) Xylem plant?
(c) Epidermis (d) Cambium (a) Phloem (b) Vessel
[RRB JE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ] (c) Sieve t ube (d) Xylem
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT]
3.40 Biology
6. An eating disorder of excessive weight loss usually (c) H er bivor es, Car nivor es, Pr oducer s
due to undue concer n about body - shape is known (d) H er bivor es, Pr oducer s, Car nivor es
as:
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) Anor exia ner vosa 11. Ear t hwor m belongs t o following animal phyla ?
(b) Appetitis (a) Por ifer a (b) Annelida
(c) Aut ot r ophic disor der (c) Mollusca (d) Arthropoda
(d) Aut otr ophic syndr ome [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] 12. Which one of the following contains Human body 's
7. M at ch t he following - t her most at ?
1. Lysosomes a. Power H ouse (a) Pineal (b) Pit uitar y
2. DNA b. Chr omosomes (c) Thyr oid (d) Hypothalamus
3. Mitochondr ia c. Suicide bags [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) 1-a, 2-c, 3-b (b) l-c, 2-b, 3-a 13. Wh i ch on e of t h e f ol l ow i n g bl ood gr ou p i s
(c) 1-b, 2-c, 3 a (d) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b consider ed Univer sal Donor ?
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT] (a) AB (b) O
8. Nat ur e's cleaner s ar e : (c) A (d) B
(a) Pr oducer s (b) Consumer s [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(c) Decomposer s (d) Car nivor es 14. The number of chr omosomes in a nor mal human
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] body cell is :
9. Tr iple Vaccine is administer ed to a new bor n child (a) 43 (b) 44
t o immunize against : (c) 45 (d) 46
(a) Whooping Cough, Tet anus and M easles [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(b) Whooping Cough, Tet anus and Dipht her ia 15. Which one of t he following diseases is caused due
(c) Tet anus, Dipht her ia and Small pox t o deficiency of pr ot ein ?
(d) Tet anus, Typhoid and H epat it is (a) K washior kor (b) Ricket s
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT] (c) Ber i - Ber i (d) Scur vy
10. A cor r ect food chain is : [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) Pr oducer s, H er bivor es, Car nivor es
(b) Pr oducer s, Car nivor es, H er bivor es
 Biology 3.41

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)

11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a)

EXPLAN ATI ON S
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. Mitochondr ia is pr esent in fungi, angiosper m and
gr een algae whit e it is not found in blue-gr een
algae.
2. Eucar yot i c or gani sms ar e t hose cont ai n t r ue
nucleus.
3. Azat abact er is associat ed wit h nit r ogen fixat ion,
which is found in t he r oot nodules of leguminous
plants.
4. M olybdenum is a micr onut r ient s which plays an
i mpor t ant r ol e i n t he ni t r ogen met abol i sm of
plant s, especially in t he r educt ion of nit r at e.
5. Pl ant devel opment i s i nfl uenced by qual i t y,
quant it y and also by dur at ion of light .
6. Whole fr uit is an edible par t of t omat o.
7. Xylem is a complex t issue, consist ing of differ ent
t ypes of cel l i n whi ch t r achear y el ement s ar e
per for m t he funct ion of conduct ion of wat er and
miner als.
8. The edible por t ion of mango is mesocar p.
9. The r ice gr ain is a seed of paddy cr op.
10. Plastide ar e pr esent in aer nechyma, collenchyma
an d par en ch y m a w h i l e i t i s n ot f ou n d i n
schler enchyma.
11. Bomboo is for m of gr ass.
12. Cor p cells ar e imper vious t o wat er because of t he
pr esence of suber in.
13. The biotic r elationship between insects and plants
wit h r efer ence t o pollination is called mutualism.
14. Phot osynt hesis t akes place in leaves and ot her
chlor oplast bear ing plant s in which chlor ophyle
is pr esent .
15. Opium is obt ained fr om seed capsule of opium
poppy.
LEVEL-1
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule
composed of two chains (made of nucleotides) that
coil around each other to form a double helix
carrying the genetic instructions used in the
growth, development, functioning and
reproduction of all known living organisms and
many viruses.
2. Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes
(except mycoplasma bacteria), in algae, plants
and fungi. Mitochondria are the energy factories
of the cells. The energy currency for the work
that animals must do is the energy-rich molecule
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP is
produced in the mitochondria using energy stored
in food.
3. Synapses and Dendrites are associated with
nerve-cells.In the nervous system, a synapse is
a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell)
to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
neuron or to the target effector cell.
4. A tendon is a tough yet flexible band of fibrous
tissue. The tendon is the structure in your body
3.42 Biology
that connects a muscle to a bone. The structure
that transmits the force of the muscle contraction
to the bone is called a tendon.
5. Hematology, also spelled haematology, is the
branch of medicine concerned with the study of
the cause, prognosis, treatment, and prevention
of diseases related to blood.
6. Among the given options, Influenza is not a
foodborne disease.Foodborne illness (also
foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as
food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the
food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic
bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate
food as well as toxins such as poisonous
mushrooms.
7. A pheromone secreted by an animal influences
the behaviour of animals of same species. It is
generally used for mate selection.
8. Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by
islet cells within the pancreas. They are both
secreted in response to blood sugar levels, but in
opposite fashion! Insulin is normally secreted by
the beta cells (a type of islet cell) of the pancreas.
9. Earthworms are segmented worms of the phylum
Annelida, which encompasses about 9,000 species
and three classes. Class Oligochaeta are the
freshwater worms (including earthworms); class
Polychaeta are the marine worms; and class
Hirudinea are the leeches.
10. The total number of bones in the average adult
human skeleton is 206.
11. Kwashiorkor is a form of severe protein
malnutrition characterized by edema, and an
enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. Sufficient
calorie intake, but with insufficient protein
consumption, distinguishes it from marasmus.
12. Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish brown
fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates,
that aids the digestion of lipids in the small
intestine. In humans, bile is produced
continuously by the liver (liver bile), and stored
and concentrated in the gallbladder.
13. Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue
in vascular plants, phloem being the other. The
basic function of xylem is to transport water from
roots to shoots and leaves, but it also transports
nutrients.
14. Nephrons are connected with excretory System.
It is the microscopic structural and functional
unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal
corpuscle and a renal tubule.
15. Sight of delicious food usually makes mouth
watery, it is a neural response.
LEVEL-2
1. a According to IPCC, three factors contributing
to Global warming are CO2 emissions ,
Change of land use deforestation as well as
non-veg food. Global carbon emissions from
fossil fuels have significantly increased since
1900. Since 1970, CO 2 emissions have
increased by about 90%, with emissions from
fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes
contributing about 78% of the total
greenhouse gas emissions increase from 1970
to 2011. Agriculture, deforestation, and other
land-use changes have been the second-largest
contributors.
2. d In botany, a stoma (also stomate; plural
stomata) is a tiny opening or pore that is used
for gas exchange. They are mostly found on
the under-surface of plant leaves. In a stoma,
there is the chloroplast, a cell wall, a vacuole
and a cell nucleus.
3. b Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish
brown fluid, produced by the liver of most
vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids
in the small intestine. In humans, bile
is produced continuously by the liver (liver
bile), and stored and concentrated in the
gallbladder.
4. a The principal minor tranquilizers are the
benzodiazepines, among which are diazepam
(Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and
alprazolam (Xanax). These drugs have a
calming effect and eliminate both the physical
and psychological effects of anxiety or fear.
Enzyme r is a catalyst. Enzymes are proteins
functioning as catalysts that speed up reactions
by lowering the activation energy.In
biochemistry and pharmacology, a receptor is
a protein molecule that receives chemical
signals from outside a cell.
5. d Xylem and Phloem tissues are present
throughout the plant. They begin at the root
and then move up to the stem, branches, and
leaves. The xylem tissue transports water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves whereas
the phloem tissue transports food from the
leaves to the other parts of the plant.
6. a Anorexia nervosa is a potentially life-
threatening eating disorder characterized by
self-starvation, excessive weight loss and

negative body image. Anorexia can affect
individuals of all genders, races and
ethnicities. While most common among
females, about 10-15% of all individuals with
anorexia are males. People of all ages develop
anorexia but it is most common for onset to
occur during adolescence.
7. b Mitochondria are tiny organelles inside cells
that are involved in releasing energy from
food. This process is known as cellular
respiration. It is for this reason that
mitochondria are often referred to as the
powerhouses of the cell.Lysosomes are tiny
sacs mostly present in animal cells. They are
filled with digestive enzymes. The released
enzymes then digest their own cell and
ultimately the cell dies. Hence, lysosomes are
called suicide bags of the cell.
8. c Nature’s cleaners are decomposers.
Decomposers and scavengers break down
dead plants and animals. They also break down
the waste (poop) of other organisms.
Decomposers are very important for any
ecosystem. If they weren’t in the ecosystem,
the plants would not get essential nutrients,
and dead matter and waste would pile up.
9. b Triple Vaccine is administered to a new born
child to immunize against whooping Cough,
Tetanus and Diphtheria.
Biology 3.43
10. a A correct food chain is Producers, Herbivores,
Carnivores
11. b Phylum: Annelida. Annelids are segmented
worms. Earthworms belong to this phylum
because their bodies are sectioned, creating
the ridged or ringed appearance that gives
the “ringed worms” of this phylum their
name.
12. d Hypothalamus contains Human body’s
thermostat. The hypothalamus is a small
region of the brain. It’s located at the base of
the brain, near the pituitary gland. While it’s
very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial
role in many important functions, including:
releasing hormones. regulating body
temperature.
13. b In transfusions of packed red blood cells,
individuals with type O Rh D negative blood
are often called universal donors. Those with
type AB Rh D positive blood are called
universal recipients.
14. d There are 46 total chromosomes in a normal
human body cell. They pair up, creating 23
pairs of chromosomes.
15. a Protein malnutrition, or kwashiorkor, is
mostly found in people living in geographical
areas that have limited food resources. It’s
most commonly seen in children whose diets
are low in protein and calories.
 
 1
CHAPTER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
I N VEN TI ON S AN D DI SCOVERI ES
I nvention Year I nventor Country
Aer oplane 1903 Or ville and Wilbur Wr ight U.S.A
Ball-point pen 1888 John J. L oud U.S.A.
Bar omet er 1644 E.Tor r icelli I taly
Bar omet er, Aner oid 1799 W.J.Cant e I taly
Bicycle 1839 K . M acmillan Br itain
Bicycle t yr e (air ) 1888 J.B.Dunlop Br itain
Calculating M achine 1642 Blaise Pascal Fr ance
Cent igr ade Scale 1742 A. Celsius Fr ance
Cinema 1895 A.L . and J. L umier e Fr ance
Cir culat ion of blood 1628 William H ar vey England
Clock (mechanical) 1725 H sing and L ing-Tsan China
Clock (pendulum) 1657 Chr ist ian H uygens Holland
Diesel Engine 1892 Rudolf Diesel Ger many
Dynamite 1867 Alfr ed Nobel Sweden
Elect r ic ir on 1882 H .W. Seeley U.S.A
Elect r ic lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A
Elect r ic mot or 1834 M or it z Jacobi Ger many
Theor y of Evolut ion 1858 Char les Dar win England
Fount ain pen 1884 L .E. Wat er man U.S.A
Glider 1853 Sir Ger or ge Cayley England
Gr amophone 1878 Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A
I nsulin 1923 Sir Gr eder ick Bant ing Canada
Jet engine 1937 Sir Fr ank Whit t le England
L ight ening conduct or 1752 Benjamin Fr anklin U.S.A
L ocomot ive, st eam 1804 Richar d Tr evit hic England
M achine gun 1861 Richar d Gat ling U.S.A
M atch, safet y 1855 J.E.L undst r om Sweden
M icr ophone 1878 David Hughes U.S.A
M icr oscope 1590 Z. Janssen Holland
M ot or car, pet r ol K ar l Benz Ger many
M ot or cycle 1884 Edwar d Butler England
Penicillin 1928 Sir Alexander Fleming England
Photogr aphy (film) 1888 H ohn Car but t U.S.A
Radar 1922 Dr. A.H . Taylor and L .C.Young U.S.A
Radium 1898 M ar ie and Pier r e Cur ie Fr ance
Radio 1901 Guglielmo M ar coni I taly
Refr iger ator 1851 James H ar r ison Scotland
Revolver 1835 Samuel Colt U.S.A
Rubber (vulcanised) 1841 Char les Goodyear U.S.A
Safety lamp 1816 Sir H umphr y Davy England
Safet y pin 1849 William H ur st U.S.A
St eam engine 1639 Thomas Saver y Br itain
Submar ine 1776 David Bushnell U.S.A
Telegr aph code 1837 Samuel F.B. M or se U.S.A
Ther momet er 1608 H ans L ipper shey Nether lands
Televisi on 1926 John L ogie Bair d Scotland
Tel escope 1593 Galileo I taly
Typewr it er 1864 M it t er hofer Austria
Wat ch 1791 A.L . Br eguet Fr ance
X-ray 1895 Wilhelm Roent gen Ger many
 1.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ELEM EN TS FOU N D I N N ORM AL H U M AN BODY

Element Percent Element Percent
Oxygen 65.0 Sodium 0.15
Car bon 18.0 Chlor ine 0.15
Hydr ogen 10.0 Magnesium 0.05
Nit r ogen 3.0 I r on 0.004
Calcium 2.0 I odine 0.00004
Phosphor ous 1.1 Manganese 0.00013
Pot assium 0.35 Copper 0.00014
Sulphur 0.25 Cobalt 0.00000016

VARI OU S SCI EN CES

Acoustics : St udy of sound (or science of sound)
Aerodynamics : Br anch of mechanics t hat deals wit h
t he mot ion of air and ot her gases.
Aeronautics : Science or ar t of flight .
Agronomy : Sci ence of soi l management and t he
pr oduct ion of field cr ops.
Agrostolgy : St udy of gr asses.
Anat omy : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he st r uct ur e of
animals, plant s or human body.
Ant hr opology : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he or i gi ns,
physical and cult ur al development of mankind.
Archaeology : St udy of ant iquit ies.
Ast rology : Ancient ar t of pr edict ing t he cour se of
human dest inies wit h t he help of indicat ions deduced
fr om t he posi t i on and movement of t he heavenl y
bodies.
Astronautics : Science of Space t r avel.
Astronomy : St udy of heavenly bodies.
Astrophysics : Br anch of ast r onomy concer ned wit h
t he physical nat ur e of heavenly bodies.
Bacteriology : St udy of Bact er ia.
Biochemistry : St udy of chemical pr ocesses of living
things.
Biology : St udy of living t hings.
Biometry : Applicat ion of mat hemat ics t o t he st udy
of living t hings.
Bionics : St udy of funct i ons, char act er i st i cs and
phenomena observed in the living world and application
of t his knowledge t o t he wor ld of machines.
Bionomics : St udy of t he r elat ion of an or ganism t o
it s envir onment .
Botany : A st udy of plant s.
Ceramics : Ar t and t echnology of making object s fr om
clay, et c.
Chemist r y : St udy of el ement s and t hei r l aws of
combinat ion and behaviour.
Chemot her apy : Tr eat ment of di seases by usi ng
chemical subst ances.
Conchology : Br anch of zool ogy deal i ng wi t h t he
shells of molluscs.
Cosmology : St udy of univer se as a whole and of it s
for m, nat ur e et c.
Cryptography : St udy of Cipher s (secr et wr it ings)
Crystallography : St udy of t he st r uct ur e, for ms and
pr oper t ies of cr yst als.
Cryogenics : Science deal i ng wi t h t he pr oduct ion,
cont r ol and applicat ion of ver y low t emper at ur es.
Cytology : St udy of cells, especially t heir for mat ion,
st r uct ur e and funct ions.
Dactylography : St udy of finger pr int s for the pur pose
of ident ificat ion.
Ecology : St udy of t he r elat ion of animals and plant s
t o t heir sur r oundings, animat e and inanimat e.
Economics : Sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he pr oduct i on,
dist r ibut ion and consumpt ion of goods and ser vices.
Embryology : St udy of development of embr yos.
Entomology : St udy of insect s.
E pidemiology : Br anch of medi ci ne deal i ng wi t h
epidemic diseases.
Epigraphy : St udy of inscr ipt ions.
Ethnology : Br anch of ant hr opology dealing wit h t he
or igin, dist r ibut ion and dist inguishing char act er istics
of t he r aces of mankind.
Ethology : St udy of animal behaviour.

Eugenics : St udy of t he pr oduct ion of bet t er offspr ing
by t he car eful select ion of par ent s.
Genealogy : St udy of family or igins and hist or y.
Genesiology : The science of gener at ion.
Genet i cs : B r an ch of bi ol ogy deal i n g w i t h t h e
phenomena of her edit y and t he laws gover ning it .
Geography : Development of science of t he ear t h’s
sur face, physical feat ur es, climat e, populat ion et c.
Geology : Science t hat deals wit h t he physical hist or y
of t he ear t h.
Geomorphology : St udy of t he char act er ist ics, or igin
and development of landfor ms.
Ger ont ology : St udy of ol d age, i t s phenomena,
diseases, et c.
H istology : St udy of t issues.
H or t i cu l t u r e : Cu l t i v at i on of f l ow er s, f r u i t s,
veget ables and or nament al plant s.
H ydr ology : St udy of wat er wi t h r efer ence t o i t s
occur r ence, and pr oper t ies in t he hydr ospher e and
at mospher e.
M etallurgy : Pr ocess of ext r act ing met als fr om t heir
or es.
M et eor ology : Sci ence of t he at mospher e and i t s
phenomena.
M etrology : Scient ific st udy of weights and measur es.
M icrobiology : St udy of mi nut e l i vi ng or gani sms,
including bact er ia, moulds, and pat hogenic pr ot ozoa.
M ycology : St udy of fungi and fungus diseases.
N eurology : St udy of the ner vous system, it s funct ions
and it s disor der s.
N umerology : St udy of number s.
Odontology : Scient ific st udy of t he t eet h.
Optics : St udy of nat ur e and pr oper t ies of light .
Ornithology : St udy of bir ds.
Osteology : St udy of bones.
Paleobotany : St udy of fossil plant s.
Paleontology : St udy of fossils.
Pathology : St udy of diseases.
P h on et i cs : St u dy of speech sou n ds an d t h e
pr oduct ion, t r ansmission, r ecept ion, et c.
Phrenology : St udy of t he facult ies and qualit ies of
minds fr om t he shape of t he skull.
Phthisiology : Scient ific st udy of t uber culosis.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.3
Phycology : St udy of Algae.
Physics : St udy of t he pr oper t ies of mat t er.
Physiology : St udy of t he funct ioning of t he var ious
or gans of living beings.
Pomology : Science t hat deals wit h fr uit s and fr uit
gr owing.
Psychology : St udy of human and animal behaviour.
Radiology : St udy of X-r ays and r adioact ivit y.
Rheology : St udy of t he defor mat i on and fl ow of
mat t er.
Sci en t ol ogy : St u dy of ear t h qu ak es an d t h e
phenomena associat ed wit h it .
Sericulture : Raising of silkwor ms for t he pr oduct ion
of r aw silk.
Sociology : St udy of human societ y.
Telepathy : Communicat ion bet ween minds by some
means ot her t han sensor y per cept ion.
Therapeutics : Ar t and science of healing.
Topography : A special descr ipt ion of a par t or r egion.
Virology : St udy of vir uses.
Zoology : St udy of animal life.
SCI EN CES
L owest melt ing point
Since M er cur y melt s at – 38.8C ( – 38 F), it is liquid
at r oom t emper at ur e.
M er cur y is used in t her momet er s because it expands
as it is heat ed.
H ighest melt ing point
The t emper at ur e must be 3,652C (6,606 F) befor e
car bon wi l l mel t . Two-t hi r d as hot as t he Sun ’s
sur face.
Rar est element s
Ast at ine is t he r ar est element on Ear t h
Rhodium is t he scar cest metal in t he wor ld just 3 t ones
ar e mined ever y year.
H eaviest met al
A 33-cm 3 (13-in 3) cube of osmium weighs 640 kgs.
Acid and Alkalis
The acid or alkali (or base) cont ent of a subst ance is
measur ed in pH (pot ent ial H ydr ogen) on a scale of 0 -
14. Aci ds di ssol ve i n wat er t o for m shar p-t ast i ng
solut ions, like lemon juice. Alkalis dissolve in wat er
t o for m soapy solut ions.
 1.4 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCI EN TI FI C I N STRU M EN TS
Altimeter : I t is a special t ype of aner oid bar omet er, M agnetometer : used t o compar e magnet ic moment s
used in measur ing alt it udes. and fields.
Ammeter : used t o measur e st r engt h of an elect r ic M egaphone : u sed f or car r y i n g sou n d t o l on g
cur r ent . distances.
Anemometer : used t o measur e vel oci t y and find M icrophone : used for conver t ing sound waves int o
dir ect ion of t he wind. elect r ical ener gy which is t r ansmit t ed t hr ough wir es
Audiometer : used t o measur e differ ence in hear ing. and then r ecover ed into sound in a magnified intensity.
M icroscope : used for magnified view of ver y small
Barometer : used for measur ing atmospher ic pressur e.
object s.
Calorimeter : used for measur ing quant it ies of heat .
Photometer : used for compar ing luminous int ensit y
Chronometer : I t is a clock t o det er mine longit ude of of t he sour ces of light .
a vessel at sea.
Pyk nomet er : used t o measur e t he densi t y and
Clinical T her momet er : I t i s a t her momet er for coefficient of expansion of liquid.
measur ing t emper at ur e of human body.
Pyrheliometer : used for measur ing solar r adiat ions.
Colorimeter : used for compar ing int ensities of colour.
Pyrometers : used t o measur e high t emper at ur e.
Commutator : used t o change or r ever se t he dir ect ion
Radar : used for det ecting and finding r ange of moving
of an elect r ic cur r ent .
object s by t r ansmit t ing beams of r adio waves.
I n dynamo it is used t o conver t t he alt er nating cur r ent
Radio micrometer : used for measuring heat radiations.
int o dir ect cur r ent .
Rain gauge : used for measur ing r ainfall.
Dynamo : used for conver t ing mechanical ener gy int o
elect r ical ener gy. Refractometer : used t o measur e r efr act ive index of
a subst ance.
Dynamometer : used for measur ing elect r ical power.
Resist ance t her momet er : used for det er mi ni ng
Elect rocardiograph (ECG) : used for det ect i on of
elect r ical r esist ance of conduct or.
elect r ic pulses of t he hear t . I t gives a gr aphic pict ur e
of hear t beat s. Seismograph : used for r ecor ding int ensit y and or igin
of ear t hquake shocks.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) : used for r ecor ding
Sextant : used for measur ement of angular dist ances
of change in elect r ic pot ent ial in var ious ar ea of t he
bet ween t wo object s.
br ain by means of electr ode on the scalp or in the br ain
itself. Sphygmomanomet er : used for measur i ng bl ood
pr essur e.
Electrometer : used for measur ing elect r icit y.
Stethoscope : medical inst r ument used for hear ing
Electroscope : used for det ect ing pr esence of elect r ic
and analysing t he sound of hear t and lungs.
char ge.
Tel escope : used f or vi ewi ng di st ant obj ect s as
Galvanometer : used for measur ing elect r ic cur r ent .
magnified.
H ydrometer : used for measur ing t he r elative densit y
Television : used for t r ansmi t t i ng vi si bl e movi ng
of liquids.
images by means of wir eless makes.
H ydr oscope : opt i cal i nst r ument used for seei ng
Thermometer : used t o measur e t he t emper at ur e.
object s below t he sur face of wat er.
T hermost at : devi ce used for r egul at i ng const ant
H ygr omet er : u sed f or m easu r i n g t h e r el at i ve
t emper at ur es.
humidit y of t he at mospher e.
Viscomet er : used for measur i ng vi scosi t y i .e.,
H ygr oscope : u sed t o sh ow t h e ch an ges i n
pr oper t y of r esist ance of a fl ui d t o r elat i ve mot ion
at mospher ic humidit y.
wit hin it self.
Lactometer : used for measur ing t he r elat ive densit y Volt met er : used t o measur e pot ent i al di ffer ence
of milk. bet ween t wo point s.
M anometer : used measur e t he pr essur e of gases.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Under I ndian space pr ogr amme, the abbr eviation
GSLV st ands for
1. The genome sequencing of which vir us has been
(a) Geosynchr onous Sat ellit e L aunch Vehicle
r ecent ly done by I ndian scient ist s ?
(b) Global Sat ellit e L ink Vehicle
(a) Hepatitis C (b) Hepatitis B
(c) Geost at ionar y Solar L ight Vehicle
(c) HIV (d) Flu Vir us
(d) None of t hese
2. Net gr owt h r at e of populat ion is det er mined by
10. Cent r e for DNA Finger pr int ing and Diagnost ics
(a) gr oss r epr oduct ion r at e
(CDFD) is locat ed at
(b) t he bir t h r at e and t he deat h r at e
(a) Delhi (b) Kolkata
(c) t he pr essur e of populat ion
(c) Hyderabad (d) Chennai
(d) t he bir t h r at e in a count r y
11. The Russi an nucl ear submar i ne, whi ch sunk
3. APSARA is t he name of I ndia’s fir st killing all on boar d, was called
(a) Nuclear r eact or (a) Slovik (b) L enin
(b) H elicopt er (c) Brodigaya (d) K ur sk
(c) Gr ound bat t le t ank
12. Richter scale is a/an ......... scale to measur e ear th
(d) Railway locomot ive t r emor s.
4. Which of the following parts of the sunlight makes (a) Exponential (b) L ogar it hmic
t he solar cooker hot ? (c) Geomet r i c (d) Physical
(a) Ult r aviolet (b) Red light r ays
13. Which of t he following compounds is commonly
(c) I nfrared (d) Cosmic r ays used as an ant isept ic in mout h washes and toot h
5. H uman Genome Pr oject endeavour s t o past es ?
(a) Decode DNA (a) Bor ax
(b) I nvent AI DS t r eat ment (b) Salt Pet r e
(c) St udy evolut ion of human (c) H ydr ogen per oxide
(d) Study finger pr int s (d) Sodium chlor ide

6. The Gr een r evolut ion in cr ops, Yellow r evolut ion 14. Ant hr ax i s one of t he most pot ent bi ol ogi cal
in oil seeds and Gol den r evolut ion i n ...... has weapons i n t he wor l d. I t i s spr ead by si ngl e
been an ample t est imony t o t he cont r ibut ions of bacter ium called
agr icul t ur al r esear ch and devel opment effor t s (a) Bacillus thur icide (b) Bacillus ant hr at um
under t aken in t he count r y. (c) Thiobacillus (d) Bacillus anthr acis
(a) H or t icult ur e 15. ‘Thr eat of global war ming’ is incr easing due t o
(b) Wheat incr easing concent r at ion of
(c) Pet r ol (a) Nit r ous oxide
(d) None of t hese (b) Ozone
7. Which of the following does not come as a pr oduct (c) Sulphur dioxide
of vehicular pollut ion ? (d) Car bon dioxide
(a) Sulphur dioxide LEVEL-1
(b) Nit r ogen oxide
1. Shant i Swar up Bhat nagar Awar d is given in t he
(c) Car bon monoxide field of
(d) H ydr ogen per oxide (a) liter atur e
8. Which one of t he fol lowi ng does a TV r emot e (b) science and t echnology
cont r ol unit use t o oper at e a TV set ? (c) jour nalism
(a) L ight waves (b) Sound waves (d) communit y leader ship
(c) Micr owaves (d) Radio waves
1.6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

2. D epar t m en t of A t om i c E n er gy (D A E ) w as 10. ‘Bar ’ is t he unit of

est ablished on (a) heat
(a) 3rd August 1950 (b) t emper atur e
(b) 3rd August 1952 (c) cur r ent
(c) 3rd August 1954 (d) at mospher ic pr essur e
(d) 3rd August 1956
11. Elect r ic cur r ent is measur ed by
3. Dhr uva, CI RUS and Apsar a ar e (a) anemomet er (b) volt met er
(a) pr essur ized heavy wat er r eact or s (c) ammet er (d) commut at or
(b) r esear ch r eact or s 12. Fat hom is t he unit of
(c) boiling wat er r eact or s (a) sound (b) depth
(d) advanced heavy wat er r eact or s (c) distance (d) fr equency
4. Whi ch one of t he fol l owi ng i s pr esent i n t he 13. K ilowat t is a unit t o measur e
ur anium or e and is r ecover ed as a by pr oduct in (a) wor k (b) electr icit y
t he ur anium pr ocess plant ? (c) power (d) ener gy
(a) H aemat it e (b) Dolomi t e
14. Ver y sm al l t i m e i n t er v al s ar e accu r at el y
(c) Magnetite (d) Ber yllite
measur ed by t he
5. I n di an Pr essu r i zed H eavy Wat er React or s (a) Pulsar s (b) Quar t z clocks
(PH WR) use (c) At omic clocks (d) Whit e dwar fs
(a) ur anium based fuel 15. Decibel is t he unit used for
(b) t hor ium based fuel (a) speed of light
(c) bot h ur anium and t hor ium based fuel (b) int ensit y of heat
(d) ur anium and yt r ium based fuel (c) int ensit y of sound
6. Which one of t he foll owi ng is used mai nly for (d) r adio wave fr equency
r adiogr aphy of var ious mat er ials? LEVEL-2
(a) Dhruva (b) FBTR
1. The t er m ‘Black Box’ is mor e commonly used in
(c) Kamini (d) Apsara r elat ion t o which of t he following ?
7. I REMON is (a) I t is a box in which high gr ade ur anium is
kept t o pr event r adiat ion
(a) Fast br eeder r eact or
(b) I t i s a t i me capsul e i n whi ch r ecor ds of
(b) Pr essur ized heavy wat er r eact or impor t ant event s ar e kept t o be opened at a
(c) A n at i on wi de n et wor k of en vi r on m en t al lat er dat e
r adiat ion monit or ing st at ion (c) I t is a flight r ecor der in an aer oplane
(d) Weat her monit or ing syst em (d) None of t hese

8. Biot echnology par k is sit uat ed in which of t he
following cit ies of I ndia?
(a) Bhopal
(b) L uck now
(c) Bengalur u
(d) Nashik
9. H ydr omet er is an inst r ument
(a) for measur ing sound under wat er
(b) t o det ect t he pr esence of hydr ogen i n t he
at mospher e
(c) for measur ing t he specific gr avit y of liquids
(d) to detect the changes in atmospher ic humidity
2. The lightning conductor used in building, pr otects
t he building by
(a) dissipating the elect r ic char ge away fr om t he
building
(b) conduct ing t he light ning safely t o t he gr ound
(c) absor bing t he elect r ic char ge
(d) none of t hese
3. The pr inciple of wor king of per iscope is based on
(a) r eflect ion only
(b) r efr act ion only
(c) r eflect ion and r efr act ion
(d) r eflect ion and int er fer ence
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1.7
4. The wor king of t he quar t z cr yst al in t he wat ch is 10. A comput er can be fr eely pr ogr ammable
based on (a) if it is of a digit al t ype
(a) Johnson effect (b) Phot oelect r ic effect (b) if it is cont r olled synchr onously
(c) Edison effect (d) Piezo elect r ic effect (c) if it cont ains a r ead only memor y (ROM )
5. Jet engines ar e (d) if it cont ains a r andom access memor y (RAM )
(a) r ot ar y engines 11. L ife appear ed about
(b) t ur bine engines (a) 2.6 billion year s ago
(c) ext er nal combust ion engines (b) 3.6 billion year s ago
(d) r eact ion engines (c) 4.6 billion year s ago
6. The conver sion of elect r ical ener gy into chemical (d) 5.6 billion year s ago
ener gy is obser ved in 12. Alber t Einst ein was a
(a) fan (b) st or age bat t er y (a) physician (b) chemist
(c) heat er (d) incandescent bulb (c) physicist (d) biologist
7. Gr eenhouse is 13. The mass-ener gy r elat ion is t he out come of
(a) a bu i l di ng chi efl y of gl ass i n wh i ch t he
(a) Quant um t heor y
t emper at ur e is ver y low
(b) Gener al t heor y of r elat ivit y
(b) a building in which gr een plants are cultivated
(c) Field t heor y of ener gy
(c) a bu i l di ng chi efl y of gl ass i n wh i ch t he
temper atur e is maintained within the desir ed (d) Special t heor y of r elat ivit y
r ange 14. Who invent ed Radar ?
(d) none of t hese
(a) Rober t Wat son wat t (b) M ax Planck
8. The mixed oxide fuel is used for which of t he (c) H umphr y Davy (d) H enr y Becquer el
following ?
15. The I ndian scient ist whose name is associat ed
(a) Nuclear React or s (b) Aer oplanes
wi t h t h e measur ement of gr owt h i n pl ant s
(c) Cr yogenic Engines (d) PSLV r ocket s is
9. The anode in a dr y cell consist s of (a) J.C. Bose (b) H .G. K hor ana
(a) gr aphite (b) zinc (c) Meghnad Saha (d) C.V. Raman
(c) copper (d) cadmium

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)


 2
CHAPTER SPORTS
SPORTS AN D RELATED TERM S
 Badmi nt on  Golf
Angled dr ive, ser ve, bir d, deuce, double dr op, fault , Bogey, bunker, caddie, dor my, fair way, four some,
let , lob, love all, smash gr eed holes, links, par, put t , t ee, t hr eesome.
 Gymnast ics
 Bask et ball
A-bar s, ar iel, bl ock s cone of swi ng, dish, giant s,
Ball, basket , blocking, dr ibbling, fr ee t hr ow, held inlocat e, kip, planche, t ar iff, t umble, wr ap.
ball, holding, jump ball, mult iple t hr ows, pivot .
 H ock ey
 Baseball
Bul ly, cor ner, fl ick, fr ee-hit , r oll i n, scoop, shor t
Base, bunt i ng, bat t er y, di amond, hi t t er, home, cor ner, st ick, st r iking cir cle, t ackle, t ie br eaker.
pit cher, pullout , st r ike.
 H or se-r acing
 Billiar ds Jockey, punt er, st eeplechase.
Baulk line, br eak, bolting, Cannon, cue, hazar d, in-  J u do
off, jigger, l ong jenney, pot , scr at ch, scr ew back, Chui, dan, dojo, gyaku, ippon, r andor i, yoshi, yuko.
shor t jenney, spot st r oke.
 K ar at e
 Boxi ng Dachi, gedan, jion, koka, shir o, ude, zen-no.
Auxiliar y point syst em, babit punch, defence, hook,  P ol o
jab, knock out , slam.
Bunker, chukker, mallet
 Br i dge
 Row i n g
Auct ion, Chi cane, declar er, dummy, gr and sl am, Bow, bucket , cow, feat her, paddle, r egat t a.
nor t r umps, r evoke, r uff, suit .
 Ru gby
 Chess Tr ackle, lines, scr um, t ouch, t r y.
Bishop, capt ur e, cast ling, checkmat e, en passant ,
 Shoot i ng
gambit , king, knight , pawn, queen, r ook, stalemat e.
Bag, bull’s eye, mar ks- manship, muzzle, plug.
 Cr ick et
 Swi mmi ng
Ashes, boundar y, bowling, cat ch, chinaman, cr ease,
Back-st r oke, br east -st r oke, but ter fly-st r oke, cr awl,
duck, follow on, googly, gully, hat -t r ick, hit wicket , fr ee st r oke.
l.b.w., no ball, off br eak, on dr ive, pitch, r ubber, silly
 Table Tennis
point , squar e leg, st one walling, yor ker, wicket .
Ant i l oop, back spi n, chop, l oop, penhol d, gr i p,
 Cr oquet t widdle.
H oops, mallet , peg out .
 Tenni s
 D r aught s Ace, backhand, st r oke, deuce, fault , let, love, volley.
Huff.  Volleyball
 F oot ball Ace, bl ock i ng, doubl i ng, heave, hol di ng, spi k e,
Advant age clause, blind side, cor ner kick, dr ibble, ser vice.
fr ee kick, mar king, off side, penalt y kick, t hr ow in  Wr est ling
t r ipping. Half nelson, head lock, heave, hold, r ebouts, scissor.
 2.2 SPORTS

CU PS AN D TROPH I ES ASSOCI ATED WI TH SPORTS AN D GAM ES

 Air Racing  Cricket
Jawahar lal Challenge Tr ophy Ant hony Demellow Tr ophy
K ing’s Cup Ashes
Schneider Cup (Sea plane r ace in UK )
Asia Cup
 Archery Benson and H edges Cup
Feder ation Cup
Champions Tr ophy
 Athletics Char minar Challenge Cup
Char minar Tr ophy
C.K . Nayudu Tr ophy
Wor ld Cup
Deodhar Tr ophy
 Badminton
Duleep Tr ophy
Agar wal Cup
G.D.Bir la Tr ophy
Amr it Diwan Cup
Gillett e Cup
Austr alasia Cup
Chadha Cup Ghulam Ahmed Tr ophy

Eur opean Cup I r ani Tr ophy

Nar ang Cup Jawahar lal Nehr u Cup
K onica Cup M er chant Tr ophy
Thomas Cup Nat west Tr ophy
Uber Cup Pr udential Cup (Wor ld Cup)
Wor ld Cup Ranji Tr ophy
Yonex Cup
Shar jah Cup
 Basketball Sheesh M ahal Tr ophy
Basalat Jha Tr ophy
Vijay H azar e Tr ophy
B.C.Gupta Trophy
Vijay M er chant Tr ophy
Todd Memor ial Tr ophy
 Football
William Jones Cup
Feder ation Cup Bandodkar Tr ophy
B.C.Roy Tr ophy
 Boat Rowing
Amer ican Cup (H acht r acing) DCM Cup

Wellington Tr ophy (I ndia) Dur and Cup

 Boxing Eur opean Cup

Aspy Adjahia Tr ophy Feder ation Cup
Feder ation Cup Gover nor ’s Cup
 Bridge Gr eat Wall Cup
H olkar Tr ophy I FA Shield
Ruia Gold Cup Jules Rimet Tr ophy (Wor ld Cup)
Singhania Tr ophy Kings Cup
 Chess L al Bahadur Shast r i Tr ophy
Naidu Tr ophy Mer deka Cup
K hait an Tr ophy Nat ions Cup
L imca Tr ophy Nehr u Gold Cup
Wor ld Cup
 SPORTS 2.3

Nizam Gold Cup Rangaswami Cup

Rover s Cup Rene Fr ank Tr ophy
Santosh Tr ophy Scindia Gold Cup
Staffor d Cup Shr ir am Tr ophy
Subr ot o Cup Wor ld Cup
Todd M emor ial Tr ophy Yadavindr a Cup
UEFA Cup
 Kabaddi
Vittal Tr ophy
Feder ation Cup
Air lines Cup
 Kho-Kho
Asia Cup
Feder ation Cup
Amer ica Cup
Winner ’s Cup  Shooting
I ndir a Gandhi Tr ophy Nor t h Wales Cup
Rajiv Gandhi Tr ophy Welsh Gr and Pr ix

 Golf  Table Tennis

Canada Cup Asian Cup
Eisenhower Tr ophy Ber na Bellack Cup
Muthiah Gold Cup Cor billion Cup (Women)
Nomur a Tr ophy Elect r a Gold Cup
Ryder Cup Gasper -Giest Pr ize
Walker Cup Jayalaxmi Cup (Women)
U.S. Open Pet hapur am Cup (M en)
Br it ish Open Swaythling Cup (M en)
 H ockey Wor ld Cup
Agha Khan Cup
 Tennis
Allwyn Asia Cup
Davis Cup
Azian Shah Cup
Feder ation Cup
Beight on Cup
Wimbledon Tr ophy
Bombay Gold Cup
U.S.Open
Champions Tr ophy
Fr ench Open
Clar ke Tr ophy
Austr alian Open
Dhyan Chand Tr ophy
Hopman Cup
Gur u Nanak Cup
I ndir a Gandhi Gold Cup  Volleyball
I nt er continental Cup Feder ation Cup
Kuppuswamy Naidu Cup Shivant hi Gold Cup
M ahar aja Ranjit Singh Gold Cup Wor ld Cup
M odi Gold Cup  Yacht Racing
Nehr u Tr ophy Amer ica Cup
Obaidullah Gold Cup
 2.4 SPORTS

OLYM PI C GAM ES
 The fir st moder n Olympic Games t ook place in 1896, founded by t he Fr enchman Bar on de couber t in.
 They ar e held ever y four year s.
 Women fir st compet ed in 1900.
 The fir st separ at e wint er games celebr at ion was in 1924, beginning in 1994, t he wint er games will t ake place
bet ween summer games celebr at ion.
 The Olympic mot t o is Cit ius, Allius, For t ivs meaning Sur fer H igher and st r onger composed by Fat her Dixon
in 1897, and int r oduced in 1920 for t he fir st t ime.

Venues
Year Summer Games Winter Games Year Summer Games Wint er Games
1896 At hens, Gr eece - 1968 M exico Cit y, M exico Gr enoble, Fr ance
1900 Par is, Fr ance - 1972 M unich, Ger many Sapporo Japan
1904 St . L ouis, USA - 1976 Montr eal, Canada I nnsbr uck, Aust r ia

1908 L ondon, UK - 1980 M oscow, Russia L ake Placid, USA

1912 St ockholm, Sweden - 1984 L os Angeles, USA Sar ajevo Yugoslavia

1988 Seoul Sout h K or ea Calgar y, Canada
1920 Ant wer p, Belgium -
1992 Bar celona, Spain Alber t ville, Fr ance
1924 Par is, Fr ance Chamonix Fr ance 1994 - L illehammer Nor way
1928 Amst er dam, St . M or t iz 1996 At lanta, USA -
The Net her lands Switzerland 1998 - Nagano, Japan
2000 Sydney, Aust r alia -
1932 L os Angeles, USA L ake Placid, USA
2002 - Salt L ake Cit y, USA
1936 Ber lin, Ger many Gar misch 2004 At hens, Gr eece -
Par t enkir chen 2006 - Tur in, I t aly
Ger many 2008 Beijing, China -
1948 L ondon, UK St. Moritz, Switzerland 2010 - Vancouver, Canada
2012 L ondon, UK -
1952 H elsinki, Finland Oslo, Nor way
2014 - Sochi, Russia
1956 M ellbour ne, Aust r alia Cor t ina, I t aly
2016 Rio de Janeir o -
1960 Rome, I t aly Valley, USA 2018 - Pyeonghchang,
1964 Tokyo, Japan I nnsbr uck, Aust r ia Sout h K or ea

COM M ON WEALTH GAM ES Emblem

 Fir st held as t he Br it ish Empir e Games in 1930. A br ight full r ising Sun wit h int er locking r ings.

 They t ak e pl ace ever y four year s and bet ween WORLD CU P (FOOTBALL)
Olympic celebr at ions.  The lar gest single spor t ing event in t he wor ld is
 T h ey becam e t h e B r i t i sh E m pi r e an d t he Wor ld Cup Foot ball t our nament .
commonwealt h Games in 1954  The fir st edit ion was held in 1930.

The cur r ent t it le was adopt ed in 1970.  The 2018 Wor ld Cup, t he lat est edit ion was held in
Russi a ; Fr ance emer ged wi nner by defeat i ng
ASI AN GAM ES Cr oatia.
M ot t o
 T h e Wor l d Cu p i s n ow of f i ci al l y cal l ed t h e
Ever onwar d (coined by Pt . Jawahar lal Nehr u) Jules-Rimet Cup.
 SPORTS 2.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 10. Tr ipping is associated wit h
1. Who was t he fi r st I ndi an t o wi n t he Wor l d (a) Snooker (b) Foot ball
Amat eur Billiar ds t itle? (c) Cr icket (d) L awn Tennis
(a) Geet Set hi (b) Wilson Jones 11. The Olympic Symbol compr ises of five r ings or
(c) M ichael Fer r eir a (d) M anoj K ot har i cir cles linked t oget her t o r epr esent
2. Rangaswami Cup is associat ed wit h which of t he (a) spor t ing fr iendship of all people
following ? (b) five cont inent s
(a) H ock ey (b) Pol o (c) both (a) and (b)
(c) Badminton (d) Basket ball (d) none of t hese
3. Gr and Slam in Tennis means a player has t o win 12. The fi ve i nt er t wi ned r i ngs or ci r cl e son t he
(a) Australian open, French open and Wimbledon Olympic Flag made of whit e (fr om left t o r ight )
(b) Aust r alian open, U.S. open and wimbledon ar e
(c) Austr alian open, Fr ench open, U.S. open and (a) blue, yellow, black, gr een, and r ed
Wimbledon (b) yellow, r ed, gr een, black and blue
(d) None of t hese (c) r ed, gr een, black, yellow, and blue
4. Which of t he following is a pair of names of t he (d) yellow, gr een, black, blue and r ed
same game ? 13. Which of the following cups/tr ophies is associated
(a) Golf-Polo (b) Billiar ds-Snooker wit h foot ball ?
(c) Volleyball-Squash (d) Soccer -Football (a) Davis Cup (b) Deodhar Tr ophy
5. Whi ch of t he fol lowi ng i s a set of fi ve event s (c) Champions Tr ophy (d) Santosh Tr ophy
included in M oder n Pent at hlon ? 14. I ndia won it s fir st Olympic hockey gold in...?
(a) Cycl i ng, Sk at i ng, Shoot i ng, Gymnast i cs, (a) 1928 (b) 1932
Running
(c) 1936 (d) 1948
(b) Judo, Shooting, Swimming, Cycling, Running
15. I f you scor ed a cannon, which game would you
(c) Hor se r iding, Fencing, Shooting, Gymnastics, be playing ?
Running
(a) Foot ball (b) Cr icket
(d) Hor se Riding, Fencing, Shoot ing, Swimming,
(c) Billiar ds (d) H ock ey
Running
6. The famous player Pele is associdated with which LEVEL-1
of t he following games ? 1. Who r ecei ved t he fir st Nobel pr i ze in Physics in
(a) Table Tennis (b) Foot ball I ndia?
(c) H ock ey (d) Volleyball (a) Dr. C.V. Raman
7. H ow many pl ayer s ar e t her e i n a wat er pol o (b) Dr. H ar gobind K hur ana
t eam ? (c) Pr of. C.N .R. Rao
(a) 4 (b) 5 (d) Pr of. N ar l ik ar
(c) 6 (d) 7 2. Which country won the FIFA world cup, 2014 in
8. Who is t he fir st I ndian woman t o win an Asian Football ?
Games gold in 400m r un? (a) Germany (b) Argentina
(a) M.L.Valsamma (c) Brazil (d) France
(b) P.T.U sha 3. Who is the winner of Mens Singles Title in Tennis
(c) Kamaljit Sandhu in US open, 2014 ?
(d) K.Malleshwar i (a) Roger Federer (b) Kei Nishikori
9. Which of t he following place is called t he M ecca (c) Marin Cilic (d) Rafael Nadal
of I ndian Foot ball ? 4. Who is the winner of Nobel Prize, 2014 in the
(a) Delhi (b) Mumbi field of Economics ?
(c) Kolkata (d) Ambala (a) Patrick Modiano (b) Malala Yousafzai
(c) Jean Tirole (d) Kailash Satyarthi
2.6 SPORTS

5. UBER Cup is related to 14. The latest Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to two
(a) International Badminton (Men) people, a man and a woman. To which countries
do they belong?
(b) International Volleyball (Men)
(a) China
(c) International Volleyball (Women)
(b) India and Pakistan
(d) International Badminton (Women)
(c) US and Greece
6. First Sportsperson to be conferred with Award
(d) India and Indonesia
"Bhart Ratna"
15. The tournament that takes place in Roland
(a) Sachin Tendulkar
Garros in Paris is associated with
(b) Dhyan Chand
(a) Lawn tennis (b) Table tennis
(c) Balbir Singh
(c) Basketball (d) Bowling
(d) Vijay Amritraj
LEVEL-2
7. Next Asian Games in2018 shall be held in
1. Who is the Winner of Pr o Kabaddi league in 2014?
(a) Seoul (b) Bangkok
(a) U M umba
(c) Kualalumpur (d) Jakarta
8. Who among the following did not win a medal in (b) Jai pur Pink Pant her s
Asian Games 2014 ? (c) Pat na Pir at es
(a) Yogeshwar Dutt (b) Sushil Kumar (d) Bengalur u Bulls
(c) Abhinav Bindra (d) Jitu Rai 2. Who is t he wi nner of Nobel Pr i ze, 2014 in
9. What is common amongst Mahesh Bhupathi, t he field of L it er at ur e ?
Ivan Lendl, Roger Federer ? (a) Phil ip Rot h
(a) They are all Arjun Award winners (b) Pat r ick M odiano
(b) They all International Tennis players (c) H ar uki M ur akami
(c) They are all Social Activists
(d) Ngugi Wa Thiong'o
(d) They are all Asian Games medal winners
3. Ji t u Rai won Gol d M edal i n t he r ecent Asi an
10. Which of the following pairs was announced Games i n t he fol lowing field :
recently as Joint Noble Peace Prize winner.
(a) Ar cher y (b) Wr est li ng
(a) Kailash Satyarthi and Malala
(b) Amartya Sen and Benazir (c) Boxing (d) Shoot ing
(c) Morkel and Hosni Mubarak 4. Shant i Swar up Bhat nagar Awar d i s given for
out st andi ng cont r i but ion in t he fol lowi ng fi el d:
(d) Anwar Sadat and Begin
11. The UN Public service award 2015 for eliminating (a) Science (b) L it er at ur e
open defecation has been given to (c) Economy (d) Per for ming Ar t s
(a) Surat in Gujarat 5. Who i s t he wi nner of M en 's Si ngl es Ti t l e i n
(b) Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh Wi mbledon, 2014 in Tennis ?
(c) Nadia in West Bengal (a) Roger Feder er (b) Rafael Nadal
(d) Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra (c) M ar in Cilic (d) Novak Djok ovic
12. The Champion’s League Trophy is given for 6. M er deka Cup is associ at ed wi t h
(a) the best club in Soccer (a) I nt er nat i onal Table Tennis
(b) best player of team in Basket ball (b) Badmint on
(c) maximum goal maker in Hockey (c) H ock ey
(d) man of the match in Cricket (d) I nt er nat ional Foot ball
13. Cricket batsman has to leave the field for “hit 7. M at ch Col . X (Spor t sper son) and Col. Y (Spor t s):
wicket” when Col. X Col. Y
(a) Ball hits leg before bat P. Jitu Rai 1. Badmint on
(b) Keeper removes the bail Q. H eena Sidhu 2. Wr est li ng
(c) Bat hits any fielder R. Jwala Gut t a 3. Shoot ing
(d) Wicket is touched by bat or body of the S. Yogeshwar Dut t
batsman
 SPORTS 2.7
(a) P-3; Q-3, R-1, S-2 11. Wher e will Commonwealt h Games 2018 be held?
(b) P-2. Q-3, R-1, S-2 (a) Glasgow, Scot l and
(c) P-2. Q-2. R-1. S-3 (b) I nchon, Sout h K or ea
(d) P-3, Q-1. R-1. S-2 (c) Gol d Coast , Queensl and ,Aust r al ia
8. The slogan of Asian Games I ncheon 2014 was (d) Abuja, Niger ia
(a) Gr een, Cl ean and Fr iendship 12. To par t icipat e i n t he Olympi cs at Rio de Janei r o
(b) We Cheer, We Shar e, We Win in 2016 whi ch game di d I ndian t eam quali fy i n?
(c) Di ver si t y Shines her e (a) M en's H ock ey (b) Swimming
(d) The Games of Your L i fe (c) Ar cher y (d) Boxing
9. What ar e t he t hr ee val ues cher i shed by t he 13. What was t he mascot for t he Commonweal t h
Commonweal t h Games? Games hel d i n I ndia i n 2010?
(a) Get Set , Go, and Pl ay . (a) Bison (b) Peacock
(b) Fast er, H igher, St r onger. (c) Deer (d) Tiger
(c) Di ver sit y Shi nes her e. 14. For t he 2016 Ol ympics, whi ch t eam defeat ed t he
(d) H umanit y, Equali t y, Dest iny. M en's I ndian H ockey t eam t o secur e t he pl ace?
10. For par t i ci pat ion in which i nt er nat ional games (a) Fr ance (b) Ger many
event has the Men's I ndian Hockey team qualified (c) England (d) I taly
aft er t he Wor l d H ockey L eague? 15. Whi ch i nt er nat i onal spor t s event wi l l be hel d
(a) Common weal t h Games i n Gol d Coast , Qu een sl an d , A u st r al i a i n
(b) Olympics 2018?
(c) Asian Games (a) Asian Games
(d) Wi nt er Ol ympi cs (b) Common wealt h Games
(c) Asia Paci fi c Games
(d) Wi nt er Ol ympics.

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a)
LEVEL-2

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)

 3
CHAPTER
I N DI A’S FREEDOM STRU GGLE
1885 F or m at i on of I n di an N at i on al
Congr ess. Fi r st sessi on hel d at
B om bay on 28t h D ecem ber
at t ended by 72 delegat es.
1905 Par t it ion of Bengal announced by
Cur zon.
1906 Muslim league founded at Dacca by
Aga K han t he Nawab of Dacca and
N aw ab M oh si n -u l -M u l k , I st
communal Par t y.
1907 Congr ess split at Sur at session.
1907 L al a L aj pat Rai and Aj i t Si ngh
depor t ed t o M andal ay fol l owi ng
r iot s in t he canal colony of Punjab.
1908 K hudir am Bose execut ed.
1908, July 22 T i l ak sen t en ced t o si x y ear s
i m pr i son m en t on ch ar ges of
sedit ion.
1909, M ay 21 M or l ey M i n t o Ref or m s or t h e
I ndian Council Act 1909 announced.
1911 Capit al of I ndia was shift ed fr om
Calcut t a t o Delhi.
1912, Dec. 23 Bomb t hr own on L or d H ar dinge in
Ch an di n i Ch ow k , D el h i by
Rashbehar i Bose and Sachi ndr a
Sanyal.
1913, Nov. 1 Gh adar par t y f or m ed at San
Fr ancisco t o or ganise a r ebellion
in I ndia t o over t hr ow t he Br it ish
r ule.
1914 Fir st Wor ld War st ar t ed.
1915, Jan. Gandhiji ar r ives in I ndia.
1916 Gandhi ji founded t he Sabar mat i
Ashr am at Ahmedabad.
INDIAN HISTORY
1916, Apr il 28 H ome Rul e l eague f ou nded by
Ti l ak wi t h i t s headquar t er s at
Poona (I ndian home r ule league of
I ndia).
1916, Sept . 25 A n ot h er H om e Ru l e L eagu e
st at r ed by Annie Besant .
1916 F ou n dat i on of B an ar as H i n du
U n i v er si t y by M adan M oh an
M alaviya, Lucknow pact .
1917, Apr il M ahat ma Gandhi l aunches t he
Champar an satyagr aha.
1917, Aug. 20 M ont ague, t he secr et ar y of St at e
for I ndia, declar es t hat t he goal of
t he Br it ish gover nment in I ndia is
t h e i n t r odu ct i n of r espon si bl e
gover nment .
1918, M ar ch 23 Fir st All-I ndia Depr essed Classes
confer ence was held.
1918, Apr il Row l at t (sedi t i on ) com m i t t ee
submi t s i t s r epor t . Rowl at t Bi l l
int r oduced on Febr uar y 16, 1919.
1919, Apr il 6 All I ndia har t al over Rowlat t Bill
cal l ed by Gandhi ji , I st N at i onal
agitation.
1919, Apr il 13 Jallianwala Bagh t r agedy and t he
gr eat Amr it sar massacr e.
1919, Dec. 25 M ont ague Chelmsfor d Refor m or
t he Gover nment of I ndia Act, 1919
announced.
1920 Fir st meet ing of All I ndia Tr ade
Union Congr ess (AI TUC) held at
Bombay pr esi ded over by L al a
Lajpat Rai.
1920, Dec. I ndi an N at i onal Congr ess (I NC)
adopt s t h e N on -cooper at i on
r esolut ion.
3.2 INDIAN HISTORY

1922, Feb. 5 Chaur i Chaur a incident which led 1930, Jan. 1 J aw ah ar l al N eh r u h oi st s t h e

t o t h e su spen si on of t h e N on - t r icolour of I ndia on t he banks of
Cooper at ion movement . Ravi in L ahor e.

1922 Second M oplah upr ising, M alabar 1930, Jan. 26 Fir st I ndependence Day obser ved.
coast , K er ala.
1930, Feb. 14 Wor king commit t ee of I NC meet s
1922, M ay Vishwa Bhar ati Univer sity st ar t ed at Sabar mat i and passed t he Civil
by Rabindr a Nat h Tagor e. Disobedience r esolut ion.

1923, Jan. 1 Swar ajist par ty founded by Motilal 1930, M ar ch 12 M ahat ma Gandhi l aunches t he
Nehr u and ot her s. Civil Disobedience Movement with

1925, June 16 Deat h of Deshbandhu his epic Dandi mar ch.

Chit t ar anjan Das. 1930, Nov. 12 F i r st Rou n d t abl e con f er en ce

1925, August L oot i ng of t r ai n near K akor i by begins in L ondon t o consider t he

r evolut ionar ies & K akor i r epor t of Si mon Commi ssi on for

conspir acy case. t he fut ur e const it ut ional set -up in

I ndia.
1927, Nov. 8 A ppoi n t m en t of t h e Si m on
Commission. 1931, M ar ch 5 Gandhi I r wi n pact si gned. Ci vi l
Disobedience movement suspended.
1928 Nehr u Repor t for a new
const it ut ion of I ndia. 1931, M ar ch 23 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Raj
Gur u execut ed (in L ahor e Case).
1929, M ar ch 9 Al l Par t i es M usl i m Confer ence
for mulat es t he “ four t een poi nt s” 1931, Sept . 7 Second Round Tabl e confer ence

under t he leader ship of Jinnah. begins Mahatma Gandhi ar r ives in

L ondon t o at t end it .
1929, Apr il 8 Bhagat Si ngh and Bat uk eshwar
Dut t dr op bomb i n t he cent r al 1932, Aug. 16 Br i t i sh Pr i me M i ni st er Ramsay

l egi sl at i ve Assembl y t o pr ot est M ac D on al d an n ou n ces t h e

against t he Public Safet y Bill. Communal Awar d giving separ at e

elect or at e t o H ar ijans.
1929, Sept . 13 Jat in Das dies in jain after 64 days
of fast . 1932, Sept . 20 Gandhi’s fast unt o deat h.

1929, Oct . 31 L or d I r win’s announcement t hat 1932, Sept . 26 Poona pact signed by which t he

t he goal of Br it ish policy in I ndia H ar i j ans get r eser ved seat s i n

was t he gr ant of dominion st at us. place of separ at e elect or at e.

1929, Dec. 31 L ahor e sessi on of t he Congr ess 1932, Nov. 17 Thi r d Round Tabl e Confer ence

under Jawahar L al Nehr u adopt s begins at L ondon.

t he goal of complet e independence 1935, Aug. 4 Gover nment of I ndia Act passed.
(Poor na swar aj) for I ndia.

1937 Elect ions held in I ndia under t he
A ct of 1935. T h e I N C f or m s
minist r ies in seven provinces.
1938, Feb. 19-20 H ar i pur an sessi on of t he I N C.
Subhash Chandr a Bose el ect ed
t he congr ess pr esident .
1939, Mar. 10-12 Tr ipur i session of I NC.
1939, Apr il Subhash Chandr a Bose r esigns the
pr esident ship of t he I NC.
1939, Sept . 3 Second wor ld war begins. Vicer oy
declar es t hat I ndia t oo is at war.
1939, Nov. 5 Con gr ess m i n i st r i es i n t h e
pr ovinces r esign against t he war
policy of t he Br it ish gover nment .
1939, Dec. 22 M u sl i m L eagu e obser v es t h e
r esi gn at i on of t h e con gr ess
minist r ies as Deliver ance day.
1940, M ar ch L ah or e sessi on of t h e M u sl i m
l eagu e passes t h e Pak i st an
Resolut ion.
1940, Aug. 10 Vicer oy Linlithglow announces the
August offer .
1940, Oct .17 Con gr ess l au n ch es I n di vi du al
Sat yagr aha movement .
1941 Deat h of Rabindr anat h Tagor e.
1941, Jan. 17 Subhash Chandr a Bose escapes
fr om I ndia t o Ger many.
1942, M ar ch 11 Chur chi l l announces t he Cr i pps
M ission.
1942, Aug. 8 I NC meet s at Bombay and adopt s
t he Quit I ndia r esolut ion.
1942, Aug. 11 Quit I ndia M ovement begins.
1942, Sept . 1 I ndian National Ar my (Azad H ind
Fauj) is for med at Singapor e.
INDIAN HISTORY 3.3
1943, Oct . Subhash Chandr a bose t akes over
t h e l eader sh i p of I N A an d
pr ocl ai ms t he for mat i on of t he
‘Pr ovi si onal Gover nment of fr ee
I ndia’ at Singapor e.
1943, Dec. K ar achi sessi on of t he M usl i m
L eagu e adopt s t h e sl ogan of
‘Divide and Quit ’.
1944, June 25 Wavell calls Simla confer ences in
a bid to for m the Executive Council
of I ndian polit ical leader s.
1946 Feb. 1-8 Rat ing M utiny.
1946, M ar ch 15 B r i t i sh Pr i m e M i n i st er A t t l ee
announces t he Cabinet M ission.
1946, Aug. 6 Wavell invit es Nehr u t o for m an
int er im gover nment .
1946, Dec. 9 Fi r st session of t he Const it uent
Assembly of I ndia st ar t s, but it is
boycot t ed by t he M uslim L eague.
1947, Feb. 20 B r i si t h Pr i m e M i n i st er A t t l ee
decl ar es t h at t he B r i t i sh
gover nment would leave I ndia by
June 1948.
1947, M ar ch 24 L oar d M ount bat t en, l ast Br it i sh
vi cer oy and gover nor gener al of
I ndia is swor n in.
1947, June 3 Mountbatten Plan for the partition
of I ndia is announced.
1947, July 4 I n di an I n depen den ce Bill
i n t r odu ced i n t h e H ou se of
Com m on s an d passed by t h e
Br it ish par liament (July 18).
1947, Aug. 15 I ndia won fr eedom.
3.4 INDIAN HISTORY
I M PORTAN T ORGAN I SATI ON S AN D PARTI ES
Parties and Organisations
M uslim L eague
H ome Rule L eague
Ant i Non-Cooper at ion Associat ion
Johr at Sar vajanik Sabha
Raja M undar i Social Refor m Associat ion
Ant i Cir cular Societ y
L ok Seva M andal
I ndependent Congr ess Par t y
Unit ed I ndia Pat r iot ic Associat ion
Br it ish Associat ion of Avadh
L iber al Associat ion
I ndian L iber al Feder at ion
H indust an Seval Dal
I ndependence of I ndia league
Pr aja Par t y
H indu Associat ion
K r ishak Pr aja Par t y
Sout h I ndia Feder at ion of peasant s
& Agr icult ur al labour
Unionist Par t y
Rasht r iya Swayam Sevak Sangh
All I ndia Unt ouchabilit y league or
H ar ijan Sevak Sangh
H indu M aha Sabha
Jana Sangh
National M ohammedan Association
Communit st Par t y of I ndia (CPI )
L abour Swar aj Par t y
K ir t i K isan Par t y
Wor ker ’s & Peasant s Par t y
Bihar Socialist Par t y
Congr ess Socialist Par t y
For war d Block
Congr ess L abour Par t y
Revolut ionar y Socialist Par t y
Radical Democr at ic Par t y
Bolshevik L eninist par t y
Revolut ionar y Communist Par t y
H indust an Socialist Republican
Association
Punjab Socialist Par t y
I ndependent Labour Part y
Founders, year and Place
Aga K ha, t he Nawab of Dacca M ohsin ul M ulk (1906, Dacca)
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (July 1916) , Annie Besant (Sept . 1916)
Pur ushott am Das Thakur das (1920-21)
Rash Behar i Ghose (1893, Assam)
Vir sallngam (1878)
K . K . M it r a
L ala L ajpat Rai, Punjab
Madan M ohan Malviya, (1926)
Sayyid Ahmed Khan
Raja Shiv Pr asad Sahu
Sapr u, Jayakar and Chint amani
Sur endr a Nat h Baner jee and ot her s (1919)
N. G. H ar dikar
Jawahar L al Nehr u and Subhas Chandr a Bose, (1928)
Akr am Khan, Fazi-ul-H uq and Abdur Rahim
Annie Besant
Faziul Haq
N.G. Ranga and Namboodir ipad (1935)
Fazl Hussain
Hedgewar (1925)
Gandhiji (1932)
Founded in 1917, Revived by M adan M ohan M alviya in 1925.
Shyam Pr asad M ukher jee
Amir Ali, 1878, Calcut t a
M .N. Roy, 1920 at Tashkent
M uzaffar Ahmmed & Qazi Nazr ul 1925 and Wor ker ’s Par t y
Sohan Singh Josh (Punjab)
S.S. M ir ajkar, K .N. Joglekar & S.V. Ghat e, 1927, Bombay
Jai Pr akash Nar ayan, Phulan Pr asad Ver ma, 1931
Nar endr a Dev, Jai Pr akash Nar ayan and M inoo M asani 1934
Subhas Chandr a Bose, 1939
1926, Bombay
1940
M .N. Roy, 1940
I ndr a Sen & Ajut Roy, 1941
Saumendr anat h Tagor e, 1942
Chandr a Shekhar Azad and ot her s, 1928
1932
B.R. Ambedkar
 INDIAN HISTORY 3.5

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
7. Who was t he fir st Englishman t o pr eside over
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
t he Congr ess session at Allahabad in 1908?
1. Which one of t he following leader s was elect ed (a) W. Wedder bur n (b) A.O. H ume
as Pr esident of t he All I ndia K hilafat Confer ence (c) Geor ge Yule (d) M r s. Annie Besant
held in Delhi in 1919?
8. Who was t he fir st M uslim pr esident of t he I NC?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(a) H akim Ajmal K han (b) Rafi Ahmad Kidwai
(b) Shaukat Ali
(c) Abul Kalam Azad (d) Badr uddin Tayabjee
(c) M .A. Jinnah
(d) None of t hese 9. Which of the following did not have an impor tant
r ole in t he Swadeshi movement ?
2. Which movement was launched along wit h t he (a) Women (b) Peasants
K hilafat M ovement ?
(c) Students (d) Muslims
(a) Swadeshi M ovement
10. M.K. Gandhi applied his ‘Satyagr aha’ first against
(b) H ome Rule M ovement
t he
(c) Civil Disobedience M ovement
(a) Eur opean indigo plant er s.
(d) Non-cooper at ion M ovement
(b) M ill owner s of Ahmedabad.
3. The Swar aj Par t y st ood for (c) Br i t i sh gover nment t o pr ot est against t he
(a) Captur ing Legislatur e Councils by contest ing Rowlatt Act s
elect ions (d) Racist aut hor it ies of Sout h Afr ica.
(b) Boycot t ing t he elect ions 11. The car di nal pr i nci pl e of M ahat ma Gandhi ’s
(c) Over t hr ow of Gover nment by or ganising a Satyagr aha was
count r y wide st r ike (a) Fear lessness (b) Tr uthfulness
(d) None of t hese (c) Non-violence (d) All of t hese

4. Of t he followings who was not a member of t he 12. Fir st gr eat exper iment in sat yagr aha came in
K hilafat Committ ee? 1917 in
(a) Maulana Shaukat Ali (a) Ahmedabad (b) Champaran
(b) Maulana Muhammad Ali (c) Sabar mati (d) Bardoli
(c) M .A. Jinnah 13. Gandhiji’s Champar an Movement was for
(d) Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad (a) The secur it y of r ight s of H ar ijans
5. Who of t he fol lowi ng was not i nvol ved i n t he (b) Civil disobedience movement
incident r elating to thr owing of a bomb in Centr al (c) M aint aining t he unit y of H indu societ y
L egislat ive Assembly on Apr il 18, 1929? (d) Solving t he pr oblem of t he indigo wor ker s
(a) Sar dar Bhagat Singh 14. Who was t he polit ical gur u of Gandhiji ?
(b) Khudiram (a) Naur oji
(c) B.K . Dut t (b) Gokhale
(d) All t hese (c) Tilak
(d) L ala Lajpat Rai
6. The All I ndia Muslim League was founded under
t he leader ship of 15. Who gave t he call “ Do or Die” ?
(a) M aulana M ohmmed Ali (a) Jawahar lal Nehr u
(b) H asan I mam and M azhar -ul H aque (b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Agha Khan and Mohsinul-M ulk (c) L ala Lajpat Rai
(d) H akim Ajmal K han and Zafar Ali K han (d) Subhash Bose
3.6 INDIAN HISTORY

LEVEL-1 11. Goutam Buddha delivered his first sermons at :

1. A sh ok a i n t h e 13t h year of h i s cor on at i on , (a) Kusinagar (b) Sarnath
appoint ed a special t ype of offi cer who sur veyed (c) Pataliputra (d) Vaishali
the land, kept land r ecor ds and car r ied out justice.
12. The Governor General of India at the time of
These officer s wer e call ed
foundation of Indian National Congress was ?
(a) Amatyas (b) Samahar t as
(a) Lord Chelmsford (b) Lord Dalhousie
(c) Rajukas (d) Chalukyas
(c) Lord Dufferin (d) Lord Canning
2. Who bui lt t he Jagannat ha t emple of Pur i?
13. Who was the advocate at the famous trials of
(a) Anantavar mana Chodaganga three INA Soldiers ?
(b) Nar simahavar mana
(a) Bhulabhai Desai
(c) Aadiyavar mana
(b) Asaf Ali
(d) Par meshwar avar mana
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
3. Sect i on 66 A has been i n medi a cont r over sy
(d) C. Rajagopalachari
r ecent l y. The sect i on per t ains t o
14. Match Column A (Dance type) and Column B
(a) Communal H ar mony
(State).
(b) Sexual Aggr ession
Column A Column B
(c) Company's Act
P. Bihu 1. Gujarat
(d) I nfor mat i on Technology
Q. Garba 2. UP
4. In which of the following movement did Gandhiji
make the first use of Hunger Strike as a weapon? R. Tamasha 3. Assam
(a) Ahmedabad strike, 1918 S. Nautanki 4. Maharashtra
(b) Rowlatt Satyagraha, 1919 (a) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3 (b) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
(c) Swadeshi Movement, 1905 (c) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4 (d) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3
(d) Champaran Satyagraha, 1917 15. The first capital of British Colonial India as
5. The famous Chinese pilgrim 'Hieun Tsang' visited (a) Delhi (b) Mumbai
India during the reign of: (c) Kolkata (d) Madras
(a) Harshavardhan (b) Chandragupta II LEVEL-2
(c) Ashoka (d) Kanishka
1. "Khalsa" was founded by-
6. Jama Masjid at Delhi was built by :
(a) Gur u Gobind Singh
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(b) Gur u Ramdas
(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb
(c) Gur u Nanak
7. The 'Quit India Movement' was launched in the
year : (d) Gur u Ar jun Dev

(a) 1920 A.D. (b) 1930 A.D. 2. "M ahabhar at a" t he epic was wr it t en by-
(c) 1942 A.D. (d) 1946 A.D. (a) Vyasa (b) Kalidasa
8. Who wrote 'Indica' ? (c) Tulsidasa (d) Valmiki
(a) Kautilya (b) Kalidasa 3. The famous queen Chand Bibi who fought against
Akbar, defended t he cit y of -
(c) Shudraka (d) Megasthenes
(a) Ber ar (b) Ahmad nagar
9. 'Giddha' is a folk dance of :
(c) Golconda (d) M ysor e
(a) Punjab (b) Uttar Pradesh
4. Ar ya samaj was founded by-
(c) Assam (d) Maharashtra
(a) Raja Ram M ohan
10. "The Servants of India Society' was founded by :
(b) Gopal K r ishna Gokhale
(a) Jyotiba Phule (b) G.K. Gokhale
(c) Swami Dayanand Sar aswati
(c) B.G. Tilak (d) B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Anne Besant
 INDIAN HISTORY 3.7
5. I ndi a's fi r st war of I ndependence (r el at ed t o 11. The r uler of which of t he following St at es was
M eer ut mut iny) was in: r emoved fr om power by t he Br it ish on the pr etext
(a) 1835 (b) 1857 of M isgover nance ?

(c) 1892 (d) 1905 (a) Awadh (b) Jhansi

(c) Satara (d) Nagpur
6. Fr ench power declined in I ndia aft er t he bat t le
of- 12. Palit ana Temples ar e locat ed near :
(a) Plassey (b) Buxar (a) Bhavnagar, Gujar at
(c) Talikota (d) Wandiwash (b) Ujjain, Madhva Pr adesh
7. The fir st I ndian r ailway t r ain jour ney bet ween (c) Nasik, M ahar asht r a
Bombay and Thane was in t he year - (d) Var anasi, Ut t ar Pr adesh
(a) 1857 13. K unwar Singh, a pr ominent leader of Upr ising of
1857, belonged t o :
(b) 1853
(a) Punjab (b) Rajasthan
(c) 1818
(c) Madhya Pr adesh (d) Bihar
(d) 1854
14. Wher e was t he Fir st Session of I ndian Nat ional
8. Wit h which one of t he following movement s is
Congr ess held in 1885 A.D. ?
t he slogan "Do or Die" associat ed ?
(a) Delhi (b) Calcutta
(a) Swadeshi M ovement
(c) Bombay (d) Sur at
(b) Non-Cooper at ionM ovement
15. The 1929 session of I ndian Nat ional Congr ess is
(c) Civil Disobedience M ovement
of si gni fi cance i n t he hi st or y of t he Fr eedom
(d) Quit I ndia M ovement M ovement because t he
9. Which one of t he following places was associat ed (a) at t ainment of Self-Gover nment was declar ed
wit h t he begi nni ng of Vinoba Bhave Bhoodan as t he object ive of t he Congr ess
M ovement ?
(b) at t ainment of Poor na Swar aj was adopt ed as
(a) Dandi (b) Kheda t he goal of t he Congr ess
(c) Pochampalli (d) Champaran (c) Non-Cooper at ion M ovement was launched
10. I den t i f y t h e M u gh al E m per or w h o gav e (d) deci si on t o par t i cipat e i n t he Round Tabl e
per mission t o East I ndia Company t o est ablish Confer ence in L ondon was t aken
t heir fact or y at Sur at :
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb
3.8 INDIAN HISTORY

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)

 4
CHAPTER GEOGRAPHY

EARTH
ORI GI N  I t is believed t hat near ly 150 million year s ago,
One of the theories suggests that it is an outcome of a t her e was a si ngl e cont i nent on ear t h cal l ed
star formation . About 4,600 million year s ago, a giant Pangaea. This super -cont inent br oke int o sever al
cloud of gas and dust in space, having a swirling motion, pieces, which began t o dr ift apar t .
gr adually contracted under its own gr avity. As the gas
REALM S OF TH E EARTH
cloud or nebula shr ank in size, it spinned fast er t o
conser ve its angular moment um. The r apid r otat ion 1. L it hospher e (land masses)
pr evented it from total collapse into one object and a 2. At mospher e (air envelope)
large number of smaller units were formed. The core of 3. H ydr ospher e (wat er bodies)
nebula r otating slowly became new star– the Sun.
4. Biospher e (life for ms)
SU RFACE FEATU RES OF TH E EARTH
L I T H OSPH E RE
 M ajor sur face feat ur es of t he ear t h ar e cont inent s
and ocean basins. Layers of the Earth (according to volume) :

 L ess t han 1/3r d of t he whole sur face of t he ear t h is 1. Crust. I t for ms only 0.5 per cent of t he volume of
landmass, t he r est is cover ed by wat er. t he ear t h

 The cont inent s and ocean basins ar e ir r egular ly 2. M antle. I t for ms 16 per cent of t he volume of t he
ar r anged on t he ear t h. ear t h

 The nor t her n hemispher e has mor e land t han t he 3. Core : I t for ms 83 per cent of t he volume of t he
sout her n hemispher e. ear t h

 For sever al million year s, lar ge par ts of cont inents Ear t h being a spher ical body, it has it s cent r e at 6,400
wer e cover ed wit h t hick masses of ice. This per iod km viz., mean r adius of t he ear t h.
on t he ear t h is called I ce age.

SOM E N U M ERI CAL FACTS ABOU T TH E EARTH

L and Greatest known Oceans and Seas Greatest
height (in meters) known depth
(in meters)

M ount Ever est 8863 M ar iana Tr ench 11035

Aver age height 840 Aver age dept h 3808
Size and shape (in km) Ar ea (in millions sq. km.)
Equat or ial semi-axis, a 6378.2 L and (29.22 per cent ) 149
Polar semi-axis, b 6356.8 I ce sheet s and glacier s 15.6
Mean r adius 6371.0 Oceans and seas (70.78 per cent ) 361
Equat or ial cir cumfer ence 40076 L and plus cont inent al shelf 177.4
Polar (mer idian) cir cumfer ence 40009 Oceans and seas minus continental shelf 332.6
Ellipticit y, (a-b)/a 1/298 Tot al ar ea of t he Ear t h 510.0
 4.2 GEOGRAPHY
ROCKS
Cl assi f i cat i on of r ock s. On the basi s of the mode of
formati on, r ocks ar e usuall y classifi ed into three major
types :
1. I gn eou s r ock s
At one t ime, all par ent r ock mat er ial was liquid,
hot and a st icky t hing called magma. I t har dens
below or upon r eaching the ear t h’s sur face. When
it har dens, it for ms i gneous r ock.
I gneous r ocks ar e par ent s of all ot her r ocks and
ar e also called pr i mar y r ocks.
2. Sedi m en t ar y r ock s
They ar e for med by deposit ion and consolidat ion
of miner al and or ganic mat er ial fr om pr ecipat ion
of miner als fr om solut ion.
3. M et am or p h i c r ock s
When or iginal char act er of t he r ocks– t heir colour,
har dness, t ext ur e and mi ner al composit ion i s
par t l y or w h ol l y ch an ged, i t gi v es r i se t o
met amor phic r ocks, under favour able condit ions
of heat and pr essur e.
EART H M OVEM ENT S
About 120 mi ll ion year s ago, t he l andmass call ed
Gondwana land st ar ted br eaking because of the eart h
movement s, vol canic er upt i ons and sea fl oods al l
wor king t oget her.
T ect on i c M ovem en t
I t is t he ear t h movement s which br ing about t hese
vast changes.
The concent r at ion of gr eat int er nal for ces wit hin t he
ear t h r aise local areas upwar ds or cause them sinking
downwards.
Types of Tect on i c movem en t .
(i ) Su d d en m ov em en t s :
These are commonly noticed during an earthquake.
(i i ) Sl ow or Secu l ar m ov em en t s:
T h ese movemen t s con t i nu e much l on ger as
compar ed t o our life span.
L AN DFORM S
Ty p es of L an d f or m s
Ther e ar e thr ee major l andfor ms :
1. M OUNTAI NS
An uplift ed por t ion of t he ear t h’s sur face is called
hi l l or mountai n.
Cl assi f i cat i on of m ou n t ai n s
M ountains are classified on the basis of their or igin
or mode of for mati on as fol l ows :
(i ) St r u ct u r al m ou n t ai n s (Tect on i c)
All gr eat mount ain syst ems of t he ear t h ar e
of t his t ype.
Bot h t he fold and t he block mount ains ar e
included in t his t ype.
(i i ) Fold mount ains
Major mount ains of the present day including
Alps in Eur ope, Rockies of Nor t h Amer ica,
Andes of Sout h Amer ica and H imalayas of
Asia ar e fold mount ains.
Fold is r ecognised by t he bending of r ock-
st r at a, up and down or sideways.
(i i i ) B l ock mou n t ai n s
These mount ains ar e for med when gr eat
blocks of t he ear t h’s cr ust may be r aised or
lower ed dur ing t he lat e st ages of mount ain-
building.
e.g. Vosges in Fr ance
(i v Vol can i c m ou n t ai n s
As these are formed by t he accumulat ion of
vol can i c mat er i al , t h ey ar e al so cal l ed
mountai ns of accumulation.
e.g. Mt . Fuji Yama in Japan
(v) Resi d u al or D i ssect ed m ou n t ai n s
Since t hey owe t heir pr esent for m due t o
er osion by differ ent agencies, so t hey ar e also
cal l ed r el i ct moun t ai n s or moun t ai n s of
ci rcumdenudati on
e.g. Nilgir i, Par asnat h, Gir nar
2. PL ATEAUS
A plateau is an elevated area generally in contrast to
the nearby areas. It has a large area on its top unlike
a mountain and has an extensively even or undulating
surface. The great Deccan Plateau with itsslope towards
east is a tilted plateau in our country.
3. PL AI NS
A relat ively flat and a low-lying land sur face wit h
least differ ence bet ween it s highest and lowest
point s is called plain.
A plain may be as low as 30 met r es t o t he east of
M ississippi river near the Appalachian r ange and
as high as 1,500 met r es above sea level t o the west
of t he r iver.
VOL CANOES
Th e vol cani c ph enomen on i s a majest i c nat ur al
phenomenon.
Cl assi f i cat i on of v ol can oes
On the basis of fr equency of erupti on, vol canoes ar e
classi fi ed as :
1. Act i v e v ol can o
These er upt fair ly frequent ly as compared to others
2. D or m an t or sl eepi n g vol can o
I n t hese er uption has not occurr ed r ecent ly.
e.g. one in Bar ren I sland t o t he east of Andamans in
India
3. Ex t i n ct or An ci en t v ol can o
These have r ecorded no er uption in hist or ic times
ar e called extinct.

EARTH QUAK ES
 Any sudden disturbance below the eart h’s sur face,
may pr oduce vibr at ions or shakings at t he cr ust .
When r ocks br eak, t he par t icles next t o t he br eak
ar e set in mot ion. I t is t he movement of one r ock
mass against anot her t hat causes vibr ations. Some
of t hese vibrations r each t he sur face and ar e called
earthquakes.
 The place of or igin of an ear t hquake inside t he
ear t h is called it s focus.
 The point on t he ear t h’s sur face ver t ically above
t he focus is called epi centr e.
SOI L S
 Soil is a mixt ur e of many solid, liquid and gaseous
subst ances.
 I t for ms t he t opmost layer of ear t h’s cr ust .
 I t has bot h non-living and t he living mat t er like
miner al par t i cl es, decayi ng plant r emai ns and
insect s living t oget her wit h count less bact er ia on
it s or ganic mat t er.
 Soil holds wat er. This moist ur e is t aken in by t he
r oot s of plant s.
 Ther e is ai r in t he open spaces wi t hin t he soil
cont aining mor e of car bon dioxide and also oxygen
and nit r ogen.
 Soil is final pr oduct of t he int er act ions bet ween
weat her ing of under lying r ock, climat e, plant s and
act ivit ies of millions of insect s ear t hwor ms.
U ND ERGROU ND WATER
 Rain-wat er or snow-melt that neither runs off along
the sur face nor evaporat es but sinks into the ground
is called undergr ound water.
 Part of the surface water moves downwards thr ough
pores between mineral grains or cracks between rocks.
 The wat er -hol di ng capaci t y of a r ock mat er i al
depends on t he por e spaces called it s por osi ty.
 Per meabi l i ty is t he pr oper t y of r ocks which allow
wat er t o pass t hr ough t hem.
Wat er Tabl e
Th e l evel bel ow whi ch t he r ock s ar e compl et el y
sat ur at ed wit h wat er is called water tabl e.
Wel l s
Wells ar e man-made holes dug into t he ear t h’s sur face
in or der t o get under gr ound wat er for ir r igat ion or for
human consumpt ion.
A special type of well in which water rises automatically
under t he pr essure of a column of wat er t o t he ground
sur face, eit her t hr ough a nat ur al or man-made hole,
is called ar tesi an wel l .
GEOGRAPHY 4.3
Sp r i n gs
Spr ings ar e places wher e a flow of wat er r ises t o t he
sur face t hr ough nat ur al r ock opening under hydr aulic
pr essur e fr om t he dept h.
A spring or a chain of them are common at the junctions
of per meable and imper meable r ocks.
H ot sp r i n gs an d Gey ser s
The gr ound wat er comes in cont act with t he heat ed or
super heat ed st eam inside t he ear t h and emer ges at
t he sur face as a hot spr i ng.
Geyser is a hot spr ing in which wat er is for ced up by
st eam pr essur e at int er vals.
ATM OSPH ERE
The at mospher e ext ends t o t housands of kilomet er s,
but it has no clear upper limit and it gr adually mer ges
wit h t he out er space.
Comp osi t i on
The at mospher e is a mixt ur e of many discr et e gases,
in which var ying quant it ies of t iny solid par t icles ar e
suspended.
Pu r e d r y ai r con st i t u t es mai n l y of (by vol ume)
Nit r ogen – 78 %
Oxygen – 21%
Remaining one per cent is account ed for by gases
like ar gon (0.93 per cent ) car bon dioxide (0.03 per
cent ) hydr ogen, helium and ozone.
Wat er v ap ou r
 Wat er vapour absor bs par t s of t he insolat ion fr om
t he sun and t hus r educes it s amount r eaching t he
ear t h’s sur face.
 I t also pr eserves t he ear th’s r adiat ed heat . I t t hus,
act s like a blanket allowing t he ear t h neit her t o
become t oo cold nor t oo hot .
 Wat er vapour absor bs heat dur ing t he pr ocess of
evapor at ion.
 Winds transport latent heat along with water vapour
fr om one place t o anot her, wher e t his heat may be
r eleased t hr ough condensat ion and pr ecipit at ion.
D u st p ar t i cl es
 The movement s of the atmosphere ar e sufficient t o
keep a large quantity of tiny solid particles suspended
wit h in it .
 The amount of dust par ticles is more in subt ropical
and t emper at e ar eas because of dr y and wi ndy
conditions t han in t he equatorial and polar r egions.
 These dust par t icles are significant from met eoro-
logical st andpoint.
 Many of these act as hygroscopic nuclei around which
wat er vapour condenses t o produce clouds.
 4.4 GEOGRAPHY
Ot h er Gases
 Carbon dioxide constit utes only 0.03 per cent of t he
volume of t he air. Even so i t is ver y impor t ant
met eor ologically because it is t r anspar ent t o t he
incoming solar r adiat ion but opaque t o out going
t err est rial r adiat ion.
 Ozon e i s ot h er i m por t an t compon en t of t h e
at mospher e. I t act s as a filt er and absor bs ult r a-
violet r adiat ion fr om t he sun. I t is concent r at ed
mai nl y bet ween 10 t o 50 k i lomet r es above t he
ear t h’s sur face.
Atmospher e can br oadl y be di vi ded i nto four l ayer s :
(i ) Tr oposph er e
I t is t he lowest layer of t he at mospher e.
I t ext ends r oughly t o a height of kilomet r es near
t he poles and about 18 kilomet r es at t he equat or.
(i i ) St r at osp h er e
I t ext ends upt o a height of 50 kilomet r es.
I n t he lower par t of t his layer, i .e. upt o a height of
20 kilomet r es, t emper at ur e r emains const ant .
Above 20 km it gr adually incr eases upt o a height
of 50 kilomet r es because of t he pr esence of ozone
layer which absor bs sun’s ult r a-violet r ays.
(i i i )M esosph er e
I t ext ends upt o a height of 80 kilomet r es.
Temper at ur e decr eases wi t h hei ght agai n and
r each es u pt o – 100 ° C at t h e h ei gh t of
80 kilomet r es.
(i v) Th er mosph er e
I n it s lower par t , t her e is an elect r ically char ged
layer called i onospher e
Radi o waves t r ansmi t t ed f r om t he ear t h ar e
r eflect ed back t o t he ear t h by t his layer.
Temper at ur e again st ar t s incr easing wit h height
because of r adiat ion fr om t he sun.
(v) Exosp h er e
H er e at mospher ic gases ar e ver y t hin.
Thi s par t is ext r emely r ar efied and gr aduall y
mer ges wit h t he out er space.
ATM OSPH ERI C PRESSURE
 I t is weight of t he column of air at any given place
and t ime.
 I t is measur ed by means of an inst r ument called
bar ometer . I t is measur ed as a for ce per unit ar ea.
 I t is a ver y impor t ant fact or in pr oducing changes
in our weat her
 Cont r ast s in t emper at ur e cause changes in air
densit y, whi ch ar e r esponsible for var iat ions in
pr essu r e. Th ese var i at i on s cau se h or i zon t al
movement s of air called wi nds.
 I sobar
I t is is an imaginar y line dr awn t hr ough places
having equal at mospher ic pr essur e r educed t o sea
level.
The spacing of isobar s expresses r ate and direct ion
of t he pr essur e changes and is called pr essur e
gr adi ents.
Pr essur e gr adi ent may be defined as t he decr ease
in pr essur e per unit dist ance in t he dir ect ion in
which pr essur e decr eases most r apidly.
 Ther e ar e two types of pr essur e systems
(i) H igh pr essur e
(ii) L ow pr essur e
WI ND S
Ty p es of Wi n d s
(1) Pl an et ar y w i n d s.
 Winds which blow t hr oughout t he year fr om one
latitude to the other in r esponse to the latitudinal
differ ences in air pr essur e, ar e called prevai l ing
wi nds or planetary wi nds.
 These winds blow over vast area of the continents
and oceans.
 Winds for climat e and human act ivit ies
Ty p es of p l an et ar y w i n d s.
(i ) Tr ad e w i n d s : These winds blow fr om sub-
t r opi cal hi gh pr essur e ar ea (30° N and S)
t owar ds t he equat or ial low pr essur e belt and
ar e ext r emely st eady winds.
To blow t r ade means t o blow st eadily in t he
same dir ect ion and in a const ant cour se.
(i i ) West er l i es : These wi nds bl ow fr om sub-
t r opical high pr essur e belt s t owar ds sub-polar
low pr essur e belt s
These blow fr om sout h-west t o nor t h-east in
t he Nor t her n H emispher e and nor t h-west t o
sout h-east in t he Sout her n H emispher e.
(2) Per i od i c w i n d s.
 The winds changing t heir dir ect ion per iodically
w i t h ch ange i n season ar e cal l ed per i odi c
winds.
 M onsoons ar e t he best example of lar ge scale
modificat ion of t he planet ar y wind syst em.
Ty p es of Per i od i c w i n d s :
(i ) M o n so o n w i n d s : T h ese ar e season al
modifi cat ion of t he gener al pl anet ar y wi nd
syst em.
 GEOGRAPHY 4.5

(i i ) L an d an d Sea br eezes : These affect only a EVAPORATI ON

nar r ow str ip along the coast . During day t ime,
t he land get s mor e heat t han t he adjacent sea
and develops low air pr essur e. The sea being
cool, develops a comparatively higher pressur e.
The war m air of t he land being lighter ascends
and it s place is t aken by t he cooler air coming
fr om t he sea, which is called sea breeze. At t he
higher el evat ion, war m air get s cooled and
moves t owar ds t he sea. H ence, sea br eezes
blow during day at the lower level and moderate
the weather of the coastal fringe. At night, rapid
r adi at i on mak es t he l and cool er t han t he
adjoining sea. This r esult s in high pr essur e
over t he land and low pr essur e over t he sea.
Air star ts blowing from land to sea and is called
l and breeze.
(i i i ) M ou n t ai n an d Val l ey br eezes : Dur ing day
t ime, slope of t he mount ain is heat ed mor e
t han t he valley floor. The air fr om t he valley
flows up t he slope, and is called val l ey br eeze.
After sunset t he patt er n is r eversed. Rapid loss
of heat thr ough t er r est r ial r adiat ion along t he
mountain slopes result s in sliding of cold dense
air fr om higher elevat ions t o valleys. This is
called mountai n br eeze.
(3) L ocal w i n d s
L ocal winds develop as a result of local differ ences
in t emper at ur e and pr essur e.
H YD ROSPH ERE
H UM I DI TY
Humidit y is the gener al t erm which describes invisible
amount of wat er-vapour pr esent in t he air.
I t may be expr essed quanti tati vel y as fol l ows :
1. Absol u t e h u mi di t y
Weight of act ual amount of wat er-vapour pr esent
in a unit volume of air is called absolute humidi ty.
I t is usually expr essed as gr ams per cubic met r e of
air.
2. Sp eci f i c h u m i d i t y
Weight of wat er-vapour per unit weight of air, or
proport ion of t he mass of water -vapour t o t he t otal
mass of air is called speci fi c humi di ty.
I t is measur ed in unit s of weight (usually gr ams
per kilogr am),
Rel at i v e h u m i d i t y
I t is t he r at io of air ’s act ual wat er -vapour cont ent t o
it s wat er -vapour capacity at a given t emper at ur e.
I t is t he pr ocess by which wat er is t r ansfor med fr om
liquid t o gaseous for m.
Ra t e of evapor at i on
I t depends on
(i) t emper atur e
(ii) moist ur e cont ent or degr ee of dr yness of air
(i i i ) movement of air
CONDEN SATI ON
 I t is t he pr ocess of change of st at e fr om gaseous t o
liquid or solid st at e.
 When moist air is cooled, it may r each a level when
its capacity t o hold wat er -vapour is exceeded by the
act ual amount pr esent in it .
 I n free air, condensation r esult s from cooling around
ver y small par t icles called condensation nucl ei .
 Condensati on depends on
(i) amount of cooling
(i i ) r elat ive humidit y of t he air
Dew
When t he moist ur e is deposit ed in t he for m of wat er
dr oplets on cooler surface of solid objects such as st ones,
gr ass blades and plant leaves, it is called dew.
Wh i t e F r ost
When condensation takes place at a dew point which is
at or below fr eezing point (0C), excess moist ur e is
deposit ed in t he for m of minut e ice cr yst als inst ead of
dr oplet s of wat er. I t is called whi te fr ost.
Fog
I t is defined as a cloud wit h its base at or ver y near t he
gr ound.
M i st
I n t his t ype of fog, visibilit y is mor e t han 1 kilomet r e
but less t han 2 kilomet r es.
CL OUDS
I t is a mass of minut e dr oplet s of wat er or t iny cr ystals
of ice for med by condensat ion of t he wat er -vapour in
fr ee air at consider able elevat ions.
Cl assi f i cat i on of Cl ou d s on t h e basi s of t h ei r
appear an ce
(i .e. gener al shape, str uctur e and verti cal extent)
(i ) Ci r r u s cl ou ds.
T h ese ar e h i gh , w h i t e an d t h i n . T h ese ar e
composed of ice cr yst als.
(i i ) Cu mu l u s cl ou d s.
These exhibit a flat base and have t he appear ance
of r ising domes.
(i i i ) Str atus cl ouds.
These are best described as sheets of layers that cover
much or all of the sky.
 4.6 GEOGRAPHY
PRECI PI TATI ON
 Condensat ion of wat er -vapour in air in t he for m of
wat er dr oplet s and ice and t heir falling on t he
gr ound is called precipi tati on.
 The pr ecipit at ion in t he for m of dr ops of wat er is
called rai nfal l.
 When t emper at ur e is less t han 0C, pr ecipit at ion
t akes place in the for m of fine flakes of snow and is
called snow-fal l.
 Sl eet is fr ozen raindr ops and re-fr ozen melt ed snow
wat er. I t may be a mixt ur e of snow and r ain or
mer ely par t ially melt ed snow.
 Precipitat ion in t he for m of hard rounded pellet s is
called hai l.
OCEANS
Su bm ar i n e Tr en ch es or D eep s
 These are deepest par ts of the oceans with their
bottoms far below the average level of the ocean floors.
 A long, nar r ow and st eep sided depr ession on t he
ocean bot t om is called tr ench.
Su bmar i n e Can yon s
 These ar e deep gor ges on t he ocean floor.
 These ar e st rikingly deep valleys wit h st eep slopes
t hat for m long, concave pr ofiles.
Paci f i c Ocean
 I t is lar gest of all t he wat er bodies.
 Toget her wit h it s associat ed seas, it cover s about
one-t hir d of t he ear t h’s sur face and exceeds t ot al
land ar ea of t he wor ld in size.
 I t is t he deepest of all oceans.
 The major por t ion of t he basin has an aver age
dept h of about 7,300 met r es.
 This vast ocean is dot t ed wit h mor e t han 20,000
islands.
At l an t i c Ocean
 I t is r oughly half t he size of t he Pacific Ocean and
cover s about one-sixt h of t he ear t h’s t ot al ar ea.
 I t r esembles t he let t er S in shape.
 I t has numer ous mar gi nal seas on bot h sides,
especially in it s nor t her n par t .
 I t 's most st r i k i n g feat u r e i s t h e pr esence of
mid-At lant ic Ridge. I t ext ends fr om t he nor t h t o
the south paralleling the S shape of the ocean itself.
I n d i an Ocean
 I t is smaller t han t he At lant ic Ocean.
 I t aver age dept h i s 4,000 met r es w h i ch i s
compar at ively lesser t han t hat of ot her oceans.
 The floor has fewer ir regularities in compar ison to
the other two oceans. Linear deeps are almost absent.
The only except ion is the Sunda Trench, which lies
south of t he island of Java and runs parallel t o it.
OCEAN WATERS
 Temper at ur e and sal ini t y of t he ocean wat er,
det er mine movement s of lar ge masses of wat er.
 Temperature decreases according to the increasing
dept h of t he ocean.
 Gener ally, t emper at ur e in ocean wat er s var ies
fr om below – 5°C t o over 33°C.
 H eat i n g of ocean w at er
There are two main pr ocess of heati ng ocean water:
(i) By absor pt ion of r adiat ion fr om t he sun
(ii) By convect i on of heat t hr ou gh t he ocean
bot t om fr om int er ior of t he ear t h.
 Cool i n g of ocean w at er
Ther e ar e t hr ee main pr ocesses of cooling ocean
wat er.
(i) Back r adiat ion of heat fr om t he sea sur face
(ii) Convect ion
(iii) Evaporation
M OVEM ENT OF WATER
Facts r esponsi bl e for movement of water ar e fol l ows.
1. Sal i n i t y
 Sea wat er cont ains a number of dissolved salt s
which r esult in t he pr oper t y of salinit y.
 The salinity is expressed as the number of gr ams
of dissolved salt s in 1,000 gr ams of sea wat er.
 Aver age salinit y of t he sea wat er is about 35
per t housand or 35%, which means t hat in one
kilogr am of sea wat er t her e ar e 35 gr ams of
dissolved salts.
2. Wav es
 Waves ar e osci ll at or y movement s i n wat er,
manifest ed by an alt er nat e r ise and fall of t he
sea sur face.
 Top par t of a wave is called it s cr est and lower
par t bet ween t wo waves is called tr ough.
 The time t aken by two consecutive cr ests to pass
any fixed point is called wave per i od.
 The ver t ical dist ance bet ween a t r ough and a
cr est is called wave hei ght.
Wave length (L)
Velocit y of wave, C =
Period (T)
 Si ze and for ce of waves depend on three factor s:
(i) Velocit y of t he wind
(ii) Dur at ion of t he wind
(i i i ) Dist ance over which t he wind can blow
unhindered.
 As t he waves move away fr om t he winds t hat
dist ur b smoot hness of sea sur face, t hey begin
t o move in an unifor m pat t er n of equivalent
per iod and height . These t r ains of waves ar e
called swel ls.

3. Ocean cu r r en t s
I t is gener al movement of a mass of wat er in a
fair ly defined dir ect ion over gr eat dist ances.
I t can br oadl y di vi ded i nto two cl asses :
(i ) War m cu r r en t s :
These flow from low latit udes in Tr opical zones
t owar ds high lat it udes in t he Temper at e and
sub-polar zones.
(i i ) Col d cu r r en t s :
These flow fr om high lat it udes t owar ds low
latitudes.
TI D ES
 Sea-water rises regularly twice a day at constant
intervals. This is periodic phenomenon of alternate
rise and fall in the level of the seas is called tides.
 These are produced as a gravitational interaction of
the earth, moon and the sun.
 The sun by virt ue of its bigger size should at tr act
more but owing to its greater distance from the earth
it is unable t o exer t much influence. The moon
t hough much smal l er i n size t han t he sun, i s
relatively very close t o the ear th, and is thus able to
att ract more t han t he sun.
 On the full moon and the new moon, moon and the sun
are almost in a line with the earth. Hence they exert
their combined pull on the earth. Therefore, on these
two days tides are highest and are called as spring tides.
When t he moon is at fir st and last quar t er, t he sun
and t he moon make a r ight angle at t he ear t h’s
cent r e. The at t r act ion of t he sun and t he moon
t ends t o balance each ot her. As a r esult , t ides wit h
l owest ampli t ude occur. These t ides ar e cal led
neap ti des.
 Tides also occur in t he ar ms of t he sea called gulfs.
Gulfs wit h wide fr om and nar r ow r ears exper ience
higher t ides. The height of t hese t ides may be t en
met r es or mor e. When a gulf is connect ed wit h t he
open sea by a nar r ow channel, wat er flows int o t he
gulf at t he t ime of high t ide and comes out of t he
gulf at low t ide. This movement of wat er, inwar d
and out war d is called ti dal cur rent.
GEOGRAPHY 4.7
B I OSPH ERE
 I t r efer s t o t hat par t of t he ear t h in which all life
for ms exist .
 Organisms or life forms in the biosphere vary in size
from minut e bact eria t o large whales or huge tr ees.
 Al l or gani sms may br oadl y be gr ouped under two
categor i es :
(i) Plant kingdom
(i i ) Animal kingdom
 H u man bei ngs ar e one of t he speci es of t he
biospher e called H omo sapi ens.
 St udy of t he int er act ions bet ween or ganisms and
t heir envir onment is called ecol ogy.
 All l i fe for ms ar e made of pr i mari l y three most
abundant elements
Carbon, H ydrogen and Oxygen
Ot her element s such as ni t r ogen, i r on, sulfur,
phosphorus and manganese are required only in small
quantities. These elements are also called nutrients.
 Tr ansfer of ener gy in t he ecosyst em t akes place
in a ser ies of st eps or levels, called food chai n.
Fi r st l evel i n t he food chain ar e plant s call ed
pr oducers. They use light ener gy t o convert carbon
dioxide and wat er t o pr oduce car bohydr at es and
eventually to ot her biochemical molecules required
t o suppor t life. This pr ocess of ener gy conver sion
is called photosynthesi s.
Secon d l evel of t he food chai n ar e pr i mar y
con su mer. T h ese ar e pl an t eat i n g an i mal s
(her bivor es) such as insect s, mice and goat .
Third l evel are the secondar y consumer s, who feed
on t he pr imar y consumer s (car nivor es) such as
owl and lion.
Some of t he species ar e called omni vor es because
t hey ar e bot h her bivor es and car nivor es. H uman
beings come under t his cat egor y.
Decomposer s (microscopic organisms and bacteria)
feed on t he det r it us or decaying or ganic mat t er
der ived fr om all levels. They help in r ecycling
miner al nut r ient s int o ecosyst em and t hus food
chain is complet ed.
 4.8 GEOGRAPHY
I N DI AN GEOGRAPH Y
L OCATI ONAL SETTI NG
 I ndia is often described as a sub-conti nent and is a
par t of the Asian continent.
 I t sprawls between snowy height s of t he H imalaya
and shor es of the I ndian Ocean.
 The countr y get s an abundance of sunshine from
t he t ropical sun and moist ure from t he splashing
monsoon r ains.
 I ndia is sit uat ed in t he Nor t her n H emispher e.
 The Tropic of Cancer passes approximately through
t he middle r egion of t he count r y.
 The nor t her n-most fr inge of I ndia consist s of a
mount ain syst em which r adiat es fr om t he Pamir s,
r oof of t he wor ld, in t he hear t of Asia.
 The hot and humid K anyakumar i const it ut es t he
sout her n-most t ip wher e t he I ndian peninsula,
gett ing narr ower and nar rower, loses itself into t he
ocean.
 Distance from nor thern-most to the southern-most
point s in t he mainland of I ndia is about 3,200
kil omet r es.
 East t o w est , I n di a i s appr oxi mat el y 3,000
kilomet r es long.
 Acr oss t he east er n bor der s of I ndia and t he Bay of
Bengal lie Myanmar (Burma). M alaysia, I ndonesia,
Th ai l and, Cambodi a (K ampu chea), L aos and
Viet nam.
 Acr oss t he west er n bor der s of I ndia lie Pakist an,
I r an, I r aq and t he Ar ab count r ies.
PH YSI OGRAPH I C DI VI SI ON S
At the macr o l evel I ndi a may be di vi ded i nto thr ee
physiographi c uni ts :
1. H I M AL AYAN M OUN TAI N CH AI N
I t consist s of a ser ies of par allel mount ain r anges
wit h bold r elief and ar e char act er ised by highly
r ugged topography.
H i m al ay an M ou n t ai n
H i m al ayan m ou n t ai n ch ai n , al l al on g i t s
longi tudinal axis, is arranged into three main series
of a par al lel ranges :
(i) Great Himalayas
(ii) L esser Himalayas
(iii) Sub-Himalayas
Ot her s as inner, middle and t he out er H imalayas.
I nner H i mal ayas which have an aver age alt it ude
of 6,000 met r es h ave w i t hi n t hem al most al l
pr ominent H imalayan peaks such as
– Mt. Everest (8,848 m), called Sagarmatha in Nepal
and Chomol angma in China
– K anchenjunga (8, 598 m)
– Nanga Par bat (8, 126 m)
– Nanda Devi (7,817 m)
– K2 (8611 m)
– Namcha Bar wa (7,756 m).
2. PL AI N OF I N D I A
I t occupies t he space bet ween Plat eau and t he
nor t her n mountains.
Evolut ion of t he plain is at t r ibut ed t o a pr ocess of
gr adual filling of an init ial r ift valley st r et ched in
fr ont of t he nor t her n mount ains and for med as a
consequence of a fr act ur e in t he cr ust .
(a) Bhabar
(b) Tar ai
(c) Bhangar
(d) Khadar
(e) Deltaic plain
3. PENI N SUL AR PL ATEAU
I t is a block of old cr yst al r ocks lift ed above t he
level of sea in which t hese r ocks wer e deposit ed in
t he Pr e-Cambr ian t imes and never submer ged
again.
I SL A N D S
 I ndian islands in t he Bay of Bengal consist of t he
Andaman and t he Nicobar gr oups.
 Ther e ar e as many as 200 islands in t he Andaman
gr oup alone, ext ending for 350 kilomet r es.
 Ther e ar e 19 islands in t he Nicobar gr oup. Some
of the islands have a length of 60 to 100 km, forming
a clust er sout h of t he Andaman gr oup.
 Arabian Sea I slands consist of Lakshadweep group.
They ar e for med on a cor al deposit off t he K er ala
coast . The sout her most of t he t hese islands lies
just t o t he nor t h of t he M aldives.
REL I EF AN D D RAI N AGE
 The land of I ndia is char act er ised by great diversit y
in it s r elief and dr ainage.
 The H imalaya link t hese diver se cult ur e-gr oups in
a thread which runs invisibly all along the mountain
r ange.
 Nort h I ndian Plain is an ar ea of level and low r elief
an d i t s compar at i vel y u n i f or m su r f ace i s as
impr essive as it s vast ext ent .
 GEOGRAPHY 4.9

DRAI NAGE GEN ERAL I N F ORM AT I ON

On the basi s of or i gi n, the r i ver systems of I ndi a can
WORL D’S B I GGEST COU NT RI ES
be cl assi fi ed i nto two categor i es:
(i n or d er of p op u l at i on )
1. Himalayan r iver s
N ame Popu l at i on Con ti n en t
 These have lar ge basins, t heir cat chment ar eas
(i n Mi l l i on s)
extending over hundreds of t housands of squar e
kil omet r es. China 1, 264.5 Asia
 The I ndus dr ains over an ar ea of appr oximat ely India 1, 002.1 Asia
250,000 sqk m wi t hi n t he H i mal ayan r egi on USA 275.6 Nor t h Amer ica
alone.
I ndonesia 212.2 Asia
 H imalayan r ivers is per ennial.
Brazil 170.1 Sout h America
 H i mal ayan r i ver s whi ch have evol ved t hr ough
Pakist an 150.6 Asia
a l ong and chequer ed hi st or y, con si st of t he
t hr ee pr i nci pal syst ems : Russia 145.2 Europe-Asia
(i) Indus Bangladesh 28.1 Asia
(ii) Ganga Japan 126.9 Asia
(iii) Brahmaputra Nigeria 123.3 Africa
B asi c ar ea of H i m al ay an r i v er s. WORL D ’S SM AL L EST COU N TRI ES
Ri ver s Tot al ba si n Ba si n a r ea w i t h (i n or d er of p op u l at i on )
(km 2) a r ea i n I n d i a (k m 2) N ame Popu l at i on L ocat i on
Indus 1,165,000 321,290 Vatican City 900 Europe
Ganga 1,060,000 861,404 Tuvalu 10, 588 Sout h Pacific
Brahmaputra 580,000 187,110 Nauru 10, 605 Sout h Pacific
2. Pen i n su l ar r i ver s Palau 18, 467 West Pacific
 These flow t hr ough shallow valleys which ar e San Marino 25, 061 Europe
mor e or less complet ely gr aded in most cases. L iecht enst ein 32, 057 Europe
 A lar ge number of t hem ar e seasonal as t heir Manaco 32, 149 Europe
flow is mainly dependent on r ainfall.
St. K it t s-Nevis 45, 000 Eastern
 Many of the Peninsular rivers have, st raight and Caribbean
gener ally linear cour ses.
WORL D’S B I GGEST COU NT RI ES
East f l ow i n g p en i n su l ar r i v er s
(i n or d er of ar ea)
1. Kaveri
N ame Con ti n en t
2. Krishna Russia Europe-Asia
3. Godavari Canada Nor t h Amer ica
4. Mahanadi China Asia
West f l ow i n g p en i n su l ar r i v er s USA Nor t h Amer ica
1. Narmada Brazil Sout h America
Austr alia Austr alia
2. Tapi
India Asia
3. Sabar mati
Argentina Sout h America
4. Mahi
Kazakhstan Asia
5. Saravati Sudan Africa
4.10 GEOGRAPHY

WORLD SM ALLEST COU N TRI ES

(in order of area)

N ame Si ze(i n sq. k m.) L oca tion

Vat ican Ci ty 0.44 Eur ope
M onaco 1.95 Eur ope
N aur u 21.10 Sout h Paci fi c
T uval u 26.00 Sout h Paci fi c
San M ar i no 61.00 Eur ope
L iech t enst ei n 160.00 Eur ope
M ar shal l I sl an ds 181.00 Cen t ral Paci fi c
St . K i t ts-N evi s 269.00 East ern Car i bbean
M al dives 298.00 I ndi an Ocean
M al t a 316.00 M edi t err an ean

LON GEST RI VERS OF TH E WORLD

River Continent Approximate Length River Continent Approximate
Length
(miles) k m. miles k m.
Ni le Afr ica 4,000 6,400 Ob Asia 2,110 3,400
Amazon South 4,000 6,400 I ndus Asia 1,900 3,060
Amer ica
Yangtze Asia 3,430 5,488 San South 1,800 2,900
(Chang- Fr ancisco Amer ica
Jiang) Rio Gr ande Nor t h 1,800 2,900
Amer ica
Yel low Asia 2,900 4,700 Br ahmaputr a Asia 1,800 2,900
(Hwang Ho) Danube Eur ope 1,750 2,820
Cango Afr ica 2,900 4,700 Euphr ates Asia 1,700 2,740
Missour i Nor t h 2,710 4,360 Or inoco South 1,700 2,740
Amer ica Amer ica
Amur Asia 2,700 4,345 Zambezi Afr ica 1,600 2,575
L ena Asia 2,650 4,260 Murr ay Australia 1,600 2,575
Niger Afr ica 2,600 4,180 Ganges Asia 1,560 2,510
M ekong Asia 2,600 4,180 Arkanas Nor t h 1,450 2,330
Amer ica
Mackenzie Nor t h 2,514 4,046 Dnieper Eur ope 1,420 2,290
Peace Amer ica
Mississippi Nor t h 2,350 3,780 Color ado Nor t h 1,400 2,250
Amer ica Amer ica
St . Nor t h 2,350 3,780 I rrawaddy Asia 1,300 2,090
L awr ence Amer ica
Volga Eur ope 2,290 3,685 Tigr is Asia 1,150 1,850
 GEOGRAPHY 4.11

LARGEST I SLAN DS OF TH E WORLD

I sland Location Ar ea
(sq.mi.) (sq.km.)

Gr eenland (int egr al par t of Denmar k) Atlant ic Ocean 840.000 2,166,086

New Guinea (west er n sect ion is called I r ian Jaya and is Pacific Ocean 312.000* 808,000
par t of I ndonesia; east er n sect ion for ms most of Papua
New Guinea, which gained it s independence in 1975)

Bor neo (sout her n par t is par t of I ndonesia; nor t her n par t is Pacific Ocean 287,000* 743,300
made up of Sult anat e of Br unei and t wo st at es of M alaysia)

Madagascar (independent countr y) I ndian Ocean 226,657 587,041

Baffin (par t of Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 183,810 476,067
Sumat r a (par t of I ndonesia) I ndian Ocean 182,860 473,607

Gr eat Br it ain (consist ing of England, Scot land, and Wales) Atlant ic Ocean 88,760 229,885

H onshu (one of t he main islands of Japan) Pacific Ocean 88,000* 228,000

Ellesmer e (par t of Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 82,119 212,688

Vict or ia (par t of Nor t hwest Ter r it or ies, Canada) Ar ct ic Ocean 81,930 212,199

Sulawesi or Celebes (par t of I ndonesia) Pacific Ocean 72,987 189,036

Sout h I sland (par t of New Zealand) Pacific Ocean 58,093 150,461

Java (par t of I ndonesia) Pacific Ocean 48,000* 126,392

Nor t h I sland (par t of New Zealand) Pacific Ocean 44,281 114,688

Cuba (independent countr y) Car ibbean Sea 44,218 114,525

Newfoundland (par t of Canada) Atlant ic Ocean 43,359 112,300

L uzon (one of t he main island of Philippines) Pacific Ocean 41,000* 106,200

I celand (independent count r y) Atlant ic Ocean 39,768 103,000

M indanao (one of t he main islands of Philppines) Pacific Ocean 37,000* 95,800

I r eland (sout her n par t is an independent count r y; nor t her n Atlant ic Ocean 32,597 84,426
par t is par t of t he Unit ed K ingdom)

H okkaido (one of t he main islands of Japan) Pacific Ocean 30,077 77,899

H ispaniola (east er n par t is t he Dominican Republic; Car ibbean Sea 29,530 76,484
west er n par t is H ait i)

Sr i L anka (independent count r y) I ndian Ocean 25,332 65,610

Tasmania (Aust r alian st at e) Pacific Ocean 24,450 63,326

* Appr oximate ar ea.

4.12 GEOGRAPHY

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 11. To which count r y does t he t r adi t ional mar t ial
1. Which of t he following count r ies is not adjacent for m Taekwondo belong ?
t o Afghanist an ? (a) K or ea (b) Japan
(a) Uzbekistan (b) Tur kmenist an (c) China (d) Cuba
(c) Tajikistan (d) Russia 12. I ndian por t t hat bagged t he I SO 9002 awar d is
2. Which is not a neighbour ing st ate of Jhar khand ? (a) Paradip (b) Visakhapatnam
(a) Madhya Pr adesh (b) Bihar (c) Haldia (d) Tut icor in
(c) West Bengal (d) Or issa 13. Which US rice gr owing company has been granted
t he pat ent of I ndian Basmat i ?
3. Tamil Nadu coast r eceives r ains bot h in summer
(a) Kasmati (b) Tax Rice
and wint er due t o t he influence of
(c) Rice Tec (d) Texmat i
(a) L and and sea br eezes
14. Which of t he following count r ies has t he second
(b) Fr equent cyclones fr om t he Bay of Bengal
lar gest r ail net wor k in t he wor ld ?
(c) S. W. monsoon in summer and N. E. t r ade (a) India (b) U.S.A.
winds in wint er
(c) Russia (d) China
(d) Near ness t o equat or
15. Hindi is wr itten in the Devanagr i Scr ipt. I n which
4. H BJ pipelines car r y nat ur al gas fr om of t he following scr ipt s is Punjabi wr it t en ?
(a) H at hr as t o Bat hinda and Jhansi (a) Sanskr it (b) I ndo-I ranian
(b) Hoshangabad t o Bilaspur and Jabalpur (c) Gur mukhi (d) Devnagr i
(c) H azir a t o Bijaipur and Jagdishpur LEVEL-1
(d) H issar t o Bar mer and Jaisalmer
1. H i r akud dam has been buil t on t he r iver
5. Whi ch one of t he fol l owi ng shi pyar ds bui l ds
war ships for I ndian Navy ? (a) Cauver y (b) Mahanadi
(a) M azgaon Docks, M umbai (c) Kr ishna (d) Yamuna
(b) Cochin Shipyar d, Kochi 2. Wi t h r efer ence t o wat er poll ut ion, BOD means
(c) Hindustan Shipyar d, Visakhapatnam (a) Bi ochemical Oxygen Di lut i on
(d) Gar den Reach Wor kshop, K olkat a (b) Bi ochemical Oxygen Demand
6. The r ank of I ndia in t he cat egor y of The Best (c) Bi o Or ganic Dissol ut es
Educat ion Syst em in Asia is
(d) Basic Or gani c Dissolut es
(a) 4 (b) 3
3. A pp r ox , p er cen t age of ox y gen i n E ar t h 's
(c) 5 (d) 2
at mospher e is
7. The fir st air line to allow flyer s to sur f the net was
(a) 17% (b) 21%
(a) United Air lines
(c) 25% (d) 33%
(b) Singapor e Air lines
(c) Emir at es Air lines 4. L unar Ecl ipse occur s only on a
(d) Air Canada (a) Fi r st quar t er day (b) New moon day
8. Which country is geographically in Nor th America (c) Full moon day (d) L ast quar t er day
but polit ically a par t of Eur ope ? 5. M i r ages gener ally occur in
(a) I celand (b) Gr eenland (a) mount ai ns (b) for est s
(c) Canar y I sland (d) Cuba (c) deser t s (d) sea
9. Wi t h whi ch count r y woul d you associ at e t he 6. I n Oct ober 2014 a cyclone hit Vishak hapat nam.
r eligion Shint oism ?
The name of t he cyclone was
(a) Japan (b) Tibet
(a) K at r ina
(c) Malaysia (d) Vietnam
(b) Hudhud
10. Which cit y is known for it s chiken embr oider y ?
(c) L ai la
(a) Ujjain (b) L uck now
(c) Pune (d) Sur at (d) H el en
 GEOGRAPHY 4.13

7. Which National Park is known for the 'Asiatic 2. Aver age Albedo (over all) of t he Ear t h is:
Lions' ? (a) 5 × 106 candela/day
(a) Corbett National Park (b) 5 × 107 candela/day
(b) Kanha National Park (c) 30 t o 35%
(c) Bandipur National Park
(d) 60 t o 65%
(d) Gir National Park
3. T he i l l u mi n at i on of a beam of l i gh t due t o
8. The Indian Standard Time (I.S.T.) is ahead of scat t er ing on collision wit h par t icles suspended
Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.) by : in a fluid, is called:
(a) 6 hours (a) Raman effect (b) Tyndall effect
(b) 5 hours (c) Snell's effect (d) H uygens effect
(c) 6 hours 30 minutes
4. I nt ensit y of ear t hquake is measur ed in -
(d) 5 hours 30 minutes
(a) Bar omet er scale (b) Pyr omet er scale
9. Red rot is a plant disease which affects :
(c) Tachomet er scale (d) Richt er scale
(a) Wheat (b) Rice
5. Sever al nat ions ar e following a pr ot ocol which
(c) Sugarcane (d) Cotton bi nds t hem t o r educe emi ssi on t ar get s. Thi s
10. Which one of the following is also known as Red pr ot ocol was adopt ed in:
Planet ?
(a) K yoto, Japan (b) Geneva, Swit zer land
(a) Mercury (b) Venus
(c) New Yor k, USA (d) Par is, Fr ance
(c) Earth (d) Mars
6. Which of these r ocks would have alumina as their
11. Galena is an ore of : main component ?
(a) Lead (b) Copper (a) Siliceous (b) Ar gillaceous
(c) Aluminium (d) Iron
(c) Calcar eous (d) I gneous
12. Identify the city which faced large scale
7. Which of t he following phenomenon is r elat ed t o
destructions due to 'Hudhud' cyclone recently ?
t he for mat ion of clouds?
(a) Chennai (b) Vishakhapatnam
(a) Condensation
(c) Kolkata (d) Hyderabad
(b) Evapor ation
13. The most effective farming method for returning
(c) Sublimation
minerals to the soil is
(a) Contour ploughing (d) Vulcanization

(b) Terracing 8. El Nino effect is:

(c) Crop rotation (a) Development of low pr essur e ar eas in sout h
east Asian r egion
(d) Furrowing
(b) Reduct ion in ice caps r esult ing in var iat ion in
14. Winter rains in North-Western India are caused
in solat ion absor pt ion
by
(c) Prolonged warming in the Pacific Ocean surface
(a) Western Disturbances
ar ea
(b) South West Monsoon
(d) Sust ained t or nados in t he east er n coast of
(c) South Easterly Disturbances Nor t h Amer ica
(d) Easterly Disturbances 9. River Damoder is called t he 'Sor r ow of ' .
15. Kaziranga National Park is in (a) Assam (b) Bengal
(a) Uttar Pradesh (b) Tamil Nadu (c) Or issa (d) Ut t ar Pr adesh
(c) Assam (d) Kerala 10. Woollen clot hes keep t he body war m in wint er
LEVEL-2 because-
1. Appr oximat e quant it y of CO2 in t he at mospher e (a) Wool is a bad conduct or of heat
in PPM (par t s per million) is: (b) Wool is a good conduct or of heat
(a) 2 (b) 20 (c) Wool incr eases body t emper at ur e
(c) 200 (d) 400 (d) Wool decr eases body t emper at ur e
4.14 GEOGRAPHY
11. Age of a Tr ee may be ascer t ained by : 13. I dent i fy t he cycl one whi ch caused l ar ge scal e
(a) Radius of it s St em dest r uct i ons i n Vi shak hapat nam t hi s year i n
Oct ober ?
(b) Number of Annual Rings
(a) Phailin (b) Katr ina
(c) Number of Br anches
(c) Hudhud (d) Nilofar
(d) Cir cumfer ence of it s St em
14. Which one of t he following is r enewable r esour ce?
12. The ozone layer is useful for living beings because:
(a) Coal (b) Pet r ol eum
(a) I t ser ves as t he sour ce of oxygen
(c) Natur al Gas (d) Wind
(b) I t maint ains t he t emper at ur e of t he ear t h
15. Which of t hese will not he oxidised by Ozone ?
(c) I t maint ains t he Nit r ogen cycle of t he ear t h
(a) KI (b) FeSO4
(d) I t pr otects t hem fr om har mful ult r aviolet r ays
of t he sun (c) KMnO4 (d) K 2MnO4

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c)
 5
CHAPTER
CON STI TU EN T ASSEM BLY
 Accor ding t o t he r ecommendat ions of t he Cabinet
M ission in 1946, t he Const it uent Assembly was
elect ed indir ect ly by t he Pr ovincial Assemblies in
July 1946.
 Constit uent Assembly had 389 member s including
93 r epr esent at ives of t he Pr incely st at es.
 Congr ess had 211 members and the Muslim League
had 73 member s.
 On 11t h December 1946, t he Assembly elect ed
Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad as it s Pr esident .
 Aft er par tit ion, the Constit uent Assembly was left
wit h only 299 member s.
 On 29t h August , 1947 it appoint ed a Dr aft ing
Commit t ee under t he Chair manship of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar.
 Ot her member s of t he Dr aft ing Commit t ee wer e
N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Alladikr ishan Swami
Ayy ar , K .M . M u n sh i , Sayy i d M d. Saadu l l a,
N. M adhava Rao and D.P. K hait an.
 Const i t ut i on was publ i shed i n Feb. 1948 and
received President’s signature on 26 Nov. 1949 and
was declar ed as passed
 Const it ut ion was officially implement ed on 26t h
Januar y 1950 (dat ed of commencement ).
TH E PREAM BLE
The Preamble as amended in 1976 reads
We t he people of I ndia having solemnly r esolved t o
const it ut e I ndia int o a sover eign Socialist Secular
Democr at ic Republic, and t o secur e t o all it s cit izens.
Just ice social , economic and poli t i cal . L i ber t y of
thought expression, belief, faith and worship. Equality
of st at us and of oppor t unit y; and t o pr omot e among
t hem al l . Fr at er ni t y assur i ng t he di gni t y of t he
individual and t he unit y & int egr it y of t he Nat ion.
“ I n our Constit uent Assembly t his twent y sixt h day of
November 1949 do her eby adopt , enact and give t o
our selves t his Const it ut ion” .
INDIAN POLITY
M eaning and Words in the Preamble
 We the People of I ndia
I t si gn i f i es t h at t h e con st i t u t i on of I n di a i s
or di nat ed by t he peopl e of I ndi a t hr ough t hei r
r epr esen t at i v es assem bl ed i n a sov er ei gn
Const it ut ion Assembly. Thus it declar es t hat t he
ult imat e sover eignt y lies wit h t he people of I ndia.
 Sover eign
I t means t hat t he count r y is fr ee or independent in
i t s ext er nal and i nt er nal mat t er s, t her e i s no
ext er nal subor dination.
 Social ist
I nser t ed in t he Pr eamble by t he 42nd Amendment
Act 1976 it int ended t o give a posit ive dir ect ion t o
the gover nment in for mulating its policies. I t meant
r educing in equalit y in societ y.
 Secular
I t was inser t ed by t he 42nd Amendment Act 1976.
I t means
(i ) t her e is no official r eligion of I ndia
(ii ) t he St at e wi l l not favour or pr omot e any
par t icular r egion.
 D emocr at i c
I t en v i sages n ot on l y a dem ocr at i c f or m of
gover nment but also a democr atic society. As a for m
of gover nment it envisages r epr esent at ive for m of
government.
 Republ i c
I t implies that head of the I ndian state shall neither
be her edit ar y nor dict at or. H e shall be elect ed by
t he people dir ect ly or indir ect ly.
 L iber t y
I t means fr eedom of t hough, expr ession, beli ef,
fait h and wor ship.
 E qualit y
I t means making all discr imination illegal by stat e.
 F r at er nit y
I t means secur ing t he dignity of t he individual and
unit y and int egr it y of t he nat ion.
5.2 INDIAN POLITY

PRESI DEN TS OF I N DI A
N ame Term of PRI M E M I N I STERS OF I N DI A
Office
N ame Term of Office
Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad 1950 - 1962
Jawahar lal Nehr u Aug 15, 1947 - M ay 27, 1964
Dr. Sar vapalli Radhakr ishnan 1962-1967
Guljar i L al Nanda M ay 27, 1964 - June 9, 1964
Dr. Zakir H usain 1967-1969
Var ahagir i Venkat a Gir i May-July L al Bahadur Shastr i June 9, 1964 - Jan 11, 1966
1969 (Acting) Gulijar i L al Nanda Jan 11, 1966 - Jan 24, 1966
Justice Mohammed H idayat ullah July - Aug I ndir a Gandhi Jan 24, 1966 - M ar 24, 1977
1969 (Acting)
M or ar ji Desai M ar 24, 1977 - July 28, 1977
V.V.Gir i 1969-1974
Fakhr uddin Ali Ahmed 1974-1977 Char an Singh July 28, 1979 - Jan 14, 1980

B.D.Jatti Feb-July 1977 I ndir a Gandhi Jan 14, 1980 - Oct 31,1984
(Acting)
Rajiv Gandhi Oct 31, 1984 - Dec 2, 1989
Neelam Sanjeev Reddy 1977-1982
V.P.Singh Dec 2 , 1989 - Nov 9, 1990
Giani Zail Sing 1982- 1987
Chandr asekar Nov 10, 1990 - June 21, 1991
R. Venkat ar aman 1987-1992
P.V. Nar asimha Rao June 21, 1991 - May 15, 1996
Dr. Shankar Dayal Shar ma 1992-1997
K .R. Nar ayanan 1997-2002 A.B. Vajpayee May 16, 1996 - M ay 31, 1996

A.P.J. Abdul K alam 2002-2007 H .D. Deve Gowda June 1, 1996 - Apr il 20, 1997

Pr at ibha Patil 2007-2012 I .K.Gujr al April 21, 1997 - March 19,1998

Pr anab M ukher ji 2012-2017 At al Bihar i Vajpayee M ar ch 19, 1998 -Oct . 13,
Ram Nat h K ovind Fr om 2017 1999

At al Bihar i Vajpayee Oct . 13, 1999 - 22 M ay 2004

VI CE PRESI DEN TS OF I N DI A
Dr. M anmohan Singh M ay 22, 2004 – 26 M ay 2014
N ame Term of
Office Nar endr a M odi Fr om M ay 26, 2014
Dr. S. Radha K r ishnan 1952-1962
Dr. Zakir H usain 1962-1967
V.V.Gir i 1967-1969
Gopal Swar up Pat hak 1969-1974
B.D.Jatti 1974-1979
Mohammed Hidayatullah 1979-1984
R. Venkat ar aman 1984-1987
Dr. Shankar Dayal Shar ma 1987-1992
K .R. Nar ayanan 1992-1997
K r ishan K ant 1997-2002
Bhair on Singh Shekhawat 2002-2007
Shr i M ohammad H amid Ansar i,
also r e-elect ed in 2012 2007 -2017
Shr i Venkaiah Naidu 2017 t ill dat e
 INDIAN POLITY 5.3

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. I n which one of the following ar eas does the St ate
Gover nment not have cont r ol over i t s l ocal
1. N am e t h e com m i t t ee f or t he fr amewor k of
bodies ?
r est r uct ur ed r ailways.
(a) Citizen’s grievances
(a) Jain Commit t ee
(b) Financial mat t er s
(b) Venkat achelliah Commit t ee
(c) L egislat ion
(c) Rakesh M ohan Commit t ee
(d) Per sonnel mat t er s
(d) Dines Goswami Commit t ee
10. Dur ing I ndian Decennial Census Oper at ions
2. Who i s l egal l y compet ent under t he I ndi an
Const it ut ion t o declar e war or conclude peace ? (a) Only I ndians on I ndian soil ar e count ed
(a) The pr esident (b) Both I ndians and for eigner s on I ndian soil ar e
(b) The Pr ime M inist er counted
(c) The Council of M inist er s (c) Bot h I ndians by bir t h and by domicile only
(d) The Par liament ar e count ed
3. What i s t he maxi mum number of mi ni st er s (d) None of t hese
allowed in t he union Cabinet ? 11. As per t he last I ndian Decennial Census, ...... is
(a) 15 (b) 28 t he most lit er at e St at e in t he count r y.
(c) 39 (d) Ther e is no such limit (a) Delhi (b) Mahar ashtr a
4. What is t he minimum age laid down for a per son (c) Ker ala (d) Tamilnadu
t o seek elect ion t o t he L ok Sabha ? 12. As per the Constitut ion of I ndia, a citizen of I ndia
(a) 18 Year s (b) 21 Year s should not be less t han ......... of age t o become
(c) 25 Year s (d) 30 Year s t he Pr esident of I ndia.
5. Which ar t icle of t he Const it ut ion of I ndia gives (a) 30 year s (b) 35 year s
pr ecedence t o const it ut ional pr ovisions over t he (c) 40 year s (d) 50 year s
l aws m ade by t h e U n i on Par l i am en t /St at e
L egislat ur es? 13. Elect r onic Vot ing M achines (EVM s) wer e fir st
used in t he elect ions held in t he year
(a) 13 (b) 32
(a) 1996 (b) 1997
(c) 245 (d) 326
(c) 1998 (d) 1999
6. The meet ings of Rajya Sabha ar e pr esided over
by t he 14. The official language as per t he const it ut ion is
(a) Pr esident (a) Sanskr it (b) Hindi
(b) Vice Pr esident (c) English (d) None of t hese
(c) Pr ime M inist er 15. Who elect s t he Vice-pr esident of I ndia?
(d) Speaker of L ok Sabha (a) M ember s of Rajya Sabha
7. Who is t he Supr eme Commander of t he I ndian (b) M ember s of L ok Sabha
Ar med For ces ?
(c) The union Cabinet
(a) Pr ime M inist er
(d) M ember s of bot h H ouses of Par liament
(b) Defence M inist er
(c) Pr esident LEVEL-1
(d) Chief of t he Ar my St aff 1. An individual who is not a member of either house
8. Accor ding to t he I ndian Constitution, what is the of t he par l iament can be appoi nt ed as a member
minimum educat ional qualificat ion r equir ed for of t he Council of M ini st er s, but he has t o become
cont est ing t he L ok Sabha elect ions ? t he member of t he eit her house in
(a) Post Gr aduat ion (a) 3 mont hs
(b) Graduation (b) 6 mont hs
(c) H igher Secondar y (c) one year
(d) No such qualificat ion is r equir ed (d) 2 year s
5.4 INDIAN POLITY

2. The t er m 'Republ ic' used i n t he pr eamble of t he 9. How long can a Presidential Ordinance remain
Const it ut i on of I ndia impli es in force ?
(a) That t he head of t he st at e is her edi t ar y (a) One year
(b) That t he head of t he st at e i s a const it ut i onal (b) Two months
r ul er (c) Till the President revokes it
(c) That t he h ead of t he st at e i s an el ect ed (d) Six months
r epr esent at ive
10. A freedom not granted to citizens by the Indian
(d) None of t he above Constitution is
3. I n I ndi a, what i s t he mi ni mum per missi ble age (a) to reside and settle in any part of India
for employment i n a fact or y?
(b) move freely throughout Indian territory
(a) 14 year s (b) 16 year s
(c) assemble peacefully even with arms
(c) 18 year s (d) 21 year s
(d) form associations and Unions
4. Who is the speaker of present Lok Sabha ? (As
11. Which out of the following is incorrect regarding
on 01.11.2014)
Lok Sabha?
(a) Smt. Sumitra Mahajan
(a) 530 members are elected from states
(b) Smt. Sushma Swaraj
(b) 20 members are elected from Union
(c) Smt. Meira Kumar Territories
(d) None of these (c) 2 members from Anglo lndian community are
5. The Fundamental Duties of the Indian citizens elected by the community
are incorporated in the following Article of our (d) 2 members of Anglo Indian community are
constitution ? nominated by the President if there is no
(a) Article 21 A member from the Anglo Indian community
(b) Article 51 A 12. Which democratic country has an unwritten
(c) Article 370 A constitution?
(d) Article 1. A (a) United States
6. To be eligible for elected as President, a candidate (b) England
must be : (c) India
(a) Over 25 years of age (d) Canada and America
(b) Over 30 years of age 13. Who presides over the present Lok Sabha when
parliament session is on?
(c) Over 35 years of age
(a) President, Pranab Mukherji
(d) Over 60 years of age
(b) Vice President, Hamid Ansari
7. The Consolidated Fund of India is a fund in which
(c) Prime Minister, Narendra Modi
(a) All taxes except Income Tax collected by the
Union as well as State Governments are (d) Speaker, Sumitra Mahajan
deposited 14. The Indian constitution was written on 26/11/
(b) All money received by or on behalf of the 1949 and came into force on
Government of India is deposited (a) Same day (b) 26.01.1950
(c) The Union as wel1 as state Governments (c) 15.08.1950 (d) 26.01.1952
make equal contribution to this fund 15. A few children between ages 8 and 14 were
(d) Savings of Union and State Governments are rescued from a factory where they worked under
deposited inhuman conditions. Which fundamental right
of the constitution made this possible?
8. Which part of the lndian Constitution reflects the
mind and ideals of the farmers? (a) Right to Education
(a) Preamble (b) Right to Freedom of Speech
(b) Fundamental Rights (c) Right against exploitation
(c) Directive Principles (d) Right to Freedom of Religion
(d) Emergency Provisions
 INDIAN POLITY 5.5
10. The Oat h of Office is conduct ed t o t he Pr esident
LEVEL-2 of I ndia by
1. By whi ch const i t ut i onal amendment di d t he (a) The Speaker of L ok Sabha
Par l i am en t acqu i r e t h e r i gh t t o am en d (b) The Chief Just ice ofIndia
Fundamental Rights? (c) The Vice-Pr esident of I ndia
(a) 23r d (b) 24th (d) The Pr ime-M inist er of I ndia
(c) 25 th
(d) 26 th
11. Which one is a par t of t he Dir ect ive Pr inciple of
2. H ow many Fundament al Right s ar e guar ant eed St at e Policy ?
by t he Const it ut ion of I ndia? (a) Right t o equalit y befor e law
(a) 7 (b) 3 (b) Right t o adult fr anchise
(c) 5 (d)6 (c) Or ganisat i on of Tr ade U nions and wor ker s
rights
3. An int er pr et at ion of t he I ndian Const it ut ion is
based on t he spir it of t he- (d) Or ganisat ion of Village Panchayat s
(a) Fundament al r ight s 12. The implement of which one of t he following does
not need any legislat ion?
(b) Fundament al dut ies
(a) Fundament Right s and Dut ies
(c) Pr eamble
(b) Dir ect ive pr inciples of St at e Policy.
(d) Dir ective pr inciples
(c) Pr omot ion of communit y welfar e
4. To be eligible for member ship of t he L ok Sabha,
(d) Suggest ion t o St at es for cit izen welfar e.
a per son should be at least :
13. Which special ar ea r elat ed t o childr en is included
(a) 18 year s of age (b) 30 year s of age
in t he Dir ective Pr inciples of St ate Policy in I ndia
(c) 35 year s of age (d) 25 year s of age (a) Ear ly child ood car e and educat ion
5. Who is t he Chair man of Rajya Sabha ? (As on (b) Compulsor y educat ion for all
01.11.2014)
(c) Educat ion upt o age of 14
(a) Sumit r a Mahajan (b) Hamid Ansar i
(d) Fr ee edu cat i on for Economi cal l y weak er
(c) Ar un Jait ley (d) Thambi Dur ai sect ions
6. Who of t he following is r egar ded as t he ar chit ect 14. Which amendment added Fundamental Duties to
of t he I ndian Const it ut ion ? t he I ndian Const it ut ion?
(a) Pandit Nehr u (b) B.R. Ambedkar (a) 37t h Amendment act in 1975
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (P) Rajendr a Pr asad
(b) 41 Amendment act in 1976
7. What was t he over all vot ing per cent age in t he
(c) 38t h Amendment act in 1975
r ecent l y hel d Gener al El ect i ons for 16t h L ok
Sabha ? (d) 42nd Amendment Act in 1976
(a) About 60% 15. Which aspect would need r egulat ion if t her e is
mor e For eign Dir ect I nvest ment in hor t icult ur e?
(b) About 55%
(c) About 66% (a) Consumpt ion of wat er and r ight s of far mer s
t o wat er
(d) About 78%
(b) Soil conser vat ion , and r enewal using nat ur al
8. M oney can be spent out of t he Consolidated Fund
pr ocesses
of I ndia
(a) wit h t he appr oval of t he Pr esident (c) Subsidy t o far mer s, for spending t ime away
fr om t heir far ms
(b) wit h t he appr oval of t he Par liament
(d) Education of far mer s on advantages of growing
(c) wit h t he appr oval of t he CAG
ot her cr ops
(d) wit h t he appr oval of t he above aut hor it ies
9. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng i s not a condi t i on for
becoming a Cit izen of I ndia ?
(a) Birth (b) Descent
(c) Acquiring property (d) Natur alisation
5.6 INDIAN POLITY

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a)

 6
CHAPTER CURRENT AFFAIRS
I M PORTAN T DATES
May 31 Wor ld No Tobacco Day
Jan 1 Ar my M edical Cor ps Est ablishment Day June 5 Wor ld Envir onment Day
Jan 8 Afr ican National Congr ess Foundation Day June 21 I nt er nat ional Yoga Day
Jan 10 Wor ld L aught er Day July 1 Doct or 's Day
Jan 12 Nat ional Yout h Day (Bi r t hday of Swami July 4 Amer ican I ndependence Day
Vivekanand)
July 11 Wor ld Populat ion Day
Jan 15 Ar my Day July 26 K ar gil Vict or y Day
Jan 23 N et aj i Subh ash Ch andr a B ose's bi r t h Aug 9 Quit I ndia M ovement Day
anniver sar y
Aug 12 I nt er nat ional Yout h Day
Jan 25 I nt er nat i onal Cust oms Dut y Day, I ndi a
Tour ism Day Aug 14 Pakist an's I ndependence Day
Jan 26 Republic Day Aug 15 I ndia's I ndependence Day
Jan 28 Bir t h anniver sar y of L ala L ajpat Rai Aug 19 Wor ld Phot ogr aphy Day
Jan 30 (M ar t y r 's day ) M ah at m a Gan dh i 's Aug 20 Sadbhavna Divas
Martyr dom Day; World Leprosy Er adication Aug 29 Spor ts Day (Dhyanchand's bir thday)
Day Sept 5 Teacher 's Day
Feb 2 Nat ional day of Sr ilanka Sept 7 For giveness Day
Feb 5 K ashmir Day (Or ganised by Pakist an) Sept 8 I nt er nat ional L it er acy Day
Feb 13 Sar ojini Naidu's Bir th Anniver sar y Sept 14 H indi Day, Wor ld Fir st Aid Day
Feb 14 St . Valent ine's Day Sept 16 Wor ld Ozone Day
Feb 24 Cent r al Excise Day Sept 25 Social Just ice Day
Feb 28 Nat ional Science Day Sept 27 Wor ld Tour ism Day
M ar 3 Nat ional Defence Day Oct 2 Gandhi Jayanti
M ar 4 Nat ional Secur it y Day Oct 3 Wor ld Nat ur e Day
M ar 8 I nt er nat ional Women's Day Oct 4 Wor ld Animal Day
M ar 12 Maur itius Day; Cent r al I ndustr ial Secur ity Oct 5 Wor ld H abit at Day; Wor ld Teacher 's Day
For ce Day Oct 6 Wor ld Wildlife Day
M ar 15 Wor ld Consumer Day Oct 8 I ndian Air for ce Day
M ar 16 National Vaccinat ion Day Oct 9 Wor ld Post al Day
M ar 19 Wor ld Disabled Day Oct 10 Wor ld M ent al H ealt h Day,
M ar 21 Wor ld For est r y Day Nat ional Post Day
M ar 22 Wor ld Day for Wat er Oct 17 I nt er nat ional Pover t y Er adication Day
M ar 23 Wor ld M et er ological Day Oct 20 Nat ional Solidar ity Day
M ar 24 Wor ld TB Day Oct 24 Unit ed Nat ions Day
M ar 26 Bangladesh L iber at ion Day Nov 7 I nfant Pr ot ect ion Day,
Apr il 1 Or issa Day Wor ld Cancer Awar eness Day
Apr il 5 Nat ional M ar it ime Day Nov 9 Pravasiya Bharatiya Divas , Legal Services Day
Apr il 7 Wor ld H ealt h Day Nov 10 Tr anspor t Day
Apr il 14 B .R. A m bedk ar Rem em ber an ce D ay ; Nov 14 Childr en's Day, Wor ld Diabet ics day
Fir e Ext inguishing Day Nov 17 Gur u Nanak Dev's Bir t h Anniver sar y
Apr il 18 Wor ld H er it age Day Nov 26 L aw Day
Apr il 22 Wor ld Ear t h Day Nov 30 Flag Day
Apr il 23 Wor ld Books Day Dec 1 Wor ld AI DS Day
M ay 1 I nt er nat ional L abour Day (M ay Day) Dec 4 Navy Day
M ay 3 I nter nat ional Ener gy Day Dec 7 Ar med For ces Flag Day
M ay 8 I nt er nat ional Red Cr oss Day Dec 10 H uman Right s Day
May 11 Nat ional Technology Day Dec 11 UNI CEF Day
May 15 I nt er nat ional Family Day Dec 14 Nat ional Ener gy Conser vat ion Day
May 17 Wor ld Telecom Day Dec 19 Goa's L iber at ion Day
May 24 Commonwealt h Day Dec 23 K isan Divas (Far mer 's day)
 6.2 CURRENT AFFAIRS

FI RST I N TH E WORLD
The fir st per son t o r each M ount Ever est Sher pa Tenzing, Edmund H illar y
The fir st per son t o r each Nor t h Pole Rober t Pear y
The fir st per son t o r each Sout h Pole Amundsen
The fir st r eligion of t he wor ld H induism
The fir st count r y t o pr int book China
The fir st count r y t o i ssue paper cur r ency China
The fir st count r y t o commence compet it ive examinat ion China
in civil ser vices
The fir st Pr esident of t he U.S.A. Geor ge Washingt on
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of Br it ain Rober t Walpole
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of t he Unit ed Nat ions Tr igveli (Nor way)
The fir st count r y t o win foot ball Wor ld cup Ur uguay
The fir st count r y t o pr epar e a const it ut ion U.S.A.
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of Paki st an M ohd. Ali Jinnah
The fir st count r y t o host NAM summit Belgr ade (Yugoslavia)
The fir st Eur opean t o at t ack I ndia Alexander , The Gr eat
The fir st Eur opean t o r each China M ar co Polo
The fir st per son t o fly aer oplane Wr ight Br ot her s
The fir st per son t o sail r ound t he wor ld M agellan
The fir st count r y t o send man t o t he moon U.S.A.
The fir st count r y t o l aunch Ar t ificial sat ellit e in t he space Russia
The fir st count r y t o host t he moder n Olympics Gr eece
th
The fir st ci t y on which t he atom bomb was dr opped H ir oshima (Japan) (6 Aug. 1945)
The fir st per son t o l and on t he moon Neil Ar mst r ong followed by Edwin E. Aldr in
The fir st shut t le t o go in space Columbia
The fir st spacecr aft t o r each on M ar s Viking-1
The fir st woman Pr ime M i nist er of England M ar gar et That cher
The fir st muslim Pr ime M inist er of a count r y Benazir Bhut t o (Pakist an)
The fir st woman Pr ime M i nist er of a count r y M r s. S. Bhandar nai ke (Sr i L anka)
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est M r s. Junko Tabei (Japan)
The fir st woman cosmonaut of t he wor ld Velent ina Ter eshkova (Russi a)
The fir st woman Pr esi dent of t he U.N. Gener al Assembly Vijaya Lak shmi Pandi t
The fir st man t o fly I nt o space Yur i Gagar in (Russia)
The fir st bat sman t o scor e t hr ee t est cent ur y in t hr ee M ohd. Azhar uddin
successive t est s on debut
The fir st man t o have climbed M ount Ever est t wice Nawang Gombu
The fir st U.S. Pr esident t o r esign Pr esidency Richar d Nixon
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.3
FI RST I N I N DI A
M ale
The fir st Pr esident of I ndian Republic Dr. Rajendr a Pr asad
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of fr ee I ndia Pt . Jawahar L al Nehr u
The fir st I ndian t o win Nobel Pr ize Rabindr anath Tagor e
The fir st Pr esident of I ndian Nat ional Congr ess W. C. Baner jee
The fir st M uslim Pr esident of I ndian Badr uddin Tayyabji
Nat ional Congr ess
The fir st M uslim Pr esident of I ndia Dr. Zakir H ussain
The fir st Br it ish Gover nor Gener al of I ndia L or d William Bent inck
The fir st Br it ish Vicer oy of I ndia L or d Canning
The fir st Gover nor Gener al of fr ee I ndia L or d M ount bat t en
The fir st and t he last I ndian t o be Gover nor Gener al C. Rajgopalachar i
of fr ee I ndia
The fir st man who I nt r oduced pr int ing pr ess in I ndia James H icky
The fir st I ndian t o join t he I .C.S. Sat yendr a Nat h Tagor e
I ndia's fir st man in space Rakesh Shar ma
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of I ndia who r esigned wit hout M or ar ji Desai
complet ing t he full t er m
The fir st I ndian Commander -in-Chief of I ndia Gener al Car iappa
The fir st Chief of t he Ar my St aff Gen. M ahar aj Rajendr a Singhji
The first I ndian member of the Viceroy's executive council S. P. Sinha
The fir st Pr esident of I ndia who died while in office Dr. Zakir H ussain
The fir st Pr ime M inist er of I ndia who did not face Char an Singh
t he Par liament
The fir st Field M ar shal of I ndia S. H . F. M anekshaw
The fir st I ndian t o get Nobel pr ize in Physics C. V. Raman
The fir st I ndian t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na awar d Dr. Radhakr ishnan
The fir st I ndian t o cr oss English channel M ihir Sen
The fir st per son t o r eceive Gynanpit h awar d Sr i Shankar K ur up
The fir st Speaker of t he L ok Sabha Ganesh Vasudeva M avalankar
The fir st Vice-pr esident of I ndia Dr. Radhakr ishnan
The fir st Educat ion M inist er Abul Kalam Azad
The fir st H ome M inist er of I ndia Sar dar Vallabh Bhai Patel
The fir st I ndian Air Chief M ar shal S. M ukher jee
The fir st I ndian Naval Chief Vice Admir al R. D. K at ar i
The fir st judge of int er nat ional Cour t of Just ice Dr. Nagendr a Singh
The fir st per son t o r eceive Par amveer Chakr a M ajor Somnat h Shar ma
The fir st per son t o r each M ount Ever est wit hout oxygen Sher pa Anga Dor jee
The fir st Chief Elect ion Commissioner Sukumar Sen
The fir st per son t o r eceive M agsaysay Awar d Achar ya Vinoba Bhave
The fir st per son of I ndian or igin t o r eceive Har govind K hur ana
Nobel Pr ize in M edicine
The fir st Chinese t r aveller t o visit I ndia Fahein
The fir st per son t o r eceive St alin Pr ize Saifuddin Kitchlu
The fir st per son t o r esign fr om t he cent r al cabinet Shyama Pr asad M ukher jee
The fir st for eigner t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
The fir st per son t o r eceive Nobel Pr ize in Economics Amar t ya Sen
The fir st Chief Just ice of Supr eme Cour t Just ice H ir alal J. K ania
F emale
The fir st lady t o become ‘‘M iss Wor ld’’ Rit a Far ia
The fir st woman judge in Supr eme Cour t M r s. M eer a Sahib Fat ima Bibi
The fir st woman Ambassador M iss C.B. M uthamma
The fir st woman Gover nor of a St at e in fr ee I ndia M r s. Sar ojini Naidu
The fir st woman Pr ime M inist er M r s. I ndir a Gandhi
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est Bachhendr i Pal
The fir st woman t o climb M ount Ever est t wice Sant osh Yadav
 6.4 CURRENT AFFAIRS

The fir st woman Pr esident of t he M r s. Annie Besant

I ndian National Congr ess
The fir st woman chief just ice of a H igh Cour t M r s. L eela Set h
The fir st woman pilot in I ndian Air For ce H ar it a Kaur Dayal
The fir st woman Pr esident of t he M r s. Vijaya L axmi Pandit
Unit ed Nat ions Gener al Assembly
The fir st woman Chief M inist er of an I ndian St at e M r s. Suchet a Kr ipalani
The fir st woman chair man of Roze M illian Bet hew
Union Public Ser vice Commission
The fir st woman Dir ect or Gener al of Police (DGP) Kanchan Chaudhar y Bhattachar ya
The fir st woman L ieut enant Gener al Puneet a Ar or a
The fir st woman Air vice M ar shal P Bandopadhyaya
The fir st woman chair per son of I ndian Air lines Sushma Chawla
The fir st woman I .P.S. Officer M r s. K ir an Bedi
The fir st and t he last M uslim woman r uler of Delhi Razia Sultan
The fir st woman t o r eceive Ashoka Chakr a Nir ja Bhanot
The fir st woman t o cr oss English Channel Aar ti Saha
The fir st woman t o r eceive Nobel Pr ize M ot her Ter esa
The fir st woman t o r eceive Bhar at Rat na M r s. I ndir a Gandhi
The fir st woman t o r eceive Gyanpit h Awar d Ashapur na Devi
POPU LAR N AM ES OF PERSON ALI TI ES
Popular N ame Personality Popular N ame Personality
L ady wit h t he lamp Flor ence Night ingale L okmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Gr and Old man of I ndia Dadabhai Naor oji Bapu Mahatma Gandhi
I r on Duke Duke of Wellingt on Apost le of Fr ee Tr ade Richar d Cobden
Gur u Ji M .S. Golwalkar Netaji Subhash Chandr a Bose
John Bull England and Deser t Fox Gen. Rommel
Night ingle of I ndia Sar ojini Naidu
t he English people
L al, Bal, Pal L ala L ajpat Rai,
CR Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
K ing M aker Ear l of War wick Bipin Chandr a Pal
JP Jayapr akash Nar ayan Fat her of English Poetr y Geoffer y Chaucer
L it t le Cor por al Napoleon Feuhr er H itler
Mahamana Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya I r on man Sar dar Vallabh Bhai Patel
Gurudev Rabindr anath Tagor e I ke Gen. Eisenhower
M aid of Or leans Joan of Ar c Tomy At kins English soldier
Desh Bandhu C.R. Das Jawan I ndian soldier
Pool u Fr ench soldier
Deen Bandhu C.F. Andr ews
Vizzy Mahar aja K umar
Yank ee I nhabit ants of U.S.A
of Vizianagar a
L ion of t he Punjab L ala Lajpat Rai G.I . Amer ican soldier
(Sher -e-Punjab) Wizar d of t he Nor t h Sir Walt er Scot
Bar d of Avon Shakespear e Samuel Clemens M ar k Twain
Panditji Jawahar lal Nehr u Spar r ow Major Gen.Rajender Singh
M an of Blood Bismar k Shastr iji L al Bahadur Shastr i
Andhr a K esr i T. Pr akasam Babuji Jagjiwan Ram

GEOGRAPH I CAL DI SCOVERI ES

Discovery Discoverer Discovery Discoverer
Amer ica Chr ist opher Columbus New Foundland Gobot Sebastian
Sea r out e t o I ndia via Vasco-de-Gama H udson Bay H enr y H udson
Cape of Good H ope Sailor of t he wor ld Magellan
Solar syst em Coper nicus M ount Ever est Edmund Hillar y
Planet s Kepler Fir st per son t o set Neil Ar mst r ong
Sout h Pole Amundsen foot on t he moon
Nor t h Pole Rober t Pear y Tasmania island Tasman
China M ar co Polo Cape of t he Good H ope Baur t ho Romeiodeis
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.5
CAPI TALS AN D CU RREN CI ES OF COU N TRI ES
Count r y Capit al Cur r ency Count r y Capital Cur r ency
ASI A E U ROPE
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani Andorr a Andorr a Eur o
Bahr ain Manama Bahr aini Dinar la- vella
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka Ar menia Yer evan Dr am
Bhutan Thimpu Ngult r um Austria Vienna Eur o
China Beijing Yuan Azerbaijan Baku Manat
India New Delhi I ndian Rupee Belar us Minsk Russian Rouble
I ndonesia Djakar ta Rupiah Belgium Br ussels Eur o
Bosnia Her jegovina Sar ajevo Dinar
I r an Tehr an Riyal
Nor way Oslo Norwegian Krone
I raq Baghdad I r aqi Dinar
Croatia Zagr eb Kuna
I sr ael Tel Aviv Shekel
Por tugal L isbon Eur o
Japan Tok yo Yen
Cyprus Nicosia Eur o
Jor dan Amman Jor dan Dinar
Czech Republic Pr ague Kor una
Taiwan Taipei New Taiwan
Denmar k Copenhagen Danish K r one
Philippines Manila Piso Estonia Tallinn Eur o
Qatar Doha Qatar i Riyal Finland H elsinki Eur o
Saudi Ar abia Riyadh Riyal (SAR) Fr ance Par is Eur o
Singapor e Singapor e Singapor e Dollar Geor gia Tbilisi L ar i
Sr i L anka Sr i Jaya Sr i L ankan Rupee Ger many Ber lin Eur o
wordenapur a Gr eece Athens Eur o
K ot le Hungar y Budapest For int
Syria Damascus Syr ian Pound I celand Reykavik Kr ona
Cambodia Phnom Penh Riel I r eland Dublin Eur o
Kazakhstan Akmola Tenge Lithuania Vilnius Lit as
K or ea (Nor t h) Pyongyang Won (K PW) L uxembur g L uxembur g Eur o
K or ea (Sout h) Seoul Won (K RW) Macedonia Skopje Dinar
L ebanon Beir ut L ebnanese Pound Malta Valletta Eur o
Moldova Chisinau L eu
Malaysia K uala L umpur Malaysian Ringgit
M onaco M onaco Eur o
Maldives Male Rufiyaa
M ont enegr o Podogor ica Eur o
Mangolia Ulan-Bator Tugr ik
Nether lands Amster dam Eur o
Myanmar Yangoon Kyat
Bulgar ia Sofia L ev
Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese Rupee
Poland Warsaw Zlot y
Oman Muscat Omani Rial
Romania Buchar est L ei
Pakist an I slamabad Pakistani Rupee
Russia M oscow Rouble
Tajikistan Dushambe Tajik Rouble San M ar ino San M ar ino I talian L ir a
Thailand Bangkok Baht Slovakia Br atislava Eur o
Tur k ey Ankara Tur kish L ir a Slovenia Ljubljana Eur o
Turkemenistan Ashkabad Manat Spain Madrid Eur o
(TMM) Sweden St ock holm Krona(SEK)
United Ar ab Abu Dhabi Dir ham Switzerland Ber ne Swiss Fr anc
Emir at es Ukr aine Kiev Kar bovanets
Uzbekistan Tashkent Som (UK S) United Kingdom L ondon Pound St er ling
Vietnam Hanoi Dong Vatican City Vatican City I talian L ir a
Yemen Sana Riyal (YER) I taly Rome Eur o
6.6 CURRENT AFFAIRS

Count r y Capit al Cur r ency Count r y Capit al Cur r ency

AF RI CA N ORTH AM ERI CA
Botswana Gabor one Pula Antigua and St . Johns Dollar
Burkina Barbuda
Faso Ouagadougou Fr anc (CFA) Bahamas Nassau Dollar
Burundi Bujumbur a Bur undi Fr anc Barbados Br idgetown Dollar
Camer oon Yaoundi Fr anc (CFA) Belize Belmopan Dollar
Cape Ver de Pr aia Cape Verde Escudo Canada Ottawa Canadian Dollar
Centr al Bangui Fr anc (CFA) Panama Panama Cit y Balboa
African Costa Rica San Jose Colon
Republic Cuba Havana Peso
The Gambia Banjul Dalasi Dominica Roseau St er ling
Ghana Accr a Cedi Unit ed St at es Washington D.C. Dollar
Guinea Conakr y Guinean Fr anc of Amer ica
Guinea Bissau Bissau Peso Guatemala Guat emala City Quetzal
Haiti Por t -au-Pr ince Gour de
Kenya Nair obi K enya Shilling
Hondur as Tegucigalpa Lempir a
L esot ho Maser u L ot i
Jamaica Kingst on Dollar
Chad N' D' Jamena Fr anc (CFA)
M exico M exico Cit y Peso
Comor os M or oni Comor ian Fr anc
Nicar agua Managua Cor doba
Madagascar Antananrivo Malagasy Fr anc
St . K it s and Basset er r e Dollar
Congo Br azzaville Fr anc (CFA)
Nevis
I vor y Coast Yamoussoukro Fr anc (CFA)
Tr inidad and Por t-of-Spain Dollar
Djibouti Djibouti Djibout i Fr anc
Tobago
Egypt Cair o Egyptian Pound El Salvador San Salvador Colon
Maur itius Por t L ouis Maur it ius Rupee Gr enada St . Geor ge Dollar
M or occo Rabat Dir ham
SOU TH AM ERI CA
Mozambique Maputo Metical
Namibia Windhock Rand Ar gentina Buenos Air es Austr al (Pesu)
Bolivia L a Paz Boliviano
Niger Niamey Fr anc
Brazil Br asilia Cr uzeir o
Niger ia L agos Nair a
Chile Santiago Peso
Rwanda Kigali Fr anc
Colombia Bogota Peso
Senegal Dakar Fr anc
Ecuador Quit o S-or e
Seychelles Victor ia Rupee
Guyana Geor get own Dollar
Sier r a L eone Fr eet own L eone
Par aguay Asuncion Guar ani
Liber ia M onor ovia L iber ian Dollar
Per u L ima Nuevosol
Libya Tr ipoli L ibyan Dinar
Sur inam Par amar ibo Guilder
Malawi L ilongwe Kwacha
Ur uguay M ontevideo Peso
Mali Bamako Fr anc (CFA) Venezuela Caracas Boliver
Maur itania Nouakchot t Ouguiya Fr ench Guyana K oenne Fr anc
Somalia Mogadishu Shilling
OCEAN I A
Sout h Afr ica Cape Town Rand
Australia Canberr a Australian Dollar
Sudan K har t oum Pound Fiji Suva Fiji Dollar
Swaziland Mbabane Lilangeni Naur u Naur u Dollar
Tanzania Dar -es-Salaam Shilling New Zealand Willingt on New Zealand
Togo L ome Fr anc Dollar
Tunisia Tunis Dinar Papua Por t M or esby Kina
Uganda Kampala Shilling New Guinea
Zambia Lusaka Kwatcha Solomon I sland H oniar a Dollar
Zimbabwe H ar ar e Zimbabwe Dollar Tonga Nukualofa Panga
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.7
U N I TED N ATI ON ORGAN I SATI ON
• Wor ld's lar gest int er nat ional or ganisat ion and a successor of L eague of Nat ions. (L eague of Nat ions was
for med aft er t he I Wor ld War, but it failed).
• The Char t er of t he UN was signed at San Fr ancisco on June 26, 1945, at a meet ing of t he r epr esent at ives of
50 st at es, r epr esent ing 2/3r d of t he wor ld populat ion.
• The Char t er or Const it ut ion was for med at Dumbar t on Oaks (Washingt on DC) Confer ence by USSR, UK ,
US and China.
• For mally came int o exist ence on Oct 24, 1945.
• Fir st r egular session was held in L ondon in Jan,1946 and Tr ygve Le (Nor way) was elect ed the fir st Secr et ar y
Gener al.
• H eadquar t er s locat ed at Fir st Avenue, UN Plaza, New Yor k Cit y, New Yor k, US.
• The pr esent member ship of UN is 192. Swit zer land was The 190t h (in 2002), East Timor was t he 191st (in
2002), while M ont enegr o became t he 192nd member in 2006.
• US, UK , China, Fr ance and Russia ar e t he per manent member s of t he Secur it y Council.
• The pr esent Secr et ar y Gener al of UN is Ant onio Gut er r es of Por t ugal.
SOM E I M PORTAN T U .N . AGEN CI ES
N ame of Agency E st d.in H eadquar t er s Pur pose
I nter national L abour 1919 Geneva To impr ove living condit ions and
Or ganisation (I L O) st andar d of wor ker s.
Wor ld H ealt h Or ganisat ion 1948 Geneva At t ainment of highest possible level
(WHO) of healt h by all people.
Unit ed Nat ions Educat ional, 1946 Par is To pr omot e collabor at ion among
Scientific and Cultur al nat ions t hr ough educat ion, science
Or ganisation (UNESCO) and cult ur e.
I nter national At omic 1957 Vienna To pr omot e peaceful Ener gy uses of
Ener gy Agency (I AEA) at omic ener gy.
Unit ed Nat ions I nt er nat ional 1946 New Yor k To pr omot e childr en's welfar e all
Childr en's Emer gency over t he wor ld.
Fund (UNI CEF)
Unit ed Nat ions Confer ence on 1964 Geneva Pr omot es int er nat ional t r ade t o
Tr ade and Development . acceler at e economic gr owt h of
(UNCTAD) developing count r ies.
I nt er national Civil Aviat ion 1947 Mont r eal Pr omot es safet y of int er nat ional
Or ganisation (I CAO) aviation.
I nt er nat ional M onet ar y Fund 1945 Washingt on D.C. Pr omot es int er nat ional monet ar y
(I MF) cooper at ion.
Unit ed Nat ions Envir onment al 1972 Nair obi Pr omot es int er nat ional co-oper at ion
Pr ogr amme (UNEP) in human envir onment .
Unit ed Nations I ndust r ial 1967 Geneva Set s int er nat ional r egulat ions for
Development Or ganisation r adio, t elegr aph, t elephone and
(UNI DO) space r adio communicat ion.
I nt er nat ional Bank for 1945 Washingt on D.C. Development of economies of
Reconst r uct ion and Development member s by facilit at ing invest ment
(IBRD) of capit als by pr oviding loans.
Wor ld M et eor ological 1950 Geneva Pr omot e int er nat ional exchange of
Or ganisat ion (WM O) weat her r epor t s.
Wor ld Tr ade Or ganisat ion 1995 Geneva Set t ing r ules for wor ld t r ade t o
(WTO) r educe t ar iffs.
Unit ed Nat ions Development 1965 New Yor k H elp developing count r ies incr ease
Pr ogr amme (UNDP) t he wealt h pr oducing capabilit ies of
t heir nat ur al and human r esour ces.
 6.8 CURRENT AFFAIRS

OT H E R I N T E RN AT I ON AL ORGAN I SAT I ON S I nt er nat i on al Cr i m i n al P ol i ce O r gan i sat i on

AN D GROU PS (I N T ERPOL )
T he Common Wealt h • Est ablished : 1914
• I t w as or i gi n al l y k n ow n as T h e B r i t i sh • Object ive : To pr omot e int er nat ional cooper at ion
Commonwealt h of Nat ions'. I t is an associat ion of among cr iminal police aut hor it ies
sover eing and independent st at es which for mally • M ember s : 190
made up t he Br it ish empir e. • H eadquar t er s : Fr ance
• H eadquar t er s : L ondon. I nt er nat ional Olympic Commit t ee (I OC)
• M ember s : 54 • Est ablished : June 23, 1894
• The Br it ish M onar ch (Queen Elizabet h I I ) is t he • Object i ve: To pr omot e t he Ol ympi c i deal s and
symbolic head of t he commonwealt h. administ er Olympic games.
• Com m on w eal t h h eads of gov er n m en t m eet • M ember s : 204
(CH OGM ) is held in ever y 2 year s. • H eadquar t er s : Switzer land
Asia Pacific E conomic Co-operat ion (APEC) I nt ernat ional Organisat ion F or St andardisat ion
• Est ablished : Nov, 1989 (I SO)
• Object ive : To pr omot e t r ade and invest ment in • Est ablished : Feb: 1947
t he Pacific basin. • Obj ect i v e : To pr om ot e t h e dev el opm en t of
• M ember s : 21 inter nat ional standar ds
• M ember s : 163
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
• H eadquar t er s : Switzer land
• Est ablished : Dec 19, 1966
I n t er n at i on al Red Cr oss an d Red Cr escen t
• Obj ect i v e : To pr om ot e r egi on al econ om i c
M ovement
co-oper ation.
• Est ablished : 1928
• M ember s : 67
• Objective : To promote wor ldwide humanitarian aid
• H eadquar t er s: M anila
• H eadquar t er s : Geneva
Associ at i on of Sou t h - E ast Asi an N at i on s
E ur opean U nion
(ASEAN )
• Established : Apr. 8, 1965. Effective on July 1. 1967.
• Est ablished : Aug. 8, 1967
• Object ive : To cr eat e a unit ed Eur ope in which
• Object ive : Regional, economic, social and cult ur al m em ber cou n t r i es w ou l d h av e su ch st r on g
cooper at ion among t he non-communist count r ies economic and political bonds that war would cease
of Sout h-East Asia. t o be a r ecur r ing fact .
• M em ber s : B r u n ei , I n don esi a, M al ay si a, • M ember s : 27 (The t en new count r ies which joined
Philippines, Singapor e, Thailand, Viet nam, L aos, i n 2004 ar e Cypr us, Czech Republ i c, Est oni a,
Myanmar, Cambodia. H u ngar y, L at vi a, L i t hu an i a. M al t a, Pol an d,
• H eadquar t er s : Djakar t a Slovakia and Slovania).
Group of 7 or G-7 (Formerly, G8) • H eadquar t er s : Br ussels (Belgium). The common
• Est ablished : Sept . 22. 1985 Eur opean, cur r ency. Eur o, was launched on Jan.
1, 1999.
• Object ive : To pr omot e co-oper at ion among major
non-communist economic power s. N orth At lantic Treaty Organisat ion (N AT O)
• Est ablished : Apr il 4, 1949
• M ember s : Fr ance, Ger many, Japan, U K , U S,
Canada, I taly. • Object ive : M ut ual defence and co-oper at ion
Group of 15 (G-15) • M ember s : 28
• Est ablished : 1989 • H eadquar t er s : Br ussels
Organisat ion of Pet roleum Export ing Count ries
• Obj ect i ve : To pr omot e economi c co-oper at i on
(OPE C)
among developing nat ions.
• Est ablished : Sept ., 1959
• M ember s :18
• Obj ect i ve : A t t em pt s t o set wor l d pr i ces by
Group of 77 (G-77)
con t r ol l i ng oi l pr oduct i on an d al so per sues
• Est ablished : Oct ., 1967 member int er est in t r ade and development .
• Obj ect i ve: To pr omot e economi c co-oper at i on • Members : 12 (Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, UAE,
among developing nat ions. Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Ecuador and Venezuela).
• M ember s : 132 • H eadquar t er s : Vienna (Aust r ia)
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.9
Sou t h Asi a n Associ at i on f or Regi on al • M ember s : 188
Co-oper at ion (SAARC) • H eadquar t er s : Geneva
• Est ablished : Dec. 8, 1985 Shanghai Cooperat ion Or ganisat ion (SCO)
• Obj ect i ve : To pr om ot e econ omi c, soci al and • Est ablished : June 7, 2002.
cult ur al cooper at ion • Object ive : To develop mut ual cooper at ion.
• M ember s : Bangladesh, Bhut an, I ndia, M aldives, • M em ber s : Ru ssi a, Ch i n a, K azak h i st an ,
Nepal, Pakist an. Sr ilanka & Afghanist an. Uzbekistan, K yr ghizt an and Tajikistan.
• H eadquar t er s : K at hmandu BRI CS (Brazil, Russia, I ndia, China, South Africa)
Wor ld M et eor ological Or ganisat ion (WM O) • Established : 2010 befor e inclusion of Sout h Afr ica
• Est ablished : Oct . 11, 1947, Effect ive fr om Apr il 4, i t i s k n ow n as B RI C, w h i ch i s est abl i sh ed
1951. in 2009.
• Objective : Specialised UN Agency concer ned wit h • Object ive : To encour agi ng commer cial polit ical
met eor ological cooper at ion. and cult ur al cooper at ion bet ween BRI CS nat ions.

WORLD: M I SCELLAN EOU S

N at ional Emblems of F amous Count r ies

Countr y Emblem Countr y Emblem

Austr alia Kangar oo I taly White Lily
Bangladesh Wat er Lily Japan Chr ysant hemum
Canada White Lily Nor way Lion
Denmark Beach Pakistan Cr escent
Fr ance Lily Spain Eagle
Ger many Corn Flower Sr i L anka Sword & L ion
I ndia Lion Capit al Russia Sickle & H ammer
I r an Rose United Kingdom Rose
I r eland Shamrock U.S.A. Golden Rod

Parliament ’s N ame of t he F amous Count ries

Coun tr y P ar liam en t Cou ntr y P ar lia ment

Afghan ist an Shor a Mal aysi a M aj l is
Aust rali a Par l iament Mal dive M aj l is
Bangl adesh Jati a Par li am ent Mangol ia K hur al
Bhut an Tasongadu Nepal Rast ht r iya Panchayat
Canada Par l iament Neth er l ands States Gener al
Chi na Nati onal People Congress Norway Stort i ng
Denm ar k Folk eti ng Pak i st an Nati onal Assem bly
Egypt People's Assembly Pol an d Scym
Fr ance Nati onal Assembly Spai n Cr ot es
Ger man y Bundest ag Sweden Ri k sdag
Great Br it ai n Par l iament Sout h Afr ica Par l i ament
I ndi a Par l iament (San sad) Swi tzer land Federal Assembl y
I r an Maj l is Russia Duma
I r el an d Dai l Ei r eann Tai wan Yuan
I sr ael K nesset Tur key Grand Nat i onal Assembl y
Japan Diet U.S.A. Congress
6.10 CURRENT AFFAIRS
Wonders of the World • I n di an n avy i s or gan i sed i n t o t h r ee
commands :
Ancient M edieval
Commands H eadquar ter s
H anging Gar dens of Colosseum of Rome
Babylon East er n Command Vishakhapat nam
Temple of Diana at Gr eat Wall of China Sout her n Command Kochi
Ephesus (Rome) West er n Command Mumbai
St at ue of Jupit er at Por celain Tower of Ranks of Commissioned Officer s
Olympia Nanking
M ausoleum of St onehange of England Ar my Air F or ces N avy
M ausolus (Rular of Gener al Air Chief M ar shal Admir al
H alicar nassus)
L t . Gener al Air M ar shal Vice Admiral
Pyr amids of Egypt M osque at St . Sophia
M ajor Air Vice M ar shal Rear Admir al
(Const ant inople)
Gener al
L ight H ouse at Cat acombs of
Br igadier Air Commodor e Commodore
Alexandr ia Alexandr ia
Colonel Gr oup Capt ain Capt ain
Colossus of Rhodes L eaning Tower of Pisa,
Taj M ahal (I ndia) L t . Colonel Wing Commander Commander
M ajor Squadr on L eader L t . Commander
I N DI AN DEFEN CE
• The Pr esident of I ndia is t he supr eme commander Capt ain Flt . L ieut enant L ieut enant
of t he I ndian Defence Syst em. L ieut enant Flying Officer Sub-L ieut enant
• The whole administ r at ive cont r ol of t he Ar med PARAM I LI TARY AN D RESERVED F ORCES
for ces lies in t he M inist r y of Defence. I ndo-T ibet an Border Police (I T BP)
• I ndian Defence System has been divided into thr ee • I t was established in 1962, after the Chinese attack.
ser vices-Ar my, Navy and Air For ce. • I t is basically employed in t he Nor t her n bor der s
• T h e I n di an Ar m y i s or gan i sed i n t o sev en f or mon i t or i n g t he bor der s and al so t o st op
commands : smuggling and illegal immigr at ion.
N at ional Securit y Guar ds (N SG)
Commands H eadquar ter s • I t was est ablished in 1984.
1. West er n Command Chandi M andir • I t has been est ablished t o count er t he sur ge of
milit ancy in t he count r y.
2. East er n Command K olk at a
• I t is a highly t r ained for ce which deals wit h t he
3. Nor t her n Command Udhampur milit ant s effect ively.
4. Sout her n Command Pune Cent ral I ndust rial Securit y F orce (CI SF )
5. Cent r al Command L ucknow • I t was set -up in 1969 aft er t he r ecommendat ions
of Just ice B. M ukher ji.
6. Ar my Tr aining Command Shimla
• I t s objective is to monitor t he indust r ial complexes
7. Sout h West er n Command Jaipur of Cent r al Gover nment .
• I n di an ai r f or ce i s or gani sed i n t o seven Assam Rifles
commands : • I t was est abl i shed i n 1835 and i s t he ol dest
par amilit ar y for ce in t he count r y.
Com m an ds H eadqu ar t er s • I t s m ai n obj ect i v e i s t o k eep v i gi l an ce of
1. West er n Com m and N ew Del hi inter national bor der s in Nor th East and counter ing
2. Cent r al Com m and A l l ahabad i nsur gency oper at i ons i n Ar unachal Pr adesh,
3. E ast er n Com m and Shi l l ong M anipur, M izor am and Nagaland.
4. Sout h West er n Jodhpur Border Securit y F orce (BSF )
Com m and • I t was est ablished in 1965.
5. Tr ai ni ng Com m and B angal ur u • I t keeps a vi gi l over t he int er nat ional bor der s
6. M ai nt enance N agpur against t he int r usion in t he count r y
Com m and Cent ral Reserve Police F orce (CRPF )
7. Sout her n Com m and Thi r uvanant h apur am • I t was set -up in 1939.
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.11

• I t s main object ive is t o assist t he St at e / Union FOLK AN D TRI BAL DAN CES
Ter r it or y Police in maint enance of law and or der. St at e D ance
• The 88t h Bat t alion of CRPF, known as ‘M ahila Assam Bihu, Khel Gopal, Rakhal Leela, Tabal
Batt alion' (commissioned on Mar ch 30,1986) is the Chongli, Canoe, Nongkr em.
wor ld's fir st par amilitar y for ce compr ising entir ely AP Ghanta Mar dala, Bur r akatha, Veedhi
of women. Natakam, K uchipudi
N at ional Cadet Corps (N CC) Bihar Jata Jatin, Chhau, Bakho, Kathaputli,
• I t was est ablished in 1948. (came int o exist ence J h i j h i y a, Sam o Ch ak w a, J at r a,
on 16t h july 1948) K ar ma.
• I ts main objective is to stimulate interest among Gujar at D an di y a Raas, Gar ba, Gom ph ,
the youth in the defence of the country in order to Tippani, Bhavia, Zer iyun.
build up a reserve man power to expand armed forces. Haryana Ghumar, Phag Dance, Daph, Dhamal,
Terr it orial Army (TA) K hor ia.
• I t was est ablished in 1948. HP Jhor a, Thali, M ahasu, Jadda
• I t is a volunt ar y, par t -t ime for ce (bet ween 18 and J& K Rouf, H ikat , Damali.
35 year s), not pr ofessional soldier s, but civilians, Kar nataka Yakshagana, H ut t ar i
who wish t o assist in defence of t he count r y. Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali.
H ome Guards MP M aach, Gher o, Gafa, K at ha-K eer t an.
• I t was est ablished in 1962, t o assist t he police in Mahar ashtr a L ezim, Tamasha
maint aining secur it y, t o help defence for ces and Punjab Gi ddha (women), Bhangr a (men),
t o help local author it ies in case of any event ualit y. Naqual, Bhand.
Coast Guar d Rajasthan Sui si ni , Chak r i , Ter aht aal , Gi nad,
• I t was set -up in 1978. (18t h Aug. 1978) K hyal, Gangor e.
• I ts object ive is to pr otect the mar itime and other Tamil Nadu K olat t am, Pinnal, K ar agam
national inter ests in the mar itime zones of I ndia. I t UP J h or a, K aj r i , K ar an , N ou t an k i ,
was set-up in 1920. Chappeli, Raasleela and Ramleela
I nt elligence Bureau (I B) WB K ahi, Jat r a.
• I t s obj ect i ve i s t he col l ect secr et i nfor mat i on
I M PORTAN T I N STRU M EN T PLAYERS
r elat ing t o count r y's secur it y.
I nst r ument Pl ayer
• I t was or iginally set-up as Cent r al Special Br anch
(CSB) in 1887. Sitar I nvent ed by Ami r K husr au; N i k hi l
Banner ji, Pt . Ravi Shankar, Vilayat
Cent ral Bureau of I nvest igat ion (CBI ) K han, H ar i Shank ar Bhat t achar ya,
• The CBI was est ablished in 1941 as t he special Devbr at Choudhar y
pol i ce est abl i sh m en t , t ask ed wi t h dom est i c Tabla Allah Rakha K han, K ishan M ahar aj,
secur i t y. I t was r enamed t he cent r al Bur eau of Nikhil Ghosh, Zakir H ussain, Shaafal
invest igat ion on 1 Apr il 1963. Ahmed K han
• I t s object ive is t o invest igat e cases of misconduct Sarod Al i Ak bar K han, Al l auddi n K han,
by public servants, cases of cheating, embezzlement A m j ad A l i K h an , B u ddh adev
and fr aud. Dasgupt a, Bahadur K han, Shar an
• CBI i s also ent r ust ed wi t h t he invest igat i on of Rani, Zar in S. Shar ma
i nt er nat ional cr ime cases in coll abor at ion wit h Violin Baluswamy Dikshit ar, Gujanan Rao
I NTERPOL. Joshi, L al gudi G. Jayar aman, M .S.
N at ional Crime Records Bureau (N CRB) Gopal a-K r i sh n an , M y sor e T.
• I t was est ablished in 1986. Ch ow di ah , T.N . K r i sh n an ,
• I t s object ive is t o collect cr i me st at ist i cs at t he L . Subr amaniam
nat i onal l evel , i nfor mat i on of i nt er st at e and Sant oor Pt . Shiv K umar Shar ma
i nt er nat i onal cr i mi nal s t o hel p i nvest i gat i on Shehnai Ust ad Bismillah K han
agencies. Flut e Pt .H ar i Pr asad Chaur asiya, Pannalal
Rapid Act ion F orce (RAF ) Ghose, T.R. M ahalingam
• I t was est ablished in 11 december 1991. Veena K.R. Kumar aswami lyer, Dor aiswamy
• Under t he oper at ional command of CRPF. lyengar
• 10 bat t alions of t he CRPF have been r eor ient ed Dhrupad Har idas Swami
for t ackling communal r iot s in t he count r y. Mandolin V. Sr inivas
6.12 CURRENT AFFAIRS
CABI N ET M I N I STERS
N AM E
Shr i Raj Nath Singh
Smt . Sushma Swar aj
Shr i Ar un Jait leyPiySush Goel
Smt . Nir mala Sithar aman
Shr i Nit in Jair am Gadkar i
Shr i Mukht ar Abbas Naqvi
Shr i Piyush Goyal
Shr i D.V. Sadananda Gowda
Smt . Uma Bhar at i
Shr i Ramvilas Paswan
Shr i Gir ir aj Singh
Smt. Maneka Sanjay Gandhi
Shr i Ravi Shankar Pr asad
Shr i Jagat Pr akash Nadda
Shr i Sur esh Pr abhu
Shr i Anant Geet e
Smt. H ar simr at K aur Badal
Shr i Nar endr a Singh Tomar
Shr i Chaudhar y Bir ender Singh
Shr i Jual Or am
Shr i Radha Mohan Singh
Shr i Thaawar Chand Gehlot
Smt . Smr i t i I r ani
Dr. H ar sh Var dhan
Shr i Pr akash Javadekar
M I N I STERS OF STATE (I N DEPEN DEN T CH ARGES)
Rao I nder jit Singh
Shr i Sant osh K umar Gangwar
Shr i Gir ir aj Singh
Shr i Shr ipad Yesso Naik
Col. Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore M inister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Yout h Affair s and
Dr. Jitendr a Singh
PORTFOLI O
M inister of H ome Affair s.
Minist er of Exter nal Affair s.
M inist er of Finance, M inist er of Cor por ate Affair s
M inist er of Defence
M inist er of Road Tr anspor t and H ighways; and M inist er of Shipping.
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.
Minist er of Minor ity Affair s
M inister of Railways and M inist er of Coal
M inist er of Statistics and Pr ogr amme I mplement ation and M inister
of Chemicals & Fer t ilizer s
M inister of Dr inking & Sanitation.
M inist er of Consumer Affair s, Food and Public Distr ibution.
M inister of Micr o, Small and Medium Enter pr ises.
M inist er of Women and Child Development .
M i n i st er of L aw an d J u st i ce; an d M i n i st er of E l ect r on i cs
and I nfor mat ion Technology.
M inist er of H ealth and Family Welfar e.
M inister of Civil Aviation & Mini ster of Commer ce & I ndustr y
M inist er of H eavy I ndustr ies and Public Enter pr ises.
M inister of Food Pr ocessing I ndust r ies.
M i ni st er of Rur al Devel opment ; M i ni st er of Panchayat i Raj and
M inister of Par liament ar y Affair s.
M inist er of Steel.
Minist er of Tr ibal Affair s.
M inister of Agr icult ur e and Far mer s Welfar e.
M inist er of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inister of Textiles
M inist er of Science and Technology; and Minister of Ear t h Sciences,
M inist er of Envir onment , For est and Climat e Change
M inist er of H uman Resour ce Development .
M inister of State, Chemical & Fer t ilizer
Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of M icr o, Small and
Medium Enter pr ises.
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of Ayur veda, Yoga
and Natur opathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH ).
Spor t s; and M i ni st er of St at e (I ndependent Char ge) of t he M i ni st r y of
I nfor mat ion and Br oadcasting..
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the M inist r y of Development of
Nor t h East er n Regi on; M inist er of St at e in t he Pr ime M inist er ’s Office;
Minister of State in the Ministry of Personnel, Public Gr ievances and Pensions;
M inister of State in t he Depar t ment of At omic Ener gy; and Minister of St at e
in the Depar tment of Space.

Sur esh R. K. Singh
Dr. M ahesh Shar ma
Shr i M anoj Sinha
Shr i H ar deep Singh Pur i
Shr i Alphons Kannanthanam
M I N I STERS OF STATE
Gener al (Ret d.) V.K . Singh
Shr i Shiv Pr atap Shukla
Shr i S.S. Ahluwalia
Shr i Ramdas Athawale
Shr i Ram K r ipal Yadav
Shr i Har ibhai Par thibhai Chaudhar y
Shr i H ansr aj Gangar am Ahir
& Shr i K ir en Rijiju
Shri Babul Supriyo
Shr i Ramesh Chandappa Jigajinagi
Shr i Rajen Gohain
Shr i Par shott am Rupala
Shr i Radhakr ishnan P.
Shr i K r ishan Pal
Jaswantsingh Sumanbhai Bhabhor
Shr i Vishnu Deo Sai
Shr i Sudar shan Bhagat
Shr i Jayant Sinha
Y. S. Chowdar y
Sadhvi Nir anjan Jyoti
Shr i Vijay Sampla
Shr i Ar jun Ram Meghwal
Shr i Ajay Tamt a
Smt . K r ishna Raj
Shr i Anant K umar Hegde
Smt . Anupr iya Patel
Shr i C. R. Chaudhar y
Shr i P.P. Chaudhar y
Dr. Subhash Ramr ao Bhamr e
CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.13
Minister of State (I ndependent Charge) of the Ministr y of Power; and Minister
of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of New and Renewable Ener gy.
Minister of State (I ndependent Charge) of the Ministry of Culture; and Minister
of St ate (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Tour ism & Civil Aviation.
M inister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of t he Ministr y of Communicat ions;
and M inist er of St at e in the M inist r y of Railways.
Minister of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of Housing and Ur ban
Affairs..
M inist er of State (I ndependent Char ge) of the Ministr y of Tour ism.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Exter nal Affair s.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Finance.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Rur al Development .
M inister of St ate for Coal and Mines
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Home Affair s.
M i ni st er of St at e i n t he M inist r y of H eavy I ndust r ies and Publ ic
Ent er pr ises.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Dr inking Wat er and Sanit ation.
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Railways.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icultur e and Far mer s Welfar e;
and M inist er of Stat e in the Ministr y of Panchayati Raj.
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Road Tr anspor t and H ighways;
and M inist er of St at e in the M inist r y of Shipping.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Tr ibal Affair s.
M inist er of Stat e in t he Ministr y of Steel.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icultur e and Far mer s Welfar e.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Civil Aviation.
Minister of State in the Ministry of Science and Technology; and Minister
of St ate in t he Minist r y of Ear t h Sciences.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Food Pr ocessing I ndust r ies.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of Social Just ice and Empower ment .
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Wat er Resour ces
M inister of State in t he M inist r y of Text iles.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Agr icult ur e & Far mer s Welfar e.
M i n i st er of St at e i n t h e M i n i st r y of Sk i l l Devel opm en t an d
Entr epr eneur ship.
M inister of State in t he Minist r y of H ealth and Family Welfar e.
Minister of State in the Ministr y of Consumer Affair s, Food and Public
Distr ibution.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Law and Just ice; and M inist er of
State in t he Ministr y of Cor por at e Affair s.
M inist er of State in t he Ministr y of Defence.
 6.14 CURRENT AFFAIRS

CH I EF M I N I STERS & GOVERN ORS OF I N DI AN STATES

S. N o. N ame of States Chief M inister Governor
1 Andhra Pradesh Shr i N. Chandr ababu Naidu Shr i. E. S. L. Nar asimhan
2 Arunachal Pr adesh Shr i Pema Khandu Brigadier BD Mishr a (Retd)
3 Assam Shr i Sar bananda Sonowal Jagdish Mukhi
4 Bihar Shr i Nitish Kumar L alji Tandon. Ram Nat h Kovind
5 Chhattisgarh Shr i Bhupesh Baghel Anandiben Pat el
6 Goa Shr i Manohar Par r ikar Mridula Sinha
7 Gujarat Shri Vijay Rupani Shr i Om Pr akash K ohli
8 Haryana Shr i Manohar Lal Khat tar Satyadev Nar ayan Ar ya
9 Himachal Pr adesh Shr i Jayr am Thakur Achar ya Dev Vr at
10 Jammu Kashmir – Sat ya Pal Malik
11 Jharkhand Shr i Raghubar Das Draupadi Murmu
12 Karnataka Shr i H. D. Kumar aswamy Vajubhai Rudhbhaivala
13 Kerala Shr i Pinar ayi Vijayan P. Sathasivam
14 Madhya Pradesh Shr i Kamalnath Anandiben Patel
15 Maharashtra Shr i Devendr a Fadnavis C. Vidhyasagar Rao
16 Manipur Shr i N. Bir en Singh Najma Heptulla
17 Meghalaya Shr i Conrad Sangma Tathagat a Roy
18 Mizoram Shri Zor amt hanga K . Rajasekhar an
19 Nagaland Shr i Neiphiu Rio Shr i Acharya Padmanabha
20 Odisha Shr i Naveen Patnaik Shr i Ganeshi L al
21 Punjab Captain Amarinder Singh V. P. Singh Badnor e
22 Rajasthan Shr i Ashok Gehlot Kalyan Singh
23 Sikkim Shr i Pawan Chamling Ganga Pr asad
24 Tamil Nadu Shri Edappadi K. Palaniswami Banwar ilal Pur ohit
25 Telangana Shr i K. Chandr asekhar Rao Shr i. E. S. L. Nar asimhan
26 Tripura Shr i Biplab Kumar Deb K aptan Singh Solanki
27 Uttar Pr adesh Shr i Yogi Adityanath Shr i Ram Naik
28 Uttarakhand Shr i Tr ivendr a Singh Rawat Baby Rani Maur ya
29 West Bengal Shr i Mamat a Baner jee Shr i Keshr i Nath Tr ipathi
U N I ON TERRI TORI ES
Union Territory Chief M inister Lieutenant
Governors/Administrators
1 Andaman & Nicobar Admir al (Retd) Devendr a Kumar Joshi
2 Chandigarh V. P. Sing Badnor e
3 Dadr a and Nagar Haveli Shr i Pr aful Patel
4 Daman and Diu Shr i Pr aful Patel
5 Lakshadweep Shr i Far ooq K han
6 Puducher r y Shr i V. Nar ayanswami Kir en Bedi
7 New Delhi Shr i Ar vind Kejar iwal Anil Baijal

N EW JU DI CI ARY
Mr. Ranjan Gogoi : Chief Justice of I ndia
Mr. K.K. Venugopal : Attor ney Gener al of I ndia
Mr. Ranjit Kumar : Solicitor Gener al of I ndia
Mr. Nar endr a M odi : Chair man, NI TI Aayog
Mr. Sunil Ar or a : Chief Election Commissioner
Mr. Rajiv Mehr ishi : Compt r oller and Audit or -Gener al of I ndia.
Mr. Just ice H.L. Dattu : Chair per son, National Human Right Commission (NHRC)
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.15

Mr. Pr adeep Kumar Sinha : Cabinet Secr etar y.

Mr. Nr ipendr a Mishr a : Pr incipal Secr et ar y to Pr ime Minist er .
Mr. Justice Vangala Eshwaraiah : Chair man, National Commission for Backwar d Classes.
Ms. Stuti Nar ain Kacker : Chair per son, National Commission for Pr otection of Child Rights
Dr. P.L. Punia : Chair man, National Commission for Scheduled Castes
Mr. Nand Kumar Sai : Chair man, National Commission for Scheduled Tr ibes.
Mr. Vinay Mittal : Chair man, UPSC.
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan : Chair man, National Commission on Far mer s (NCF).
Mr. Ajit Doval : Nat i onal Secur it y Advi ser and Special Adviser t o PM (I nt er nal
Security).
Mr. Shar ad K umar : Dir ector -Gener al, Nat ional I nvest igation Agency (NI A).
Ashwani Lohani : Chairman, Railway Board.
Mr. Desh Dipak Ver ma : Secretar y-Gener al, Rajya Sabha
Mr s. Snehlata Sr ivastav : Secr etar y-Gener al, L ok Sabha.
Mr. Sanjeev Tr ipathi : Secr etar y, Resear ch and Analysis Wing.
Mr. RC Tayal : Dir ector -Gener al, NSG.
Mr. Rajiv Rai Bhatnagar : Dir ector-Gener al, CRPF.
Mr. K.K. Shar ma : Dir ector -Gener al, Bor der Secur ity For ce (BSF).
Mr. Rajesh Ranjan : Dir ector -Gener al, Centr al I ndust r ial Secur it y For ce (CI SF).
Mr. Dhar mendr a K umar : Dir ector -Gener al, Railway Pr otection For ce.
Mr. R.K. Pachnanda : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndo-Tibetan Bor der Police.
Mr s. Rajni Kant : Dir ector -Gener al, Sashastr a Seema Bal.
Mr. Rajendr a Singh : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndian Coast Guar d.
Lt. Gen. Avtar Singh : Dir ector-Gener al, Defence I ntelligence Agency.
Mr. D.P. Singh : Chair man, UGC.
Mr. K. Vijay Raghavan : Pr inciple Scient ific Adviser to the Gover nment of I ndia.
Mr. K. Sivan : Chair man, Space Commission and I SRO.
Mr. Sekhar Basu : Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission and Secretary, Dept. of Atomic
Ener gy.
Mr. Gair ul Hasan Rizvi : Chair per son, National Commission for Minor ities.
Mr. Radha Krishna Mathur : Chief I nfor mation Commissioner.
Mr. Soumya Swaminathan : Dir ector -Gener al, I ndian Council of Medical Resear ch.
Mr. C. Chandr amouli : Registr ar-Gener al of I ndia and Census Commissioner.
Mr. Just ic Balbir Singh Chauhan : Chair man, Law Commission.
Mr. Baldev Raj : Pr esident , I ndian National Academy of Engineer ing (I NAE).
Mr. Justice (Ret d.) B. N. Kir pal : Chair man, National For est Commission.
Mr. Dilip Rath : Chair per son, National Dair y Development Boar d (NDDB).
Lt. Gen. Sanjeev Kumar Shr ivastav : Dir ector -Gener al, Bor der Roads Or ganisat ion.
Ur jit Patel : Gover nor, RBI
Mr. Justice Chandr amauli Kumar Pr asad : Chair man, Pr ess Council of I ndia.
Mr. Shashidhar Sinha : Chairman, Audit Bur eau of Cir culations (ABC).
Mr. Pr akash Chandr a : Chair per son, Centr al Boar d of Dir ect Taxes (CBDT).
Vanaja N. Seena : Chair man, Centr al Boar d of Excise & Cust oms.
Justice Sudhansu Jyoti Mukhopadhaya : Chair per son, Competition Appellate Tr ibunal
Balr aj Joshi : CMD, NH PC.
Shashi Shanker : CMD, ONGC.
6.16 CURRENT AFFAIRS
Mr. B.C. Tr ipathi
Mr. Sanjiv Singh
Mr. Utpal Bor a
Anita Kar wal
Ajay Tyagi
Mr. Har sh Kumar Bhanwala
Mr. Rajnish Kumar
Mr. M S Raghavan
Mr. Mahesh Mit tal Kumar
Rajiv Kumar Chander
Mr. S.K. Roy
Mr. Ashwin B. Pandya
Ms. Lalitha K umar amanglam
Dr. Y.V. Reddy
Mr. Pr onab Sen
Ms. Pahlav Nihalani
Dr. Budha Rashmi Mani
Mr. Rashesh Shah
Mr. R.S. Shar ma
Mr. Hemant
Mr. K.V. Chowdar y
Mr. K.S. Vyas
Nar inder Dhr uv Batr a
Hr ushikesh Senapaty
Ajay S. Shr ir am
Mr. Sam Pit r oda
Mr. Jawhar Sir car
Mr. Rishad Pr emji
Mr. Sandeep Jajodia
Mr. Sur esh Gopi
Viveck Goenka
N.K . Singh
: CMD, GAI L.
: Chair man, I OCL.
: CMD, Oil I ndia L td.
: Chair man, CBSE.
: Chair man, Secur ities & Exchange Boar d of I ndia.
: Chair man, National Bank for Agr icultur e and Rur al Development
(NABARD).
: Chairman, SBI
: Chairman, I DBI .
: Chair man, Company Law Boar d.
: I ndia's Per manent Repr esentat ive to UN.
: Chair man, LI C
: Chair man, Centr al Water Commission.
: Chair per son, Nat ional Commission for Women.
: Chair man, 14th Finance Commission.
: Chair man, National St atistical Commission.
: Chair per son, Centr al Boar d of Film Cer tification.
: Dir ector -Gener al, Ar chaeological Sur vey of I ndia.
: Pr esident, FI CCI .
: Chairman, TRAI
: Chair man, Pension Fund Regulator y & Development Author ity.
: Centr al Vigilance Commissioner (CVC).
: Dir ector, Bhabha Atomic Resear ch Cent r e.
: Pr esident, I ndian Olympic Association.
: Dir ector, NCERT.
: Pr esident, CI I .
: Chair man, National K nowledge Commission.
: CEO, Pr asar Bhar ti Boar d.
: Chair man, NASSCOM.
: Pr esident, ASSOCHAM.
: Chair man, National Film Development Cor por ation (NFDC).
: Chair man, PTI .
: Chair man, 15th Finance Commission
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.17

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 9. Which gas is r eleased fr om paddy fields?

1. Whi ch of t he fol l owi ng count r i es has began (a) Car bon dioxide (b) Methane
labor ator y tests of A(H1N1) flu vaccine? (c) Ammonia (d) Hydr ogen Sulphide
(a) China (b) Canada 10. Which of the following companies has r olled out
the Jaguar and Land Rover (JLR) in I ndia?
(c) The US (d) Mexico
(a) Tat a Mot or s (b) For d Motor Co.
2. T h e Sou t h A si an A ssoci at i on f or Regi on al
Cooper at i on (SA A RC) is r egi on al (c) Por sche (d) Mer cedes
int er gover nment al or ganization and geopolitical 11. Who has been appoint ed as the FI FA pr esident ?
union in South Asia. SAARC was founded in ______
(a) Sepp Blatter (b) I ssa H ayatou
in 1985.
(c) Gianni I nfantino (d) Joao Havelange
(a) Dhaka, Bangladesh (b) New Delhi, I ndia
12. What is the main Chemical component of Vinegar?
(c) Kathmandu, Nepal (d) Male, Maldives
(a) Acetic acid (b) Citr ic acid
3. Wor ld Senior Cit izen’s Day is celebr ated on
(c) Tar t ar ic acid (d) Nitr ic acid
(a) August 6 (b) August 8
13. ______ basically r efer s to a section of the financial
(c) July 7 (d) July 9 mar ket wher e financial instr ument s wit h high
4. Which business house has pr omoted Essar gr oup liquidity and shor t-t er m matur it ies ar e tr aded.
of companies ? (a) Tr ade Mar ket (b) Capital Market
(a) Ruias (b) Ambanis (c) Money Mar ket (d) Expor t Market
(c) Goenkas (d) Kanor ias 14. The new centr al vigilence commissioner of I ndia

5. Nor th Kor ea, officially the Democr atic people’s (a) Pr adeep Kumar (b) KV Chowdar y
Republic of Kor ea, is a countr y in East Asia, in (c) Shar ad Kumar (d) Shanta Sinha
the nor ther n par t of the K or ean Peninsula what
15. Mont er o 09, the newly launched pr emium spor t
is t he capital of Nor t h Kor ea ?
utility vehicle by H indust an Motor s and Japan-
(a) Pyongyang (b) Seoul based Mitsubishi Motor s, is
(c) Tokyo (d) Beijing (a) impor ted fr om Japan

6. The New identit y of softwar e ser vices pr ovider (b) made in I ndia
Satyam Computer Ser vices Ltd. is (c) assembled in I ndia
(a) Satyam Mahindra (b) Mahindra Satyam (d) None of these
(c) Tech Sat yam (d) Sat yam Tech 16. I t is pr oposed t o set up an I I T in Jaipur with the
collabor at ion of which count r y?
7. Cor sica is an island in t he M editer r anean Sea
belonging to Fr ance. What is capital of Cor sica? (a) Germany
(a) Paris (b) Ajaccio (b) Fr ance

(c) Zagreb (d) Hawana (c) Australia

8. At which of the following places will Coimbator e- (d) Japan

based Elgi Equipments limited set up a subsidiary? 17. Who is the Pr esident of Wor ld Bank?
(a) Sao Paolo in Br azil (a) Jim Yong Kim
(b) Rio de Janeir o in Br azil (b) Pascal L amy
(c) Santiago in Chile (c) Raul Castr o

(d) Car acas in Venezuela (d) None of these

6.18 CURRENT AFFAIRS

18. Gr een Banking means 26. Which par t y in Russia does Mr. Put in heads ?
(a) financing of ir r igat ion pr oject s by bank (a) One Russia (b) Victor ious Russia
(b) development of for estr y by banks (c) Unified Russia (d) United Russia
(c) financing of envir onment fr iendly pr oject by 27. Wher e is Titicaca , the highest lake in the wor ld,
banks located?
(d) None of these (a) Russia and Cent r al Asian countr ies
19. Vijay Kelkar Committ ee r epor t deals with (b) US and Canada bor der
(a) Centr al-State financial r elations (c) South Afr ica
(b) Tax r efor ms (d) Per u and Bolivia bor der
(c) Tr ade r efor ms 28. The I ndian Space Resear ch Or ganisat ion (I SRO)
is the space agency of the I ndian gover nment .
(d) Refor ms in public sector enter pr ises
I SRO headquar ter is locat ed in?
20. Which spor t is Lin Dan associated wit h ?
(a) New Delhi (b) Chennai
(a) Table Tennis (b) Mahesh Bhupati
(c) Mumbai (d) Bengaluru
(c) M ar k Knowles (d) Tr avis Par r ot t
29. Whi ch i s t he onl y st at e t hat has appl i ed t he
21. Jnanpith Awar d was pr esented t o whom among elect r onic payment facilit y for it s tr ader s so t hat
t he following? t hey coul d mak e t heir VAT payment t hr ough
(a) H indi poet Sat ya Vr at Shastr i e-payment ?

(b) Sanskr it poet Sat ya Vr at Shastr i (a) Gujar at (b) Maharashtra

(c) Ur du poet Ghulam Azad (c) Tamil Nadu (d) Ker ala

(d) Hindi wr iter Ramakant Tr ipat hi 30. What was t he name of t he ship t hat sank near
t he Par adip por t causing oil spill ?
22. At which point of Ear t h t her e is no gr avity?
(a) Red Rose (b) Black Rose
(a) At Nor th and Sout h Pole
(c) White Rose (d) Gr een Rose
(b) At equat or
31. Oceansat -2 has been inject ed int o or bit at an
(c) On the ocean sur face alt it ude of about
(d) At cent r e of t he Ear t h (a) 238 km (b) 526 km
23. I n t he Panchayat s, women r eser vat i on has (c) 728 km (d) 936 km
incr eased fr om 33% t o
32. Th e I n t er n at i onal Day of Ol der Per son s i s
(a) 40 % (b) 50 % obser ved on?
(c) 51 % (d) 49 % (a) 2nd Oct ober (b) 24t h October
24. Who star ted the ‘Yellow Revolut ion’ in 1980’s in (c) 16t h October (d) 1st October
I ndia ?
33. The fir st non-stop air -conditioned ‘Dur ant o’ tr ain
(a) Sam Pit r oda (b) Nar ayan Mur this was flagged off between
(c) Nandan Nilekani (d) Swaminathan (a) Sealdah-New Delhi
25. I nt er nat ional L iter acy Day is celebr at ed on (b) Mumbai-Howr ah
(a) 6th Sept ember (b) 1st August (c) Bangalor e-Howrah
(c) 8th Sept ember (d) 1st October (d) Chennai-New Delhi
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.19

34. Which of t he foll owing is t he lat est Advanced 42. The Feder al Reser ve Syst em also known as the
Landing Gr ound (ALG) oper ationalised by I AF in Federal Reserve or simply as the Fed is the central
L adakh ? banking syst em of?
(a) Daulat Beg (b) Fuk Che (a) China (b) Fr ance
(c) Nyoma (d) None of these (c) UK (d) USA
LEVEL-1 43. Guwahat i is sit uated on which of t he following
35. Wit h which of t he following countr ies has I ndia bank of the r iver ?
si gn ed i t s si x t h ci v i l n u cl ear cor por at i on (a) Sone (b) H ooghly
agr eement ?
(c) Brahmaputra (d) Teest a
(a) Kazakhstan (b) Namibia
44. The second war shi p l aunched under Pr oj ect
(c) Mongolia (d) Nepal
15-A is named
36. I n which of the following islands, massive tsunami
(a) I NS Kolkata (b) I NS K ochi
wave killed at least 113 people ?
(c) I NS Chennai (d) I NS Coimbat or e
(a) Java (b) Samoan I slands
45. On Apr il 6, 1896, the first modern Olympic Games
(c) Fiji (d) Philippines
wer e hel d i n _________ wi t h at hlet es fr om 14
37. For t he fir st t ime, t he tot al number of account s count r ies par ticipating.
held by women in public sect or banks in I ndia
has cr ossed (a) L ondon, UK (b) Athens, Gr eece

(a) 50 lakh (b) 80 lakh (c) Tokyo, Japan (d) New Yor k, USA

(c) 1 cr or e (d) 1.5 cr or e 46. Which of the following countries has the lowest ratio
of external debt to Gross National I ncome ?
38. Which of the following count r ies has dr opped the
wor d ‘communism’ fr om its Constitut ion ? (a) China (b) India

(a) Cuba (b) Nor th Kor ea (c) I ndonesia (d) Malaysia

(c) China (d) none of these 47. I CI CI Bank is an I ndian mult inat ional banking
and financial ser vices company headquar ter ed in
39. The MahabodhiVihar, a UNESCO World Heritage
Mumbai, M ahar asht r a, I ndia, with it s r egist er ed
Sit e, is a Buddhist temple locat ed at which of the
office in Vadodar a. I CI CI st ands for ?
following place?
(a) Guwahati, Assam (b) Deoghar, Jhar khand (a) I ndustr ial Cr edit and I nvestment Corpor ation
of I ndia Bank
(c) Pat na, Bihar (d) Dar bhanga, Bihar
(b) I n du st r i al Cu st om er an d I n su r an ce
40. Wh at i s t h e si gn i f i can ce of Ozon e l ayer i n Cor por ation of I ndia Bank
atmospher e?
(c) I n t er n at i on al Cr edi t an d I n v est m en t
(a) I t maint ains t he cycle of seasons. Cor por ation of I ndust r ial Bank
(b) I t causes timely ar r ival of M onsoon
(d) I ndian Cr edit and I ndustr ial Cor por at ion of
(c) I t filter s t he ult r aviolet r ays of t he sun I ndia Bank
(d) I t pr event s t he global war ming 48. The "God of Small Things" is t he debut novel
41. The National Rur al Employment Guar ant ee Act narr ating a story about the childhood exper iences
(NREGA) has been r enamed after of fr ater nal twins whose lives ar e dest r oyed by
t he "Love Laws" t hat lay down "who should be
(a) Lal Bahadur Shastr i loved, and how. And how much". I t is wr it ten by?
(b) Sar dar Vallabhbhai Patel (a) Chetan Bhagat (b) Amish Tr ipathi
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (c) Pr anab M ukher jee (d) Arundhati Roy
(d) Rajiv Gandhi
6.20 CURRENT AFFAIRS
49. What does NSAB stand for in I ndian context ? 58. Which count r y’s l ower house of Par l iament is
(a) Nat ional Societ y for Animal Br eeder s known as Wolesi Jir ga?

(b) Nat ional Suppor t Activity for Bhutan (a) Afghanistan (b) Bangladesh

(c) Nat ional Spir itual Assembly of Buddhists (c) Pakist an (d) I r an

(d) National Secur it y Advisor y Boar d 59. Which of t he following companies is posing a stiff
competit ion t o Sweden’s Er icsson t o become the
LEVEL-2
wor ld’s lar gest telecom equipment manufactur er ?
50. Which of t he following cit ies will host t he 2020
Olympics ? (a) Samsung (b) Huawei

(a)Chicago (b) Rio de Janeir o (c) Nokia (d) Panasonic

(c) Madr id (d) Tokyo 60. What is the pr esent per missible power densit y
value for mobile tower s oper ating at 1800 M Hz?
51. 'Follow-on' is used which of the following game?
(a) 4.5 wat t /met r e2 (b) 9 wat t/met r e2
(a) Badminton (b) Tennis
(c) Foot ball (d) Cr icket (c) 13.5 wat t/met r e2 (d) 18 wat t/met r e2

52. Which family owns the H er o gr oup of Companies 61. I n which countr y is the headquar t er s of Nestle
in I ndia? company located ?

(a) Hindujas (b) Fir odias (a) Sweden (b) Switzerland

(c) Munjals (d) Mansingh (c) Ger many (d) Nether lands
53. What is t he name of I ndia’s fir st indigenously 62. Wher e ar e Cent r e for Cell ul ar and molecular
developed nuclear submar ine? Biology, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(a) I NS Sindhughosh (b) K 15 and Vik r am Sar abhai Space Resear ch Cent r e
r espectively locat ed?
(c) I NS Ar ihant (d) I NS Vikr amditya
(a) Hyder abad, Tar apur and Shr ihar ikota
54. Per iyar Tiger Reser ve locat ed in Thekkady at the
distr ict of I dukki is one of t he 27 t iger r eser ves in (b) Chennai, Tar apur and Thir u-vananthapur am
I ndia is located in which state?
(c) H y der abad, K al pak k am an d Thir u-
(a) Ker ala (b) New Delhi vananthapuram
(c) Odisha (d) Karnataka (d) Chennai, Tar apur and Sr ihar ikota
55. Which of t he following countr ies in the M iddle 63. What is Wakhan Cor r idor ?
East is facing a civil war between the Gover nment
for ces and r ebed insur gent s ? (a) Nor th East er n extr emit y of Afghanistan

(a) Syria (b) Egypt (b) Par t of the bor der bet ween I ndia and China
in Ladakh r egion
(c) Tunisia (d) Jor don
(c) A passage bet ween I r an and Afghanist an
56. SARFAESI Act is an I ndian law. I t allows banks
and ot h er f i nan ci al i n st i t ut i on s t o au ct i on (d) N ar r ow st r i p j oi n i n g B an gl adesh w i t h
r esident ial or commer cial pr oper ties to r ecover Myanmar
loans. I n SARFAESI , F stands for ?
64. Who is t he pr esent Gover nor of Kar nataka?
(a) Fol low (b) Financial
(a) Hans Raj Bhar dwaj
(c) Fill-up (d) For um
(b) Mridula Sinha
57. H ow do you obser ve ever y year t he fir st M onday
of October ? (c) Vajubhai Rudabhai Vala
(a) Envir onment Day (b) Wor ld H abitat Day (d) Sathasivam
(c) Wor ld Diabet es Day(d) UNO Day
 CURRENT AFFAIRS 6.21

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12 (a) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (c)
LEVEL-1
35. (c) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (b)
45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. (d)
LEVEL-2
50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b)
60. (a) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (c)
CBT – II
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 1

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND

POLLUTION CONTROL
DEFINITION
Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system
to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort  to humans or other
living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy
such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants
when in excess of natural levels.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
There are several types of pollution, and while they may come from different sources and have different consequences,
understanding the basics about pollution can help environmentally conscious individuals minimize their contribution to
these dangers.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of
the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors
that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.
Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:
 Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust
 Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources
 Building construction or demolition
Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog increases, higher rain acidity,
crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and higher rates of asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also
related to increased air pollution.
Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone. A gas that can be found in Ozone is not created directly, but is formed Ozone near the ground can cause a
when nitrogen oxides and vo latile organic number of health prob lems. Ozone can
two places. Near the ground (the
compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone lead to more frequent asthma attacks in
tropo sphere), it is a major part of is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides people who have asthma and can cause
smog. The harmful ozo ne in the come from burning gasoline, coal, or other sore throats, coughs, and breathing
fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile difficulty. It may even lead to premature
lower atmosphere should not be
organic compounds, and they come from death. Ozone can also hurt plants and
confused with the protective layer sources ranging from factories to trees. crops.
of ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere), which screens out
harmful ultraviolet rays
Ca rbo n monoxide. A gas that Carbon mono xide is released when engines Carbo n monoxide makes it hard for body
comes from the burning of fossil burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when parts to get the oxygen they need to run
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel co rrectly. Exposure to carbon monoxid e
seen or smelled is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the makes people feel dizzy and tired and
carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces gives them headaches. In high
and heaters in the home can emit high co ncentrations it is fatal. Elderly people
concentrations of carbo n monoxide, too, if they with heart disease are hospitalized more
are not properly maintained. often when they are exposed to higher
amounts of carbon monoxide.
 2 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Nitrogen dio xide.  A reddish- Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from po wer High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure
brown gas that comes from the plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in can give people coughs and can make
burning of fossil fuels. It has a two ways-when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, them feel short of breath. People who are
strong smell at high levels. or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long
at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide time have a higher chance of getting
can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, respiratory infections. Nitro gen dioxid e
acid rain, and particles. reacts in the atmosphere to form acid
rain, which can harm plants and animals.

Particulate matter. Solid or Particulate matter can be divided into two Particulate matter that is small enough
liquid matter that is suspended in types-coarse particles and fine particles. can enter the lungs and cause health
the air. To remain in the air, Coarse particles are formed from sources like prob lems. Some of these problems
particles usually must be less than road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine include more frequent asthma attacks,
0.1-mm wide and can be as small particles are formed when fuel is burned in respiratory problems, and premature
as 0.00005 mm. automobiles and power plants. death.
Sulphur dio xide.  A corrosive gas Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning Sulfur d ioxide exposure can affect
that cannot be seen or smelled at of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes people who have asthma or emphysema
low levels but can have a “rotten from factories that make chemicals, paper, or by making it more difficult for them to
egg“ smell at high levels. fuel. Like nitrogen dio xide, sulfur dioxide breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes,
reacts in the atmosp here to form acid rain and noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can
particles. harm trees and crops, damage b uildings,
and make it harder for people to see long
distances.

Lead. A blue-gray metal that is Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where High amounts of lead can be dangerous
very toxic and is found in a unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also for small children and can lead to lower
number of forms and locations. come from power plants and other industrial IQs and kidney prob lems. For adults,
sources. Inside, lead paint is an important exposure to lead can increase the chance
source of lead, especially in houses where paint of having heart attacks or strokes.
is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a
source of lead in drinking water.

Toxic air pollutants. A large
number of chemicals that are
known or suspected to cause
cancer. Some imp ortant pollutants
in this category include arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, and dioxin.
Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer.
different source, but many are created in Some toxic air pollutants can also cause
chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels birth defects. Other effects depend on the
are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like pollutant, but can include skin and eye
asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in irritation and breathing problems.
building materials and can lead to indoor air
problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water supplies.

Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air conditioners and If the ozone in the stratosphere is
depleters.Chemicals that can refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. destro yed, people are exposed to more
destroy the ozone in the They can also be fo und in aerosol cans and fire radiation fro m the sun (ultraviolet
stratosphere. These chemicals extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone radiation). This can lead to skin cancer
include chlorofluorocarbons depleters are used as so lvents in industry. and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet
(CFCs), halons, and other radiation can also harm plants and
compounds that include chlorine animals.
or bromine
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 3

Greenhouse gases. Gases that Carbon dioxide is the most important The greenhouse effect can lead to
stay in the air for a long time and greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of changes in the climate of the planet.
warm up the planet by trapping fossil fuels in cars, p ower plants, houses, and Some of these changes might includ e
sunlight. This is called the industry. Methane is released during the more temperature extremes, higher sea
“greenhouse effect“ b ecause the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from levels, changes in forest compositio n,
gases act like the glass in a natural sources like cows and rice paddies. and damage to land near the coast.
greenhouse. Some of the Nitrous oxide comes from ind ustrial sources Human health might be affected by
important greenhouse gases are and decaying plants. diseases that are related to temperature or
carbon dioxide, methane, and by damage to land and water.
nitrous oxide.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades
the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as
different water sources flow together through the water cycle the pollution can spread.
Causes of water pollution include:
 Increased sediment from soil erosion
 Improper waste disposal and littering
 Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
 Organic material decay in water supplies
The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for
crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.
Ground water is being polluted by percolation of contaminated surface water through the layers of the earth. Release of
raw sewage in unlined soak-pits and release of toxic effluents by the industries into surface water bodies, are the main
causes of ground water pollution.
Major water pollutants, examples and sources
Category Examples Sources
I. Affecting health
Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses and parasites Sewage, human and animal excreta
Organic chemicals Pesticides, plastics, detergents. oil Agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes
Inorganic chemicals Acids, caustics, salts, metals Industrial and domestic effluents
Radioactive materials Uranium, thorium, randon, etc Mining, power plants, natural sources
2. Affecting ecossslcm
Plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, etc Chemical fertilisers, sewage, manure
Sediments Silt, soil Soil erosion
Thermal Heat Industries, power plants
Oxygen demanding Agricultural waster, manure Sweage, agricultural runoff
Indiscriminate and overuse of fertilizers, chemicals and pesticides have also caused ground water pollution through the
seepage of irrigation water into ground water reserves.
The hazards of ground water pollution depend on several factors such as:
 Concentration or toxicity of the pollutant
 The level of ground water if the level is higher chances of contamination are more
 Conditions of ground water recharge
Marine Pollution: Marine pollution is the matter of International concern from the point of view of conservation of
living resources. All coastal nations dispose of millions of gallons of untreated sewage, millions of tonnes of garbage,
unlimited amount of low level radioactive wastes etc. into the seas.
In addition to the marine environment, areas along the coasts, such as, estuaries, reefs, wetlands, mangroves, etc. are
adversely affected due to enormous dumping of pollutants into the ocean. This problem is further aggravated due to the
fact that about 40% of the world’s population lives near the sea.
 4 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

The main sources of marine pollution are:

1. Municipal wastes and sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Runoff agricultural wastes
4. Oil spills from tankers
5. Offshore drilling and mining
6. Submarine nuclear testing
7. Dumping of radioactive wastes
The consequences of marine pollution are as follows:
 The pollutants adversely affect the productive ocean regions, thus causing huge losses of fish populations and coral
reefs. This results in economic losses amounting to billions of dollars per year.
 Eutrophication, due to the influx of organic pollutants, results in the formation of red tides. These are blooms
(massive growth) of red algae, which inhibit the movement of ships and also kill marine fauna.
 Dumping of huge amounts of toxic wastes in a short duration of time, creates areas of oxygen-depleted zones in the
coastal waters. In these zones, most of the aquatic lives die or migrate elsewhere.
 Discarded garbage, sewage, plastic refuse, etc. that are dumped in the oceans sometimes accumulate in the beaches.
This spoils the aesthetic beauty of the region and results in loss of tourism.
Water Pollutants and their Effects:
Most of the rivers and fresh water streams in India are badly polluted by industrial wastes or effluents. The major
sources of pollution of some Indian rivers are listed in table below:
Indian rivers and sources of their pollution
Name of river Sources of pollution
1. Kali Sugar mills: distilleries: paint, soap, rayon, silk. Yarn, tin and glycerine
2. Yamuna D.D.T. factory, sewage, Indraprastha Power Station, Delhi.
3. Ganga Jute, chemical, metal and surgical industries: tanneries, textile mills and great
bulk of domestic sewage of highly organic nature.
4. Gomti Paper and pulp mills sewage.
5. Dajora Synthetic rubber factories.
6. Damodar Fertilizers, fly ash from steel mills, suspended coal particles from washeries,
and thermal power station.
7. Hoogly Power stations: paper pulp, jute textiles, chemical mills, paint, varnishes, metal,
steel, hydrogenated vegetable oil, rayon, soap, match, shellac, and polyethene
industries and sewage.
8. Sone Bhadra Cement, pulp and paper mills.
9. Cooum, Adyar and Buckinghum Domestic sewage, automobile workshops.
canal (Chennai)
10. Kaveri Sewage, tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills.
11. Godavari Paper, mills.
12. Siwan Paper, sulphur, cement, and sugar mills.
13. Kulu Chemical factories, rayon mills and tanneries.
14. Suwao Sugar industries.
Contamination of water with industrial wastes is most dangerous. The sewage of big cities is often drained into rivers.
This sewage promotes the growth of phytoplankton’s. The excessive growth depletes the oxygen of water. This
reduction of oxygen and the presence of poisonous wastes affect the fish population. Besides these, rivers, lakes and
ponds are also used directly by people for bathing or washing. This contaminates the water with the germs of various
diseases- like cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 5

Type or Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutants

Mining Mine wastes : Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulpluric acid hydrogen
—
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocy-anate, Oil, phenol and naptha
sulphides, oxides, of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical plants Various acids and alkalies, sulphates, nitrates of Aromatic compound solvents, organic acids,
metals, phosphorus, fluorine, silica, and nitro compound dyes, etc.
suspended particles.
Pharmaceuticals Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvents,
—
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics.
Soap and detergent Tertiary ammonia compounds, alkalies. Fats and fatty acids, glycerol, polyphosphates,
sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing Highly putrescible organic matter and
—
pathogens.
Paper and pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors Cellulose fibres, bark, wood, sugars and
organic acids.
Some pollutants produce only temporary effects in water whereas others have long standing effects. There are several
types of physical and chemical effects produced by pollutants.
These are:
 Addition of poisonous substances
 Addition of suspended particles
 Addition of non-toxic salts
 Water de-oxygenation
 Heating of water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used
for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while
much more is accidental and can have widespread effects.
Soil pollution sources include:
 Hazardous waste and sewage spills
 Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides
 Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices
 Household dumping and littering
Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution,
soil erosion, and desertification.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the
affected area. Noise pollution can come from:
 Traffic
 Airports
 Railroads
 Manufacturing plants
 Construction or demolition
 Concerts
 6 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss,
wildlife disturbances, and a general degradation of lifestyle.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive pollution is rare but extremely detrimental, and even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the
difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.
Sources of radioactive contamination include:
 Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage
 Improper nuclear waste disposal
 Uranium mining operations
Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife
populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural
thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects.
Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts
over a greater geographic area.
Thermal pollution may be caused by:
 Power plants
 Urban sprawl
 Air pollution particulates that trap heat
 Deforestation
 Loss of temperature moderating water supplies
As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife populations may be unable to recover
from swift changes.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:
 Large cities
 Billboards and advertising
 Night time sporting events and other night time entertainment
Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment.
If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX 2018
In news 2018:
The 2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) finds that air quality is the leading environmental threat to public
health. Now in its twentieth year, the biennial report is produced by researchers at Yale and Columbia Universities in
collaboration with the World Economic Forum. The tenth EPI report ranks 180 countries on 24 performance indicators
across 10 issue categories covering environmental health and ecosystem vitality. Switzerland leads the world in sustainability,
followed by France, Denmark, Malta, and Sweden.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 7

Key findings:
 Switzerland’s top ranking reflects strong performance across most issues, especially air quality and climate protection.
 In general, high scorers exhibit long-standing commitments to protecting public health, preserving natural resources,
and decoupling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic activity.
 India and Bangladesh come in near the bottom of the rankings, with Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
Nepal rounding out the bottom five.
 Low scores on the EPI are indicative of the need for national sustainability efforts on a number of fronts, especially
cleaning up air quality, protecting biodiversity, and reducing GHG emissions.
 Some of the lowest-ranking nations face broader challenges, such as civil unrest, but the low scores for others can
be attributed to weak governance, they note.
EPI and Global Sustainability Data
The EPI builds on the best available global data from international research entities, such as the Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation, the World Resources Institute, and the Sea Around Us Project at the University of British
Columbia, as well as international organizations such as the World Bank and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
Nevertheless, serious data gaps limit the ability to measure results – and particularly changes in performance – on a
number of important issues. “As the EPI project has highlighted for two decades, better data collection, reporting, and
verification across a range of environmental issues are urgently needed,”.
The world needs better data on sustainable agriculture, water resources, waste management, and threats to biodiversity.
Supporting global data systems is one of the most important steps the world community can take to achieving sustainable
development goals.
DUST MITIGATION PLAN
Centre had notified dust mitigation norms.
The norms mandate that:
 No building or infrastructure project requiring Environmental Clearance shall be implemented without approved
Environmental Management Plan inclusive of dust mitigation measures.
 Roads leading to or at construction sites must be paved and blacktopped (i.e. metallic roads).
 No excavation of soil shall be carried out without adequate dust mitigation measures in place.
 No loose soil or sand or Construction & Demolition Waste or any other construction material that causes dust shall
be left uncovered,
 Wind-breaker of appropriate height i.e. 1/3rd of the building height and maximum up to 10 meters shall be provided.
 Water sprinkling system shall be put in place.
 Dust mitigation measures shall be displayed prominently at the construction site for easy public viewing.
How it works? (Steps taken)
The teams are empowered to take on-the-spot action against violators and if necessary, issue “stop-work” orders.
The campaign will also include enforcement of pollution-control measures for vehicles, driving discipline, inspection of
power plants in Delhi to ensure compliance with the norms on pollution.
Besides field surveys by empowered teams of officials, a series of seminars on mitigation of pollution will also be
organised during the period. These include - a workshop on Environmental and Health; Air Pollution Abatement Technologies;
enlisting support from NGOs, Civil Society, citizens; Clean Air Day in Universities, Colleges and Schools; a Mini Marathon
for Clean Air; enhancing the role of PSUs and industries, apex industrial bodies; launching a national digital forum for
discussions on air pollution; Indoor Air Pollution Management and a conference of Environment Ministers of States and
Union Territories.
 8 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

MINAMATA CONVENTION
In news
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury enabling India to
become a Party of the Convention.
About
 The approval entails ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury along with flexibility for continued use of
mercury based products and processes involving mercury compound up to 2025.
 The first Conference of the Parties (CoP) under the Minamata Convention took place in Geneva, Switzerland in 2017
which India attended as observer.
It is financed through Global Environment Facility.
Details about the convention
 The Minamata Convention on Mercury is first global legally binding treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
 It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in January 2013 and came into force in August, 2017.
The Minamata Convention has put party nations to:
 Reduce and eliminate the use and release of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
 Control mercury air emissions from coalfired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals
production operations, waste incineration and cement production.
 Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics,
pesticides and measuring devices, and create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
 Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes such as chloralkali production, vinyl chloride
monomer production, and acetaldehyde production.
 It also puts a ban on new mercury mines.
 The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated
by mercury as well as health issues.
Waste management
Waste management involves collecting, transporting, disposing, recycling and monitoring waste generated through
human activities.
General waste management techniques are:
Landfill: It involves having the waste buried off in empty, deserted locations outside the city. Dumped waste is made
to undergo compression to enhance the density and make the fill stable. It is later covered to discourage vermin
growth. A gas extraction system is customarily installed to exact the gas (arising out of decomposition) through a
burrow pit.
Incineration: Waste is exposed to high temperature to trigger combustion and ultimately reduce to ash, gas and heat
energy. Toxic wastes from industry are thermally treated in furnace and boiler to extract energy. This method is
useful where land is scarce. Gasification and Pyrolysis methods involve heating waste in short supply of oxygen at
high temperature inside a pressurized and sealed vessel. The resultant residue is used for energy generation.
Recycling: Paper, plastic, PVC and other homogenous products can be recycled to put them in use in a new garb.
This also rids the environment of non-biodegradable, chemical wastes that significantly disturb the ecological balance.
Biological reprocessing: Wastes of organic origin are made to undergo biological decomposition and re-used as
compost or mulch for agriculture and landscaping. Gas collected is used for electricity generation.
Waste Reduction and Avoidance: The stress is on increased use of second hand products, repaired products and
reducing the use of complex disposable items to keep a tab on waste generation in abundance.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 9
Recycling Solutions: Recycling is a superlative way to capitalize on accumulated waste by chemically treating it to
make it fit for re-use. Recycling equipment make the waste processing method streamlined and cost-effective.
Global warming
Global warming which is also referred to as climate change, is the observed rise in the average temperature of the
Earth's climate system the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C in the lowest emissions
scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C in the highest emissions scenario .These readings have been recorded by the “national
science academies of the major industrialized nations”. Future climate change and impacts will differ from region to
region. Expected effects include increase in global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion
of deserts.
Causes: Global warming is a serious environmental issues. The causes are divided into two categories include
"natural" and "human influences" of global warming.
Natural Causes of Global Warming:
 rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth
 greenhouse gases
 Volcanic eruption.
Human Influences on Global Warming:
 industrial revolution
 Mining
 Deforestation
Effects:
 heat waves,
 droughts,
 heavy rainfall with floods,
 heavy snowfall ,
 ocean acidification,
 species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes
Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow,
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Causes of Acid Rain : This image illustrates the pathway for acid rain in our environment.Acid rain results when
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air
currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These
then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of
it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and
not just those who live close to these sources.
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most
pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem
because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the rate of
 10 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the
first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over
time.

Important terminologies:
· Garbage Pollution: Mismanagement of solid waste by households, waste collectors and waste disposal contractors.
· Plastic Pollution: Waste of all types of non-biodegradable plastic of both hard and soft material.
· Pollution by Hospitals: Mismanagement of all types of waste generated by the hospitals instead of its environment
friendly disposal.
· Indoor Pollution: Kitchen emissions, smoking in home, loud music, spillage of sewerage.
· Industrial Pollution: Smoke from chimney, waste and effluent from manufacturing process in factories.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
6. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of
1. Consider the following: some chemical elements that are used by the industry
1. Carbon dioxide in the manufacture of various products. Why?
2. Oxides of Nitrogen 1. They can accumulate in the environment, and
3. Oxides of Sulphur contaminate water and soil.
Which of the above is/are the emission/ emissions 2. They can enter the food chains.
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? 3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. Human activities in the recent past have Caused the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the 7. Which of the following are some important pollutants
atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in the released by steel industry in India?
lower atmosphere because of :
1. Oxides of sulphur
1. Its escape into the outer stratosphere.
2. Oxides of nitrogen
2. The photosynthesis by phyto-plankton in the
oceans. 3. Carbon monoxide
3. The trapping of air in the polar ice caps. 4. Carbon dioxide
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4
3. Consider the following statements: 8. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting household products like mattresses and upholstery.
substances, are used Why is there some concern about their use?
1. In the production of plastic foams 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the
environment.
2. In the production of tubeless tyres
3. In cleaning certain electronic components 2. They are able to accumulate in humans and
animals.
4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. The scientific view is that the increase in global
4. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
temperature should not exceed 2 °C above pre-
by
industrial level. If the global temperature increases
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial level, what can
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide source
5. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
among: 3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
(a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere
of sunlight in the world.
(b) CO, 02 and0 peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence Select the correct answer using the code given below.
of sunlight (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low temperature (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4,
(d) High concentration of N02, O3 and CO in the
evening
12 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
10. In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential
sites for carbon sequestration?
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
3. Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
11. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard
criterion for
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/
are the advantage/advantages of bioremediation
technique?
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by
enhancing the same biodegradation process that
occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as
cadmium and lead can be readily and completely
treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create
microorganisms specifically designed for
bioremediation. Select the correct answer using
the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
13. I n potable water, the dissolved oxygen is stipulated
as-
(a) <6g/l (b) >6g/l
(c) <6mg/l (d) >6mg/l
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
14. I n r ef er en ce t o A ci d r ai n , w h at i s cor r ect
st at ement
(a) The pH value i s bel ow 5.6
(b) I t occur s due t o pr esence of sul phur i c aci d or
ni t r ic acid i n t he at mospher e
(c) M axi mum acid i s due t o st r ong Car bonic Acid
(d) Acid r ain affect s ecosyst em
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
15. The wor king pr inciple of tur bidimeter is based on
(a) r efl ect ion of l ight
(b) r efr act ion of l ight
(c) scat t er ing of l ight
(d) adsor pt ion of light
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
LEVEL-1
1. The major sour ce of car ci nogenic hydr ocar bon,
benzo () pyr ene pr esent i n ur ban at mospher e is
(a) const r uct ion act ivit i es
(b) r oad t r affic
(c) bur st i ng of cr acker s
(d) domest i c bur ni ng
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
2. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
commer cial ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 75 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(c) 55 dBA (d) 65 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
3. The gl obal war mi ng i s caused by gr een house
gases, which ar e
(a) CO, N 2O, CH 4 and CFC
(b) CO2, NO2, CH 4 and H 2O
(c) CO2, N 2O, CH 4 and H 2O
(d) CO2, N O2, CH 4 and CFC
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
4. Which of t he fol lowing r ol es fl y ash does not pl ay
in concr et e
(a) I mpr ovi ng t he wor kabi li t y
(b) Acceler at ing t he st r engt h gain
(c) Delaying t he set t ing t i me of concr et e
(d) H elps in long-t er m st r engt h gain
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
5. One t ur bi di t y unit NTU is equal t o
(a) 1.0 mg/l far mazin (b) 1.0 meq/l Si O2
(c) 1.0 mg/l Si O2 (d) 1.0 meq/l kaol in
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
6. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
r esi dent i al ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 65 dBA (b) 45 dBA
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 13
7. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s n ot u sed as a (c) gast r oint est inal pr oblem
suppl ement ar y cement at ions mat er ial? (d) t he ir r it at i on in alveol i of t he l ungs
(a) Fl y ash (b) Gypsum [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) Ri ce husk ash (d) Si li ca fume 15. The machi ne ‘A' and machine ‘B' pr oduce equal
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] noise l evel s, i.e., 60 dBA each. The summat ion of
8. Accor di ng t o I S 456, if t he maximum aggr egat e t hese t wo noise level s is
si ze i s i ncr eased fr om 20 mm t o 40 mm, t he (a) 100 dBA (b) 66 dBA
mi ni mum cement cont ent r equi r ement changes
(i n kg/cum) by (c) 63 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) – 20 (b) 20
(c) – 30 (d) 30 LEVEL-2
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] 1. I n st r at ospher e, t he t emper at ur e incr eases wi t h
9. The t ur bi di t y in sur face wat er is due t o pr esence al t i t ude due t o pr esence of
of (a) r adicals (b) chlor ofluor ocar bons
(a) dissolved or ganics (c) HCFCs (d) Ozone
(b) col loidal mat er ial [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) di ssolved i n or gani cs 2. N uclear densi t y guage can be used for al l t he
(d) di ssolved color s foll owi ng pur poses, except
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) M oist ur e cont ent
10. T h e pr escr i bed per m i ssi bl e n oi se l evel , f or (b) Wet densi t y
r esi dent i al ar ea at night t ime is
(c) Dr y densi t y
(a) 45 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(d) St andar d penetr at ion r eading
(c) 40 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
3. A wat er bor ne di sease pol iomyeli t is i s caused by
11. The cont i nuous exposur e of hi gh concent r at i on
of r epar able suspended par t icul at e mat t er may (a) vir uses (b) pr ot ozoa
cause (c) bact er ia (d) hel mi nt hes
(a) eye ir r it at i on [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(b) kidney damage 4. I n pot abl e wat er, t he per missible li mi t of nit r at e
(c) fail ur e of r espi r at or y syst em ni t r ogen is
(d) car diac disease (a) 10 mg/l (b) 25 mg/l
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st (c) 40 mg/l (d) 15 mg/l
12. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
commer cial ar ea at ni ght t ime is 5. Car bon monoxi de for ms car boxyhemogl obi n i n
(a) 45 dBA (b) 65 dBA human blood t hat may cause
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA (a) incr eased oxygen car r yi ng capaci t y
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (b) decr eased oxygen car r ying capaci t y
13. The pH of acid r ai n shoul d always be less t han (c) damage in cent r al ner vous syst em
(a) 5.6 even aft er pr ecipit at i on (d) damage in ci r cul at or y syst em
(b) 7.0 aft er pr ecipit at ion [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 6.5 aft er pr ecipit at ion
6. Tw o m ach i n es ar e w or k i n g i n a n oi sy
(d) 4.2 aft er pr ecipit at ion envi r onment and joint ly pr oduct 55 dBA noi se
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] level. I f t he envir onment al noi se level i s also 55
14. The exposur e of gaseous pollut ant sulphur dioxide dBA, t he summat i on of noise level s is
may cause (a) 110 dBA (b) 56 dBA
(a) br onchi t is and pul monar y emphysema (c) 55 dBA (d) 58 dBA
(b) lungs fai lur e and k idney damage [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
14 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

(b) car bon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, water vapour s

7. The aver age concent r at i on of ozone pr esent i n
and chl or ofl uor ocar bons
t he st r at ospher e is appr oximat ely
(c) car bon monoxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and,
(a) 5 ppm (b) 0.05 ppm
hydr o-chlor ofluor ocar bons
(c) 10 ppm (d) 15 ppm
(d) car bon di ox i de, n i t r ogen di ox i de, w at er
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
vapour s , met hane and ozone
8. The t ot al col ifor m bact er ia ar e r epor t ed as most [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
pr obabl e number (M PN) per
12. The desir able amount of fluor i de ions i n pot able
(a) 10 ml of wat er wat er s for opt imal dent al heal t h i s:
(b) 1000 ml of wat er
(a) 1.5 mg/l (b) 1.0 mg/l
(c) 100 ml of wat er
(c) 0.5 mg/l (d) 0.05 mg/l
(d) 1ml of wat er [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] 13. Wh i ch of t he f ol l owi ng i s n ot con si der ed as
9. The ant hr opogenic sour ces of air pollut ion in well secondar y pollut ant ?
pl anned ci t y is (a) Phot ochemical smog
(a) constr uction activities, r oad tr affics, r ail tr affic, (b) Per oxy acet yl nit r at e
fugi t ive emissions
(c) Acid mi st
(b) const r uct ion act ivi t i es, r oad t r affi c, domest ic
(d) Car bon monoxi de
burning
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affi cs, bur st ing
of cr acker s, dust st or ms 14. I n t he st at ist ical di st r ibut ion of noi se levels, t he
back gr ound noise l evel is r epr esent ed by:
(d) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affics, domest ic
bur ni ng, i ndust r ial emissions (a) L 90 (b) L 50
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (c) L 10 (d) L 1
10. When t he measur ed and st andar d r efer ence [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
pr essur e level becomes equal, t he sound pr essur e 15. Acid r ain i s caused due t o for mat ion of:
level (SPL ) is equi valent t o (a) su l ph u r i c aci d an d car bon i c aci d i n t h e
(a) 1 dBA (b) 10 dBA at mospher e
(c) 0 dBA (d) 1.012 dBA (b) sulphur ic acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st
(c) nitr ic acid and car bonic acid in the atmospher e
11. The major gr een house gases cont r i but i ng i n (d) sulphur ic acid, nit r ic acid and car bonic acid in
gl obal war ming ar e t he at mospher e
(a) car bon di oxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
wat er vapour s

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b)
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 15

EXPLAN ATI ON S
LEVEL-1 7. Gypsum is not used as a supplementary
cementations material.
1. Road traffic is the major source of carcinogenic
hydrocarbon present in urban atmosphere. 9. Turbidity in surface water is due to colloidal
material.
2. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at day time is 65 dBA. 10. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 45
According to Central Pollution Control Board, dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
Code Day time Night time Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
A Industrial area 75 70 Code Day time Night time
B Commercial area 65 55 A Industrial area 75 70
C Residential area 55 45 B Commercial area 65 55
D Silence Zone 50 40 C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40
3. Green house gases are the gas mixed in the
atmosphere that absorbs the infrared radiation 11. Continuous exposure to suspended particles are
emitted by the earth’s surface. harmful to the lungs and can cause failure of
respiratory system.
12. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at night time is 55 dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,

Area Limits in dB(A), Leq

Category of Area
Code Day time Night time
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

13. pH of acid rain should always be less than 5.6

We are not accustomed to these gases because even after precipitation.
neither nitrogen nor oxygen, the two most 14. The exposure of gaseous pollutant sulphur dioxide
abundant gases of the atmosphere (78% and 21%, may cause bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema.
respectively), that many of us have heard of, have
this ability to intercept infrared radiation. LEVEL-2
4. Fly ash never improves strength of concrete. 1. In the stratosphere, temperature increases with
The advantages of using fly ash far outweigh the altitude. The reason is that the direct heat source
disadvantages. The most important benefit is for the stratosphere is the Sun. A layer of ozone
reduced permeability to water and aggressive molecules absorbs solar radiation, which heats
chemicals. Properly cured concrete made with fly the stratosphere. The amount of ozone present
in the ozone layer is tiny, only a few molecules
ash creates a denser product because the size of
per million air molecules.
the pores are reduced.
5. One turbidity unit NTU is equal to 1.0 mg/l SiO2. 2. Nuclear density gauge can be used for all the
following purposes except standard penetration
6. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 55
reading.
dBA.
3. A virus that may cause paralysis and is easily
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
preventable by the polio vaccine.
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area 4. The permissible limit of nitrate nitrogen in potable
Code Day time Night time
water is 10 mg/l .
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55 7. The average concentration of ozone present in
C Residential area 55 45 the stratosphere is approximately 10 ppm.
D Silence Zone 50 40
16 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Sulfure dioxide (SO 2 Photochemical oxidants

carbon monoxide (ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
(CO 2 ),nitrogen oxides sulfur trioxide) and
(No x ), and particulate secondary particular
matter (PM). matter.
Chemical reactants
characterized with a direct Chemical products, highly
pollution effect on living reactive when
beings and ecosystems, photoactivation is involved
and with an indirect effect in the chemical process of
through the formation of their formation
secondary pollutants.

8. Total or fecal coliform bacteria are reported as
most probable number per 100 mL
9. Anthropogenic sources of air pollution in well
planned city are construction activities, road
traffics, and domestic burning
10. When the measured and standard reference
pressure level becomes equal, the sound pressure
level (SPL) is equivalent to 0 dBA
11. The major green house gases contributing in
global warming are carbon dioxide , nitrous
oxide,methane and water vapor.
12. The desirable amount of flue le ions in potable
waters for optimal dental health is 1.0 mg/l
13. Primary Pollutants
Versus
Secondary Pollutants
Air pollutant formed in
the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or physical
Air pollutant emitted interactions between the
direclty from a source into primary pollutants
the atmosphere. themselves or between the
primary pollutants and
other atmospheric
components.
Complicated control
Direct control through the process: understanding
reduction of anthropogenic and interrupting the
emissions. chemical reactions leading
to their generation.
14. L90 is frequently taken as the Lp of the background
level. L10-L90 is often used to give a quantitative
measure as to the spread or “how choppy” the
sound was. L10 is the noise level exceeded for
10% of the time of the measurement duration.
15. Scientists have discovered that air pollution from
burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid
rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that
create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and
nitrogen (NOx). Acid rain usually forms high in
the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants.
this mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid
and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most
of these reactions. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other
forms of precipitation containing those mild
solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids fall to earth
as acid rain.
 Basics of Computers and Applications
PERSON AL COM PU T ERS
Per sonal comput er s can be cat egor ized by size and
por t abilit y as :
1. Deskt op comput er s
2. L apt op or not ebooks
3. Per sonal Digit al Assist ants (PDAs)
4. Por t able comput er s
5. Tablet comput er s
6. Wear able comput er s
U ses.
Per sonal computers ar e normally operated by one user
at a time to perform such general purpose tasks as word
pr ocessing, I nter net br owsing, I nternet faxing, e-mail
and other digit al messaging , multimedia playback,
computer game play, computer pr ogr amming, etc. The
user of modern personal computer may have significant
knowledge of the operating environment and application
pr ogr am s, bu t i s n ot n ecessar i l y i n t er est ed i n
pr ogr amming not even able to wr ite pr ogr ams for the
computer. Ther efore, most software written primarily
for per sonal comput er s t ends t o be desi gned wi t h
simplicity of use, or “user-friendliness” in mind. However,
the software industry continuously provide a wide range
of new products for use in personal computer s, tar geted
at both the exper t and the non-expert user.
COM PU T ER COM PON EN TS
1. Comput er case wit h power supply (usually sold
t oget her )
2. Mother boar d
3. Pr ocessor wit h fan (usually sold t oget her )
4. At least one memor y car d
5. M ass st or age
6. K eyboar d and mouse for input
7. M onit or for out put
The mot her boar d connect s ever t hing t oget her. The
memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted
directly onto the motherboard (the processor in a socket
an the memory and graphics cards in an expansion slot).
The mass storage is connected to it with cables. Same for
keyboard and mouse, except that they are external and
connect to the back plate. The monitor is also connected
to the back plate, except not (usually) dir ectly to the
motherboard, but to a connector in the graphics card.
M ass st orage.
I t can be
(i ) H ar d disk
(ii ) Floppy dr ive or zip dr ive (bot h wit h media)
(iii )Opt ical dr ive (CD or DVD)
The oper at ing syst em (e.g., M icr osoft Windows, Linux
or many ot her s) can be locat ed on eit her of t hese, but
t ypically it son one of t he har d disks. Alive CD is also
possible, but ver y slow and used for eit her inst allation
of t he OS or pr oblem solving.
A typical computer also has
(i ) Sound car d (ii ) Net wor k car d
(iii )M oder n and possibly r out er
Common addit i ons, connect ed on t he out si de
(per ipher als).
Pr i nt er ; Scanner ; Webcam; Speak er s; M i cr ophone;
Headset; Car d reader ; Gaming devices such as a joystick
Sever al funct ions (implement ed by chipset s) can be
integr ated into the mother boar d, such as typically USB
and net wor k, but also gr aphics and sound. But even if
these ar e pr esent, a separ ate car d can be added if what
is available isn’t sufficient .
The gr aphics and sound car d can have a br eak out box
to keep the analog par ts away fr om the electr omagnetic
r adiat ion inside t he comput er case. For r eally lar ge
amount s of dat a, a t ape dr ive can be used or (ext r a)
har d disks can be put t oget her in an ext er nal case.
These component s can usually be put t oget her wit h
lit t le k nowledge, t o build a comput er. I f somet hing
shouldn’t go somewher e, it usually doesn’t fit (this used
t o not always be t he case in t he past ) and if it does fit
it can usually do lit t le har m.
Most per sonal computer s ar e standar dized to the point
t hat pur chased soft war e is expect ed t o r un wit h lit t le
or no customizat ion for the par t icular comput er. M any
PCs ar e also user -upgr adeable, especially desktop and
wor kst at ion class comput er s. Devices such as main
memor y, mass st or age, even t he mot her boar d and
cent r al pr ocessing unit may be easily r eplaced by an
end user. This upgr adeabilit y is, however, not idefinit e
due t o r api d ch anges i n t h e per sonal compu t er
indust r y, A PC that was consider ed t op-of-the-line five
or six year s pr ior may be impr act ical t o upgr ade due
t o changes in indust r y st andar ds. Such a comput er
 2 Basics of Computers and Applications
usually must be t ot ally r eplaced once it ’s no longer
suitable for its pur pose. This upgr ade and replacement
cycle is par tially r elated to new r eleases of the pr imar y
mass-mar ket oper at ed syst em, which t ends t o dr ive
t he acquisition of new har dwar e and t ends of obsolet e
pr ev i ou sl y ser v i ceabl e h ar dw ar e (see pl an n ed
obsol escence).
The har dwar e capabilit ies of per sonal comput er s can
somet imes be ext ended by t he addit ion of expansion
car ds connect ed via an expansion bus. Some standar d
per ipheral buses often used for adding expansion cards
in personal computers as of 2005 ar e PCI , AGP (a high-
speed PCI bus dedicat ed t o gr aphics adapt er s), and
PCI Expr ess. Most per sonal computer s as of 2005 have
mul t i pl e physi cal PCI expansi on sl ot s. M any al so
i ncl ude an AGP bus and expansi on sl ot or a PCI
Expr ess bus and one or mor e explansion slot s, but
few PCs cont ain bot h buses.
M ot her boar d.
The mother boar d (or mainboar d) is the pr imar y cir cuit
boar d wi t hi n a per sonal com put er. M an y ot h er
component s connect di r ect l y or i ndi r ect l y t o t he
mot her boar d. M ot her boar ds usually cont ain one or
mor e CPUs, suppor t ing cir cuit r y - usually int egr at ed
cir cuits (I Cs) pr oviding the inter face between the CPU
memor y and input /out put per ipher al cir cuit s, main
memor y, and facilities for init ial setup of the computer
immediat ely aft er being power ed on (often called boot
fi r mwar e or, i n I BM PC compat i bl e comput er s, a
BI OS). I n many por t abl e and embedded per sonal
comput er s, t he mot her boar d houses near ly all of t he
PC’s cor e component s. Oft en a mot her boar d will also
cont ain one or mor e per ipher al buses and physical
connect or s for expansi on pur poses. Somet i mes a
secondar y daught er boar d i s connect ed wi t h t he
mot her boar d t o pr ovide fur t her expandibilit y or t o
sat isfy space constr aint s.
M ain M emory.
A PC’s main memor y (i.e., it s pr imar y st or e) is fast
st or age t hat is dir ect ly accessible by t he CPU, and is
used t o st or e t he cur r ent ly execut ing pr ogr am and
i mmi di at el y needed dat a. PCs use semi conduct or
Random Access Memor y (RAM ) of var ious kinds such
as DRAM or SRAM as t heir pr imar y st or age. Which
exact kind depends on cost /per for mance issues at any
par t icular t ime. M ain memor y is much fast er t han
mass st or age devices like har d disks or opt ical discs,
but is usually volat ile, meaning it does not r et ain it s
contents (inst r uctions or data) in the absence of power,
and is much mor e expensive for a given capacit y t han
is most mass st or age. M ain memor y is gener ally not
suit able for long-t er m or ar chival dat a st or age.
M ass st or age devices st or e pr ogr ams and dat a even
when t he power i s off; t hey do r equi r e power t o
per for m r ead/wr it e funct ions dur ing usage. Although
semiconductor flash memor y has dr opped in cost, the
pr evailing for m of mass stor age in personal computers
is st ill t he elect r omechanical har d disk.
The disk dr ives use a sealed H ead/Disk Assembly
(H D A ) w h i ch w as f i r st i n t r odu ced by I B M ’s
“ Wi nchest er ” di sk syst em. The use of a seal ed
assembly allowed t he use of t he positive air pr essur e
t o dr ive out par t icles fr om t he sur face of t he disk,
which impr oves r eliabilit y.
Video Car d.
The video car d- ot her wise cal led a gr aphics car d,
gr aphics adapt er or video adapt er - pr ocessor s and
r ender s t he gr aphics out put fr om t he comput er t o
t he comput er display, also called t he Visual Display
Unit (VDU), and is an essent ial par t of t he moder n
comput er.
M I CROPROCE SSOR.
A micr opr ocessor is a mult ipur pose pr ogr ammable
logic device t hat r eads binar y inst r uct ions fr om a
st or age device called memor y, accept s binar y dat a
as i n pu t an d pr ocess dat a accor di n g t o t h ose
instr uctions and pr ovides r esults as output. A typical
pr ogr ammable machine can be r epr esent wit h t hr ee
component s : micr opr ocessor, memor y, and I /O.
Memory
Micro
processor
I/O
These t hr ee component s wor k t oget her or int er act
wit h each ot her t o per for m a given t ask, t hus t hey
compr ise a syst em
H ARD WARE .
The physical component s of t his syst em ar e called
har dwar e.
SOF TWARE
A set of inst r uct ions wr it t en for t he micr opr ocessor
t o per for m a t ask is called a pr ogr am and a gr oup of
pr ogr ams is called soft war e.
APPL I CAT I ON S.
Th e mi cr opr ocessor appl i cat i ons ar e cl assi fi ed
pr imar ily in t wo cat egor ies
( i ) I n Re-programmable syst ems.
Such as micr ocomput er s, t he micr opr ocessor is
used for comput ing and dat a pr ocessing. These
systems, include gener al pur pose micr opr ocessor
capabl e of handl i ng l ar ge dat a. M ass st or age
device (disks), and per ipher als such as I /O device
(pr inter ).

( ii ) Embedded syst em.
I n embedded syst ems, t he micr opr ocessor is par t
of a f i n al pr odu ct an d i s n ot av ai l abl e f or
r epr ogr ammabl e t o t he end user. A copyi ng
machine is a t ypi cal example of an embedded
syst em . Th e mi cr opr ocessor s u sed i n t hese
syst ems ar e gener ally cat egor ised as
( a ) M i cr ocon t r ol l er s t h at i n cl u de al l t h e
components like micr opr ocessor, memor y and
I /O.
( b) I ntegrated microprocessor that include various
devices such as timers and various types of I /O
on a chip.
( c) Gener al pur pose micropr ocessor with discr ete
component s such as micr opr ocessor, memor y
and I /O.
Embedded syst ems can also be incr eased as pr oducts
t hat use micr opr ocessor t o per for m t heir oper at ions
t hey ar e called as micr opr ocessor based pr oduct s.
e.g. washing machines, dish washer s, aut omobi le
dashboar d cont r ol s, t r affi c l i ght cont r ol l er s, and
aut omat ic t est ing inst r ument s.
BI N ARY DI GI T.
The micr opr ocessor oper at es in binar y digit s 0 and
1, also known as bit s. Bit is an abbr eviat ion for t he
t er m binar y digit . Those digit s ar e r epr esent ed in
ter ms of electr ical voltages in the machine : gener ally
0 r epr esent s one vol t age l evel and 1 r epr esent s
anot her. The digit s 0 and 1 ar e also synonyms wit h
low and high r espect ively.
Each mi cr opr ocessor r ecogni zes and pr ocesses a
gr oup of bit s called t he wor d and micr opr ocessor ar e
classified accor ding t o t heir wor d lengt h.
M emor y.
M emor y is like t he pages of a not ebook wit h space
for a fixed number of binar y number s on each line.
H owever t hese pages ar e gener ally made of semi-
conduct or mat er ial. Each line in 8 bit r egist er t hat
can st or e 8 bi t bi nar y bi t s, and sever al of t hese
r egist er s ar e ar r anged in a sequence called memor y.
I nput /Out put .
The user can enter instructions and data into memor y
thr ough devices such as keyboar d or simple switches.
These devices ar e called input devices.
The mi cr opr ocessor r eads i nst r uct i ons fr om t he
memor y and pr ocesses t he dat a accor ding t o t hose
inst r uct ions. The r esult can be displayed by a device
such as seven segment L ED (light emit t ing diodes)
or pr i nt ed by a pr i nt er. These devi ces ar e call ed
out put devices.
M I CROPROCESSOR AS A CPU .
The cent r al pr ocessing unit (CPU) consist s of t he
Ar ithmet ic Logic Unit (ALU) and Cont r ol Unit (CU).
Basics of Computers and Applications 3
The CPU cont ains var ious r egist er s t o st or e dat a,
AL U t o per for m Ar it hmet ic and logical, oper at ions,
inst r uction decoder s, count er s and cont r ol lines. The
CPU r eads i n st r uct i on s fr om t h e memor y and
per for m t he t asks specified. I t communicat es wit h
input /out put devices eit her t o accept or to send dat a.
These devices ar e also known as per ipher als. The
CPU i s t h e pr i m ar y an d cen t r al pl ay er i n
communicat ing wit h devices such as memor y, input
an d ou t pu t . H ow ev er , t h e t i m i n g of t h e
communicat ion pr ocess is cont r olled by t he gr oup of
cir cuit called cont r ol unit . CPU on single chip called
mi cr opr ocessor.
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)
Control
Input Output
Unit
Memory
Fig. (a) Traditional block diagram of
Micro
processor
Input Output
as CPU
Memory
F i g. (b) Bl ock di agr am of a compu t er w i t h t he a
comput er micr oprocessor as CPU
1. bit micr opr ocessor.
The I nt el 4004 was t he fir st 4 bit pr ogr ammable
device t hat was pr imar ily used in calculat or s.
2. bit micr opr ocessor.
The int el 8008 is 8 bit micr opr ocessor, which was
in t ur n super seded by t he I nt el 8080. I nt el 8080
wi dely used i n cont r ol applicat ions, and small
comput er s also wer e designed using t he 8080 as
t he CPU. Wit hin a few year s aft er t he emer gence
of t he 8080, t he M ot or ola 6800 and Zilog Z80 and
I nt el 8085 mi cr opr ocessor wer e devel oped as
impr ovement s
3. 16 bit microprocessor. 8086/88
4. 32 bit microprocessor. 80380/486 and Pent ium
5. 64 bit microprocessor. M ot or ola 68000 ser ies
 4 Basics of Computers and Applications
M I CROCOM PU T E RS.
M icr ocomput er is classified in four gr oups.
1. Per sonnel comput er s.
These micr ocomputer s ar e single user systems and
being used for var iety of pur poses, such as payr oll,
busi ness account s, wor d pr ocessi ng, l egal and
medi cal r ecor d k eepi ng, per sonnel fi nance and
inst r uctions. A typical configur ation includes a 16
or 32 bit micr opr ocessor, 2 to 4 M B (megabyte) of
system memory, a video screen, a dot matrix pr inter.
2. Work st at ions.
These ar e high per for mance cousi ns of t he PC.
T hey ar e used i n en gi n eer i n g an d sci en t i fi c
applications such as computer -aided design (CAD),
computer aided engineer ing (CAE), and computer -
aided manufacturing (CAM), they generally include
syst em memor y l ar ger t han 200 M B, st or age
memor y in giga byt es and high r esolut ion scr een.
The wor k st at i ons ar e desi gned ar ound RI SC
pr ocessor s. The RI SC pr ocessor s t end t o be fast er
and mor e effi ci ent t han t he pr ocessor s used i n
per sonnel comput er.
3. Single boar d micr ocomput er s.
These mi cr ocomput er s ar e pr i mar i l y used i n
college, labor atories and industr ies for instr uctional
pur poses or t o evaluate the per for mance of a given
mi cr opr ocessor. They can al so be par t of some
lar ger syst ems. Typical ly t hese micr ocomput er s
include 8 or 16 bit micr opr ocessor.
e.g. These computers include such systems as Intel
SDK85, SDK86, Motorola Evaluation kits, these are
generally used to write and execute assembly language
programs and to perform interfacing experiments
4. Si n gl e ch i p m i cr ocom pu t er s ( m i cr o-
cont r ol l er s)
These micr ocomput er s ar e designed on a single
chip, which t ypically includes a chip of 64 byt es of
R/W memor y fr om 4K t o 2K byt es of ROM and
sever al si ngl e l i nes t o connect I /Os. These ar e
complet e micr ocomput er s on a chip, t hey ar e also
k n ow n as m i cr ocon t r ol l er s. T h ese ar e u sed
pr i m ar i l y f or su ch f u n ct i on s as con t r ol l i n g
appliances and t r affic light s. e.g. Zilog Z8, I nt el
M CS51 and 96 ser ies, and M ot or ola 68H C11.
COM PU TER LAN GU AGES. N ibble.
I t is a gr oup of four bit s
M nemonic : A combinat ion of let t er s t o suggest t he
oper at ion of an inst r uct ion.
Compiler : A pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es english like
wor ds of high language in t he machine language of a
comput er. A complier r eads a given pr ogr am, called a
sour ce code and t hen t r anslat es t he pr ogr am int o t he
machine language which is called an object code.
Assembler : A comput er pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es an
assembly language pr ogr am fr om mnemonics t o t he
binar y machine code of a comput er.
M onit or program : A pr ogr am t hat int er pr et s t he
input fr om a keyboar d and conver t s t he input int o it s
binar y equivalent .

COM PU TER SYSTEM .

8085 Programming M odel.
The 8085 pr ogr amming model includes six r egist er s, one accumulat or and one flag r egist er. I t has t wo 16 bit
r egist er t he st ack point er and t he pr ogr am count er.
Registers : The 8085 has six gener al pur pose r egist er s t o st or e 8 bit dat a. These ar e ident ical as B, C, D, E, H
and L . They can be combined as Regist er s pair s BC, DE, and H L t o per for m some 16 bit oper at ions. The
pr ogr ammer can use t hese r egist er s t o st or e or copy dat a int o t he r egist er s by using dat a copy inst r uct ions.

Accumulator A (8) Flag Register

B (8) C (8)
D (8) E (8)
H (8) L (8)
Stack pointer (SP) (16)
Program counter (PC) (16)

Data Bus Address Bus

Lines Lines

Bidirectional Unidirectional
F ig. (a) Progr amming model
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
F ig. (b) F lab Register

Accumulat or.
The Accumulat or is an 8 bit r egist er t hat is par t of t he
ar it hmet ic/logic unit (AL U). This r egist er is used t o
st or e 8 bit dat a and t o per for m ar it hmet ic/logic unit
(AL U). This r egist er is used t o st or e 8-bit dat a and t o
per for m ar it hmet ic and logical oper at ions. The r esult
of an oper at i on i s st or ed i n t he accumul at or. The
accumulat or is also ident ified as r egist er A.
FLAGS.
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which ar e set or r eset
aft er an oper at ion accor ding t o dat a condit ions of t he
r esult in t he accumulat or and ot her r egist er s. They
ar e called zer o (Z), car r y (CY); sign (S), par it y (P) and
Auxiliar y car r y (AC) flags.
The most commonly used flags ar e zer o, car r y, and
sign. The micr opr ocessor uses t hese flags t o t est dat a
condit ions.
Aft er an addit ion of t wo number s, if t he sum in t he
accumulat or is lar ger t han eight bits, the flip-flop used
t o indicat e a car r y called car r y flag (CY) is set t o one.
When an ar ithmetic oper ation is zer o the flip flop called
t he zer o (Z) flag is set t o one.
The fl ags have cr i t i cal i mpor t ance i n t he deci si on
making pr ocess of t he micr opr ocessor. The condit ions
(set or r eset ) of t he flags ar e t est ed t hr ough soft war e
inst r uct ions.
PROGRAM COU N TER (PC).
T h i s 16 bi t r egi st er deal s wi t h sequ en ci n g t h e
execut ion of inst r uct i on. Thi s r egi st er i s a memor y
point er. M emor y locat ions have 16 bit addr esses, and
that is why t his is a 16-bit r egister. The micr opr ocessor
uses t hi s r egi st er t o sequence t he execut i on of t he
inst r uct ions. The funct ion of t he pr ogr am count er is
t o point t o t he memor y addr esses fr om which t he next
byt e is t o be fet ched. When a byt e (machine code) is
being fet ched, t he pr ogr am count er is incr ement ed by
one t o point t o t he next memor y locat ion.
STACK POI N TER (SP).
The stack pointer is also a 16 bit register used as memory
poi n t er. I t poi n t s t o a m em or y l ocat i on i n
R/W memor y, called t he stack. The beginning of st ack
is defined by loading a 16-bit address in the stack pointer.
OPCODE FORM AT.
I n t he desi gn of t he 8085 mi cr opr ocessor chi p, al l
oper ations, registers and status flags are identified with
a specific code.
All int er nal r egist er s ar e ident ified as follows :
Code Regist er s Code Regist er pair s
000 B 00 BC
001 C 01 DE
010 D 10 HL
011 E 11 A F or S P
100 F
101 G
110 Reser ved for M emor y Relat ed Oper at ion
111 A
Basics of Computers and Applications 5
I N STRU CTI ON CODES.
An inst r uct ion code is a gr oup of bit s t hat inst r uct t he
comput er t o per for m a specific oper at ion. I t is usually
divided i nt o par t s, each havi ng it s own par t i cular
int er pr et at ion. The most basic par t of an inst r uct ion
codes is it s oper at ion par t .
Oper at ion Code.
The oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion is a gr oup of bit s
that define such oper ations as add, subt r act , mult iply,
shift and complement . The number of bit s r equir ed
for t he oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion depends on
t he t ot al number of oper at i ons avai l abl e i n t he
comput er. The oper at ion code must consist of at least
n bit s for a given 2n (or less) dist inct oper at ions.
OP Code.
What t ask t o be per for med, called t he oper at ion code
(OPcode).
Oper and.
When dat a t o be oper at ed on called t he oper and. The
oper and (or dat a) can be specified in var ious ways. I t
may include 8-bit or (16 bit) data, an int er nal r egist er,
a memor y location, or 8 bit (or 16 bit) addr ess. I n some
inst r uct ions, t he oper and is implicit .
ADDRESSI N G M ODES.
The control unit of a computer is designed to go through
an inst r uct ion cycle t hat is divided int o t hr ee major
phases.
(i) Fet ch t he inst r uct ion fr om memor y
(ii ) Decode t he inst r uct ion
(iii) Execut e t he inst r uct ion
I mplied mode.
A l l r egi st er r ef er en ce i n st r uct i on s t h at u se an
accumul at or ar e i mpl i ed mode i nst r uct i ons. Zer o
addr ess inst r uct ions in a st ack-or ganized comput er
ar e implied mode inst r uct ions since t he oper ands ar e
implied t o be on t op of t he st ack.
I mmediat e mode.
The operand is specified in the instruction itself. In other
words, an immediate mode instruction has an operand
field r ather than an addr ess field. The operand field
contains the actual operand to be used in conjunction
with the operation specified in the instr uctions.
Regist er mode.
I n t his mode t he oper ands ar e in r egist er s, that r eside
wit hin t he CPU. The par t icular r egist er is select ed
fr om a r egist er field in t he inst r uct ion. A K bit field
can specify any one of 2k r egist er s.
Regist er indir ect mode.
I n this mode t he inst r uct ion specifies a r egist er in t he
CPU, whose cont ent gives t he addr ess of t he oper and
in memor y. The advant age of a r egist er indir ect mode
inst r uct ion is t hat t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion
uses fewer bit s t o select a r egist er t han would have
been r equir ed t o specify a memor y addr ess dir ect ly,
 6 Basics of Computers and Applications
Aut o I ncrement or Decrement mode.
This is similar t o r egist er indir ect mode except t hat
t he r egist er is incr ement ed or decr ement ed aft er or
befor e it s value is used t o access memor y. When t he
addr ess st or ed in t he r egist er r efer s t o a t able of dat a
in memor y, it is necessar y t o incr ement and decr ement
t he r egist er s aft er ever y access t o t he t able
D ir ect addressing mode.
I n t hi s mode t he effect i ve addr ess i s equal t o t he
addr ess par t of t he inst r uct ion. The oper and r esides
in memor y and it s addr ess is given dir ect ly by t he
addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion.
I ndir ect addr essing mode.
I n t his mode t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion gives
t he addr ess wher e t he effect ive addr ess is st or ed in
memor y.
Effect ive addr ess = addr ess par t of inst r uct ion
+ cont ent of CPU r egist er
I N PU T AN D OU TPU T SYSTEM
I nput /out put devices ar e t he means t hr ough which
t he M PU communicat es wit h t he out side wor ld. The
M PU accept s binar y dat a as input fr om devices such
as keyboar ds and A/D conver t er s and send dat a t o
out put devices such as L EDs or pr int er s. Ther e ar e
t wo differ ent met hods by which I /O devices can be
ident ified. One uses an 8 bit addr ess and t he ot her
uses a 16 bit addr ess.
PERI PH ERAL M APPED I /O.
I n this type of I /O, the MPU uses eight addr ess lines to
identify an input or an output device; t his is known as
per ipher al mapped I /O. The eight addr ess lines can
have 256 (28 combinat ions) addr esses; t hus the MPU
can identify 256 input devices and 256 output devices
with addresses ranging fr om 00H to FFH input and
output devices are differentiated by the contr ol signals.
The MPU uses the I /O Read Contr ol Signal for input
devices and the I /O Wr ite Contr ol Signal for output
devices. The entir e r ange of I /O addr esses fr om 00 to
FF is known as an I /O map, and individual addr esses
ar e r efer r ed t o as I /O devices addr esses 8 I /O por t
number s.
M E M ORY M APPE D I /O (I /O W I T H 16 BI T
ADDRESSES).
I /O is connect ed as if it is memor y r egist er. This is
known as memor y mapped I /O. The M PU uses t he
same cont r ol signal (M emor y Read or M emor y Wr it e)
an d i n st r u ct i on s as t h ose of m em or y. I n som e
micr opr ocessor such as mot or ola 6800, all I /O have
16 bit addr esses. I /Os and memor y shar e t he same
memor y map (64K). I n memor y mapped I /O, the MPU
follows the same steps as if it is accessing a memor y
r egist er.
I N PU T DEVI CES
These include a mouse, tr ack ball, space ball, joyst ick,
digit izer s, dials and but t on boxes. Some ot her input
devices used in par t icular applicat ions ar e dat a glove,
t ouch panels, image scanner s and voice syst ems.
1. K eyboar ds.
An alphanumer ic keyboar d on a gr aphics syst em
i s used pr i mar i l y as a devi ce for ent er i ng t ext
st r i ngs. The k eyboar d i s an effi ci ent devi ce for
input t ing such non gr aphics dat a as pict ur e labels
associated with graphics display. Keyboar ds can also
be pr ovided with featur e to facilitate entr y of scr een
coor dinat es, menu select or s or gr aphics funct ions.
2. M ouse.
A mouse is small hand held box used t o posit ion
t he scr een cur sor. Wheels or r oller s on t he but t on
of t he mouse can be used t o r ecor d t he amount
and dir ect ion of movement s. Anot her met hod for
det ect ing mouse mot ion is wit h an opt ical sensor.
For t hese syst ems, t he mouse i s moved over a
special mouse pad t hat has gr id of hor izont al and
v er t i cal l i n es. T h e opt i cal sen sor det ect s
movement s acr oss t he l i nes i n t he gr i d. Si nce
mouse can be picked up and put down at anot her
posit ion wit hout change in cur sor movement . I t is
used for making r elat ive changes in t he posit ion of
t he scr een cur sor. One, t wo or t hr ee but t ons ar e
usual l y i ncl uded on t he t op of t he mouse for
signalling t he execut ion of some oper at ion, such
as r ecor ding cur sor position or invoking a funct ion.
Most gener al pur pose graphics system now included
a mouse and keyboar d as major input devices.
3. Track Ball and Space Ball.
A t r ack ball is a ball t hat can be r ot at ed wit h t he
fi nger s or pal m of t he hand t o pr oduce scr een-
cur sor movement , pot ent iomet er s at t ached t o t he
ball measur e t he amount and dir ect ion of r ot at ion.
Tr ackballs are often mounted on keyboar ds or other
devices such as t he mouse.
While a track ball is two dimensional posting device,
a space ball pr ovides six degr ee of fr eedom. Unlike
t he t r ack ball, space ball does not act ually move.
St r ain gauges measur e t he amount of pr essur e
applied to t he spaceball to pr ovide input for spat ial
posit ioning and or ient at ion as t he ball is pushed or
pulled in var ious dir ect ions. Space balls ar e used
for t hr ee-di mensi onal posi t i oni ng and sel ect i on
oper at ions in vir t ual r ealit y syst ems, modelling,
animat ion, CAD, and ot her applicat ions.
4. Joyst i ck s.
A joyst ick consist s of a small, ver t ical lever called
st ick mount ed on a base t hat is used t o st eer and
scr een cur sor ar ound. M ost joyst icks select scr een
posi t i on wi t h act ual st i ck movem ent . Ot her s
r espond t o pr essur e on t he st ick. Some joyst icks
ar e mount ed on keyboar d, ot her s funct ion as st and
alone unit s. Pot ent iomet er mount ed at t he base of
joyst ick measur es t he amount of movement , and
spr ings r etur n the stick to the center position when
i t i s r el eased on e or m or e bu t t on s can be

pr ogr ammed t o act as input swi t ches t o si gnal
cer t ai n act ions once a scr een posi t i on has been
select ed.
5. Dat a Glove.
Dat a glove t hat can be used t o gr asp a “ vir t ual”
object . The glove is const r uct ed wit h a ser ies of
sensor s t hat det ect hand and fi nger mot i ons.
Elect r omagnet ic coupl ing bet ween t r ansmi t t ing
antennas and r eceiving antennas is used to pr ovide
infor mat ion about t he posit ion and or ient at ion of
the hand. The tr ansmitting and r eceiving antennas
can each be st r uct ur ed as a set of t hr ee mut ually
per pendicular coils, for ming a t hr ee dimensional
car t esian co-or dinat e syst em.
6. D igit izer s.
A com m on dev i ce f or dr aw i n g, pai n t i n g or
int er act ively select ing co-or dinat e posit ions on an
object is a digit izer. These devices can be used t o
i n pu t co-or di n at e v al u es i n ei t h er a t w o
dimensional or t hr ee dimensional space. Typically,
a digit izer is used t o scan over a dr awing or object
and t o input a set of discr et e co-or dinat e posit ions,
which can be joined wit h st r aight -line segment s t o
appr oximat e the cur ve or sur face shapes. One t ype
of digit izer is t he gr aphics t ablet , also r efer r ed t o
as a dat a t abl et wh i ch i s u sed t o i n pu t t wo
dimensional coor dinates by activating a hand cursor
or st yles at select ed posit ions on a flat sur face.
7. I mage Scanners.
Dr awing, gr aphs, color and black and whit e photos
or t ext can be st or ed for comput er pr ocessing wit h
an image scanner by passing an opt ical scanning
mechanism over t he infor mat ion t o be st or ed. The
gr adat ions of gr ay scale or color ar e t hen r ecor ded
and st or ed in an ar r ay. Once we have t he int er nal
r epr esen t at i on of a pi ct u r e, w e can appl y
t r ansfor mat ions t o r ot at e, scale or cr op the pict ur e
t o a par t i cul ar scr een ar ea. We can al so appl y
var ious image pr ocessing met hods t o modify t he
ar r ay r epr esent at ion of t he pict ur e. For scanned
t ext i nput , var i ous edi t i ng oper at i ons can be
per for med on st or ed document s. Some scanner s
ar e able t o scan eit her gr aphical r epr esent at ion or
t ext , and t hey come i n a var i et y of si zes and
capabilities.
8. Touch Panels.
Touch panel s al l ow di spl ayed object s or scr een
posit ions t o be select ed wit h t he t ouch of a finger.
A t ypi cal appl i cat i on of t ouch panels i s for t he
selection of pr ocessing options that ar e r epr esented
wit h gr aphical icons. Some syst ems, such as t he
plasma panels ar e designed wit h t ouch scr eens.
Ot her syst em can be adapt ed for t ouch input by
fit t ing a t r anspar ent device wit h a t ouch-sensing
mechanism over t he video monit or scr een. Touch
Basics of Computers and Applications 7
input can be r ecor ded using opt ical, elect r ical or
acoust ical met hods.
9. L ight Pens.
Light pen is pencil-shaped devices ar e used to select
scr een posit ions by detect ing the light coming fr om
point s on t he CRT scr een. They ar e sensit ive t o
t he shor t bur st of light emit t ed fr om t he phosphor
coat ing at t he inst ant t he elect r on beam st r ikes a
par t icular point . Ot her light sour ces, such as t he
back gr ound l i ght i n t he r oom, ar e usual l y not
det ect ed by a light pen.
PRI N T E RS.
Pr inter s pr oduce output by either impact or non-impact
methods. I mpact pr inter s pr ess for med char acter faces
against an inked r ibbon ont o t he paper. A line pr int er
is an example of impact device wit h t he t ype faces
mount ed on bands, chai ns, dr ums or wheels. Non-
i mpact pr int er s and pl ot t er s use l aser t echniques,
i nk j et spr ays, xer ogr aphi c pr ocesses as used i n
phot ocopyi ng machi ne, el ect r ost at i c met hods and
elect r ot her mal met hods t o get images on t o paper.
Char acter impact printers often have a dot matrix print
head containing a r ectangular ar r ay of pr otr uding wir e
pins, with the number of pens depending on the quality
of t he pr int er.
I n a l aser devi ce, l aser beam cr eat es a ch ar ge
di st r i but i on on a r ot at i n g dr um coat i ng wi t h a
phot oel ect r i c mat er i al , such as sel eni um. Toner i s
applied t o t he dr um and t hen t r ansfer r ed t o paper.
I nkjet met hods pr oduce out put by squir t ing i nk in
hor izont al r ows acr oss a r oll of paper wr apped on a
dr um. The electr ically char ged ink st r eam is deflected
by an elect r ic field t o pr oduce dot mat r ix pat t er ns. A
deskt op inkjet plot t er wit h r esolut ion of 360 dot s per
inch.
An elect r ost at ic device places a negat ive char ge on
t he paper, one complet e r ow at a t ime along t he lengt h
of t he paper. Then t he paper is exposed t o a t oner.
The t oner is posit ively char ged and so it is at t r act ed
t o t he negat ively char ged, ar eas, wher e it adher es t o
pr oduce the specified output . Elect r other mal met hods
use heat in a dot mat r ix pr int head t o out put pat t er ns
on heat sensi t i ve paper. We can get l i mi t ed col or
out put on an impact pr int er by using differ ent color ed
r ibbons.
Non impact devices use var ious techniques to combine
thr ee color pigments (cyan, magneta and yellow) to
pr oduce a r ange of color pat t er ns.
Par allel pr int er s use :
(a) RS-232C interface
(b) Cent r onics int er face
(c) H andshake mode
 8 Basics of Computers and Applications
STORAGE U N I T
I t consist s of main memor y and secondar y memor y.
M ain M emory :
1. A fl i p-fl op made of el ect r oni c semi conduct or
devices is used t o fabr icat e a memor y cell. These
memor y cel l s or gani zed as a Random Access
Memor y (RAM). Each cell has a capabilit y to stor e
one bit of infor mat ion. A main memor y or st or e
of a comput er is or ganized using a lar ge number
of cells. Each cell st or es a binar y digit .
2. A memor y cell, which does not loose the bit st or ed
i n i t when no power is suppl ied t o t he cell , i s
known as a non-volat ile cell.
3. A wor d is a gr oup of bit s, which ar e st or ed and
r etr ieved as a unit. A memor y system is or ganized
t o st or e a number of wor ds.
4. A Byt e consist s of 8 bit s. A wor d may st or e one or
mor e byt es.
5. The st or age capacit y of a memor y is t he number
of byt es it can st or e.
6. The addr ess of t he locat ion fr om wher e a wor d is
t o be r et r i eved or t o be st or ed i s ent er ed i n a
M emor y Addr ess Register (M AR).
7. The dat a r et r ieved fr om memor y or t o be st or ed
in memor y ar e placed in a M emor y Dat a Regist er
(MDR).
8. The t ime t aken t o wr it e a wor d is known as t he
Wr it e t ime.
9. The t ime t o r et r ieve i nfor mat i on i s cal led t he
Access t ime of t he memor y.
10. The t ime t aken t o access a wor d in a memor y is
independent of the addr ess of t he wor d and hence
it is know as a Random Access M emor y (RAM ).
 The main memor y used t o st or e pr ogr ams and
dat a in a comput er is a RAM .
11. A RAM may be fabricated with per manently stor ed
i nfor mat i on, whi ch cannot be er ased. Such a
memor y is called a Read Only M emor y (ROM ).
 For mor e specialized uses, a user can st or e his
won special funct ions or pr ogr ams in a ROM .
Such ROM 's ar e called Pr ogr ammable ROM
(PROM).
12. A ser ial access memor y is or ganized by ar r anging
memor y cells in a linear sequence.
 I nfor mat ion is r et r ieved or st or ed in such a
memor y by using a r ead/wr it e head.
 Dat a is pr esent ed ser ially for wr it ing and is
r et r ieved ser ially dur ing r ead.
Secondary / Auxiliary storage devices : M agnet ic
sur face r ecor ding devices used in comput er s as H ar d
disks, Floppy disks, CD-ROM s and M agnet ic t apes.
1. F loppy Disk Drive (F DD) : I n t hi s devi ce, t he
medium used t o r ecor d t he dat a is called as floppy
disk. I t is a flexible cir cular disk of diamet er 3.5
i nches made of pl ast i c coat ed wi t h a magnet i c
mat er ial. This is housed in a squar e plast ic jacket .
Dat a r ecor ded on a floppy disk is r ead and st or ed in
a comput er 's memor y by a device called a floppy
disk is r ead and st or ed in a comput er 's memor y by
a device called a floppy disk dr ive (FDD). A floppy
disk is inser t ed in a slot of t he FDD. Floppy Disks
wit h var ious capacit ies ar e as follow:
 51/4 dr ive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
 31/2 dr ive- 1.44 M b, 2.88 M B (1M B= 220 byt es)
2. Compact Disk Drive (CDD) : CD-ROM (Compact
Disk Read Onl y M emor y) used a l aser beam t o
r ecor d and r ead dat a along spir al t r acks on a 51/4
di sk . A di sk can st or e ar ou n d 650 M B of
infor mat ion. CD-ROM s ar e nor mally used t o st or e
massive t ext dat a. Recent ly CD wr it er s have come
in the mar ket . Using a CD wr it er, lot of infor mation
can be wr it t en on CD-ROM and st or ed for fut ur e
r efer ence.
3. H ard Disk Drive (H DD) : Unlike a floppy disk
t hat is flexible and r emovable, t he har d disk used
in t he PC is per manent ly fixed. The dat a t r ansfer
r ate between the CPU and har d disk is much higher
as compar ed to the between the CPU and the floppy
disk dr ive. The CPU can use t he har d disk t o load
pr ogr ams and dat a as well as t o st or e dat a.
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF COM PU TERS
Comput er s come in sizes fr om t iny t o monst r ous, in
bot h appear ance and power. The size of a comput er
t hat a per son or an or ganizat ion needs depends on
t he comput ing r equir ement s.
Supercomputers : The might iest comput er s-and, of
cou r se, t h e m ost ex pen si v e-ar e k n ow n as
super comput er s. Super comput er s pr ocess billions of
inst r uct ions per second. One uses super comput er s for
t asks t hat r equir e mammoth dat a manipulation, such
as wor l dwi de weat h er f or ecast i ng and weapons
r esear ch.
M ainframes : I n t he jar gon of t he comput er t r ade,
lar ge comput er s ar e called mainfr ames. M ainfr ames
ar e capable of pr ocessing dat a at ver y high speeds-
millions of inst r uct ions per second-and have access t o
billions of char act er s of dat a. Their pr incipal use of it
is for pr ocessing vast amount s of dat a quickly, some
of t h e obvi ou s cu st om er s ar e ban k s, i n su r an ce
companies, and manufact ur er s.
Personal Computers : Per sonal comput er s ar e oft en
called PCs. A PC usually comes wit h a tower that holds
the main cir cuit boar ds and disk dr ives of the computer,

and a collect ion of per ipher als, such as a keyboar d,
mouse, and moni t or. The t er m "PC" oft en means
machines t hat ar e compat ible t o I BM ot her t han a
Macint osh.
Personal Computers (PC) and M AC : A PC is based
on a mi cr opr ocessor or i gi nal l y made by t he I nt el
Company (I ntel's Pentium) with other companies such
as AM D. The comput er s made by M acint oshes which
uses, Power PC pr ocessor, made by M ot or ol a ar e
r efer r ed as M ac. Also, t he oper at ing syst em soft war e
t hat r uns t hese t wo kinds of comput er s is differ ent .
PCs usual l y use an Oper at i ng Syst em made by
M icr osoft , i.e., Windows. M acint oshes use oper at ing
syst em, called M ac OS, made by Apple.
N ot ebook Comput ers : A comput er t hat fi t s i n a
br i efcase?. N ot ebook compu t er s, al so k nown as
L apt op comput er s, ar e por t abl e and popul ar wit h
tr aveler s who need a comput er that can go with them.
M ost n ot ebook s accept di sk et t es or n et w or k
connect i ons, so i t i s easy t o move dat a fr om one
comput er t o anot her.
I N TERN ET
The I nt ernet i s a global syst em of int er connect ed
comput er net wor ks t hat use t he st andar d I nt er net
Pr ot ocol Sui t e (TCP/I P) t o ser ve bi l l i ons of user s
wor ldwide. I t is a net wor k of net wor ks t hat consist s
of millions of pr ivat e, public, academic, business, and
gover nment net wor ks, of local t o global scope, t hat
ar e li nked by a br oad ar r ay of elect r onic, wir eless
and opt ical net wor king t echnologies. The I nt er net
car r ies a vast r ange of infor mat ion r esour ces and
ser v i ces, su ch as t h e i n t er -l i n k ed h y per t ex t
document s of t he Wor ld Wide Web (WWW) and t he
infr ast r uct ur e t o suppor t elect r onic mail.
N ET WORKS
A computer network, oft en simply r efer r ed t o as a
net wor k , i s a col l ect i on of comput er s and devi ces
i nt er connect ed by communi cat i ons channel s t hat
faci l i t at e communi cat i ons and al l ows shar i ng of
r esour ces and i nfor mat i on among i nt er connect ed
devices. Computer networking or Data communi-
cat ions (D at acom) i s t he engi neer i ng di sci pl i ne
concer ned wit h t he comput er net wor ks.
The t hr ee t ypes of net wor ks ar e:
(i ) t he I nt er net
(ii ) t he int r anet
(iii ) t he ext r anet .
Examples of differ ent net wor k met hods ar e:
1. Local ar ea networ k (LAN), which is usually a small
net wor k const r ained t o a small geogr aphic ar ea.
Basics of Computers and Applications 9
An exampl e of a L A N woul d be a comput er
net wor k wit hin a building.
2. M et r opolit an ar ea net wor k (M AN), which is used
for medi um si ze ar ea. exampl es for a cit y or a
st at e.
3. Wide ar ea net wor k (WAN) t hat is usually a lar ger
net wor k t hat cover s a lar ge geogr aphic ar ea.
4. Wir eless L ANs and WANs (WL AN & WWAN) ar e
t he wir eless equivalent of t he L AN and WAN.
I P ADDRESS
An I nt ernet Prot ocol addr ess (I P addr ess) i s a
n u m er i cal l abel assi gn ed t o each dev i ce (e.g.,
comput er, pr i n t er ) par t i ci pat i ng i n a comput er
n et w or k t h at u ses t h e I n t er n et Pr ot ocol f or
communicat ion.[1] An I P addr ess ser ves t wo pr incipal
funct ions: host or networ k inter face identification and
locat ion addr essing. I t s r ole has been char act er ized
as follows: “ A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.
I mport ant Devices U sed in N et work
1. M odem : A modem (modulat or -demodulat or ) is a
device t hat modulat es an analog car r ier signal t o
encode digit al infor mat ion, and also demodulat es
such a car r ier signal t o decode t he t r ansmit t ed
infor mat ion. The goal is t o pr oduce a signal t hat
can be tr ansmitted easily and decoded to repr oduce
the or iginal digit al data. M odems can be used over
any means of t r ansmit t ing analog signals, fr om
light emit t ing diodes t o r adio.
2. Router : A router is a device t hat for war ds dat a
pack et s acr oss compu t er n et wor k s. Rou t er s
per for m t he dat a “ t r affic dir ect ing” funct ions on
t he I nt er net . A r out er is connect ed t o t wo or mor e
dat a lines fr om di ffer ent net wor ks. When dat a
comes in on one of t he lines, t he r out er r eads t he
addr ess infor mat ion in t he packet t o det er mine
it s ult imat e dest inat ion.
3. Bridge : A net work bridge connect s mul t i pl e
net wor k segment s. Br idging i s a for war di ng
t echni que used i n pack et -swi t ched comput er
net wor k s. U nl i k e r out i ng, br i dgi ng mak es no
assumptions about where in a networ k a par ticular
addr ess is locat ed. I nst ead, it depends on flooding
and examinat ion of sour ce addr esses in r eceived
packet header s t o locat e unknown devices. Once
a device has been locat ed, it s locat ion is r ecor ded
in a t able wher e t he M AC addr ess is st or ed so as
t o pr eclude t he need for fur t her br oadcast ing.
4. H ub : hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted
pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single segment. The device is
a for m of multiport repeater.
 10 Basics of Computers and Applications
5. Repeater : A repeater is an elect r onic device t hat
r eceives a signal and r et r ansmit s it at a higher
level and/or higher power, or ont o t he ot her side
of an obst r uct i on, so t hat t he si gnal can cover
longer dist ances.
6. Server : A ser ver comput er i s a comput er, or
ser ies of comput er s, t hat link ot her comput er s or
el ect r oni c devi ces t oget her. They oft en pr ovi de
essent i al ser vi ces acr oss a net wor k , ei t her t o
private user s inside a lar ge or ganization or to public
users via the inter net. For example, when you enter
a quer y in a sear ch engine, t he quer y is sent fr om
your computer over t he int er net to t he ser ver s t hat
st or e all t he r elevant web pages. The r esult s ar e
sent back by t he ser ver t o your comput er.
EM AI L
E l ect r on i c m ai l , com m on l y cal l ed em a i l or
e-mail, is a met hod of exchanging digit al messages
fr om an aut hor t o one or mor e r ecipi ent s. M oder n
email oper at es acr oss t he I nt er net or ot her comput er
net wor ks. Some ear ly email syst ems r equir ed t hat
t he aut hor and t he r ecipient bot h be online at t he
same t ime, a la i nst ant messaging. Today’s email
syst ems ar e based on a st or e-and-for war d model .
Email ser ver s accept , for war d, del iver and st or e
messages. Neit her t he user s nor t heir comput er s ar e
r equi r ed t o be onl i ne si mul t aneousl y; t hey need
connect only br iefly, t ypically t o an email ser ver, for
as long as it t akes t o send or r eceive messages.
EM AI L ADDREES
An email address ident ifies an email box t o which
email messages ar e deliver ed. An example for mat of
an email addr ess is lewis @ example .com which is
r ead as lewis at example dot net . I t has two par t s. The
par t befor e t he @sign is t he local-par t of t he addr ess,
oft en t he user name of t he r ecipient lewis and the par t
aft er t he @ sign is a domain name i.e. example.com
t o which t he email message will be sent .
M S OFFI CE
M icrosoft Office is a proprietary commercial office suite
of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services
for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X oper ating
systems, intr oduced by Micr osoft in 1989. I nitially a
marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Micr osoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.
W ORD
Micr osoft Wor d is a wor d pr ocessor and was pr eviously
consi der ed t o be t he mai n pr ogr am i n Offi ce. I t s
pr opr i et ar y DOC for mat i s consi der ed a de fact o
standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-
based, Micr osoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX
which has been st andar dized by Ecma I nt er nat ional
as Office Open XM L and it s SP2 updat e will suppor t
ODF and PDF. Wor d is also available in some edit ions
of M icr osoft Wor ks. I t is available for t he Windows
and M ac platfor ms. The fir st ver sion of Wor d, r eleased
in t he aut umn of 1983, was for t he M S-DOS oper at ing
system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse
t o a br oad populat ion. Wor d 1.0 could be pur chased
wit h a bundled mouse, t hough none was r equir ed.
Following t he pr ecedent s of L isaWr it e and M acWr it e,
Wor d for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSI WYG
feat ur es int o it s package. Wor d for M ac was r eleased
in 1985. Wor d for M ac was t he fir st gr aphical ver sion
of M icr osoft Wor d. Despit e it s bugginess, it became
one of t he most popular M ac applicat ions.
EXCEL
M i cr osoft Excel i s a spr eadsheet pr ogr am whi ch
or iginally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but
eventually outsold it . I t is available for the Windows
and Mac platfor ms. Micr osoft r eleased the fir st ver sion
of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and t he fir st Windows
ver sion (number ed 2.05 to line up with t he Mac and
bu n dl ed w i t h a st an dal on e Wi n dow s r u n -t i m e
envir onment) in November 1987.
OU TLOOK
M icr osoft Outlook (not t o be confused with Out look
Expr ess) is a per sonal infor mation manager and e-mail
communication softwar e. The replacement for Windows
Messaging, Micr osoft M ail and Schedule+ star ting in
Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, t ask
manager and addr ess book.
On t he M ac, M i cr osoft offer ed sever al ver si ons of
Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft
Exchange Ser ver. I n Offi ce 2001, i t i nt r oduced an
alter nat ive application with a slightly differ ent featur e
set called Micr osoft Entour age. I t reintr oduced Outlook
in Office 2011, r eplacing Entour age.
POWE RPOI N T
M i cr osof t Power Poi n t i s a popu l ar pr esent at i on
pr ogr am for Windows and M ac. I t is used t o cr eat e
slideshows, composed of t ext , gr aphics, movies and
ot her object s, which can be displayed on-scr een and
navigat ed t hr ough by t he pr esent er or pr int ed out on
t r anspar encies or slides.
 Basics of Computers and Applications 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. I n a gener ic micr opr ocessor, inst r uct ion cycle time
1. Which of t he following is t he fast est ? is

(a) CPU (a) shor t er t han machine cycle t ime

(b) magnet ic t apes and disks (b) lar ger t han machine cycle t ime

(c) video t er minal (c) exact ly double t he machine cycle t ime

(d) sensor s, mechanical cont r oller s (d) exact ly t he same as t he machine cycle t ime

2. The input unit of a comput er 9. Pr ogr am St at us Wor d (PSW) cont ai ns var i ous
(differ ent) st atus of
(a) feeds dat a t o t he CPU or memor y
(a) CPU
(b) r et r ieves dat a fr om CPU
(b) ALU
(c) dir ect s all ot her unit s
(c) pr ogr am
(d) all of t hese
(d) r egist er s
3. Offline device is
10. When an int er r upt occur s, CPU saves t he value
(a) a device which is not connect ed t o CPU
of— — — in a st ack,
(b) a device which is connect ed t o CPU
(a) accumulator
(c) a dir ect access st or age device
(b) pr ogr am st at us wor d (PSW) only
(d) an I /O device
(c) I nstr uct ion Addr ess Counter (I AC)only
4. Which of t he following is a set of gener al pur pose
(d) bot h PWS and I AC
int er nal r egist er s ?
11. Bus Ar bit r at ion is
(a) Stack
(a) clear ing t he bus
(b) Scratchpad
(b) lat ching infor mat ion on t he bus
(c) Addr ess r egist er
(c) deciding t he cont r oller of t he bus
(d) St at us r egist er
(d) cont r olling t he bus
5. A single bus st r uct ur e is pr imar ily found in
12. Cont r ol M emor y Addr ess Regist er is pr esent in
(a) main fr ames
(a) ALU
(b) super comput er s
(b) I nst r uct ion Regist er Unit
(c) high per for mance machines
(c) Cont r ol Unit
(d) mini-and micr o-comput er s
(d) Disk Cont r ol I nt er face Unit
6. Which of t he following r egist er s is used t o keep
t r ack of addr ess of t he memor y locat ion wher e 13. Which of t he fol lowi ng is not one of t he t hr ee
t he next inst r uct ion is locat ed ? pr i mar y funct i ons t hat on-l i ne di r ect access
syst em can ser ve?
(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er
(a) inquir y
(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er
(b) backup
(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er
(c) update
(d) Pr ogr am Count er
(d) pr ogr amming
7. Which of t he following r egist er s is loaded wit h
t he cont ent s of t he memor y locat ion point ed by 14. Which of the following is not tr ue of punched cards
t he PC ? as dat a ent r y media?

(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er (a) They can be used as t ur n ar ound document s

(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er (b) They ar e inexpensive

(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er (c) I nput is slow compar ed wit h ot her media

(c) Pr ogr am count er (d) They ar e easily damaged

12 Basics of Computers and Applications

15. M agnet ic t ape can ser ve as 7. ASCI I coding all ocat ed bi nar y codes t o Engli sh
(a) input media al phabet s and symbols for comput er use. M or e
r ecent ly a new st andar d has been adopt ed which
(b) out put media
al locat es code t o almost all t he languages of t he
(c) secondar y st or age media wor l d and also t o symbols cover i ng mor e t han a
(d) all of t hese lakh char act er s. The new st andar d is call ed
LEVEL-1 (a) CCS
1. I n t he cont ext of I nfor mat ion Technology, OCR (b) Unicode
means (c) Standar d CCS code
(a) Opt ical Char act er Recognit i on
(d) Univer sal CCS code
(b) Oct agonal Cycl ic Rechar ge
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) Oct adecimal Cycli c Regener at i on
8. For using passwor ds on t he I nt er net a soft war e
(d) Opt ical Char act er Regener at i on
is used so t hat t he passwor d is not int er cept ed
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
easi ly. I t is call ed

2. I n Boolean algebr a 1  1  0  0 = ? (a) Coding (b) Malwar e
(c) Virus (d) Encr ypt ion
(a) 0 (b) 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2 (d) – 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
9. A soft war e, codi ng of which is available fr eely on
I nt er net and i s open for user s for fur t her use
3. Which of t he fol lowi ngis not an I /O devi ce of t he
an d i m pr ov em en t an d w h i ch i s gen er al l y
comput er ?
developed in a coll abor at i ve manner is call ed
(a) Keyboar d (b) Joy st i ck
(a) open sour ce soft war e
(c) ALU (d) Pr int er
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(b) unlicensed soft war e
4. W h at i s f l oat i n g poi n t w i t h r ef er en ce t o (c) fr ee soft war e
comput er s? (d) communi t y soft war e
(a) I t i s a soft war e subr out i ne ar ound whi ch [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
ot her subr out i nes ar e bui lt 10. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g ar e m ach i n e l ev el
(b) I t i s a r epr esent at i on of r eal number s t o languages?
facilit at e comput ing
(a) C++ (b) Java
(c) I t i s t h e m ai n al gebr ai c f or m u l a of t h e
(c) Python (d) None of t hese
soft war e
(d) I t i s t h e vol t age poi n t gi v en t o var i ou s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

oper at i ng unit s of t he comput er 11. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is i ncor r ect ?
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) M i cr osoft windows is GUI
5. A syst em of di gi t al r u l es for exch an ge and (b) L i nux is GUI
pr ocessi ng of dat a bet ween var i ous devi ces i s
(c) M or e t han 5000 k B dat a can be st or ed in a
called
DVD
(a) soft war e pr ogr amme
(d) A 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e 2 mi ll ion fil es
(b) algor it hm
each of size 1 M B
(c) pr ot ocol
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) infor mat ion pr ocessing
12. The t er ms AL U, CPU, I /O devi ces per t ai n t o
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) comput er s
6. A t heor et ical comput er wi t h infini t e t ype and
m em or y, u sed i n an al y si s of pr obl em s of (b) envi r onment al engineer i ng
comput at i on, is call ed (c) di esel engi ne
(a) Tape calculat or (b) Babbage machine (d) en gi n eer i n g dr aw i n g an d or t h ogon al
(c) Tur i ng machi ne (d) Theor et ical machi ne pr oject i ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Basics of Computers and Applications 13
13. I n a comput ing devi ce 'M H z' is ment i oned in t he 5. Who wr ot e/invent ed t he L inux soft war e?
specifi cat ions. I t r efer s t o (a) M i cr osoft (b) Apple I NC
(a) si ze of memor y (c) IBM (d) None of t hese
(b) speed of comput at i on [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]

(c) cl ock speed 6. A t echnique of anonymous communicat i on over

a computer networ k using encr yption of messages
(d) none of t he above
and spl it t ing bet ween t he nodes, i s cal led-
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Spice r out i ng
14. The value of binary 1111 is :
(b) Onion r out i ng
(a) 23 (b) 23 – l (c) Cabbage r out ing
(c) 24 (d) 24 – l (d) Flower r out i ng
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
15. The term 'Operating System' means : 7. Pr ocessing speed of comput er i s measur ed i n-
(a) A set of programmes which controls computer (a) M I PS(M i lli on I nst r uct i on Per Second)
working (b) M H z of clock
(b) The way a computer operator works (c) Bot h (a) and (b)
(c) Conversion of high level language into (d) None of t hese [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SHIFT]
machine level language 8. To close a pr esent at ion and quit Power Point , one
(d) None of these must click t he close but t on on t he :
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) menu bar (b) t i t le bar
LEVEL-2 (c) st andar d t ool bar (d) common t ask s t oolbar
1. Which of t hese i s N OT an Oper at ing Syst em? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(a) Android (b) iOS 9. Expr ession + + i is equi valent in ‘C’ t o :

(c) Linux (d) Power poi nt (a) i = i + l (b) i = i + 2
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT] (c) i = 2i (d) None of t hese
2. A soft war e user i nt er face feat ur e t hat allows t he [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
user t o view somet hing ver y si mi lar t o t he end 10. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g r at i on al r el at i on
r esul t whi l e t he document i s bei ng cr eat ed i s oper at ions in 'C means "not equal t o" ?
called- (a) # (b) ==
(a) For mat cr eat or (b) For mat fideli t y
(c) ! = (d) < =
(c) WYSI WYG (d) WYGI WYS [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
11. M i cr osoft Windows is a/an :
3. I n a comput er syst em t her e ar e soft war es and
(a) Wor d-pr ocessing pr ogr am
l anguages at var i ous l evel s, l i k e H i gh l evel
L an gu age (H L ), M ach i n e L an gu age (M L ), (b) Dat abase pr ogr am
Compiler (C). Which of the following is the cor r ect (c) Oper at ing syst em
indi cat ive r epr esent at i on fr om user (U) t o t he (d) Gr aphics pr ogr am
comput er (COM P)? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) U  H L  C  M L  Comp 12. __________wi ll t r ansl at e t he compl et e pr ogr am
(b) U  C  M L  H L  Comp at once fr om a H i gh L evel L anguage t o t he
M achine L anguage.
(c) U  C  H L  M L  Comp
(a) Compiler (b) Joy st i ck
(d) U  M L  H L  C  Comp
(c) Por t s (d) L i ght pen
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
4. Which of t hese devi ces per for ms t he funct ion of 13. The wor d funct ion t hat cor r ect s t ext as we t ype
bot h i n pu t dev i ce an d ou t pu t dev i ce f or a
is r efer r ed t o as :
comput er ?
(a) Aut o inser t (b) Aut o cor r ect
(a) Joy St i ck (b) M ouse
(c) Aut o summar i ze (d) Tr ack changes
(c) Modem (d) Pr int er
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
14 Basics of Computers and Applications
14. Pr imar y Stor age, in computer t er minology, r efer s 15. What does an elect r onic spr eadsheet consist of ?
to : (a) Rows (b) Columns
(a) H ar d Disc Dr i ve (c) Cells (d) Al l of t he above
(b) Random Access M emor y (RAM ) [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(c) Read Only M emor y (ROM )
(d) T he st or age devi ce wher e t h e oper at i n g
syst em is st or ed
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d)

LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a)

LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

LEVEL-1 and r euse of t r ansl at ed dat a et c. ver y easy. Al so

it r epr esent s each char act er wi t h 16 bit s.
1. Opt i cal Char act er Reader i s ful l for m of OCR,
which can r ead a char acter and conver t its bitmap 8. To pr ot ect passwor ds et c. Encr ypt i on i s used
image t o equival ent ASCI I codes. which i s coding each dat a point i n a par t icul ar
pat t er n whi ch is not easy t o decode.
2. I t i s equivalent t o 0.1 = 0
9. Open sour ce soft war es l i k e U ni x have t hei r
3. Ar it hmet i c L ogical Unit i s not an I nput devi ce
sour ce code fr eely avai lable and t hese ar e devel-
whil e all t he ot her t hr ee ar e.
oped t hr ough collabor at ion of coder s fr om acr oss
4. Fl oat i ng point number s ar e used i n comput er s
t he wor ld. M any devel oper s as a pr inci ple use
t o r epr esent r eal number s. Si nce r eal number s
only open sour ce soft war es.
can not be accur at ely r epr esent ed i n comput er s
10. Al l t he l anguages ment ioned her e ar e high l evel
t hr ough binar y number s.
languages, in which i t i s easier t o wr it e code.
5. Pr ot ocols ar e r ules developed for exchanging and
11. 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e appr oximat ely 1 mi l-
pr ocessing of dat a bet ween var i ous devices. Ex-
li on file sizes each of 1 M B.
ampl es incl ude H TTP, I P, FTTP et c.
12. Al l t hese devi ces ar e r elat ed t o comput er s. CPU
6. Tur i ng machi ne i s a mat hemat i cal model of a
is Cent r al Pr ocessi ng Unit , whi le AL U is Ar it h-
hypot het i cal comput ing machi ne which can use
met i c and L ogi cal uni t , whil e I /O is I nput Out -
a pr edefi ned set of r ules t o det er mi ne a r esult
put devi ces.
fr om a set of input var iables.
13. M H z is used t o measur e t he number of oper a-
7. The new st andar d which all ocat es codes t o al-
t i ons t hat can be done by t he CPU i n 1 second.
most al l languages and symbol s, t ot ali ng mor e
So i t r efer s t o clock speed.
t han a lakh i s cal led U ni code. I t mak es t r ansfer

14. 1111 of binar y i s 24 – 1. I t i s 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
15. An oper at ing system (OS) is syst em soft war e that
manages comput er har dwar e and soft war e r e-
sour ces and pr ovides common ser vices for com-
put er pr ogr ams.
LEVEL-2
1.Power point is not an oper at ing syst em but an appli-
cat ion t o make pr esent at ion slides.
2. When user s can see somet hing ver y similar t o
end r esult while document cr eat ion, it is called
WYSI WYG.
3. I t is t he cor r ect r epr esent at ion wher e user gives
input in high level language, it is t hen compiled
an d becom es m ach i n e l an gu age w h i ch i s
comput ed and t he out put is similar ly pr ovided t o
t he user.
4. The modem is an input and an out put device. I t
is used for sending and r eceiving infor mation and
dat a over t elephone lines.
5. L I NUX soft war e was invent ed by L inus Tor valds
while st udying comput er science at Univer sity of
H elsinki in 1991.
7. Pr ocessing speed is measur ed in MH z. Nowadays
i t i s even measur ed i n GH z i .e. Gi ga H er t z.
Basically it r epr esent s how many oper at ions can
be pr ocessed in 1 second.
Basics of Computers and Applications 15
8. To close applications such as Powerpoint, MS-word
et c. one must click t he close but t on on t he t it le
bar which is at t he t op r ight hand cor ner.
9. ++I in C means i = i + 2. This was a way developed
t o wr it e smaller lines in code.
10. != means not equal t o in C.
11. M icr osoft Windows is t he wor ld's most popular
commer cial oper at ing syst em for PCs.
12. Com pi l er s ar e u sed t o t r an sl at e en t i r e
pr ogr am s f r om H i gh l ev el l an gu age t o
m ach i n e l an gu age, so t h at com pu t er can
under st and and execut e it .
13. When we t ype t ext , Aut o cor r ect feat ur e cor r ect s
t he wor d's spelling or any ot her por t ion of t he
t ext .
14. Pr imar y st or age, also known as main st or age or
memor y, is t he ar ea in a comput er in which dat a
i s st or ed for qui ck access by t he comput er 's
pr ocessor. The t er ms r andom access memor y
(RAM ) and memor y ar e oft en used as synonyms
for pr imar y or main st or age.
15. An elect r onic spr eadsheet like M S-Excel consist s
of Cells which are ar r anged in Rows and Columns.
So all ar e pr esent .
CBT – II
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 1

BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND

POLLUTION CONTROL
DEFINITION
Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system
to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected”.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort  to humans or other
living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy
such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants
when in excess of natural levels.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
There are several types of pollution, and while they may come from different sources and have different consequences,
understanding the basics about pollution can help environmentally conscious individuals minimize their contribution to
these dangers.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of
the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors
that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.
Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:
 Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust
 Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources
 Building construction or demolition
Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog increases, higher rain acidity,
crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, and higher rates of asthma. Many scientists believe that global warming is also
related to increased air pollution.
Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone. A gas that can be found in Ozone is not created directly, but is formed Ozone near the ground can cause a
when nitrogen oxides and vo latile organic number of health prob lems. Ozone can
two places. Near the ground (the
compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone lead to more frequent asthma attacks in
tropo sphere), it is a major part of is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides people who have asthma and can cause
smog. The harmful ozo ne in the come from burning gasoline, coal, or other sore throats, coughs, and breathing
fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile difficulty. It may even lead to premature
lower atmosphere should not be
organic compounds, and they come from death. Ozone can also hurt plants and
confused with the protective layer sources ranging from factories to trees. crops.
of ozone in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere), which screens out
harmful ultraviolet rays
Ca rbo n monoxide. A gas that Carbon mono xide is released when engines Carbo n monoxide makes it hard for body
comes from the burning of fossil burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when parts to get the oxygen they need to run
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel co rrectly. Exposure to carbon monoxid e
seen or smelled is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the makes people feel dizzy and tired and
carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces gives them headaches. In high
and heaters in the home can emit high co ncentrations it is fatal. Elderly people
concentrations of carbo n monoxide, too, if they with heart disease are hospitalized more
are not properly maintained. often when they are exposed to higher
amounts of carbon monoxide.
 2 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Nitrogen dio xide.  A reddish- Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from po wer High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure
brown gas that comes from the plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in can give people coughs and can make
burning of fossil fuels. It has a two ways-when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, them feel short of breath. People who are
strong smell at high levels. or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long
at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide time have a higher chance of getting
can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, respiratory infections. Nitro gen dioxid e
acid rain, and particles. reacts in the atmosphere to form acid
rain, which can harm plants and animals.

Particulate matter. Solid or Particulate matter can be divided into two Particulate matter that is small enough
liquid matter that is suspended in types-coarse particles and fine particles. can enter the lungs and cause health
the air. To remain in the air, Coarse particles are formed from sources like prob lems. Some of these problems
particles usually must be less than road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine include more frequent asthma attacks,
0.1-mm wide and can be as small particles are formed when fuel is burned in respiratory problems, and premature
as 0.00005 mm. automobiles and power plants. death.
Sulphur dio xide.  A corrosive gas Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning Sulfur d ioxide exposure can affect
that cannot be seen or smelled at of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes people who have asthma or emphysema
low levels but can have a “rotten from factories that make chemicals, paper, or by making it more difficult for them to
egg“ smell at high levels. fuel. Like nitrogen dio xide, sulfur dioxide breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes,
reacts in the atmosp here to form acid rain and noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can
particles. harm trees and crops, damage b uildings,
and make it harder for people to see long
distances.

Lead. A blue-gray metal that is Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where High amounts of lead can be dangerous
very toxic and is found in a unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also for small children and can lead to lower
number of forms and locations. come from power plants and other industrial IQs and kidney prob lems. For adults,
sources. Inside, lead paint is an important exposure to lead can increase the chance
source of lead, especially in houses where paint of having heart attacks or strokes.
is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a
source of lead in drinking water.

Toxic air pollutants. A large
number of chemicals that are
known or suspected to cause
cancer. Some imp ortant pollutants
in this category include arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, and dioxin.
Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer.
different source, but many are created in Some toxic air pollutants can also cause
chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels birth defects. Other effects depend on the
are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like pollutant, but can include skin and eye
asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in irritation and breathing problems.
building materials and can lead to indoor air
problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water supplies.

Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air conditioners and If the ozone in the stratosphere is
depleters.Chemicals that can refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. destro yed, people are exposed to more
destroy the ozone in the They can also be fo und in aerosol cans and fire radiation fro m the sun (ultraviolet
stratosphere. These chemicals extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone radiation). This can lead to skin cancer
include chlorofluorocarbons depleters are used as so lvents in industry. and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet
(CFCs), halons, and other radiation can also harm plants and
compounds that include chlorine animals.
or bromine
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 3

Greenhouse gases. Gases that Carbon dioxide is the most important The greenhouse effect can lead to
stay in the air for a long time and greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of changes in the climate of the planet.
warm up the planet by trapping fossil fuels in cars, p ower plants, houses, and Some of these changes might includ e
sunlight. This is called the industry. Methane is released during the more temperature extremes, higher sea
“greenhouse effect“ b ecause the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from levels, changes in forest compositio n,
gases act like the glass in a natural sources like cows and rice paddies. and damage to land near the coast.
greenhouse. Some of the Nitrous oxide comes from ind ustrial sources Human health might be affected by
important greenhouse gases are and decaying plants. diseases that are related to temperature or
carbon dioxide, methane, and by damage to land and water.
nitrous oxide.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades
the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as
different water sources flow together through the water cycle the pollution can spread.
Causes of water pollution include:
 Increased sediment from soil erosion
 Improper waste disposal and littering
 Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
 Organic material decay in water supplies
The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for
crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.
Ground water is being polluted by percolation of contaminated surface water through the layers of the earth. Release of
raw sewage in unlined soak-pits and release of toxic effluents by the industries into surface water bodies, are the main
causes of ground water pollution.
Major water pollutants, examples and sources
Category Examples Sources
I. Affecting health
Infectious agents Bacteria, viruses and parasites Sewage, human and animal excreta
Organic chemicals Pesticides, plastics, detergents. oil Agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes
Inorganic chemicals Acids, caustics, salts, metals Industrial and domestic effluents
Radioactive materials Uranium, thorium, randon, etc Mining, power plants, natural sources
2. Affecting ecossslcm
Plant nutrients Nitrates, phosphates, etc Chemical fertilisers, sewage, manure
Sediments Silt, soil Soil erosion
Thermal Heat Industries, power plants
Oxygen demanding Agricultural waster, manure Sweage, agricultural runoff
Indiscriminate and overuse of fertilizers, chemicals and pesticides have also caused ground water pollution through the
seepage of irrigation water into ground water reserves.
The hazards of ground water pollution depend on several factors such as:
 Concentration or toxicity of the pollutant
 The level of ground water if the level is higher chances of contamination are more
 Conditions of ground water recharge
Marine Pollution: Marine pollution is the matter of International concern from the point of view of conservation of
living resources. All coastal nations dispose of millions of gallons of untreated sewage, millions of tonnes of garbage,
unlimited amount of low level radioactive wastes etc. into the seas.
In addition to the marine environment, areas along the coasts, such as, estuaries, reefs, wetlands, mangroves, etc. are
adversely affected due to enormous dumping of pollutants into the ocean. This problem is further aggravated due to the
fact that about 40% of the world’s population lives near the sea.
 4 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

The main sources of marine pollution are:

1. Municipal wastes and sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Runoff agricultural wastes
4. Oil spills from tankers
5. Offshore drilling and mining
6. Submarine nuclear testing
7. Dumping of radioactive wastes
The consequences of marine pollution are as follows:
 The pollutants adversely affect the productive ocean regions, thus causing huge losses of fish populations and coral
reefs. This results in economic losses amounting to billions of dollars per year.
 Eutrophication, due to the influx of organic pollutants, results in the formation of red tides. These are blooms
(massive growth) of red algae, which inhibit the movement of ships and also kill marine fauna.
 Dumping of huge amounts of toxic wastes in a short duration of time, creates areas of oxygen-depleted zones in the
coastal waters. In these zones, most of the aquatic lives die or migrate elsewhere.
 Discarded garbage, sewage, plastic refuse, etc. that are dumped in the oceans sometimes accumulate in the beaches.
This spoils the aesthetic beauty of the region and results in loss of tourism.
Water Pollutants and their Effects:
Most of the rivers and fresh water streams in India are badly polluted by industrial wastes or effluents. The major
sources of pollution of some Indian rivers are listed in table below:
Indian rivers and sources of their pollution
Name of river Sources of pollution
1. Kali Sugar mills: distilleries: paint, soap, rayon, silk. Yarn, tin and glycerine
2. Yamuna D.D.T. factory, sewage, Indraprastha Power Station, Delhi.
3. Ganga Jute, chemical, metal and surgical industries: tanneries, textile mills and great
bulk of domestic sewage of highly organic nature.
4. Gomti Paper and pulp mills sewage.
5. Dajora Synthetic rubber factories.
6. Damodar Fertilizers, fly ash from steel mills, suspended coal particles from washeries,
and thermal power station.
7. Hoogly Power stations: paper pulp, jute textiles, chemical mills, paint, varnishes, metal,
steel, hydrogenated vegetable oil, rayon, soap, match, shellac, and polyethene
industries and sewage.
8. Sone Bhadra Cement, pulp and paper mills.
9. Cooum, Adyar and Buckinghum Domestic sewage, automobile workshops.
canal (Chennai)
10. Kaveri Sewage, tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills.
11. Godavari Paper, mills.
12. Siwan Paper, sulphur, cement, and sugar mills.
13. Kulu Chemical factories, rayon mills and tanneries.
14. Suwao Sugar industries.
Contamination of water with industrial wastes is most dangerous. The sewage of big cities is often drained into rivers.
This sewage promotes the growth of phytoplankton’s. The excessive growth depletes the oxygen of water. This
reduction of oxygen and the presence of poisonous wastes affect the fish population. Besides these, rivers, lakes and
ponds are also used directly by people for bathing or washing. This contaminates the water with the germs of various
diseases- like cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 5

Type or Industry Inorganic pollutants Organic pollutants

Mining Mine wastes : Chlorides, various metals,
ferrous sulphate, sulpluric acid hydrogen
—
sulphide, ferric hydroxide, surface wash offs,
suspended solids, chlorides and heavy metals.
Iron and steel Suspended solids, iron cyanide, thiocy-anate, Oil, phenol and naptha
sulphides, oxides, of copper, chromium,
cadmium, and mercury.
Chemical plants Various acids and alkalies, sulphates, nitrates of Aromatic compound solvents, organic acids,
metals, phosphorus, fluorine, silica, and nitro compound dyes, etc.
suspended particles.
Pharmaceuticals Proteins, carbohydrates, organic solvents,
—
intermediate products, drugs and antibiotics.
Soap and detergent Tertiary ammonia compounds, alkalies. Fats and fatty acids, glycerol, polyphosphates,
sulphonated hydrocarbons.
Food processing Highly putrescible organic matter and
—
pathogens.
Paper and pulp Sulphides, bleaching liquors Cellulose fibres, bark, wood, sugars and
organic acids.
Some pollutants produce only temporary effects in water whereas others have long standing effects. There are several
types of physical and chemical effects produced by pollutants.
These are:
 Addition of poisonous substances
 Addition of suspended particles
 Addition of non-toxic salts
 Water de-oxygenation
 Heating of water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used
for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while
much more is accidental and can have widespread effects.
Soil pollution sources include:
 Hazardous waste and sewage spills
 Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides
 Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices
 Household dumping and littering
Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution,
soil erosion, and desertification.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the
affected area. Noise pollution can come from:
 Traffic
 Airports
 Railroads
 Manufacturing plants
 Construction or demolition
 Concerts
 6 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss,
wildlife disturbances, and a general degradation of lifestyle.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive pollution is rare but extremely detrimental, and even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the
difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.
Sources of radioactive contamination include:
 Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage
 Improper nuclear waste disposal
 Uranium mining operations
Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife
populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural
thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects.
Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts
over a greater geographic area.
Thermal pollution may be caused by:
 Power plants
 Urban sprawl
 Air pollution particulates that trap heat
 Deforestation
 Loss of temperature moderating water supplies
As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife populations may be unable to recover
from swift changes.
LIGHT POLLUTION
Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:
 Large cities
 Billboards and advertising
 Night time sporting events and other night time entertainment
Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment.
If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX 2018
In news 2018:
The 2018 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) finds that air quality is the leading environmental threat to public
health. Now in its twentieth year, the biennial report is produced by researchers at Yale and Columbia Universities in
collaboration with the World Economic Forum. The tenth EPI report ranks 180 countries on 24 performance indicators
across 10 issue categories covering environmental health and ecosystem vitality. Switzerland leads the world in sustainability,
followed by France, Denmark, Malta, and Sweden.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 7

Key findings:
 Switzerland’s top ranking reflects strong performance across most issues, especially air quality and climate protection.
 In general, high scorers exhibit long-standing commitments to protecting public health, preserving natural resources,
and decoupling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic activity.
 India and Bangladesh come in near the bottom of the rankings, with Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
Nepal rounding out the bottom five.
 Low scores on the EPI are indicative of the need for national sustainability efforts on a number of fronts, especially
cleaning up air quality, protecting biodiversity, and reducing GHG emissions.
 Some of the lowest-ranking nations face broader challenges, such as civil unrest, but the low scores for others can
be attributed to weak governance, they note.
EPI and Global Sustainability Data
The EPI builds on the best available global data from international research entities, such as the Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation, the World Resources Institute, and the Sea Around Us Project at the University of British
Columbia, as well as international organizations such as the World Bank and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
Nevertheless, serious data gaps limit the ability to measure results – and particularly changes in performance – on a
number of important issues. “As the EPI project has highlighted for two decades, better data collection, reporting, and
verification across a range of environmental issues are urgently needed,”.
The world needs better data on sustainable agriculture, water resources, waste management, and threats to biodiversity.
Supporting global data systems is one of the most important steps the world community can take to achieving sustainable
development goals.
DUST MITIGATION PLAN
Centre had notified dust mitigation norms.
The norms mandate that:
 No building or infrastructure project requiring Environmental Clearance shall be implemented without approved
Environmental Management Plan inclusive of dust mitigation measures.
 Roads leading to or at construction sites must be paved and blacktopped (i.e. metallic roads).
 No excavation of soil shall be carried out without adequate dust mitigation measures in place.
 No loose soil or sand or Construction & Demolition Waste or any other construction material that causes dust shall
be left uncovered,
 Wind-breaker of appropriate height i.e. 1/3rd of the building height and maximum up to 10 meters shall be provided.
 Water sprinkling system shall be put in place.
 Dust mitigation measures shall be displayed prominently at the construction site for easy public viewing.
How it works? (Steps taken)
The teams are empowered to take on-the-spot action against violators and if necessary, issue “stop-work” orders.
The campaign will also include enforcement of pollution-control measures for vehicles, driving discipline, inspection of
power plants in Delhi to ensure compliance with the norms on pollution.
Besides field surveys by empowered teams of officials, a series of seminars on mitigation of pollution will also be
organised during the period. These include - a workshop on Environmental and Health; Air Pollution Abatement Technologies;
enlisting support from NGOs, Civil Society, citizens; Clean Air Day in Universities, Colleges and Schools; a Mini Marathon
for Clean Air; enhancing the role of PSUs and industries, apex industrial bodies; launching a national digital forum for
discussions on air pollution; Indoor Air Pollution Management and a conference of Environment Ministers of States and
Union Territories.
 8 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

MINAMATA CONVENTION
In news
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury enabling India to
become a Party of the Convention.
About
 The approval entails ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury along with flexibility for continued use of
mercury based products and processes involving mercury compound up to 2025.
 The first Conference of the Parties (CoP) under the Minamata Convention took place in Geneva, Switzerland in 2017
which India attended as observer.
It is financed through Global Environment Facility.
Details about the convention
 The Minamata Convention on Mercury is first global legally binding treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
 It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in January 2013 and came into force in August, 2017.
The Minamata Convention has put party nations to:
 Reduce and eliminate the use and release of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
 Control mercury air emissions from coalfired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals
production operations, waste incineration and cement production.
 Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics,
pesticides and measuring devices, and create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
 Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes such as chloralkali production, vinyl chloride
monomer production, and acetaldehyde production.
 It also puts a ban on new mercury mines.
 The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated
by mercury as well as health issues.
Waste management
Waste management involves collecting, transporting, disposing, recycling and monitoring waste generated through
human activities.
General waste management techniques are:
Landfill: It involves having the waste buried off in empty, deserted locations outside the city. Dumped waste is made
to undergo compression to enhance the density and make the fill stable. It is later covered to discourage vermin
growth. A gas extraction system is customarily installed to exact the gas (arising out of decomposition) through a
burrow pit.
Incineration: Waste is exposed to high temperature to trigger combustion and ultimately reduce to ash, gas and heat
energy. Toxic wastes from industry are thermally treated in furnace and boiler to extract energy. This method is
useful where land is scarce. Gasification and Pyrolysis methods involve heating waste in short supply of oxygen at
high temperature inside a pressurized and sealed vessel. The resultant residue is used for energy generation.
Recycling: Paper, plastic, PVC and other homogenous products can be recycled to put them in use in a new garb.
This also rids the environment of non-biodegradable, chemical wastes that significantly disturb the ecological balance.
Biological reprocessing: Wastes of organic origin are made to undergo biological decomposition and re-used as
compost or mulch for agriculture and landscaping. Gas collected is used for electricity generation.
Waste Reduction and Avoidance: The stress is on increased use of second hand products, repaired products and
reducing the use of complex disposable items to keep a tab on waste generation in abundance.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 9
Recycling Solutions: Recycling is a superlative way to capitalize on accumulated waste by chemically treating it to
make it fit for re-use. Recycling equipment make the waste processing method streamlined and cost-effective.
Global warming
Global warming which is also referred to as climate change, is the observed rise in the average temperature of the
Earth's climate system the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C in the lowest emissions
scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C in the highest emissions scenario .These readings have been recorded by the “national
science academies of the major industrialized nations”. Future climate change and impacts will differ from region to
region. Expected effects include increase in global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion
of deserts.
Causes: Global warming is a serious environmental issues. The causes are divided into two categories include
"natural" and "human influences" of global warming.
Natural Causes of Global Warming:
 rotation of the sun that changes the intensity of sunlight and moving closer to the earth
 greenhouse gases
 Volcanic eruption.
Human Influences on Global Warming:
 industrial revolution
 Mining
 Deforestation
Effects:
 heat waves,
 droughts,
 heavy rainfall with floods,
 heavy snowfall ,
 ocean acidification,
 species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes
Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow,
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Causes of Acid Rain : This image illustrates the pathway for acid rain in our environment.Acid rain results when
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air
currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These
then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of
it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and
not just those who live close to these sources.
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most
pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem
because it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the rate of
 10 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in 1987, was the
first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the production and use of ozone-depleting
chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over
time.

Important terminologies:
· Garbage Pollution: Mismanagement of solid waste by households, waste collectors and waste disposal contractors.
· Plastic Pollution: Waste of all types of non-biodegradable plastic of both hard and soft material.
· Pollution by Hospitals: Mismanagement of all types of waste generated by the hospitals instead of its environment
friendly disposal.
· Indoor Pollution: Kitchen emissions, smoking in home, loud music, spillage of sewerage.
· Industrial Pollution: Smoke from chimney, waste and effluent from manufacturing process in factories.
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
6. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of
1. Consider the following: some chemical elements that are used by the industry
1. Carbon dioxide in the manufacture of various products. Why?
2. Oxides of Nitrogen 1. They can accumulate in the environment, and
3. Oxides of Sulphur contaminate water and soil.
Which of the above is/are the emission/ emissions 2. They can enter the food chains.
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? 3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. Human activities in the recent past have Caused the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the 7. Which of the following are some important pollutants
atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in the released by steel industry in India?
lower atmosphere because of :
1. Oxides of sulphur
1. Its escape into the outer stratosphere.
2. Oxides of nitrogen
2. The photosynthesis by phyto-plankton in the
oceans. 3. Carbon monoxide
3. The trapping of air in the polar ice caps. 4. Carbon dioxide
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4
3. Consider the following statements: 8. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting household products like mattresses and upholstery.
substances, are used Why is there some concern about their use?
1. In the production of plastic foams 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the
environment.
2. In the production of tubeless tyres
3. In cleaning certain electronic components 2. They are able to accumulate in humans and
animals.
4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. The scientific view is that the increase in global
4. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
temperature should not exceed 2 °C above pre-
by
industrial level. If the global temperature increases
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial level, what can
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide source
5. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
among: 3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
(a) NO2, 03 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere
of sunlight in the world.
(b) CO, 02 and0 peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence Select the correct answer using the code given below.
of sunlight (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) CO, CO2 and N02 at low temperature (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4,
(d) High concentration of N02, O3 and CO in the
evening
12 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL
10. In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential
sites for carbon sequestration?
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
3. Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
11. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard
criterion for
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/
are the advantage/advantages of bioremediation
technique?
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by
enhancing the same biodegradation process that
occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as
cadmium and lead can be readily and completely
treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create
microorganisms specifically designed for
bioremediation. Select the correct answer using
the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
13. I n potable water, the dissolved oxygen is stipulated
as-
(a) <6g/l (b) >6g/l
(c) <6mg/l (d) >6mg/l
[RRB SSE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
14. I n r ef er en ce t o A ci d r ai n , w h at i s cor r ect
st at ement
(a) The pH value i s bel ow 5.6
(b) I t occur s due t o pr esence of sul phur i c aci d or
ni t r ic acid i n t he at mospher e
(c) M axi mum acid i s due t o st r ong Car bonic Acid
(d) Acid r ain affect s ecosyst em
[RRB SSE 2014 YEL L OW SH I FT ]
15. The wor king pr inciple of tur bidimeter is based on
(a) r efl ect ion of l ight
(b) r efr act ion of l ight
(c) scat t er ing of l ight
(d) adsor pt ion of light
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
LEVEL-1
1. The major sour ce of car ci nogenic hydr ocar bon,
benzo () pyr ene pr esent i n ur ban at mospher e is
(a) const r uct ion act ivit i es
(b) r oad t r affic
(c) bur st i ng of cr acker s
(d) domest i c bur ni ng
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
2. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
commer cial ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 75 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(c) 55 dBA (d) 65 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
3. The gl obal war mi ng i s caused by gr een house
gases, which ar e
(a) CO, N 2O, CH 4 and CFC
(b) CO2, NO2, CH 4 and H 2O
(c) CO2, N 2O, CH 4 and H 2O
(d) CO2, N O2, CH 4 and CFC
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
4. Which of t he fol lowing r ol es fl y ash does not pl ay
in concr et e
(a) I mpr ovi ng t he wor kabi li t y
(b) Acceler at ing t he st r engt h gain
(c) Delaying t he set t ing t i me of concr et e
(d) H elps in long-t er m st r engt h gain
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
5. One t ur bi di t y unit NTU is equal t o
(a) 1.0 mg/l far mazin (b) 1.0 meq/l Si O2
(c) 1.0 mg/l Si O2 (d) 1.0 meq/l kaol in
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
6. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for
r esi dent i al ar ea at day t ime is
(a) 65 dBA (b) 45 dBA
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 13
7. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g i s n ot u sed as a (c) gast r oint est inal pr oblem
suppl ement ar y cement at ions mat er ial? (d) t he ir r it at i on in alveol i of t he l ungs
(a) Fl y ash (b) Gypsum [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) Ri ce husk ash (d) Si li ca fume 15. The machi ne ‘A' and machine ‘B' pr oduce equal
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] noise l evel s, i.e., 60 dBA each. The summat ion of
8. Accor di ng t o I S 456, if t he maximum aggr egat e t hese t wo noise level s is
si ze i s i ncr eased fr om 20 mm t o 40 mm, t he (a) 100 dBA (b) 66 dBA
mi ni mum cement cont ent r equi r ement changes
(i n kg/cum) by (c) 63 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(a) – 20 (b) 20
(c) – 30 (d) 30 LEVEL-2
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] 1. I n st r at ospher e, t he t emper at ur e incr eases wi t h
9. The t ur bi di t y in sur face wat er is due t o pr esence al t i t ude due t o pr esence of
of (a) r adicals (b) chlor ofluor ocar bons
(a) dissolved or ganics (c) HCFCs (d) Ozone
(b) col loidal mat er ial [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) di ssolved i n or gani cs 2. N uclear densi t y guage can be used for al l t he
(d) di ssolved color s foll owi ng pur poses, except
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ] (a) M oist ur e cont ent
10. T h e pr escr i bed per m i ssi bl e n oi se l evel , f or (b) Wet densi t y
r esi dent i al ar ea at night t ime is
(c) Dr y densi t y
(a) 45 dBA (b) 50 dBA
(d) St andar d penetr at ion r eading
(c) 40 dBA (d) 55 dBA
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 1 st SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
3. A wat er bor ne di sease pol iomyeli t is i s caused by
11. The cont i nuous exposur e of hi gh concent r at i on
of r epar able suspended par t icul at e mat t er may (a) vir uses (b) pr ot ozoa
cause (c) bact er ia (d) hel mi nt hes
(a) eye ir r it at i on [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(b) kidney damage 4. I n pot abl e wat er, t he per missible li mi t of nit r at e
(c) fail ur e of r espi r at or y syst em ni t r ogen is
(d) car diac disease (a) 10 mg/l (b) 25 mg/l
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st (c) 40 mg/l (d) 15 mg/l
12. The pr escr i bed per missible noise level , L eq for [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
commer cial ar ea at ni ght t ime is 5. Car bon monoxi de for ms car boxyhemogl obi n i n
(a) 45 dBA (b) 65 dBA human blood t hat may cause
(c) 50 dBA (d) 55 dBA (a) incr eased oxygen car r yi ng capaci t y
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (b) decr eased oxygen car r ying capaci t y
13. The pH of acid r ai n shoul d always be less t han (c) damage in cent r al ner vous syst em
(a) 5.6 even aft er pr ecipit at i on (d) damage in ci r cul at or y syst em
(b) 7.0 aft er pr ecipit at ion [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
(c) 6.5 aft er pr ecipit at ion
6. Tw o m ach i n es ar e w or k i n g i n a n oi sy
(d) 4.2 aft er pr ecipit at ion envi r onment and joint ly pr oduct 55 dBA noi se
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] level. I f t he envir onment al noi se level i s also 55
14. The exposur e of gaseous pollut ant sulphur dioxide dBA, t he summat i on of noise level s is
may cause (a) 110 dBA (b) 56 dBA
(a) br onchi t is and pul monar y emphysema (c) 55 dBA (d) 58 dBA
(b) lungs fai lur e and k idney damage [RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
14 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

(b) car bon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, water vapour s

7. The aver age concent r at i on of ozone pr esent i n
and chl or ofl uor ocar bons
t he st r at ospher e is appr oximat ely
(c) car bon monoxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and,
(a) 5 ppm (b) 0.05 ppm
hydr o-chlor ofluor ocar bons
(c) 10 ppm (d) 15 ppm
(d) car bon di ox i de, n i t r ogen di ox i de, w at er
[RRB SSE 2015 2 nd SEP 3 rd SH I FT ]
vapour s , met hane and ozone
8. The t ot al col ifor m bact er ia ar e r epor t ed as most [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ]
pr obabl e number (M PN) per
12. The desir able amount of fluor i de ions i n pot able
(a) 10 ml of wat er wat er s for opt imal dent al heal t h i s:
(b) 1000 ml of wat er
(a) 1.5 mg/l (b) 1.0 mg/l
(c) 100 ml of wat er
(c) 0.5 mg/l (d) 0.05 mg/l
(d) 1ml of wat er [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] 13. Wh i ch of t he f ol l owi ng i s n ot con si der ed as
9. The ant hr opogenic sour ces of air pollut ion in well secondar y pollut ant ?
pl anned ci t y is (a) Phot ochemical smog
(a) constr uction activities, r oad tr affics, r ail tr affic, (b) Per oxy acet yl nit r at e
fugi t ive emissions
(c) Acid mi st
(b) const r uct ion act ivi t i es, r oad t r affi c, domest ic
(d) Car bon monoxi de
burning
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
(c) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affi cs, bur st ing
of cr acker s, dust st or ms 14. I n t he st at ist ical di st r ibut ion of noi se levels, t he
back gr ound noise l evel is r epr esent ed by:
(d) const r uct ion act ivit ies, r oad t r affics, domest ic
bur ni ng, i ndust r ial emissions (a) L 90 (b) L 50
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 1 st SH I FT ] (c) L 10 (d) L 1
10. When t he measur ed and st andar d r efer ence [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
pr essur e level becomes equal, t he sound pr essur e 15. Acid r ain i s caused due t o for mat ion of:
level (SPL ) is equi valent t o (a) su l ph u r i c aci d an d car bon i c aci d i n t h e
(a) 1 dBA (b) 10 dBA at mospher e
(c) 0 dBA (d) 1.012 dBA (b) sulphur ic acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere
[RRB SSE 2015 3 rd
SEP 1 SH I FT ]
st
(c) nitr ic acid and car bonic acid in the atmospher e
11. The major gr een house gases cont r i but i ng i n (d) sulphur ic acid, nit r ic acid and car bonic acid in
gl obal war ming ar e t he at mospher e
(a) car bon di oxide, nit r ous oxide, met hane and [RRB SSE 2015 3 rd SEP 2 nd SH I FT ]
wat er vapour s

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
LEVEL-1
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b)
 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL 15

EXPLAN ATI ON S
LEVEL-1 7. Gypsum is not used as a supplementary
cementations material.
1. Road traffic is the major source of carcinogenic
hydrocarbon present in urban atmosphere. 9. Turbidity in surface water is due to colloidal
material.
2. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at day time is 65 dBA. 10. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 45
According to Central Pollution Control Board, dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
Code Day time Night time Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area
A Industrial area 75 70 Code Day time Night time
B Commercial area 65 55 A Industrial area 75 70
C Residential area 55 45 B Commercial area 65 55
D Silence Zone 50 40 C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40
3. Green house gases are the gas mixed in the
atmosphere that absorbs the infrared radiation 11. Continuous exposure to suspended particles are
emitted by the earth’s surface. harmful to the lungs and can cause failure of
respiratory system.
12. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq for
commercial area at night time is 55 dBA.
According to Central Pollution Control Board,

Area Limits in dB(A), Leq

Category of Area
Code Day time Night time
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

13. pH of acid rain should always be less than 5.6

We are not accustomed to these gases because even after precipitation.
neither nitrogen nor oxygen, the two most 14. The exposure of gaseous pollutant sulphur dioxide
abundant gases of the atmosphere (78% and 21%, may cause bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema.
respectively), that many of us have heard of, have
this ability to intercept infrared radiation. LEVEL-2
4. Fly ash never improves strength of concrete. 1. In the stratosphere, temperature increases with
The advantages of using fly ash far outweigh the altitude. The reason is that the direct heat source
disadvantages. The most important benefit is for the stratosphere is the Sun. A layer of ozone
reduced permeability to water and aggressive molecules absorbs solar radiation, which heats
chemicals. Properly cured concrete made with fly the stratosphere. The amount of ozone present
in the ozone layer is tiny, only a few molecules
ash creates a denser product because the size of
per million air molecules.
the pores are reduced.
5. One turbidity unit NTU is equal to 1.0 mg/l SiO2. 2. Nuclear density gauge can be used for all the
following purposes except standard penetration
6. The prescribed permissible noise level, Leq is 55
reading.
dBA.
3. A virus that may cause paralysis and is easily
According to Central Pollution Control Board,
preventable by the polio vaccine.
Area Limits in dB(A), Leq
Category of Area 4. The permissible limit of nitrate nitrogen in potable
Code Day time Night time
water is 10 mg/l .
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55 7. The average concentration of ozone present in
C Residential area 55 45 the stratosphere is approximately 10 ppm.
D Silence Zone 50 40
16 BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION CONTROL

Sulfure dioxide (SO 2 Photochemical oxidants

carbon monoxide (ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
(CO 2 ),nitrogen oxides sulfur trioxide) and
(No x ), and particulate secondary particular
matter (PM). matter.
Chemical reactants
characterized with a direct Chemical products, highly
pollution effect on living reactive when
beings and ecosystems, photoactivation is involved
and with an indirect effect in the chemical process of
through the formation of their formation
secondary pollutants.

8. Total or fecal coliform bacteria are reported as
most probable number per 100 mL
9. Anthropogenic sources of air pollution in well
planned city are construction activities, road
traffics, and domestic burning
10. When the measured and standard reference
pressure level becomes equal, the sound pressure
level (SPL) is equivalent to 0 dBA
11. The major green house gases contributing in
global warming are carbon dioxide , nitrous
oxide,methane and water vapor.
12. The desirable amount of flue le ions in potable
waters for optimal dental health is 1.0 mg/l
13. Primary Pollutants
Versus
Secondary Pollutants
Air pollutant formed in
the atmosphere as a result
of the chemical or physical
Air pollutant emitted interactions between the
direclty from a source into primary pollutants
the atmosphere. themselves or between the
primary pollutants and
other atmospheric
components.
Complicated control
Direct control through the process: understanding
reduction of anthropogenic and interrupting the
emissions. chemical reactions leading
to their generation.
14. L90 is frequently taken as the Lp of the background
level. L10-L90 is often used to give a quantitative
measure as to the spread or “how choppy” the
sound was. L10 is the noise level exceeded for
10% of the time of the measurement duration.
15. Scientists have discovered that air pollution from
burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid
rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that
create acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and
nitrogen (NOx). Acid rain usually forms high in
the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants.
this mixture forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid
and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of most
of these reactions. Rainwater, snow, fog, and other
forms of precipitation containing those mild
solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids fall to earth
as acid rain.
 Basics of Computers and Applications
PERSON AL COM PU T ERS
Per sonal comput er s can be cat egor ized by size and
por t abilit y as :
1. Deskt op comput er s
2. L apt op or not ebooks
3. Per sonal Digit al Assist ants (PDAs)
4. Por t able comput er s
5. Tablet comput er s
6. Wear able comput er s
U ses.
Per sonal computers ar e normally operated by one user
at a time to perform such general purpose tasks as word
pr ocessing, I nter net br owsing, I nternet faxing, e-mail
and other digit al messaging , multimedia playback,
computer game play, computer pr ogr amming, etc. The
user of modern personal computer may have significant
knowledge of the operating environment and application
pr ogr am s, bu t i s n ot n ecessar i l y i n t er est ed i n
pr ogr amming not even able to wr ite pr ogr ams for the
computer. Ther efore, most software written primarily
for per sonal comput er s t ends t o be desi gned wi t h
simplicity of use, or “user-friendliness” in mind. However,
the software industry continuously provide a wide range
of new products for use in personal computer s, tar geted
at both the exper t and the non-expert user.
COM PU T ER COM PON EN TS
1. Comput er case wit h power supply (usually sold
t oget her )
2. Mother boar d
3. Pr ocessor wit h fan (usually sold t oget her )
4. At least one memor y car d
5. M ass st or age
6. K eyboar d and mouse for input
7. M onit or for out put
The mot her boar d connect s ever t hing t oget her. The
memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted
directly onto the motherboard (the processor in a socket
an the memory and graphics cards in an expansion slot).
The mass storage is connected to it with cables. Same for
keyboard and mouse, except that they are external and
connect to the back plate. The monitor is also connected
to the back plate, except not (usually) dir ectly to the
motherboard, but to a connector in the graphics card.
M ass st orage.
I t can be
(i ) H ar d disk
(ii ) Floppy dr ive or zip dr ive (bot h wit h media)
(iii )Opt ical dr ive (CD or DVD)
The oper at ing syst em (e.g., M icr osoft Windows, Linux
or many ot her s) can be locat ed on eit her of t hese, but
t ypically it son one of t he har d disks. Alive CD is also
possible, but ver y slow and used for eit her inst allation
of t he OS or pr oblem solving.
A typical computer also has
(i ) Sound car d (ii ) Net wor k car d
(iii )M oder n and possibly r out er
Common addit i ons, connect ed on t he out si de
(per ipher als).
Pr i nt er ; Scanner ; Webcam; Speak er s; M i cr ophone;
Headset; Car d reader ; Gaming devices such as a joystick
Sever al funct ions (implement ed by chipset s) can be
integr ated into the mother boar d, such as typically USB
and net wor k, but also gr aphics and sound. But even if
these ar e pr esent, a separ ate car d can be added if what
is available isn’t sufficient .
The gr aphics and sound car d can have a br eak out box
to keep the analog par ts away fr om the electr omagnetic
r adiat ion inside t he comput er case. For r eally lar ge
amount s of dat a, a t ape dr ive can be used or (ext r a)
har d disks can be put t oget her in an ext er nal case.
These component s can usually be put t oget her wit h
lit t le k nowledge, t o build a comput er. I f somet hing
shouldn’t go somewher e, it usually doesn’t fit (this used
t o not always be t he case in t he past ) and if it does fit
it can usually do lit t le har m.
Most per sonal computer s ar e standar dized to the point
t hat pur chased soft war e is expect ed t o r un wit h lit t le
or no customizat ion for the par t icular comput er. M any
PCs ar e also user -upgr adeable, especially desktop and
wor kst at ion class comput er s. Devices such as main
memor y, mass st or age, even t he mot her boar d and
cent r al pr ocessing unit may be easily r eplaced by an
end user. This upgr adeabilit y is, however, not idefinit e
due t o r api d ch anges i n t h e per sonal compu t er
indust r y, A PC that was consider ed t op-of-the-line five
or six year s pr ior may be impr act ical t o upgr ade due
t o changes in indust r y st andar ds. Such a comput er
 2 Basics of Computers and Applications
usually must be t ot ally r eplaced once it ’s no longer
suitable for its pur pose. This upgr ade and replacement
cycle is par tially r elated to new r eleases of the pr imar y
mass-mar ket oper at ed syst em, which t ends t o dr ive
t he acquisition of new har dwar e and t ends of obsolet e
pr ev i ou sl y ser v i ceabl e h ar dw ar e (see pl an n ed
obsol escence).
The har dwar e capabilit ies of per sonal comput er s can
somet imes be ext ended by t he addit ion of expansion
car ds connect ed via an expansion bus. Some standar d
per ipheral buses often used for adding expansion cards
in personal computers as of 2005 ar e PCI , AGP (a high-
speed PCI bus dedicat ed t o gr aphics adapt er s), and
PCI Expr ess. Most per sonal computer s as of 2005 have
mul t i pl e physi cal PCI expansi on sl ot s. M any al so
i ncl ude an AGP bus and expansi on sl ot or a PCI
Expr ess bus and one or mor e explansion slot s, but
few PCs cont ain bot h buses.
M ot her boar d.
The mother boar d (or mainboar d) is the pr imar y cir cuit
boar d wi t hi n a per sonal com put er. M an y ot h er
component s connect di r ect l y or i ndi r ect l y t o t he
mot her boar d. M ot her boar ds usually cont ain one or
mor e CPUs, suppor t ing cir cuit r y - usually int egr at ed
cir cuits (I Cs) pr oviding the inter face between the CPU
memor y and input /out put per ipher al cir cuit s, main
memor y, and facilities for init ial setup of the computer
immediat ely aft er being power ed on (often called boot
fi r mwar e or, i n I BM PC compat i bl e comput er s, a
BI OS). I n many por t abl e and embedded per sonal
comput er s, t he mot her boar d houses near ly all of t he
PC’s cor e component s. Oft en a mot her boar d will also
cont ain one or mor e per ipher al buses and physical
connect or s for expansi on pur poses. Somet i mes a
secondar y daught er boar d i s connect ed wi t h t he
mot her boar d t o pr ovide fur t her expandibilit y or t o
sat isfy space constr aint s.
M ain M emory.
A PC’s main memor y (i.e., it s pr imar y st or e) is fast
st or age t hat is dir ect ly accessible by t he CPU, and is
used t o st or e t he cur r ent ly execut ing pr ogr am and
i mmi di at el y needed dat a. PCs use semi conduct or
Random Access Memor y (RAM ) of var ious kinds such
as DRAM or SRAM as t heir pr imar y st or age. Which
exact kind depends on cost /per for mance issues at any
par t icular t ime. M ain memor y is much fast er t han
mass st or age devices like har d disks or opt ical discs,
but is usually volat ile, meaning it does not r et ain it s
contents (inst r uctions or data) in the absence of power,
and is much mor e expensive for a given capacit y t han
is most mass st or age. M ain memor y is gener ally not
suit able for long-t er m or ar chival dat a st or age.
M ass st or age devices st or e pr ogr ams and dat a even
when t he power i s off; t hey do r equi r e power t o
per for m r ead/wr it e funct ions dur ing usage. Although
semiconductor flash memor y has dr opped in cost, the
pr evailing for m of mass stor age in personal computers
is st ill t he elect r omechanical har d disk.
The disk dr ives use a sealed H ead/Disk Assembly
(H D A ) w h i ch w as f i r st i n t r odu ced by I B M ’s
“ Wi nchest er ” di sk syst em. The use of a seal ed
assembly allowed t he use of t he positive air pr essur e
t o dr ive out par t icles fr om t he sur face of t he disk,
which impr oves r eliabilit y.
Video Car d.
The video car d- ot her wise cal led a gr aphics car d,
gr aphics adapt er or video adapt er - pr ocessor s and
r ender s t he gr aphics out put fr om t he comput er t o
t he comput er display, also called t he Visual Display
Unit (VDU), and is an essent ial par t of t he moder n
comput er.
M I CROPROCE SSOR.
A micr opr ocessor is a mult ipur pose pr ogr ammable
logic device t hat r eads binar y inst r uct ions fr om a
st or age device called memor y, accept s binar y dat a
as i n pu t an d pr ocess dat a accor di n g t o t h ose
instr uctions and pr ovides r esults as output. A typical
pr ogr ammable machine can be r epr esent wit h t hr ee
component s : micr opr ocessor, memor y, and I /O.
Memory
Micro
processor
I/O
These t hr ee component s wor k t oget her or int er act
wit h each ot her t o per for m a given t ask, t hus t hey
compr ise a syst em
H ARD WARE .
The physical component s of t his syst em ar e called
har dwar e.
SOF TWARE
A set of inst r uct ions wr it t en for t he micr opr ocessor
t o per for m a t ask is called a pr ogr am and a gr oup of
pr ogr ams is called soft war e.
APPL I CAT I ON S.
Th e mi cr opr ocessor appl i cat i ons ar e cl assi fi ed
pr imar ily in t wo cat egor ies
( i ) I n Re-programmable syst ems.
Such as micr ocomput er s, t he micr opr ocessor is
used for comput ing and dat a pr ocessing. These
systems, include gener al pur pose micr opr ocessor
capabl e of handl i ng l ar ge dat a. M ass st or age
device (disks), and per ipher als such as I /O device
(pr inter ).

( ii ) Embedded syst em.
I n embedded syst ems, t he micr opr ocessor is par t
of a f i n al pr odu ct an d i s n ot av ai l abl e f or
r epr ogr ammabl e t o t he end user. A copyi ng
machine is a t ypi cal example of an embedded
syst em . Th e mi cr opr ocessor s u sed i n t hese
syst ems ar e gener ally cat egor ised as
( a ) M i cr ocon t r ol l er s t h at i n cl u de al l t h e
components like micr opr ocessor, memor y and
I /O.
( b) I ntegrated microprocessor that include various
devices such as timers and various types of I /O
on a chip.
( c) Gener al pur pose micropr ocessor with discr ete
component s such as micr opr ocessor, memor y
and I /O.
Embedded syst ems can also be incr eased as pr oducts
t hat use micr opr ocessor t o per for m t heir oper at ions
t hey ar e called as micr opr ocessor based pr oduct s.
e.g. washing machines, dish washer s, aut omobi le
dashboar d cont r ol s, t r affi c l i ght cont r ol l er s, and
aut omat ic t est ing inst r ument s.
BI N ARY DI GI T.
The micr opr ocessor oper at es in binar y digit s 0 and
1, also known as bit s. Bit is an abbr eviat ion for t he
t er m binar y digit . Those digit s ar e r epr esent ed in
ter ms of electr ical voltages in the machine : gener ally
0 r epr esent s one vol t age l evel and 1 r epr esent s
anot her. The digit s 0 and 1 ar e also synonyms wit h
low and high r espect ively.
Each mi cr opr ocessor r ecogni zes and pr ocesses a
gr oup of bit s called t he wor d and micr opr ocessor ar e
classified accor ding t o t heir wor d lengt h.
M emor y.
M emor y is like t he pages of a not ebook wit h space
for a fixed number of binar y number s on each line.
H owever t hese pages ar e gener ally made of semi-
conduct or mat er ial. Each line in 8 bit r egist er t hat
can st or e 8 bi t bi nar y bi t s, and sever al of t hese
r egist er s ar e ar r anged in a sequence called memor y.
I nput /Out put .
The user can enter instructions and data into memor y
thr ough devices such as keyboar d or simple switches.
These devices ar e called input devices.
The mi cr opr ocessor r eads i nst r uct i ons fr om t he
memor y and pr ocesses t he dat a accor ding t o t hose
inst r uct ions. The r esult can be displayed by a device
such as seven segment L ED (light emit t ing diodes)
or pr i nt ed by a pr i nt er. These devi ces ar e call ed
out put devices.
M I CROPROCESSOR AS A CPU .
The cent r al pr ocessing unit (CPU) consist s of t he
Ar ithmet ic Logic Unit (ALU) and Cont r ol Unit (CU).
Basics of Computers and Applications 3
The CPU cont ains var ious r egist er s t o st or e dat a,
AL U t o per for m Ar it hmet ic and logical, oper at ions,
inst r uction decoder s, count er s and cont r ol lines. The
CPU r eads i n st r uct i on s fr om t h e memor y and
per for m t he t asks specified. I t communicat es wit h
input /out put devices eit her t o accept or to send dat a.
These devices ar e also known as per ipher als. The
CPU i s t h e pr i m ar y an d cen t r al pl ay er i n
communicat ing wit h devices such as memor y, input
an d ou t pu t . H ow ev er , t h e t i m i n g of t h e
communicat ion pr ocess is cont r olled by t he gr oup of
cir cuit called cont r ol unit . CPU on single chip called
mi cr opr ocessor.
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)
Control
Input Output
Unit
Memory
Fig. (a) Traditional block diagram of
Micro
processor
Input Output
as CPU
Memory
F i g. (b) Bl ock di agr am of a compu t er w i t h t he a
comput er micr oprocessor as CPU
1. bit micr opr ocessor.
The I nt el 4004 was t he fir st 4 bit pr ogr ammable
device t hat was pr imar ily used in calculat or s.
2. bit micr opr ocessor.
The int el 8008 is 8 bit micr opr ocessor, which was
in t ur n super seded by t he I nt el 8080. I nt el 8080
wi dely used i n cont r ol applicat ions, and small
comput er s also wer e designed using t he 8080 as
t he CPU. Wit hin a few year s aft er t he emer gence
of t he 8080, t he M ot or ola 6800 and Zilog Z80 and
I nt el 8085 mi cr opr ocessor wer e devel oped as
impr ovement s
3. 16 bit microprocessor. 8086/88
4. 32 bit microprocessor. 80380/486 and Pent ium
5. 64 bit microprocessor. M ot or ola 68000 ser ies
 4 Basics of Computers and Applications
M I CROCOM PU T E RS.
M icr ocomput er is classified in four gr oups.
1. Per sonnel comput er s.
These micr ocomputer s ar e single user systems and
being used for var iety of pur poses, such as payr oll,
busi ness account s, wor d pr ocessi ng, l egal and
medi cal r ecor d k eepi ng, per sonnel fi nance and
inst r uctions. A typical configur ation includes a 16
or 32 bit micr opr ocessor, 2 to 4 M B (megabyte) of
system memory, a video screen, a dot matrix pr inter.
2. Work st at ions.
These ar e high per for mance cousi ns of t he PC.
T hey ar e used i n en gi n eer i n g an d sci en t i fi c
applications such as computer -aided design (CAD),
computer aided engineer ing (CAE), and computer -
aided manufacturing (CAM), they generally include
syst em memor y l ar ger t han 200 M B, st or age
memor y in giga byt es and high r esolut ion scr een.
The wor k st at i ons ar e desi gned ar ound RI SC
pr ocessor s. The RI SC pr ocessor s t end t o be fast er
and mor e effi ci ent t han t he pr ocessor s used i n
per sonnel comput er.
3. Single boar d micr ocomput er s.
These mi cr ocomput er s ar e pr i mar i l y used i n
college, labor atories and industr ies for instr uctional
pur poses or t o evaluate the per for mance of a given
mi cr opr ocessor. They can al so be par t of some
lar ger syst ems. Typical ly t hese micr ocomput er s
include 8 or 16 bit micr opr ocessor.
e.g. These computers include such systems as Intel
SDK85, SDK86, Motorola Evaluation kits, these are
generally used to write and execute assembly language
programs and to perform interfacing experiments
4. Si n gl e ch i p m i cr ocom pu t er s ( m i cr o-
cont r ol l er s)
These micr ocomput er s ar e designed on a single
chip, which t ypically includes a chip of 64 byt es of
R/W memor y fr om 4K t o 2K byt es of ROM and
sever al si ngl e l i nes t o connect I /Os. These ar e
complet e micr ocomput er s on a chip, t hey ar e also
k n ow n as m i cr ocon t r ol l er s. T h ese ar e u sed
pr i m ar i l y f or su ch f u n ct i on s as con t r ol l i n g
appliances and t r affic light s. e.g. Zilog Z8, I nt el
M CS51 and 96 ser ies, and M ot or ola 68H C11.
COM PU TER LAN GU AGES. N ibble.
I t is a gr oup of four bit s
M nemonic : A combinat ion of let t er s t o suggest t he
oper at ion of an inst r uct ion.
Compiler : A pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es english like
wor ds of high language in t he machine language of a
comput er. A complier r eads a given pr ogr am, called a
sour ce code and t hen t r anslat es t he pr ogr am int o t he
machine language which is called an object code.
Assembler : A comput er pr ogr am t hat t r anslat es an
assembly language pr ogr am fr om mnemonics t o t he
binar y machine code of a comput er.
M onit or program : A pr ogr am t hat int er pr et s t he
input fr om a keyboar d and conver t s t he input int o it s
binar y equivalent .

COM PU TER SYSTEM .

8085 Programming M odel.
The 8085 pr ogr amming model includes six r egist er s, one accumulat or and one flag r egist er. I t has t wo 16 bit
r egist er t he st ack point er and t he pr ogr am count er.
Registers : The 8085 has six gener al pur pose r egist er s t o st or e 8 bit dat a. These ar e ident ical as B, C, D, E, H
and L . They can be combined as Regist er s pair s BC, DE, and H L t o per for m some 16 bit oper at ions. The
pr ogr ammer can use t hese r egist er s t o st or e or copy dat a int o t he r egist er s by using dat a copy inst r uct ions.

Accumulator A (8) Flag Register

B (8) C (8)
D (8) E (8)
H (8) L (8)
Stack pointer (SP) (16)
Program counter (PC) (16)

Data Bus Address Bus

Lines Lines

Bidirectional Unidirectional
F ig. (a) Progr amming model
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
F ig. (b) F lab Register

Accumulat or.
The Accumulat or is an 8 bit r egist er t hat is par t of t he
ar it hmet ic/logic unit (AL U). This r egist er is used t o
st or e 8 bit dat a and t o per for m ar it hmet ic/logic unit
(AL U). This r egist er is used t o st or e 8-bit dat a and t o
per for m ar it hmet ic and logical oper at ions. The r esult
of an oper at i on i s st or ed i n t he accumul at or. The
accumulat or is also ident ified as r egist er A.
FLAGS.
The ALU includes five flip-flops, which ar e set or r eset
aft er an oper at ion accor ding t o dat a condit ions of t he
r esult in t he accumulat or and ot her r egist er s. They
ar e called zer o (Z), car r y (CY); sign (S), par it y (P) and
Auxiliar y car r y (AC) flags.
The most commonly used flags ar e zer o, car r y, and
sign. The micr opr ocessor uses t hese flags t o t est dat a
condit ions.
Aft er an addit ion of t wo number s, if t he sum in t he
accumulat or is lar ger t han eight bits, the flip-flop used
t o indicat e a car r y called car r y flag (CY) is set t o one.
When an ar ithmetic oper ation is zer o the flip flop called
t he zer o (Z) flag is set t o one.
The fl ags have cr i t i cal i mpor t ance i n t he deci si on
making pr ocess of t he micr opr ocessor. The condit ions
(set or r eset ) of t he flags ar e t est ed t hr ough soft war e
inst r uct ions.
PROGRAM COU N TER (PC).
T h i s 16 bi t r egi st er deal s wi t h sequ en ci n g t h e
execut ion of inst r uct i on. Thi s r egi st er i s a memor y
point er. M emor y locat ions have 16 bit addr esses, and
that is why t his is a 16-bit r egister. The micr opr ocessor
uses t hi s r egi st er t o sequence t he execut i on of t he
inst r uct ions. The funct ion of t he pr ogr am count er is
t o point t o t he memor y addr esses fr om which t he next
byt e is t o be fet ched. When a byt e (machine code) is
being fet ched, t he pr ogr am count er is incr ement ed by
one t o point t o t he next memor y locat ion.
STACK POI N TER (SP).
The stack pointer is also a 16 bit register used as memory
poi n t er. I t poi n t s t o a m em or y l ocat i on i n
R/W memor y, called t he stack. The beginning of st ack
is defined by loading a 16-bit address in the stack pointer.
OPCODE FORM AT.
I n t he desi gn of t he 8085 mi cr opr ocessor chi p, al l
oper ations, registers and status flags are identified with
a specific code.
All int er nal r egist er s ar e ident ified as follows :
Code Regist er s Code Regist er pair s
000 B 00 BC
001 C 01 DE
010 D 10 HL
011 E 11 A F or S P
100 F
101 G
110 Reser ved for M emor y Relat ed Oper at ion
111 A
Basics of Computers and Applications 5
I N STRU CTI ON CODES.
An inst r uct ion code is a gr oup of bit s t hat inst r uct t he
comput er t o per for m a specific oper at ion. I t is usually
divided i nt o par t s, each havi ng it s own par t i cular
int er pr et at ion. The most basic par t of an inst r uct ion
codes is it s oper at ion par t .
Oper at ion Code.
The oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion is a gr oup of bit s
that define such oper ations as add, subt r act , mult iply,
shift and complement . The number of bit s r equir ed
for t he oper at ion code of an inst r uct ion depends on
t he t ot al number of oper at i ons avai l abl e i n t he
comput er. The oper at ion code must consist of at least
n bit s for a given 2n (or less) dist inct oper at ions.
OP Code.
What t ask t o be per for med, called t he oper at ion code
(OPcode).
Oper and.
When dat a t o be oper at ed on called t he oper and. The
oper and (or dat a) can be specified in var ious ways. I t
may include 8-bit or (16 bit) data, an int er nal r egist er,
a memor y location, or 8 bit (or 16 bit) addr ess. I n some
inst r uct ions, t he oper and is implicit .
ADDRESSI N G M ODES.
The control unit of a computer is designed to go through
an inst r uct ion cycle t hat is divided int o t hr ee major
phases.
(i) Fet ch t he inst r uct ion fr om memor y
(ii ) Decode t he inst r uct ion
(iii) Execut e t he inst r uct ion
I mplied mode.
A l l r egi st er r ef er en ce i n st r uct i on s t h at u se an
accumul at or ar e i mpl i ed mode i nst r uct i ons. Zer o
addr ess inst r uct ions in a st ack-or ganized comput er
ar e implied mode inst r uct ions since t he oper ands ar e
implied t o be on t op of t he st ack.
I mmediat e mode.
The operand is specified in the instruction itself. In other
words, an immediate mode instruction has an operand
field r ather than an addr ess field. The operand field
contains the actual operand to be used in conjunction
with the operation specified in the instr uctions.
Regist er mode.
I n t his mode t he oper ands ar e in r egist er s, that r eside
wit hin t he CPU. The par t icular r egist er is select ed
fr om a r egist er field in t he inst r uct ion. A K bit field
can specify any one of 2k r egist er s.
Regist er indir ect mode.
I n this mode t he inst r uct ion specifies a r egist er in t he
CPU, whose cont ent gives t he addr ess of t he oper and
in memor y. The advant age of a r egist er indir ect mode
inst r uct ion is t hat t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion
uses fewer bit s t o select a r egist er t han would have
been r equir ed t o specify a memor y addr ess dir ect ly,
 6 Basics of Computers and Applications
Aut o I ncrement or Decrement mode.
This is similar t o r egist er indir ect mode except t hat
t he r egist er is incr ement ed or decr ement ed aft er or
befor e it s value is used t o access memor y. When t he
addr ess st or ed in t he r egist er r efer s t o a t able of dat a
in memor y, it is necessar y t o incr ement and decr ement
t he r egist er s aft er ever y access t o t he t able
D ir ect addressing mode.
I n t hi s mode t he effect i ve addr ess i s equal t o t he
addr ess par t of t he inst r uct ion. The oper and r esides
in memor y and it s addr ess is given dir ect ly by t he
addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion.
I ndir ect addr essing mode.
I n t his mode t he addr ess field of t he inst r uct ion gives
t he addr ess wher e t he effect ive addr ess is st or ed in
memor y.
Effect ive addr ess = addr ess par t of inst r uct ion
+ cont ent of CPU r egist er
I N PU T AN D OU TPU T SYSTEM
I nput /out put devices ar e t he means t hr ough which
t he M PU communicat es wit h t he out side wor ld. The
M PU accept s binar y dat a as input fr om devices such
as keyboar ds and A/D conver t er s and send dat a t o
out put devices such as L EDs or pr int er s. Ther e ar e
t wo differ ent met hods by which I /O devices can be
ident ified. One uses an 8 bit addr ess and t he ot her
uses a 16 bit addr ess.
PERI PH ERAL M APPED I /O.
I n this type of I /O, the MPU uses eight addr ess lines to
identify an input or an output device; t his is known as
per ipher al mapped I /O. The eight addr ess lines can
have 256 (28 combinat ions) addr esses; t hus the MPU
can identify 256 input devices and 256 output devices
with addresses ranging fr om 00H to FFH input and
output devices are differentiated by the contr ol signals.
The MPU uses the I /O Read Contr ol Signal for input
devices and the I /O Wr ite Contr ol Signal for output
devices. The entir e r ange of I /O addr esses fr om 00 to
FF is known as an I /O map, and individual addr esses
ar e r efer r ed t o as I /O devices addr esses 8 I /O por t
number s.
M E M ORY M APPE D I /O (I /O W I T H 16 BI T
ADDRESSES).
I /O is connect ed as if it is memor y r egist er. This is
known as memor y mapped I /O. The M PU uses t he
same cont r ol signal (M emor y Read or M emor y Wr it e)
an d i n st r u ct i on s as t h ose of m em or y. I n som e
micr opr ocessor such as mot or ola 6800, all I /O have
16 bit addr esses. I /Os and memor y shar e t he same
memor y map (64K). I n memor y mapped I /O, the MPU
follows the same steps as if it is accessing a memor y
r egist er.
I N PU T DEVI CES
These include a mouse, tr ack ball, space ball, joyst ick,
digit izer s, dials and but t on boxes. Some ot her input
devices used in par t icular applicat ions ar e dat a glove,
t ouch panels, image scanner s and voice syst ems.
1. K eyboar ds.
An alphanumer ic keyboar d on a gr aphics syst em
i s used pr i mar i l y as a devi ce for ent er i ng t ext
st r i ngs. The k eyboar d i s an effi ci ent devi ce for
input t ing such non gr aphics dat a as pict ur e labels
associated with graphics display. Keyboar ds can also
be pr ovided with featur e to facilitate entr y of scr een
coor dinat es, menu select or s or gr aphics funct ions.
2. M ouse.
A mouse is small hand held box used t o posit ion
t he scr een cur sor. Wheels or r oller s on t he but t on
of t he mouse can be used t o r ecor d t he amount
and dir ect ion of movement s. Anot her met hod for
det ect ing mouse mot ion is wit h an opt ical sensor.
For t hese syst ems, t he mouse i s moved over a
special mouse pad t hat has gr id of hor izont al and
v er t i cal l i n es. T h e opt i cal sen sor det ect s
movement s acr oss t he l i nes i n t he gr i d. Si nce
mouse can be picked up and put down at anot her
posit ion wit hout change in cur sor movement . I t is
used for making r elat ive changes in t he posit ion of
t he scr een cur sor. One, t wo or t hr ee but t ons ar e
usual l y i ncl uded on t he t op of t he mouse for
signalling t he execut ion of some oper at ion, such
as r ecor ding cur sor position or invoking a funct ion.
Most gener al pur pose graphics system now included
a mouse and keyboar d as major input devices.
3. Track Ball and Space Ball.
A t r ack ball is a ball t hat can be r ot at ed wit h t he
fi nger s or pal m of t he hand t o pr oduce scr een-
cur sor movement , pot ent iomet er s at t ached t o t he
ball measur e t he amount and dir ect ion of r ot at ion.
Tr ackballs are often mounted on keyboar ds or other
devices such as t he mouse.
While a track ball is two dimensional posting device,
a space ball pr ovides six degr ee of fr eedom. Unlike
t he t r ack ball, space ball does not act ually move.
St r ain gauges measur e t he amount of pr essur e
applied to t he spaceball to pr ovide input for spat ial
posit ioning and or ient at ion as t he ball is pushed or
pulled in var ious dir ect ions. Space balls ar e used
for t hr ee-di mensi onal posi t i oni ng and sel ect i on
oper at ions in vir t ual r ealit y syst ems, modelling,
animat ion, CAD, and ot her applicat ions.
4. Joyst i ck s.
A joyst ick consist s of a small, ver t ical lever called
st ick mount ed on a base t hat is used t o st eer and
scr een cur sor ar ound. M ost joyst icks select scr een
posi t i on wi t h act ual st i ck movem ent . Ot her s
r espond t o pr essur e on t he st ick. Some joyst icks
ar e mount ed on keyboar d, ot her s funct ion as st and
alone unit s. Pot ent iomet er mount ed at t he base of
joyst ick measur es t he amount of movement , and
spr ings r etur n the stick to the center position when
i t i s r el eased on e or m or e bu t t on s can be

pr ogr ammed t o act as input swi t ches t o si gnal
cer t ai n act ions once a scr een posi t i on has been
select ed.
5. Dat a Glove.
Dat a glove t hat can be used t o gr asp a “ vir t ual”
object . The glove is const r uct ed wit h a ser ies of
sensor s t hat det ect hand and fi nger mot i ons.
Elect r omagnet ic coupl ing bet ween t r ansmi t t ing
antennas and r eceiving antennas is used to pr ovide
infor mat ion about t he posit ion and or ient at ion of
the hand. The tr ansmitting and r eceiving antennas
can each be st r uct ur ed as a set of t hr ee mut ually
per pendicular coils, for ming a t hr ee dimensional
car t esian co-or dinat e syst em.
6. D igit izer s.
A com m on dev i ce f or dr aw i n g, pai n t i n g or
int er act ively select ing co-or dinat e posit ions on an
object is a digit izer. These devices can be used t o
i n pu t co-or di n at e v al u es i n ei t h er a t w o
dimensional or t hr ee dimensional space. Typically,
a digit izer is used t o scan over a dr awing or object
and t o input a set of discr et e co-or dinat e posit ions,
which can be joined wit h st r aight -line segment s t o
appr oximat e the cur ve or sur face shapes. One t ype
of digit izer is t he gr aphics t ablet , also r efer r ed t o
as a dat a t abl et wh i ch i s u sed t o i n pu t t wo
dimensional coor dinates by activating a hand cursor
or st yles at select ed posit ions on a flat sur face.
7. I mage Scanners.
Dr awing, gr aphs, color and black and whit e photos
or t ext can be st or ed for comput er pr ocessing wit h
an image scanner by passing an opt ical scanning
mechanism over t he infor mat ion t o be st or ed. The
gr adat ions of gr ay scale or color ar e t hen r ecor ded
and st or ed in an ar r ay. Once we have t he int er nal
r epr esen t at i on of a pi ct u r e, w e can appl y
t r ansfor mat ions t o r ot at e, scale or cr op the pict ur e
t o a par t i cul ar scr een ar ea. We can al so appl y
var ious image pr ocessing met hods t o modify t he
ar r ay r epr esent at ion of t he pict ur e. For scanned
t ext i nput , var i ous edi t i ng oper at i ons can be
per for med on st or ed document s. Some scanner s
ar e able t o scan eit her gr aphical r epr esent at ion or
t ext , and t hey come i n a var i et y of si zes and
capabilities.
8. Touch Panels.
Touch panel s al l ow di spl ayed object s or scr een
posit ions t o be select ed wit h t he t ouch of a finger.
A t ypi cal appl i cat i on of t ouch panels i s for t he
selection of pr ocessing options that ar e r epr esented
wit h gr aphical icons. Some syst ems, such as t he
plasma panels ar e designed wit h t ouch scr eens.
Ot her syst em can be adapt ed for t ouch input by
fit t ing a t r anspar ent device wit h a t ouch-sensing
mechanism over t he video monit or scr een. Touch
Basics of Computers and Applications 7
input can be r ecor ded using opt ical, elect r ical or
acoust ical met hods.
9. L ight Pens.
Light pen is pencil-shaped devices ar e used to select
scr een posit ions by detect ing the light coming fr om
point s on t he CRT scr een. They ar e sensit ive t o
t he shor t bur st of light emit t ed fr om t he phosphor
coat ing at t he inst ant t he elect r on beam st r ikes a
par t icular point . Ot her light sour ces, such as t he
back gr ound l i ght i n t he r oom, ar e usual l y not
det ect ed by a light pen.
PRI N T E RS.
Pr inter s pr oduce output by either impact or non-impact
methods. I mpact pr inter s pr ess for med char acter faces
against an inked r ibbon ont o t he paper. A line pr int er
is an example of impact device wit h t he t ype faces
mount ed on bands, chai ns, dr ums or wheels. Non-
i mpact pr int er s and pl ot t er s use l aser t echniques,
i nk j et spr ays, xer ogr aphi c pr ocesses as used i n
phot ocopyi ng machi ne, el ect r ost at i c met hods and
elect r ot her mal met hods t o get images on t o paper.
Char acter impact printers often have a dot matrix print
head containing a r ectangular ar r ay of pr otr uding wir e
pins, with the number of pens depending on the quality
of t he pr int er.
I n a l aser devi ce, l aser beam cr eat es a ch ar ge
di st r i but i on on a r ot at i n g dr um coat i ng wi t h a
phot oel ect r i c mat er i al , such as sel eni um. Toner i s
applied t o t he dr um and t hen t r ansfer r ed t o paper.
I nkjet met hods pr oduce out put by squir t ing i nk in
hor izont al r ows acr oss a r oll of paper wr apped on a
dr um. The electr ically char ged ink st r eam is deflected
by an elect r ic field t o pr oduce dot mat r ix pat t er ns. A
deskt op inkjet plot t er wit h r esolut ion of 360 dot s per
inch.
An elect r ost at ic device places a negat ive char ge on
t he paper, one complet e r ow at a t ime along t he lengt h
of t he paper. Then t he paper is exposed t o a t oner.
The t oner is posit ively char ged and so it is at t r act ed
t o t he negat ively char ged, ar eas, wher e it adher es t o
pr oduce the specified output . Elect r other mal met hods
use heat in a dot mat r ix pr int head t o out put pat t er ns
on heat sensi t i ve paper. We can get l i mi t ed col or
out put on an impact pr int er by using differ ent color ed
r ibbons.
Non impact devices use var ious techniques to combine
thr ee color pigments (cyan, magneta and yellow) to
pr oduce a r ange of color pat t er ns.
Par allel pr int er s use :
(a) RS-232C interface
(b) Cent r onics int er face
(c) H andshake mode
 8 Basics of Computers and Applications
STORAGE U N I T
I t consist s of main memor y and secondar y memor y.
M ain M emory :
1. A fl i p-fl op made of el ect r oni c semi conduct or
devices is used t o fabr icat e a memor y cell. These
memor y cel l s or gani zed as a Random Access
Memor y (RAM). Each cell has a capabilit y to stor e
one bit of infor mat ion. A main memor y or st or e
of a comput er is or ganized using a lar ge number
of cells. Each cell st or es a binar y digit .
2. A memor y cell, which does not loose the bit st or ed
i n i t when no power is suppl ied t o t he cell , i s
known as a non-volat ile cell.
3. A wor d is a gr oup of bit s, which ar e st or ed and
r etr ieved as a unit. A memor y system is or ganized
t o st or e a number of wor ds.
4. A Byt e consist s of 8 bit s. A wor d may st or e one or
mor e byt es.
5. The st or age capacit y of a memor y is t he number
of byt es it can st or e.
6. The addr ess of t he locat ion fr om wher e a wor d is
t o be r et r i eved or t o be st or ed i s ent er ed i n a
M emor y Addr ess Register (M AR).
7. The dat a r et r ieved fr om memor y or t o be st or ed
in memor y ar e placed in a M emor y Dat a Regist er
(MDR).
8. The t ime t aken t o wr it e a wor d is known as t he
Wr it e t ime.
9. The t ime t o r et r ieve i nfor mat i on i s cal led t he
Access t ime of t he memor y.
10. The t ime t aken t o access a wor d in a memor y is
independent of the addr ess of t he wor d and hence
it is know as a Random Access M emor y (RAM ).
 The main memor y used t o st or e pr ogr ams and
dat a in a comput er is a RAM .
11. A RAM may be fabricated with per manently stor ed
i nfor mat i on, whi ch cannot be er ased. Such a
memor y is called a Read Only M emor y (ROM ).
 For mor e specialized uses, a user can st or e his
won special funct ions or pr ogr ams in a ROM .
Such ROM 's ar e called Pr ogr ammable ROM
(PROM).
12. A ser ial access memor y is or ganized by ar r anging
memor y cells in a linear sequence.
 I nfor mat ion is r et r ieved or st or ed in such a
memor y by using a r ead/wr it e head.
 Dat a is pr esent ed ser ially for wr it ing and is
r et r ieved ser ially dur ing r ead.
Secondary / Auxiliary storage devices : M agnet ic
sur face r ecor ding devices used in comput er s as H ar d
disks, Floppy disks, CD-ROM s and M agnet ic t apes.
1. F loppy Disk Drive (F DD) : I n t hi s devi ce, t he
medium used t o r ecor d t he dat a is called as floppy
disk. I t is a flexible cir cular disk of diamet er 3.5
i nches made of pl ast i c coat ed wi t h a magnet i c
mat er ial. This is housed in a squar e plast ic jacket .
Dat a r ecor ded on a floppy disk is r ead and st or ed in
a comput er 's memor y by a device called a floppy
disk is r ead and st or ed in a comput er 's memor y by
a device called a floppy disk dr ive (FDD). A floppy
disk is inser t ed in a slot of t he FDD. Floppy Disks
wit h var ious capacit ies ar e as follow:
 51/4 dr ive- 360KB, 1.2MB (1 KB= 210 = 1024 bytes)
 31/2 dr ive- 1.44 M b, 2.88 M B (1M B= 220 byt es)
2. Compact Disk Drive (CDD) : CD-ROM (Compact
Disk Read Onl y M emor y) used a l aser beam t o
r ecor d and r ead dat a along spir al t r acks on a 51/4
di sk . A di sk can st or e ar ou n d 650 M B of
infor mat ion. CD-ROM s ar e nor mally used t o st or e
massive t ext dat a. Recent ly CD wr it er s have come
in the mar ket . Using a CD wr it er, lot of infor mation
can be wr it t en on CD-ROM and st or ed for fut ur e
r efer ence.
3. H ard Disk Drive (H DD) : Unlike a floppy disk
t hat is flexible and r emovable, t he har d disk used
in t he PC is per manent ly fixed. The dat a t r ansfer
r ate between the CPU and har d disk is much higher
as compar ed to the between the CPU and the floppy
disk dr ive. The CPU can use t he har d disk t o load
pr ogr ams and dat a as well as t o st or e dat a.
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF COM PU TERS
Comput er s come in sizes fr om t iny t o monst r ous, in
bot h appear ance and power. The size of a comput er
t hat a per son or an or ganizat ion needs depends on
t he comput ing r equir ement s.
Supercomputers : The might iest comput er s-and, of
cou r se, t h e m ost ex pen si v e-ar e k n ow n as
super comput er s. Super comput er s pr ocess billions of
inst r uct ions per second. One uses super comput er s for
t asks t hat r equir e mammoth dat a manipulation, such
as wor l dwi de weat h er f or ecast i ng and weapons
r esear ch.
M ainframes : I n t he jar gon of t he comput er t r ade,
lar ge comput er s ar e called mainfr ames. M ainfr ames
ar e capable of pr ocessing dat a at ver y high speeds-
millions of inst r uct ions per second-and have access t o
billions of char act er s of dat a. Their pr incipal use of it
is for pr ocessing vast amount s of dat a quickly, some
of t h e obvi ou s cu st om er s ar e ban k s, i n su r an ce
companies, and manufact ur er s.
Personal Computers : Per sonal comput er s ar e oft en
called PCs. A PC usually comes wit h a tower that holds
the main cir cuit boar ds and disk dr ives of the computer,

and a collect ion of per ipher als, such as a keyboar d,
mouse, and moni t or. The t er m "PC" oft en means
machines t hat ar e compat ible t o I BM ot her t han a
Macint osh.
Personal Computers (PC) and M AC : A PC is based
on a mi cr opr ocessor or i gi nal l y made by t he I nt el
Company (I ntel's Pentium) with other companies such
as AM D. The comput er s made by M acint oshes which
uses, Power PC pr ocessor, made by M ot or ol a ar e
r efer r ed as M ac. Also, t he oper at ing syst em soft war e
t hat r uns t hese t wo kinds of comput er s is differ ent .
PCs usual l y use an Oper at i ng Syst em made by
M icr osoft , i.e., Windows. M acint oshes use oper at ing
syst em, called M ac OS, made by Apple.
N ot ebook Comput ers : A comput er t hat fi t s i n a
br i efcase?. N ot ebook compu t er s, al so k nown as
L apt op comput er s, ar e por t abl e and popul ar wit h
tr aveler s who need a comput er that can go with them.
M ost n ot ebook s accept di sk et t es or n et w or k
connect i ons, so i t i s easy t o move dat a fr om one
comput er t o anot her.
I N TERN ET
The I nt ernet i s a global syst em of int er connect ed
comput er net wor ks t hat use t he st andar d I nt er net
Pr ot ocol Sui t e (TCP/I P) t o ser ve bi l l i ons of user s
wor ldwide. I t is a net wor k of net wor ks t hat consist s
of millions of pr ivat e, public, academic, business, and
gover nment net wor ks, of local t o global scope, t hat
ar e li nked by a br oad ar r ay of elect r onic, wir eless
and opt ical net wor king t echnologies. The I nt er net
car r ies a vast r ange of infor mat ion r esour ces and
ser v i ces, su ch as t h e i n t er -l i n k ed h y per t ex t
document s of t he Wor ld Wide Web (WWW) and t he
infr ast r uct ur e t o suppor t elect r onic mail.
N ET WORKS
A computer network, oft en simply r efer r ed t o as a
net wor k , i s a col l ect i on of comput er s and devi ces
i nt er connect ed by communi cat i ons channel s t hat
faci l i t at e communi cat i ons and al l ows shar i ng of
r esour ces and i nfor mat i on among i nt er connect ed
devices. Computer networking or Data communi-
cat ions (D at acom) i s t he engi neer i ng di sci pl i ne
concer ned wit h t he comput er net wor ks.
The t hr ee t ypes of net wor ks ar e:
(i ) t he I nt er net
(ii ) t he int r anet
(iii ) t he ext r anet .
Examples of differ ent net wor k met hods ar e:
1. Local ar ea networ k (LAN), which is usually a small
net wor k const r ained t o a small geogr aphic ar ea.
Basics of Computers and Applications 9
An exampl e of a L A N woul d be a comput er
net wor k wit hin a building.
2. M et r opolit an ar ea net wor k (M AN), which is used
for medi um si ze ar ea. exampl es for a cit y or a
st at e.
3. Wide ar ea net wor k (WAN) t hat is usually a lar ger
net wor k t hat cover s a lar ge geogr aphic ar ea.
4. Wir eless L ANs and WANs (WL AN & WWAN) ar e
t he wir eless equivalent of t he L AN and WAN.
I P ADDRESS
An I nt ernet Prot ocol addr ess (I P addr ess) i s a
n u m er i cal l abel assi gn ed t o each dev i ce (e.g.,
comput er, pr i n t er ) par t i ci pat i ng i n a comput er
n et w or k t h at u ses t h e I n t er n et Pr ot ocol f or
communicat ion.[1] An I P addr ess ser ves t wo pr incipal
funct ions: host or networ k inter face identification and
locat ion addr essing. I t s r ole has been char act er ized
as follows: “ A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.
I mport ant Devices U sed in N et work
1. M odem : A modem (modulat or -demodulat or ) is a
device t hat modulat es an analog car r ier signal t o
encode digit al infor mat ion, and also demodulat es
such a car r ier signal t o decode t he t r ansmit t ed
infor mat ion. The goal is t o pr oduce a signal t hat
can be tr ansmitted easily and decoded to repr oduce
the or iginal digit al data. M odems can be used over
any means of t r ansmit t ing analog signals, fr om
light emit t ing diodes t o r adio.
2. Router : A router is a device t hat for war ds dat a
pack et s acr oss compu t er n et wor k s. Rou t er s
per for m t he dat a “ t r affic dir ect ing” funct ions on
t he I nt er net . A r out er is connect ed t o t wo or mor e
dat a lines fr om di ffer ent net wor ks. When dat a
comes in on one of t he lines, t he r out er r eads t he
addr ess infor mat ion in t he packet t o det er mine
it s ult imat e dest inat ion.
3. Bridge : A net work bridge connect s mul t i pl e
net wor k segment s. Br idging i s a for war di ng
t echni que used i n pack et -swi t ched comput er
net wor k s. U nl i k e r out i ng, br i dgi ng mak es no
assumptions about where in a networ k a par ticular
addr ess is locat ed. I nst ead, it depends on flooding
and examinat ion of sour ce addr esses in r eceived
packet header s t o locat e unknown devices. Once
a device has been locat ed, it s locat ion is r ecor ded
in a t able wher e t he M AC addr ess is st or ed so as
t o pr eclude t he need for fur t her br oadcast ing.
4. H ub : hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted
pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single segment. The device is
a for m of multiport repeater.
 10 Basics of Computers and Applications
5. Repeater : A repeater is an elect r onic device t hat
r eceives a signal and r et r ansmit s it at a higher
level and/or higher power, or ont o t he ot her side
of an obst r uct i on, so t hat t he si gnal can cover
longer dist ances.
6. Server : A ser ver comput er i s a comput er, or
ser ies of comput er s, t hat link ot her comput er s or
el ect r oni c devi ces t oget her. They oft en pr ovi de
essent i al ser vi ces acr oss a net wor k , ei t her t o
private user s inside a lar ge or ganization or to public
users via the inter net. For example, when you enter
a quer y in a sear ch engine, t he quer y is sent fr om
your computer over t he int er net to t he ser ver s t hat
st or e all t he r elevant web pages. The r esult s ar e
sent back by t he ser ver t o your comput er.
EM AI L
E l ect r on i c m ai l , com m on l y cal l ed em a i l or
e-mail, is a met hod of exchanging digit al messages
fr om an aut hor t o one or mor e r ecipi ent s. M oder n
email oper at es acr oss t he I nt er net or ot her comput er
net wor ks. Some ear ly email syst ems r equir ed t hat
t he aut hor and t he r ecipient bot h be online at t he
same t ime, a la i nst ant messaging. Today’s email
syst ems ar e based on a st or e-and-for war d model .
Email ser ver s accept , for war d, del iver and st or e
messages. Neit her t he user s nor t heir comput er s ar e
r equi r ed t o be onl i ne si mul t aneousl y; t hey need
connect only br iefly, t ypically t o an email ser ver, for
as long as it t akes t o send or r eceive messages.
EM AI L ADDREES
An email address ident ifies an email box t o which
email messages ar e deliver ed. An example for mat of
an email addr ess is lewis @ example .com which is
r ead as lewis at example dot net . I t has two par t s. The
par t befor e t he @sign is t he local-par t of t he addr ess,
oft en t he user name of t he r ecipient lewis and the par t
aft er t he @ sign is a domain name i.e. example.com
t o which t he email message will be sent .
M S OFFI CE
M icrosoft Office is a proprietary commercial office suite
of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services
for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X oper ating
systems, intr oduced by Micr osoft in 1989. I nitially a
marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Micr osoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.
W ORD
Micr osoft Wor d is a wor d pr ocessor and was pr eviously
consi der ed t o be t he mai n pr ogr am i n Offi ce. I t s
pr opr i et ar y DOC for mat i s consi der ed a de fact o
standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-
based, Micr osoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX
which has been st andar dized by Ecma I nt er nat ional
as Office Open XM L and it s SP2 updat e will suppor t
ODF and PDF. Wor d is also available in some edit ions
of M icr osoft Wor ks. I t is available for t he Windows
and M ac platfor ms. The fir st ver sion of Wor d, r eleased
in t he aut umn of 1983, was for t he M S-DOS oper at ing
system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse
t o a br oad populat ion. Wor d 1.0 could be pur chased
wit h a bundled mouse, t hough none was r equir ed.
Following t he pr ecedent s of L isaWr it e and M acWr it e,
Wor d for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSI WYG
feat ur es int o it s package. Wor d for M ac was r eleased
in 1985. Wor d for M ac was t he fir st gr aphical ver sion
of M icr osoft Wor d. Despit e it s bugginess, it became
one of t he most popular M ac applicat ions.
EXCEL
M i cr osoft Excel i s a spr eadsheet pr ogr am whi ch
or iginally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but
eventually outsold it . I t is available for the Windows
and Mac platfor ms. Micr osoft r eleased the fir st ver sion
of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and t he fir st Windows
ver sion (number ed 2.05 to line up with t he Mac and
bu n dl ed w i t h a st an dal on e Wi n dow s r u n -t i m e
envir onment) in November 1987.
OU TLOOK
M icr osoft Outlook (not t o be confused with Out look
Expr ess) is a per sonal infor mation manager and e-mail
communication softwar e. The replacement for Windows
Messaging, Micr osoft M ail and Schedule+ star ting in
Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, t ask
manager and addr ess book.
On t he M ac, M i cr osoft offer ed sever al ver si ons of
Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft
Exchange Ser ver. I n Offi ce 2001, i t i nt r oduced an
alter nat ive application with a slightly differ ent featur e
set called Micr osoft Entour age. I t reintr oduced Outlook
in Office 2011, r eplacing Entour age.
POWE RPOI N T
M i cr osof t Power Poi n t i s a popu l ar pr esent at i on
pr ogr am for Windows and M ac. I t is used t o cr eat e
slideshows, composed of t ext , gr aphics, movies and
ot her object s, which can be displayed on-scr een and
navigat ed t hr ough by t he pr esent er or pr int ed out on
t r anspar encies or slides.
 Basics of Computers and Applications 11

PRACTI CE EXERCI SE
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S 8. I n a gener ic micr opr ocessor, inst r uct ion cycle time
1. Which of t he following is t he fast est ? is

(a) CPU (a) shor t er t han machine cycle t ime

(b) magnet ic t apes and disks (b) lar ger t han machine cycle t ime

(c) video t er minal (c) exact ly double t he machine cycle t ime

(d) sensor s, mechanical cont r oller s (d) exact ly t he same as t he machine cycle t ime

2. The input unit of a comput er 9. Pr ogr am St at us Wor d (PSW) cont ai ns var i ous
(differ ent) st atus of
(a) feeds dat a t o t he CPU or memor y
(a) CPU
(b) r et r ieves dat a fr om CPU
(b) ALU
(c) dir ect s all ot her unit s
(c) pr ogr am
(d) all of t hese
(d) r egist er s
3. Offline device is
10. When an int er r upt occur s, CPU saves t he value
(a) a device which is not connect ed t o CPU
of— — — in a st ack,
(b) a device which is connect ed t o CPU
(a) accumulator
(c) a dir ect access st or age device
(b) pr ogr am st at us wor d (PSW) only
(d) an I /O device
(c) I nstr uct ion Addr ess Counter (I AC)only
4. Which of t he following is a set of gener al pur pose
(d) bot h PWS and I AC
int er nal r egist er s ?
11. Bus Ar bit r at ion is
(a) Stack
(a) clear ing t he bus
(b) Scratchpad
(b) lat ching infor mat ion on t he bus
(c) Addr ess r egist er
(c) deciding t he cont r oller of t he bus
(d) St at us r egist er
(d) cont r olling t he bus
5. A single bus st r uct ur e is pr imar ily found in
12. Cont r ol M emor y Addr ess Regist er is pr esent in
(a) main fr ames
(a) ALU
(b) super comput er s
(b) I nst r uct ion Regist er Unit
(c) high per for mance machines
(c) Cont r ol Unit
(d) mini-and micr o-comput er s
(d) Disk Cont r ol I nt er face Unit
6. Which of t he following r egist er s is used t o keep
t r ack of addr ess of t he memor y locat ion wher e 13. Which of t he fol lowi ng is not one of t he t hr ee
t he next inst r uct ion is locat ed ? pr i mar y funct i ons t hat on-l i ne di r ect access
syst em can ser ve?
(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er
(a) inquir y
(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er
(b) backup
(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er
(c) update
(d) Pr ogr am Count er
(d) pr ogr amming
7. Which of t he following r egist er s is loaded wit h
t he cont ent s of t he memor y locat ion point ed by 14. Which of the following is not tr ue of punched cards
t he PC ? as dat a ent r y media?

(a) M emor y Addr ess Regist er (a) They can be used as t ur n ar ound document s

(b) M emor y Dat a Regist er (b) They ar e inexpensive

(c) I nst r uct ion Regist er (c) I nput is slow compar ed wit h ot her media

(c) Pr ogr am count er (d) They ar e easily damaged

12 Basics of Computers and Applications

15. M agnet ic t ape can ser ve as 7. ASCI I coding all ocat ed bi nar y codes t o Engli sh
(a) input media al phabet s and symbols for comput er use. M or e
r ecent ly a new st andar d has been adopt ed which
(b) out put media
al locat es code t o almost all t he languages of t he
(c) secondar y st or age media wor l d and also t o symbols cover i ng mor e t han a
(d) all of t hese lakh char act er s. The new st andar d is call ed
LEVEL-1 (a) CCS
1. I n t he cont ext of I nfor mat ion Technology, OCR (b) Unicode
means (c) Standar d CCS code
(a) Opt ical Char act er Recognit i on
(d) Univer sal CCS code
(b) Oct agonal Cycl ic Rechar ge
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) Oct adecimal Cycli c Regener at i on
8. For using passwor ds on t he I nt er net a soft war e
(d) Opt ical Char act er Regener at i on
is used so t hat t he passwor d is not int er cept ed
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
easi ly. I t is call ed

2. I n Boolean algebr a 1  1  0  0 = ? (a) Coding (b) Malwar e
(c) Virus (d) Encr ypt ion
(a) 0 (b) 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(c) 2 (d) – 1
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
9. A soft war e, codi ng of which is available fr eely on
I nt er net and i s open for user s for fur t her use
3. Which of t he fol lowi ngis not an I /O devi ce of t he
an d i m pr ov em en t an d w h i ch i s gen er al l y
comput er ?
developed in a coll abor at i ve manner is call ed
(a) Keyboar d (b) Joy st i ck
(a) open sour ce soft war e
(c) ALU (d) Pr int er
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(b) unlicensed soft war e
4. W h at i s f l oat i n g poi n t w i t h r ef er en ce t o (c) fr ee soft war e
comput er s? (d) communi t y soft war e
(a) I t i s a soft war e subr out i ne ar ound whi ch [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
ot her subr out i nes ar e bui lt 10. Wh i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g ar e m ach i n e l ev el
(b) I t i s a r epr esent at i on of r eal number s t o languages?
facilit at e comput ing
(a) C++ (b) Java
(c) I t i s t h e m ai n al gebr ai c f or m u l a of t h e
(c) Python (d) None of t hese
soft war e
(d) I t i s t h e vol t age poi n t gi v en t o var i ou s [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]

oper at i ng unit s of t he comput er 11. Which of t he fol lowing st at ement s is i ncor r ect ?
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] (a) M i cr osoft windows is GUI
5. A syst em of di gi t al r u l es for exch an ge and (b) L i nux is GUI
pr ocessi ng of dat a bet ween var i ous devi ces i s
(c) M or e t han 5000 k B dat a can be st or ed in a
called
DVD
(a) soft war e pr ogr amme
(d) A 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e 2 mi ll ion fil es
(b) algor it hm
each of size 1 M B
(c) pr ot ocol
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(d) infor mat ion pr ocessing
12. The t er ms AL U, CPU, I /O devi ces per t ai n t o
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) comput er s
6. A t heor et ical comput er wi t h infini t e t ype and
m em or y, u sed i n an al y si s of pr obl em s of (b) envi r onment al engineer i ng
comput at i on, is call ed (c) di esel engi ne
(a) Tape calculat or (b) Babbage machine (d) en gi n eer i n g dr aw i n g an d or t h ogon al
(c) Tur i ng machi ne (d) Theor et ical machi ne pr oject i ons
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ] [RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
 Basics of Computers and Applications 13
13. I n a comput ing devi ce 'M H z' is ment i oned in t he 5. Who wr ot e/invent ed t he L inux soft war e?
specifi cat ions. I t r efer s t o (a) M i cr osoft (b) Apple I NC
(a) si ze of memor y (c) IBM (d) None of t hese
(b) speed of comput at i on [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]

(c) cl ock speed 6. A t echnique of anonymous communicat i on over

a computer networ k using encr yption of messages
(d) none of t he above
and spl it t ing bet ween t he nodes, i s cal led-
[RRB JE 2014 GREEN SH I FT ]
(a) Spice r out i ng
14. The value of binary 1111 is :
(b) Onion r out i ng
(a) 23 (b) 23 – l (c) Cabbage r out ing
(c) 24 (d) 24 – l (d) Flower r out i ng
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
15. The term 'Operating System' means : 7. Pr ocessing speed of comput er i s measur ed i n-
(a) A set of programmes which controls computer (a) M I PS(M i lli on I nst r uct i on Per Second)
working (b) M H z of clock
(b) The way a computer operator works (c) Bot h (a) and (b)
(c) Conversion of high level language into (d) None of t hese [RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SHIFT]
machine level language 8. To close a pr esent at ion and quit Power Point , one
(d) None of these must click t he close but t on on t he :
[RRB JE 2014 RED SH I FT ] (a) menu bar (b) t i t le bar
LEVEL-2 (c) st andar d t ool bar (d) common t ask s t oolbar
1. Which of t hese i s N OT an Oper at ing Syst em? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

(a) Android (b) iOS 9. Expr ession + + i is equi valent in ‘C’ t o :

(c) Linux (d) Power poi nt (a) i = i + l (b) i = i + 2
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT] (c) i = 2i (d) None of t hese
2. A soft war e user i nt er face feat ur e t hat allows t he [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
user t o view somet hing ver y si mi lar t o t he end 10. W h i ch of t h e f ol l ow i n g r at i on al r el at i on
r esul t whi l e t he document i s bei ng cr eat ed i s oper at ions in 'C means "not equal t o" ?
called- (a) # (b) ==
(a) For mat cr eat or (b) For mat fideli t y
(c) ! = (d) < =
(c) WYSI WYG (d) WYGI WYS [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
11. M i cr osoft Windows is a/an :
3. I n a comput er syst em t her e ar e soft war es and
(a) Wor d-pr ocessing pr ogr am
l anguages at var i ous l evel s, l i k e H i gh l evel
L an gu age (H L ), M ach i n e L an gu age (M L ), (b) Dat abase pr ogr am
Compiler (C). Which of the following is the cor r ect (c) Oper at ing syst em
indi cat ive r epr esent at i on fr om user (U) t o t he (d) Gr aphics pr ogr am
comput er (COM P)? [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(a) U  H L  C  M L  Comp 12. __________wi ll t r ansl at e t he compl et e pr ogr am
(b) U  C  M L  H L  Comp at once fr om a H i gh L evel L anguage t o t he
M achine L anguage.
(c) U  C  H L  M L  Comp
(a) Compiler (b) Joy st i ck
(d) U  M L  H L  C  Comp
(c) Por t s (d) L i ght pen
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
4. Which of t hese devi ces per for ms t he funct ion of 13. The wor d funct ion t hat cor r ect s t ext as we t ype
bot h i n pu t dev i ce an d ou t pu t dev i ce f or a
is r efer r ed t o as :
comput er ?
(a) Aut o inser t (b) Aut o cor r ect
(a) Joy St i ck (b) M ouse
(c) Aut o summar i ze (d) Tr ack changes
(c) Modem (d) Pr int er
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
[RRB SSE 2014 YELLOW SH I FT]
14 Basics of Computers and Applications
14. Pr imar y Stor age, in computer t er minology, r efer s 15. What does an elect r onic spr eadsheet consist of ?
to : (a) Rows (b) Columns
(a) H ar d Disc Dr i ve (c) Cells (d) Al l of t he above
(b) Random Access M emor y (RAM ) [RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]
(c) Read Only M emor y (ROM )
(d) T he st or age devi ce wher e t h e oper at i n g
syst em is st or ed
[RRB SSE 2014 RED SH I FT]

AN SWERS
OBJECTI VE TYPE QU ESTI ON S
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d)

LEVEL-1
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a)

LEVEL-2
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)

11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d)

EXPLAN ATI ON S

LEVEL-1 and r euse of t r ansl at ed dat a et c. ver y easy. Al so

it r epr esent s each char act er wi t h 16 bit s.
1. Opt i cal Char act er Reader i s ful l for m of OCR,
which can r ead a char acter and conver t its bitmap 8. To pr ot ect passwor ds et c. Encr ypt i on i s used
image t o equival ent ASCI I codes. which i s coding each dat a point i n a par t icul ar
pat t er n whi ch is not easy t o decode.
2. I t i s equivalent t o 0.1 = 0
9. Open sour ce soft war es l i k e U ni x have t hei r
3. Ar it hmet i c L ogical Unit i s not an I nput devi ce
sour ce code fr eely avai lable and t hese ar e devel-
whil e all t he ot her t hr ee ar e.
oped t hr ough collabor at ion of coder s fr om acr oss
4. Fl oat i ng point number s ar e used i n comput er s
t he wor ld. M any devel oper s as a pr inci ple use
t o r epr esent r eal number s. Si nce r eal number s
only open sour ce soft war es.
can not be accur at ely r epr esent ed i n comput er s
10. Al l t he l anguages ment ioned her e ar e high l evel
t hr ough binar y number s.
languages, in which i t i s easier t o wr it e code.
5. Pr ot ocols ar e r ules developed for exchanging and
11. 1 TB fl ash dr i ve can st or e appr oximat ely 1 mi l-
pr ocessing of dat a bet ween var i ous devices. Ex-
li on file sizes each of 1 M B.
ampl es incl ude H TTP, I P, FTTP et c.
12. Al l t hese devi ces ar e r elat ed t o comput er s. CPU
6. Tur i ng machi ne i s a mat hemat i cal model of a
is Cent r al Pr ocessi ng Unit , whi le AL U is Ar it h-
hypot het i cal comput ing machi ne which can use
met i c and L ogi cal uni t , whil e I /O is I nput Out -
a pr edefi ned set of r ules t o det er mi ne a r esult
put devi ces.
fr om a set of input var iables.
13. M H z is used t o measur e t he number of oper a-
7. The new st andar d which all ocat es codes t o al-
t i ons t hat can be done by t he CPU i n 1 second.
most al l languages and symbol s, t ot ali ng mor e
So i t r efer s t o clock speed.
t han a lakh i s cal led U ni code. I t mak es t r ansfer

14. 1111 of binar y i s 24 – 1. I t i s 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
15. An oper at ing system (OS) is syst em soft war e that
manages comput er har dwar e and soft war e r e-
sour ces and pr ovides common ser vices for com-
put er pr ogr ams.
LEVEL-2
1.Power point is not an oper at ing syst em but an appli-
cat ion t o make pr esent at ion slides.
2. When user s can see somet hing ver y similar t o
end r esult while document cr eat ion, it is called
WYSI WYG.
3. I t is t he cor r ect r epr esent at ion wher e user gives
input in high level language, it is t hen compiled
an d becom es m ach i n e l an gu age w h i ch i s
comput ed and t he out put is similar ly pr ovided t o
t he user.
4. The modem is an input and an out put device. I t
is used for sending and r eceiving infor mation and
dat a over t elephone lines.
5. L I NUX soft war e was invent ed by L inus Tor valds
while st udying comput er science at Univer sity of
H elsinki in 1991.
7. Pr ocessing speed is measur ed in MH z. Nowadays
i t i s even measur ed i n GH z i .e. Gi ga H er t z.
Basically it r epr esent s how many oper at ions can
be pr ocessed in 1 second.
Basics of Computers and Applications 15
8. To close applications such as Powerpoint, MS-word
et c. one must click t he close but t on on t he t it le
bar which is at t he t op r ight hand cor ner.
9. ++I in C means i = i + 2. This was a way developed
t o wr it e smaller lines in code.
10. != means not equal t o in C.
11. M icr osoft Windows is t he wor ld's most popular
commer cial oper at ing syst em for PCs.
12. Com pi l er s ar e u sed t o t r an sl at e en t i r e
pr ogr am s f r om H i gh l ev el l an gu age t o
m ach i n e l an gu age, so t h at com pu t er can
under st and and execut e it .
13. When we t ype t ext , Aut o cor r ect feat ur e cor r ect s
t he wor d's spelling or any ot her por t ion of t he
t ext .
14. Pr imar y st or age, also known as main st or age or
memor y, is t he ar ea in a comput er in which dat a
i s st or ed for qui ck access by t he comput er 's
pr ocessor. The t er ms r andom access memor y
(RAM ) and memor y ar e oft en used as synonyms
for pr imar y or main st or age.
15. An elect r onic spr eadsheet like M S-Excel consist s
of Cells which are ar r anged in Rows and Columns.
So all ar e pr esent .