786S PDF

MODELING OF HIGH STRENGTH AND WEAR RESISTANCE ALUMINUM
ALLOY BASED CASTING COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A thesis submitted by
Jokhio Muhammad Hayat
In fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In
Manufacturing Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology
Jamshoro, Pakistan
March 2010
MODELING OF HIGH STRENGTH AND WEAR RESISTANCE ALUMINUM
ALLOY BASED CASTING COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A thesis submitted by
Jokhio Muhammad Hayat
In fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In
Manufacturing Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology
Jamshoro, Pakistan
March 2010
MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
JAMSHORO
This thesis written by Jokhio Muhammad Hayat under the direction of his supervisors,
and approved by all the members of the thesis committee, has been presented to and
accepted by the Dean Faculty of Engineering, in fulfillment of the requirement of the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Manufacturing Engineering.
__________ _____________ _______________ _______________

Supervisor Co-supervisors Internal Examiner External Examiner
____________________ _________________________
(Director Post Graduate Studies) (Dean Faculty of Engineering)
Dated:__________________
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Almighty Allah who gave me courage and enthusiasm to complete
this research work. I am deeply indebted to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ibrahim
Panhwar and Prof. Dr. Mukhtiar Ali Unar for their patient advice, guidance, valuable
suggestions and encouragement throughout the research work. I am highly thankful to the
competent authority of Mehran University and Directorate of Post Graduate Studies,
especially Prof. Dr. G.B. Khaskali for providing the necessary funding for this project
and allowing me the study leave for carrying out such huge experimental work including
the material development and characterizations for data generation for modeling. I am
also thankful to the PGS directorate staff in general and Mr. Mehboob Abassi in
particular for their support. I would like to offer my sincere appreciation to Prof.
Nazimuddin Shaikh Chairman Mechanical Engineering and Mr. Sarwar Siddiqi who had
provided foundry and workshop facility for initial alloy development and sample
preparation. Thanks are also extended to the Chairman Metallurgy, Chairman Mining, in
charge high-tech lab, including Dr. M.M Baloch and Dr. M.I.Abro for their co-operation
in conducting experimental work on alloy developments and characterizations using
SEM. I would like to offer my sincere appreciation to the former Principle Dawood
College of Engineering & Technology Karachi, Prof. Dr. Naseem who had provided Lab
facilities such as UTM, for tensile test, Spectrometer for chemical analysis of samples.
I must thank to Mr. Sámi Memon Manager Central Testing laboratories of
Pakistan steel Mills, to provide facilities for metallographic studies. I must acknowledge
to my family members who have sacrificed their evenings throughout my research work.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Description Page
No
Title page (i)
Certificate page (ii)
Acknowledgements (iii)
Table of contents (iv)
Notations (viii)
Abbreviations (ix)
List of Tables (x)
List of Figures (xiii)
Abstract (xix)
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Theoretical Background 1
1.2 Scope of the Study 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 7
1.4 Structure of the Thesis 8
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Aluminium Métal Matrix Composites (AMMCS) 10
2.2.1 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites 15

2.2.2 Processing of Aluminum Particulate Composites 16
iv
2.2.3 Liquid Phase Processing 17
2.2.4 Stir Casting: 17
2.3 Properties of Stir Casting of Aluminum Composites 19
2.3.1 Strength 21
2.3.2 Ductility 29
2.3.3 Hardness 31
2.3.4 Abrasive Wear Resistance 33
2.4 Factors Affecting the Strength and Abrasive Wear 37
2.4.1 Effect of Matrix Composition 37

2.4.2 Effect of Heat Treatment 40
2.4.3 Effect of AL2O3 Particles 45
2.4.4 Effect of Microstructure 48
2.4.5 Effect of Interfacing (Wetting) and Porosity 51
2.5 Modeling 53
2.5.1 Introduction 53
2.5.2 Artificial Neural Network Modeling 54
2.5.2.1 Background of Artificial Neural Network 55

2.5.2.2 Multilayer Feedforward Neural Network 60
2.5.2.3 Multilayer Perceptron Network 61
2.5.2.4 Back Propagation Neural Network Algorithm 62
2.6 Neural Network in Materials Science and Engineering 63
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND MODELING

METHODOLOGY 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Design and Fabrication of Experimental Rig 65
3.3 Alloys Development Strategy 66
3.3.1 Development and Casting of Composites Samples 68
3.4 Samples Preparation 69
3.5 Precipitation Treatment Processes 70
v
3.6 Tensile Tests 70
3.7 Chemical Analysis 71
3.8 Hardness Tests 72
3.9 Abrasive Wear Tests 73
3.10 Measurement of Density and Porosity 74
3.11 Metallography 75
3.12 Modeling Methodology 75
3.12.1 Architecture of the Model 76

3.12.2 Training of Neural Network Model 77
3.12.3 Validation of Model 78
3.12.4 Modeling (Optimization) of Composition for High 79
Strength and Wear
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 80
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 Chemical Composition 80
4.3 Tensile Strength and Ductility (Elongation) 89
4.3.1 Comparison of the Strength and Ductility (Elongation) 97
4.4 Hardness 98
4.5 Abrasive wear Resistance 101
4.6 Density and Porosity 105
4.7 Microstructure 111
vi
4.8 Modeling and Training 118
4.8.1 Validation 123

4.8.2 Optimization For High Strength and Wear 127
4.8.3 Modeling for High Strength & Wear Resistance 130
Aluminum Alloy Based Casting Composites
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE 141

WORK
5.1 Material Development 141
5.2 Modeling 143
5.3 Suggestions for Future Work 145
REFERENCES 146
APPENDIX FOR TABLES AND FIGURES 156
Appendix-A 156
Appendix-B 159
Appendix-C 161
Appendix-D 176
Appendix-E 179
Appendix-F 181
Appendix-G 184
Appendix-H 187
Appendix- I 191
vii
LIST OF NOTATIONS
1
= Logistic sigmoid function
1 + e−x
σ cy & σ m = Yield strength of composite and matrix material
σ0 = Friction of crystal lattice
σg = Y.S of extruded composite contributed by grain size,
(f) = Activation function
∑WiXi = Summations of inputs and weights
Yi = a tanh b(Ui) = Hyperbolic tangent function
∆ wij = Change in the weight between unit i and unit j at time (t).
∆σ = Change in stress
∆ε = Change in strain
µm = Micron
0
C = Degree centigrade
A0 = Original area
B = Bias
b = Burger vector
cmr = Super script representing composite, matrix and reinforcements
d = Average size of Al2O3 particles
dp = Desired or actual output
E = Modulus of Elasticity
Ec = Modulus of elasticity of cast aluminum particulate composite
f = Volume fraction of oxide.
F max = Load
G = Shear modulus,
K = Constant
Op = Predicted output for the pth pattern.
S = Aspect ratio
t = Average size of the grains.
V = Volume fraction
Voxide = Volume fraction of Al2O3 particles
wij = Weight form the input unit Xi to the hidden unit yj.
E oxide = Elastic modulus of Al2O3
Wi = Input weights
Xi = Input
Y = Output
α = Momentum factor,
δ = Sigma stress
ε = Strain
η = Learning value
σp = Yield strength
viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Al = Aluminum
Al2O3 = Aluminum Oxide
AMCs =Aluminum matrix composites
AMCs =Aluminum matrix composites
AMMCC =Aluminum metal matrix cast composites
ANN =Artificial neural network
ASTM =Americans society of testing materials
CFAMCs = Continuous fibre-reinforced
C-Mn = Carbon Manganese
Cu-Mg-Zn = Copper, Magnesium and Zinc
DCET = Dawood College of Engineering & Technology
Fe = Iron
gm = Grams
GPa = Gaga Pascal
HT = Heat treated
HV = Hardness Vickers
Kg = Kilogram
KN = Kilo Newton
Li = Lithium
LM = Light metal
MFAMCs = Mono filament-reinforced
MLP = Multilayer perceptron
MMC = Metal matrix composites
MPa = Mega Pascal
MUET = Mehran University of Engineering & Technology
N = Newton
PAMCs = Particulates-reinforced
PM = Powder metallurgy
rpm = Revolutions per minutes
SFAMCs = Wisker-or short fibre-reinforced AMCs
Si = Silicon
SiC = Silicon carbide
SiCp = Silicon carbide particles
T = Temper
T.S = Tensile strength
Ti, = Titanium
TiB2 = Titanium boride
TTT = Time temperature transformation diagrams
Y.S = Yield strength
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Theoretically selected alloy compositions in gm for development of alloys 67

Table 3.2 Parameters of tensile testing machine. 71
Table 3.3 Average compositions used for calculation of theoretical density of alloy 74
Table.3.4 Theoretical density of metals in gm/cm3 74
Table 4.1 Theoretical composition & actual average composition in weight percent 88
Table 4.2 Tensile test results of alloy group 1 93
Table 4.8 Comparison of tensile strength and elongation results 97
Table 4.9 Comparison of properties of as cast as heat treated composite 124
Table 4.10Table used for plotting actual vs optimized properties 128
Table A 1 Chemical analysis of samples alloy 1 156
Table A.2 Chemical analysis of samples alloy 2 156
Table B.1 Aluminum oxide particle size analysis report 159
Table D.1 Hardness of samples alloy 1 176
Table E.1 Abrasive wear test of samples alloy 1 179
Table E.6 Abrasive wear test of alloy 6 180
Table F.1 Density and porosity of as cast samples alloy1-6 181
Table.F.2 Density and porosity of as heat treated alloys used for validation 181
Table F.3 Density and porosity of as heat treated samples alloy 1-6 182
Table F.4 Density and porosity of as heat treated alloys used for validation 183
Table G.1As cast alloys 184
Table G.2 Heat treated Alloys 185
Table G.3 Data used for validation of model 186
Table H.1 Experimental and trained data 187
Table H.2 Weight and biases values of the trained model 189
x
Modeling results (Tables) of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of cast
aluminum composites
Table I.1 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites 191

Table I.2 Effect of Si on elongation of cast composites 191
Table I.3 Effect of Si on hardness of cast composites 191
Table I.4 Effect of Si on abrasive wear of cast composites 191
Table I.5 Effect of Fe on tensile strength of cast composites 192
Table I.6 Effect of Fe on elongation of cast composites 192
Table I.7 Effect of Fe on hardness cast composites 192
Table I.8 Effect of Fe on abrasive wear of cast composites 192
Table I.9 Effect of Cu on tensile strength of cast composites 192
Table I.10 Effect of Cu on elongation of cast composites 193
Table I.11 Effect of Cu on hardness of cast composites 193
Table I.12 Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of cast composites 193
Table I.13 Effect of Mg on tensile strength of cast composites 194
Table I.14 Effect of Mg on elongation of cast composites 194
Table I.15 Effect of Mg on hardness of cast composites 194
Table I.16 Effect of Mg on abrasive wear of cast composites 195
Table.I.17 Effect of Zn on tensile strength of cast composites 195
Table I.18 Effect of Zn on elongation of cast composites 195
Table I.19 Effect of Zn on hardness of cast composites 196
Table I.20 Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of cast composites 196
Modeling results (Tables) for high strength and abrasive wear of cast aluminum composite
after heat treatment
Table I.21 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites 196

Table I.22 Effect of Si on elongation of cast composites 197
Table I.23 Effect of Si on hardness of cast composites 197
Table I.24 Effect of Si on abrasive wear of cast composites 197
Table I.25 Effect of Fe on tensile strength of cast composites 197
Table I.26 Effect of Fe on elongation of cast composites 198
Table I.27 Effect of Fe on hardness cast composites 198
Table I.28 Effect of Fe on abrasive wear of cast composites 198
Table I.29 Effect of Cu on tensile strength of cast composites 199
Table I.30 Effect of Cu on elongation of cast composites 199
Table I.31 Effect of Cu on hardness of cast composites 199
Table I.32 Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of cast composites 200
Table I.33 Effect of Mg on tensile strength of cast composites 200
Table I.34 Effect of Mg on elongation of cast composites 200
Table I.35 Effect of Mg on hardness of cast composites 201
Table I.36 Effect of Mg on abrasive wear of cast composites 201
Table I.37 Effect of Zn on tensile strength of cast composites 201
xi
Table I.38 Effect of Zn on elongation of cast composites 202
Table I.39 Effect of Zn on hardness of cast composites 202
Table I.40 Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of cast composites 202
Table I.41 Effect of density on tensile strength of cast composites 203
Table I.42 Effect of density on elongation of cast composites 203
Table I.43 Effect of density on hardness of cast composites 203
Table I.44 Effect of density on abrasive wear of cast composites 204
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig: 2.1 Flow chart highlighting a typical liquid blending fabrication technique 19
Fig: 2.2 Determine of strength properties using tensile test method. 22
Fig: 2.3 Stress-strain diagram 22
Fig: 2.4 Ductile and non ductile behavior of metallic materials 23
Fig: 2.5 Section of the Al-Copper eutectic phase diagram.(Polmear 1981) 41
Fig: 2.6 Biological neuron (Ziliochain 2001) 56
Fig: 2.7 Working principle of a biological neuron (Jasmin 2003) 56
Fig: 2.8 Various activation functions (Jasmin 2003) 58
Fig: 2.9 Architecture of a simple neural network [Unar 1999] 59
Fig: 3.1 Experimental rig for mixing unit 66
Fig: 3.2 Gas fire pit furnace 67
Fig: 3.3 Casting of aluminum alloys 68
Fig: 3.4 Developed master alloys 68
Fig: 3.5 Electrically heated furnace 69
Fig: 3.6 Melting of master alloy 69
Fig: 3.7 Arrangement of mixer 69
Fig: 3.8 Purging N2 gas cylinder 69
Fig: 3.9 Casting of samples in a prepared metal mold 69
Fig: 3.10 Preparation of samples on lath. 70
Fig: 3.11 Prepared standard specimens for tensile test. 70
Fig: 3.12 Universal tensile testing machine used at DCET Karachi for tensile test 71
Fig: 3.13 SEM used for analysis. 72
Fig: 3.14 Horiba particle size analyzer 72
Fig: 3.15 Vickers hardness test 73
Fig: 3.16 Electronic balances 74
Fig: 3.17 Abrasive wear test 74
Fig: 3.18 Abrasive wear tests Machine 74
Fig: 3.19 Design of neural network model 77
Fig: 4.1 Analysis of aluminum ingot 82
Fig: 4.2 Analysis of copper ingot 82
Fig: 4.3 Analysis of Mg ingot 83
Fig: 4.4 Analysis of Al2O3 powder 83
Fig: 4.5 Analysis of zinc ingot 83
Fig: 4.6 Analysis of sample 1 83
xiii
Fig: 4.19 Analysis of alloy 1 87
Fig: 4.25 Theoretical composition Vs the actual composition of alloys 89
Fig: 4.26 Tensile strength and elongation of alloy 1 95
Fig: 4.29 Tensile strength and elongation of alloy 4` 95
Fig: 4.32 Comparisons of tensile strength of alloys 96
Fig: 4.33 Comparisons of elongations in %age of alloys 96
Fig: 4.34 Hardness of alloy 1 100
Fig: 4 40 Comparisons of the hardness of alloys 101
Fig: 4.41 Abrasive wear of alloy 1 103
Fig: 4.47 Abrasive wear of alloys average weight loss 105
Fig: 4.48 Abrasive wear of alloy total weight loss 105
Fig: 4.49 Density & porosity of alloy 1 107
Fig: 4.55 Density of alloys 110
Fig: 4.56 Porosity of alloys 110
Fig: 4.57 Microstructure of alloy 1 HT X 100 112
Fig: 4.58 Microstructure alloy 1 2.5 Al2O3 HT X 100 112
xiv
Fig: 4.59 Microstructure alloy 1 5 Al2O3 HT X 100 112
Fig: 4.60 Microstructure alloy 1 10 Al2O3HT X 100 112
Fig: 4.61 Microstructure alloy 2 HT X 100 113
Fig: 4.62 Microstructure alloy 2 2.5 Al2O3 HT X 100 113
Fig: 4.63 Microstructure of alloy 2 5 % Al2O3. X 100 113
Fig: 4.64 Microstructure of alloy 2 10 % Al2O3. X 100 113
Fig: 4.65 Microstructure of alloy 2 15% Al2O3. X 100 113
Fig: 4.67 Microstructure alloy 3 2.5 HT X 100 114
Fig: 4.68 Microstructure alloy 3 5 HT X100 114
Fig: 4.70 Microstructure of alloy 3 15 HT X 100 114
Fig: 4.71 Microstructure of alloy 4 cast X 100 115
Fig: 4.72 Microstructure of alloy 4 5 C X 100 115
Fig: 4.75 Microstructure of alloy 5 X 100 115
Fig: 4.76 Microstructure of alloy 5 2.5 X 100 115
Fig: 4.77 Microstructure of alloy 5 5 X 100 116
Fig: 4.78 Microstructure of alloy 5 10 X 100 116
Fig: 4.79 Microstructure of alloy 5 15. X 100 116
Fig: 4.80 Microstructure of alloy 6C X 100 116
Fig: 4.81 Microstructure of alloy 6 5HT X 100 116
Fig: 4.82 Microstructure of alloy 610 HT X 100 116
Fig: 4.83 Microstructure of alloy 1HT showing some precipitation 117
Fig: 4.84 Microstructure of alloy 2HT showing some precipitation 117
Fig: 4.85 Microstructure of alloy 5 10 HT showing some precipitation 117
Fig: 4.86 Microstructure of sample 3C showing porosity 117
Fig: 4.87 Microstructure of sample 4HT showing precipitation of cu 118
Fig: 4.88 Microstructure of sample 4C. X 100 118
Fig: 4.89 Shows the training results of aluminum composites 121
Fig: 4.90 The trained data of tensile strength superimposed on experimental data 122
Fig: 4.91 The trained data of elongations superimposed on the experimental data 122
Fig: 4.92 The trained data of hardness superimposed on the experimental data. 122
Fig: 4.93 The train data of abrasive wear superimposed on the experimental data. 122
Fig: 4.94 Shows the SSE, SSW and effective parameter results 123
Fig: 4.95 Tensile strength of alloy 125
Fig: 4.96 Elongation of alloy 125
Fig: 4.97 Hardness of alloys 125
Fig: 4.98 Abrasive wears of alloy 125
Fig: 4.99 Testing of training and validation of model 126
Fig: 4.100 Testing of training and validation of model 126
Fig: 4.101 Optimized tensile strength 129
Fig: 4.102 Optimized elongation 129
xv
Fig: 4.103 Optimized hardness 129
Fig: 4.104 Optimized abrasive wear 129
Modeling results (Figures) of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of

cast aluminum composites
Fig: 4.105 Modeling effect of Cu on strength 130

Fig: 4.106 Modeling effect of Cu on elongation 130
Fig: 4.107 Modeling effect of Cu on hardness 131
Fig: 4.108 Modeling effect of Cu on abrasive wear 131
Fig: 4.109 Modeling effect of Si on strength 132
Fig: 4.110 Modeling effect of Si on elongation 132
Fig: 4.111 Modeling effect of Si on hardness 132
Fig: 4.112 Modeling effect of Si on abrasive wear 132
Fig: 4.113 Modeling effect of Fe on strength 133
Fig: 4.114 Modeling effect of Fe on elongation 133
Fig: 4.115 Modeling effect of Fe on hardness 133
Fig: 4.116 Modeling effect of Fe on abrasive wear 133
Fig: 4.117 Modeling effect of Mg on strength 134
Fig: 4.118 Modeling effect of Mg on elongation 134
Fig: 4.119 Modeling effect of Mg on hardness 134
Fig: 4.120 Modeling effect of Mg on abrasive wear 134
Fig: 4.121 Modeling effect of Zn on strength 135
Fig: 4.122 Modeling effect of Zn on elongation 135
Fig: 4.123 Modeling effect of Zn on hardness 135
Fig: 4.124 Modeling effect of Zn on abrasive wear 135
Modeling results (Figures) of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of

heat treated aluminum composites
Fig: 4.125 Modeling effect of Si on strength 136

Fig: 4.126 Modeling effect of Si on elongation 136
Fig: 4.127 Modeling effect of Si on hardness 136
Fig: 4.128 Modeling effect of Si on abrasive wear 136
Fig: 4.129 Modeling effect of Cu on strength 138
Fig: 4.130 Modeling effect of Cu on elongation 138
Fig: 4.131 Modeling effect of Cu on hardness 138
Fig: 4.132 Modeling effect of Cu on abrasive wear 138
Fig: 4.133 Modeling effect of Zn on strength 138
Fig: 4.134 Modeling effect of Zn on hardness 138
Fig: 4.135 Modeling effect of Zn on elongation 139
Fig: 4.136 Modeling effect of Zn on abrasive wear 139
Fig: 4.137 Modeling effect of density on strength 140
Fig: 4.138 Modeling effect of density on elongation 140
xvi
Fig: 4.139 Modeling effect of density on hardness 140
Fig: 4.140 Modeling effect of density on abrasive wear 140
Fig: C.1 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 C 161
Fig: C.2 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 2.5 C 161
Fig: C.3 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 5 C 162
Fig: C.5 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 HT 162
Fig: C.6 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 2.5 HTR 162
Fig: C.7 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 5 HT 163
Fig: C.10 Stress strain diagram of alloy 2.5C HT 163
Fig: C.15 Stress strain diagram of alloy 2 2.5 HT 165
Fig: C.16 Stress strain diagram of alloy 2.5 HT 165
Fig: C18 Stress strain diagram of alloy 2.15 HT 165
Fig: C.20 Stress strain diagram of alloy 32.5 C 166
Fig: C.26 Stress strain diagram of alloy 3 .5 HT 167
Fig: C38 Stress strain diagram of alloy 2.5 C 170
xvii
Fig: C 46 Stress strain diagram of alloy 5 10 HT 172
Fig: C.49 Stress strain diagram of alloy 6 2.5 C 173
xviii
ABSTRACT
Modeling of high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting of
composite material developed via conventional foundry method which is one of the
most economical versatile and active research area and so for has not been thoroughly
investigated.
Due to complex nature of the composite materials and their related problems such
as the nonlinear relationship between composition, processing parameters, heat
treatment with the strength and abrasive wear, resistance can more efficiently be
modeled by artificial neural networks. The artificial neural networks modeling requires
sufficient data concerned with chemical composition , processing parameters and the
resulting mechanical properties which were not available for such type of modeling.
Therefore, a wide range of experimental work was conducted for the development
of aluminum composites using conventional foundry method. Alloy containing Cu-Mg-
Zn as matrix and reinforced with 1- 15 % Al2O3 particles were prepared using stir casting
method. The molten alloys composites were cast in metal mold. More than eighty
standard samples were prepared for tensile tests and sixty samples were given solution
treatment at 580 0C for ½ hour and tempered at 120 0C for 24 hours.
Various characterization techniques apparatus such as X-ray Spectrometer,
Scanning Electron Microscope, Optical Metallurgical Microscope, Universal Tensile
Testing Machine, Vickers Hardness and Abrasive Wear Testing Machine were used to
investigate the chemical composition, microstructural features, density, tensile strength,
ductility (elongation), hardness and abrasive wear resistance.
xix
These investigations including the material development and characterization
were used for data generations as needed for modeling of high strength and abrasive wear
résistance aluminum cast composites.
For modeling purpose a multilayer perceptron (MLP) feedforward was developed
and back propagation learning algorithm was used for training, testing and validation of
the model.
The modeling results shows that an architecture of 14 inputs with 9 hidden
neurons and 4 outputs which include the tensile strength, elongation, hardness and
abrasive wear resistance gives reasonably accurate results with an error within the range
of 2-7 % in training, testing and validation. The modeling results shows that an alloy
contents 2-3 % Cu, 2-3 % Mg, 3-5 % Zn reinforced with 10 % Al2O3 can successfully be
developed for highest strength (297 MPa) and highest abrasive wear résistance (0.4 gm
weight loss /15 minutes using stir casting method. The modeling results also suggest that
it is possible to develop the highest strength 466 MPa tensile strength and highest
abrasive wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite materials having the
matrix composition of 6 % Si, 2 % Mg with 3 % Zn reinforced with 2-5 % Al2O3
particles.
xx
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 THEORITICAL BACKGROUND
Modeling of high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminum alloy based
casting composite materials using conventional casting (foundry method) for engineering
applications require the availability of a wide rang of data for optimum design and
developments of cast aluminum composite materials. Material designers must use
modeling techniques for efficient alloy design, due to the complex nature of the materials
related chemistry, microstructures and processing parameters which influence the desired
mechanical properties.
In an alloy design, the main problem is to control the mechanical properties and
microstructural constituents via an optimization for a given processing method using
various modeling techniques [Deschamp and Brechet, 1999].
Generally, modeling is defined as an art or science by which a real system can be
represented in simplified form of a model. Using modeling technique the imaginary or
real problem of any complex system can be solved. Based upon the nature and
complexity of the problem, modeling can be classified as physical modeling,
mathematical modeling and computational modeling. Physical modeling is the process
by which any object is to be modeled at the scale and this provides the visual aid for
checking desirability of potential of design. The mathematical modeling requires the use
of mathematical set of equations or logical relationship that to be developed to describe

2
the real system for solutions of the actual problem [Xiaoshu et al, 2009]. The
mathematical modeling differs from physical modeling in its use of decision variables.
Mathematical modeling can be descriptive (simulation) or prescriptive (such as linear
programming) in nature based on the outputs [Askin and Charles, 1993, Warke Shanker
and Makhlouf 2005]. A more efficient modeling can be done with the help of computers
systems. The computational modeling requires the use of computers to develop models
and logical programming required for solving the various complex problems. Now a
days, the computational modeling technique is widely used in research and development
work and be considered as a powerful tool for increasing reliability and efficiency in
research work as well as saving time and energy and also reduces the fatigue of large
experimental work [Askin and Charles 1993, Anu Maria 1997, Patenker 2002, Jokhio,
Panhawar and Unar 2009]. A new modeling technique for solving the complex nonlinear
problem using computational modeling technique is an artificial neural network (ANNS)
[Patterson, 1996].
The artificial neural network technique is relatively new field of artificial
intelligence which tries to mimic the structure and operation of biological neural systems
such as the human brain by creating an artificial neural network (ANN) on a computer
[Talpur, 2003]. One of the most popular neural networks model is the back propagation
network. Currently the back propagation is the most popular, effective and easy to learn
model for complex systems [Siddiqui and Toki, 2001]. The artificial neural network
modeling technique has been used in various disciplines but now days; it is most
extensively used in the field of Materials Science and Engineering for the designing,
3
predicting, optimization and controlling the processes or products parameters [Ohdar and
Pasha, 2003]. Liu, et al (1996) conducted research for Prediction of the mechanical
properties of hot-rolled C-Mn steel using artificial neural networks modeling.
Shah Iqbal, (2002) worked for predicting the tensile properties of austenitic
stainless steels.
Bhadesia, (1999) conducted the investigations mostly concerned with the
applications of neural networks for controlling the welding robots, predicting the
solidification cracking of welds; strength of steel welds, hot cracking of the weld;
predicting fatigue properties, fatigue threshold; martensite start temperature, and most
importantly prediction of continuous cooling transformation or time temperature
transformation (TTT) diagram are few examples of the application of ANN models in
materials engineering.
The modern development in the field of Science and Technology demands the
developments of advanced engineering materials having light weight and low cost. They
should be competitive materials for various engineering applications, especially in the
field of transportations, aerospace and military engineering related areas. These areas
demand light weight, high strength having good corrosion and wear resistance
(tribological) properties [Kaufman, 1999].
The literature reveals that the aluminum and its alloy can meet the demand but
the major problem associated with the applications of aluminum and its alloy is that it has
high strength to weight ratio but offers poor wear resistance. This problem can be solved
with the addition of hard ceramics particles in various aluminum alloy matrix material.
4
This requires the development of wide range of aluminum alloy matrixes to be
investigated for strength and wear. The selective matrix is to be reinforced with various
percentages of ceramic particles for meeting the optimum requirements for strength and
abrasive wear resistance [Kaufman 1999, and Kuntz, 2002].
The aluminum metal matrix composite material is a cost competitive material and
widely used as advanced engineering materials for automobile and aerospace industries
[Srivatsan et al 1991, Warren and Hunft, 2004].
An increase in speed efficiency of fast moving vehicles and machines requires the
use of light metals for reduction in fuel consumptions and also need to reduce the energy
crises for the sustainable development of the modern world [Jokhio2007]. The
development and processing of engineering materials is to control the microstructure and
mechanical properties through optimizing the chemical composition, processing method
including the complex heat treatment operation. This requires the sound theoretical and
practical knowledge concerned with materials and processing as well as the modeling
knowledge is required for development of such materials for critical applications.
1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The aluminum metal matrix composite materials is the combination of two or
more constituents in which one is matrix and other is filler material (reinforcement).
Aluminum metal matrix may be laminated, fiber or particulates composites. These
materials are usually processed through powder metallurgy route, liquid cast metal
technology or by using special manufacturing process. The processing of discontinuous

5
particulate metal matrix material involves two major processes, such as powder
metallurgy route and liquid cast metal technology. The powder metallurgy process has its
own limitations such as processing cost and size of the components. Therefore, only the
casting method is to be considered as the most optimum and economical route for
processing of aluminum composite material [Srivatsan et al 1991], and [Taha, 2001].
The performance of aluminum alloy based casting composites materials depends
upon the chemistry of the matrix alloys, type of the reinforcements, its size, amount,
volume fraction and processing method [Hashim, Loony and Hashmi. 2003]
The literature reveals that most of the previous work was done to reinforce silicon
carbide particles (SiCp) in various aluminum matrix composites [Dash 2004], [Gupta and
Surappa, 1995], [Herling 2001], and [Rupa and Meenia, 2005]. However, some
information is available regarding AL2O3 particulates reinforced in various aluminum
matrixes [Kok 2003], [Yilmaz and Buytes, 2001], [Azim et al, 1995], [Redsten et al,
1995]. Literature also reveals that some previous work was conducted to investigate the
effect of Cu-Zn- Mg in aluminum matrix alloy reinforced with AL2O3 particulate using
conventional foundry casting method.
The main problem in conventional foundry sand casting of aluminum alloy based
casting composite materials involves the porosity and nonmetallic inclusions which affect
the mechanical properties of cast composites as reported by Hashim, Looney and Hashmi
(1999), and Nguyen, (2005).
As discussed earlier, the main challenge in matrix alloy design seems to control
the mechanical properties via optimization of composition and processing method. For
6
optimization a possible and more refined version is the analysis of wide range of data
using neural network modeling [Decamp et al 1999]. Artificial neural networks are
modeling techniques that are specially used in addressing problems for which the solution
is not formulated or for which the relationship between inputs and output is not
sufficiently known. The ANNs have the ability to learn by examples. Patterns in series of
input and output values of example cases are recognized. The acquired knowledge can
than be used by ANN to predict unknown output values for a given set of input values
[Talpur, 2003].
Most of the previous work is only concerned with the investigations of the
individual mechanical properties or individual alloy matrix. It is noted that for critical
applications strength and wear, are very much important for high performance of the
components which must be investigated simultaneously during the developments of
composite materials.
It has been noted that no previous work has been conducted to optimize the effect
of composition for high strength and abrasive wear. This requires the huge experimental
and analytical work.
Literature also reveals that no work was conducted to the study concerned with
the application of ANN modeling for the development of aluminum alloy based casting
composites for high strength and abrasive wear resistance. Aluminum metal matrix cast
composites have been widely used for automotive and aerospace industries such as
engine valve piston linners and air fuel system in aerospace etc., which reflects its scope
and importance in the modern developments especially in the field of transportation

7
engineering. Therefore, based on these facts the present project was planned to achieve
the objectives as described in subsequent section..
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Following are the main objectives of this project:
l. To develop aluminum alloy based casting composite material for engineering
applications for high strength and abrasive wear resistance.
2. To study the chemical composition of aluminum alloy by addition of alloying elements
such as Cu, Zn, and Mg with ceramics particles (AL2 O3) in different compositions.
3. To study the mechanical properties using tensile tests and abrasive wear resistance test
of aluminum alloy based casting composites.
4. To study the microstructural constituents of developed materials using optical
metallurgical microscope and scanning electron microscope for evaluation of different
phases.
5. To study the casting and heat treatment processes and investigate its effect of
processing methods on strength and wear properties of aluminum alloy based casting
composite material.
6. To study neural network modeling for nonlinear mapping and develop ANN model
that can be applied for aluminum alloy based casting composite material as a tool for
development of composite materials.
7. Optimizing the composition, strength and abrasive wear resistance.

8
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
The overview of the project is described in chapter1.
Chapter 2 deals with the literature survey, and consists of aluminum composite
materials, their types, processing method using stir casting technique and its effects on
strength and abrasive wear resistance. The chapter 2 also presents modeling details
which include artificial neural network modeling, back propagation algorithm and neural
network applications in Materials Science and Engineering.
The details of the research work using various experimental techniques and
modeling methodology are given in Chapter 3.
The experimental results and discussions are presented in Chapter 4.
The experimental results indicate that the artificial neural networks are well suited to
modeling highly nonlinear functions from scattered data and are between in comparison
to the conventional statistical models. Due to increasing the accuracy of practiced
processes and properties of aluminum cast composite material artificial neural networks
model was used to investigate the effect of composition on strength and wear resistance.
The ANN based model shows good agreement with the experimental results.
Experimental results indicate that increasing the alloy contents such as Si , Mg, Cu, and
Zn will increase the tensile strength and abrasive wear resistance. Results also indicate
that addition of Al2O3 particles reinforced in various aluminum alloy matrix shows
improvements in tensile strength, hardness and abrasive wear resistance. The best results
are obtained with low contents of alloying element up to 2.5 % Cu, 4 % Zn, and 2.5 %
Mg with 10 % addition of Al2O3 particles.

9
Modeling results for high strength and wear resistance through optimization technique
show significant improvements in strength and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum
alloy based casting composites which would help the researcher for development of high
strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite for engineering
application.
Chapter 5 contains conclusions and suggestions for future work.
The main conclusion of this project is that artificial neural networks are very successful
in modeling of the problem under consideration. The multiple perceptron architecture has
been used with 14 inputs, 9 hidden layer neurons and 4 outputs.
The main suggestions is that aluminum silicon alloy with 3 % Zn and 2 % Mg reinforced
with Al2O3 particles be experimentally investigated for highest strength, toughness and
abrasive wear resistance whereas Al-Mg-Zn, Al – 1.2 % Cu -3 % Zn and 3 % Mg alloy
reinforced with Al2O3 particles to be further investigated using squeeze casting technique.
10
CHAPTER 2
LITRATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Modeling of high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminium alloy based
casting composite material and its development via conventional casting (foundry
method) require a wide rang of experimental data concerned with composition and
mechanical properties (specially the strength and abrasive wear) data be available for
optimum design and development of cast aluminium composite material. Therefore, the
literature reviewed consist the following two main aspects:
i. Development of aluminum composite materials using stir casting method,
its chemical composition and the major factors which affect the strength
and wear.
ii. The other major part is concerned with artificial neural network modeling
and its applications in the area of Materials Science and Engineering
especially in cast composite material.
2.2 ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (AMMCS)
Different authors have defined the composite materials in different ways; some
famous definitions include the following:

11
Composite materials are combinations of two or more materials consist the
matrix as the major phase in which the reinforcement is added called the
reinforcement phase [Elgum 1999].
Composite materials are heterogeneous mixture of two or more phases
which have been bonded together [Rohatgi 1991].
A composite material may be called, as a materials system of mixture of
two or more micro or macro constituents that differ in the form of
composition essentially is insoluble in each other. In composite each
materials retains its original properties but when composited (combined) a
superior properties of materials are obtained which could not have been
obtained separately [Surappa 2003].
The aluminum metal matrix composites consists of the combinations of two or
more elements in which one must be aluminum or aluminum alloy present in large
volume in the form of matrix material. The other elements usually non-metallic and
commonly ceramics such as SiC, Al2O3 and TiB2 are added in the continuous or
discontinuous form usually referred as reinforcements [Surappa 2003].
Literature reveals that most of the engineering applications demand high strength
light weight, high corrosion and wear resistance. Therefore, the philosophy behind the
developments of aluminum metal matrix composite material is that aluminum and its
alloys have good strength to weight ratio and also have good corrosion resistance but
offers very poor wear resistance which can be improved by addition of various ceramic
12
particles in aluminum metal matrix materials [Suganuma 1989, Rohatgi 2001 and 1991,
Chawla 1988, and Kunze and Bampton 2001].
The aluminum metal matrix composites possess the wide range of physical and
mechanical properties such as high strength, stiffness, low density, high corrosion, wear
resistance, good thermal properties and good damping capability as compared to the
unreinforced aluminum matrix materials. These properties of AMCs depend upon many
factors such as aluminum alloy matrix composition, processing method, and types of
reinforcements, their nature, distribution and volume fractions [Surappa 2003 and Das
2004].
Surappa (2003) had explained the major advantages of AMCs compared to
unreinforced materials. For example, by addition of 60 volume percent of reinforcement
of fibers in aluminum matrix can enhance the modulus of elasticity from 70GPa to
240GPa and decrease in the coefficient of expansion from 24 ppm / 0C to 7 ppm/ 0C. The
abrasive wear resistance of aluminum matrix composite contained 9 % Si and 20 volume
% SiCp having better wear resistance than grey cast iron. Therefore it is possible to attain
wide range of physical and mechanical properties in aluminum metal matrix composites
which could not be obtained in monolithic material.
Jokhio et al (2007) had also reported the similar advantages of using aluminum
metal matrix for various structural, non-structural and functional purposes in different
engineering sectors due to their good performance, economic and environmental benefits.
The key benefits in transportation sectors are lower fuel consumption, less noise and
lower airborne emissions and cost competitive as compared to other engineering

13
materials in weight and volume savings as reported by Hunft and Waren (2004), Surappa
(2003), Das (2004) and Rohatgi (2001).
The aluminum alloy composites are becoming potential engineering materials and
offering excellent combination of properties such as high specific strength, high specific
stiffness, and good electrical and thermal conductivities, low coefficient of thermal
expansion and wear resistance [Das, 2004].
Aluminum matrix composites permit the achievements of new properties and
controlled characteristics by addition of special materials (reinforcements) that are not
soluble and do not react with aluminum and its alloys [Pollak, 1994].
Each phase of aluminum matrix and reinforcements, maintains its own characteristics,
wheras the composites characteristics are unique, representing a combination of both
constructs.
According to the composite theory, the physical and mechanical properties of
aluminum matrix composites can be tailored by changing the reinforcement type, shape
and volume fraction [Gallister, 1997].
Due to their excellent combinations of properties, the aluminum metal matrix
composites are being used in verities of applications in automobile, mixing and mineral,
aerospace, defense and other related sectors due to their excellent combinations of
properties.
In automobile sector, aluminum composites are used in making various
components such as brake drum, cylinder linners, pistons, drive shafts etc. In aerospace
industries, composites are used essentially in structural applications such as helicopter

14
parts (parts of the body, support for rotor plate’s drive shafts) rotor vanes in compressors
and in aero engine light weight body armor plate, track shoes of vehicles are also carried
out for defense [Dos 2004].
The aluminum composites are classified to two major groups depending upon the
aspect ratio of the reinforcements. In the first category, the aspect ratio (L/d L = length, d
= diameter) varies in the range (100 -10,000) in which fibers are reinforced for structural
applications.
In the second category, the aspect ratio of the reinforcements is in the range of (1-5)
in which the reinforcements are equiaxed in shape (particles / viskers). Such types of
aluminum composites are important for tribological applications [Dos 2004, and Rohatgi
2001].
Classification of aluminum metal matrix composites depends on the type of
reinforcements as reported by large numbers of investigators [Surappa 2003, Dos 2004,
Rohatgi 2001, Lloyd 1999, Surappa and Rohatgi 1981, and Srivatsan et al 1991].
On the basis of types of reinforcements, the aluminum composites are classified as:
Whisker-or short fibre-reinforced AMCs (SFAMCs)
Continuous fibre-reinforced AMCs (CFAMCs)
Mono filament-reinforced AMCs (MFAMCs)
Hybrid AMCs
Particulates-reinforced AMCs (PAMCs)
Due to processing difficulties and economic factors consideration in design and
development and applications of aluminum composites, it is well known that particulate

15
aluminum composite is competitive material meeting almost all objectives for
engineering applications. Therefore, this type of aluminum metal matrix composites will
be discussed in the subsequent sections.
2.2.1 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites (PAMCS)
Particulate reinforced aluminum matrix composites generally contain equiaxed
ceramic particles reinforcements. The aspect ratio of these particles should be less than 5.
The various ceramics reinforcements such as Al2O3 SiC and TiB2 are generally used for
structural and wear resistance applications. The volume fraction of these particles are less
than 30 % for structural application and as high as 70 % reinforcement are used for
packaging industries [ Surappa 2003]. Particle reinforced aluminum matrix composites
(PAMCs) are usually manufactured either by solid state (PM processing) or liquid state
(stir casting, infiltration and in-situ) processes [Strivatsan, et al 1991].
The major advantage of the use of PAMCs is that it is less expensive as compared
with other types of composites. PAMCs possesses inferior mechanical properties as
compared to whisker, short fibre, continuous fibre reinforced aluminum matrix
composites. PAMC possesses the superior mechanical properties as compared to
unreinforced aluminum alloys. Another major advantage of the PAMCs composites is
that they are isotropic in nature. These PAMCs can be subject to a variety of further
secondary forming operations such as rolling, forging and extrusion process [Surappa
2003].
16
The literature reveals that the performance of particulate aluminum composites
depend upon the selection of matrix composition, selection of type of reinforcements,
their size distributions, volume fractions and selection of processing methods. These
factors will be discussed in the subsequent sections:
2.2.2 Processing of Aluminum Particulate Composites
Many methods have been used for development and processing of aluminum
metal matrix particulate composites to optimize the microstructure and mechanical
properties of particulate reinforced metal-matrix composites [Ibrahim, Mohamed, and
Lavernia 1991, and Strivatsan et al 1991]. For examples Rohatgi (2001) reported that
aluminum metal matrix could be classified in to two major categories on the basis of the
state of the processing materials such as solid state processing and liquid state processing.
Other investigators reported that aluminum metal matrix could be classified in to
the following three major categories on the basis of processing temperatures [Surappa,
and Rohatgi 1981, Srivatsan et al 1991, Ejiofor and Reddy 1997, Elaisson, and
Sandstorms1995, Hoover 1994, and Surappa 2003]:
i. Solid state processing (such as powder metallurgy) and diffusion bonding
ii. Two phase processing (such as spray and rehocasting and compocasting)
iii. Liquid phase processing casting (such as mixing particles into liquid melt
(stir casting), infiltration of liquid matrix in to the reinforcements and in
situ processes)
17
o Choice of the primary manufacturing process for the fabrication of any MMC
is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are:
o Preservation of reinforcement strength
o Minimization of reinforcement damage
o Promotion of wetting and bonding between the matrix and reinforcement
o Flexibility that allows proper backing, spacing and orientation of the
reinforcements within the matrix
2.2.2 Liquid Phase Processing
Liquid phase processing includes various processing technique such as
infiltration, spray casting, in situ (reactive) processing and stir casting or compocasting
process. However the selection of the processing route depends on many factors which
include the types of reinforcements, volume fraction of reinforcement, the type of loading
and the degree of microstructural integrity desired in the final product [Surappa 2003]. In
liquid state processing the stir casting is the simplest and most commercially used
technique also known as vortex technique for production of aluminum metal matrix
composites.
2.2.2.1 Stir Casting
Stir casting involves incorporation of ceramic particulates by mixing into liquid
aluminum melt and allowing the mixture to solidify in to the required size and shape. The
18
most important step in this process is to create good wetting between the particulate
reinforcement and the liquid aluminum alloy matrix.
The vortex technique involves the introduction of pre-treated ceramic particles into the
vortex of molten alloy created by the rotating impeller made of steel or refractory
materials.
Lloyd (1999) reports that vortex-mixing technique for the preparation of ceramic
particle dispersed aluminum matrix composites was originally developed by Surappa and
Rohatgi (1981) at the Indian Institute of Science. Later on several aluminum companies
further refined and modified the process which is currently used for production of variety
of aluminum composites on commercial scale. The particles agglomeration and
sedimentation in the melt and as well as during the solidification were also reported in
stir casting. This problem may arise due to microstructural inhomogeneties.
Inhomogeneity in reinforcement distribution in these cast composites are the main
problem as a result of interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving solid
liquid interface during solidification process.
Surappa (2003) reported that it is possible to incorporate upto 30% ceramic
particles in the size ranging from 5 to 100 µm in a variety of molten aluminum alloys.
The melt–ceramic particle slurry may be transferred directly to a shaped mould prior to
complete solidification or it may be allowed to solidify in the form of billets. The cast
billet can be further reheated to the slurry form for further processing such as die casting,
and investment casting. Compocasting have the small variation as compared to stir
19
casting process. In compocasting the ceramic particles are incorporated into the alloy in
the semi solid state. The stir casing method is shown in Fig: 2.1.
Fig: 2.1. Flow chart highlights typical liquid blending

and fabrication techniques [Srivatsan et al 1991].
2.3 PROPERTIES OF STIR CASTING OF AUMINIUM COMPOSITES
The early research on the development of highest strength performance material
was based on aluminum and titanium matrix composites using continuous fibers. These
materials were hindered due to high cost processing difficulties such as production of
near shape, size and volume of production [Srivatsan et al 1991, and Azim et al 1995].
Therefore, aluminum particulate composite material using stir casting method was
developed which possesses the wide range of physical, mechanical properties, processing
requirements and considered as most economical route for production of aluminum
composites. The development of high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based
casting composite materials for engineering applications requires the consideration of

20
various design factors which affect the performance of the aluminum composites. The
performance of aluminum alloy based casting composites materials depends upon
mechanical and metallurgical factors. However the cost factors are also to be considered
in the design and development stages.
The literature reveals that the main objectives for development of particulate
aluminum cast composite materials using stir casting method were aimed to meet the
combination of properties such as strength, abrasive wear, ductility, hardness, and low
cost materials are the requirements of the most automobile and are space applications as
reported by numbers of investigators [Jokhio et al 2007, Taha 2001, Eijofor and Reddy
1997 Rohatgi 2001, 1991, Herling et al 2001].
Jokhio et al (2007), had reported that the performance of any materials depends
upon both metallurgical factors such as composition, processing method and presence of
microstructural constituents, their type and distribution etc. The mechanical factors
include the type of loadings, stresses and their magnitudes. These factors are interrelated
with each other and must be considered and controlled at all stages during designing and
development of any alloy systems.
Taha (2001) had explained various issues concerned with industrialization of cast
aluminum composites which would help in the designing of cast composite material at
large scale. Rohatgi (1991) reviewed the historical perspective of cast composites and
discussed the possible effects of matrix and reinforcement on the property motivation of
using cast composites and also explained past present and future states of cast metal
matrix composites in consideration of performance as well as cost factors.

21
Literature also revealed that the development of high strength and abrasive wear
resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite material and its over all performance
depend upon the selection of matrix composition, reinforcements, their interfacings
(wetting ability), controlling of porosity, heat treatment and many other metallurgical
factors which effect the performance. The metallurgical factors largely control the
mechanical properties of aluminum cast composites.
The response of the material under loading conditions determines its mechanical
properties. The aluminum cast composite material possesses the wide range of
mechanical properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and wear. The strength and
ductility are much related with each other and wear is largely depending upon the
hardness [Jokhio et al 2006].
In structural applications, strength is the most important property. For bending
and torsional loading, ductility of the material plays important role in aluminum
composite, whereas for high abrasive wear, hardness is the most important property of
aluminum composites. These properties are discussed in detail in subsequent sections:
2.3.1 Strength
The strength has prime importance in engineering design such as yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The most of these properties are
determined by using ASTM standardized testing method which includes the procedure
and sample geometries as shown in Fig: 2.2. The various strength properties of a metallic
material can be calculated using stress strain diagram as shown in Fig: 2.2-2.4.
22
Force Grip
ASTM Standard
Specimen
Gauge Length
Moving Cross
Head
Grip
Fig: 2.2. Determine of strength properties using tensile test method.
B.S
S δ T.S Non
Uniform
deformation
Strain Hardening
Stress
Plastic Strain after Fracture

δ Y.S
E = Modulus of
Elasticity
e
Plastic Region
Elastic Region Strain ε
Fig: 2.3 Stress-strain diagram

23
The possible behavior of ductile and non ductile metals is shown in Fig 2.4.
Non Ductile
Ductile
Stress
Strain
Fig: 2.4 Ductile and non ductile behavior of metallic materials
The aluminum and its composites show both behaviors but in case of cast
aluminum in composites the yield strength is not so visible. The strength properties of
metallic materials are usually computed from the following formula.
The elastic modulus or young’s modulus E or stiffness is the most important strength
parameter in engineering design and determined from the slope of elastic region
∆σ
E= (2.1)
∆ε
Where ∆σ is change in stress and ∆ε is change in strain.
F max
The tensile strength σT = (2.2)
A0
Fyield
The tensile yield strength σy = (2.3)
A0
24
The young’s modulus of aluminum cast composites depend upon matrix and
ceramic particulate volume fractions. Therefore, the rule of mixture is used for
calculation of modulus of elasticity E
EmVm + Er (Vr + 1)
Ec = (2.4)
ErVm + Em(Vr + 1)
Where Ec is modulus of elasticity of cast aluminum particulate composite
V is volume fraction. The subscripts c m r represents composite, matrix and
reinforcements [Gupta and Surappa 1995].
Another equation known as Halpin Tsai equation which can also be used to compute the
modulus of elasticity
Em (1 + 2 sqvr )
Ec =
1 − qvr
(2.5)
Where q can be represented as:
Er / Em − 1
q = (2.6)
Er / Em + 2 S
Whereas “s” is the aspect ratio of the reinforcing phase. The value of Er for SiC or Al2O3
particles can be identified from the literature. However the value of Er = 450 GPa and
Em = 68.9GPa for SiC and 68.9GPa for 6061 aluminum alloy has been reported by Gupta
and Surappa (1995). They had used the rule of mixture equation and Halpin–Tasi
equation for calculations, but Halpin Tasi equation gives best result.
The plastic properties such as yield strength (Y.S) can be calculated using theoretical
computation of 0.2 % Y.S value as follow:

25
S
σcy = Vrσm + Vm∂m (2.7)
4
⎡1 ⎤ (2.8)
σ cy = σ m ⎢ Vr ( S + 2 ) + Vm ⎥
⎣2 ⎦
Where σ cy & σ m represent the yield strength of composite and matrix material
respectively. Above investigators further reported that the former equation (2.7) fails to
predict the strengthening due to disposed of ceramic particles (SiC). However the latter
equation (2.8) underestimates 0.2% Y.S value.
It is generally accepted that the strength properties of aluminum metal matrix
composite is largely controlled by matrix composition. Therefore, most of the researchers
used 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum matrix for high strength properties [Taha 2001,
Ibrahim et al 1991, and Baifeng et al 2007].
Recently Baifeng al (2007) investigated the microstructure and mechanical
properties of high strength Al 6061 reinforced with Al2O3 particle. They used extrusion
techniques and concluded that the tensile strength, yield strength and elongation
properties were improved in aluminum composites after hot extrusion. The increase in
strength properties were due to dispersion strengthening, subgrain boundary
strengthening, precipitation induced by heat treatment both after casting and after
extrusion. However they did not develop the high strength material using conventional
stir casting method. They also suggested that the strength contribution of composite
material can be calculated using the following equations.

26
The yield strength contribution of Al2O3 particles are obtained from the following
equation:
0.8Gb
σP = (2.9)
D
Where σ P is the Y.S of the extruded composites, G is the shear modulus, b is
the burger vector which is equal to 0.286 E-9, and D is the particle spacing. The value of
D can be calculated from
π
D=d (2.10)
6f
Where d is average size of Al2O3 particles and f is the volume fraction of the oxide. For
G value it can be obtained approximately from the following equation:
E = Voxide Eoxide + VAl . EAl (2.11)
Where Eoxide is the elastic modulus of Al2O3 which is 345 GPa and EAl is elastic
modulus of aluminum matrix which is 68.9 G.Pa.
The given boundary strengthening is achieved by fine grains or sub grains and can be
calculated using Halpetch equation:
σg = σ 0 + K .t −1 / 2 (2.12)
Where σg is the Y.S of extruded composite contributed by grain size, σ 0 is the friction
of crystal lattice which is equal to 50 Mpa, K is a constant which is equal to 40 MPa and t
is the average size of the grains.

27
Baifeng et al (2007) further suggested that the analysis of Y.S of extruded a composite
which is contributed by the matrix (nearly 56 Mpa) dislocation, grain size oxide particles
and precipitates as follow:
σextruded=σmatrix+σdislocate+σgrain+σparticles+σPrecipitatte (2.13)
The effect of heat treatment which increases the strength is estimated from the
literature as 150 (= 270-120) MPa. They reported that using these equations for
calculation show good agreements between the experimental and calculated results.
Literature reveals that the strength properties depend upon type of reinforcement,
volume fractions, particle size and their distribution in matrix. Literature also reveals that
the interface bonding between matrix and ceramics such as wetting of ceramics particles
with matrix is essential for development of high strength cast composite material.
Another factor which has strong influence on the strength properties is the
response of the matrix to the heat treatment. Strength of aluminum cast composite
materials can be increased with the artificial age hardening process such as solution
treatment and aging treatment. However the mechanical working operation such as
rolling, forging, extruding or other strain hardening operations also increase the strength
properties of aluminum cast composites [Srivatsan and Lewanowski 2006].
Taha (2001) reported that the selection of matrix composition is important issue
for achieving the high strength in those aluminum cast composites which are capable to
give response to heat treatment. Post processing influence of the matrix provides the
additional improvements in mechanical properties such as elastic modulus and yield

28
strength. Tensile strength seems to be important when designing materials for structural
applications for strength and wear purpose.
Srivatsan et al (1991) and Ibrahim et al (1991) had reported that using 2xxx and
7xxx series of aluminum alloy would increase 50 % elastic modulus and reduced 10 %
weight saving in structural application for strength. The high strength of aluminum cast
composite can be produced by using strong matrix [Gupta and Meenai 2005]
Chen and Chao (2000) studied the effect of particle size distribution on strength
properties of high volume fraction of SiCp–Al-Based composite using squeeze casting
method. They concluded that the young’s modulus increases with increasing SiCp
volume fraction but is independent of particle size distribution and squeeze pressure
where as the bonding strength increases with increasing the particle size and squeeze
pressure.
The yield strength and tensile strength can be improved by reducing the porosity
contents. Increasing the porosity will be detrimental for high strength properties of
aluminum composites [Pai et al 1993, Hashim, Loony, and Hashmi 1999]
Srivatsan (1996) had reported that 15-40 % increase in strength and 30 to 50%
increase in stiffness is achieved in particulate reinforced aluminum metal matrix
composites but he did not specify the processing method.
Rupa (2005) investigated the mechanical behavior of Al-Cu alloy based
composite using stir casting method and concluded that the strength properties of
composite reinforced with SiC particle had negative effect as compared to matrix alloy.
29
Redsten et al (1995) investigated mechanical properties of cast oxide dispersion
strengthened aluminum and reported that tensile strength increases with increase in Al2O3
particle contents upto 25 volume percent. They used infiltration and extrusion technique.
Kok (2005) reported that the strength properties of aluminum cast composites
increase with decrease in particles size and with increasing weight fraction of particles.
The strengthening of particulate aluminum metal matrix composite were due to different
mechanism such as Orwan strengthening , grain and sub grain strengthening, quenching
and work hardening mechanism [Talat 1994, Redster et al 1995, Ibrahim et al 1991].
From the above review of the literature it is concluded that the modulus of
elasticity, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of aluminum cast composite
materials is largely controlled by the selection of strong matrix composition, smaller
particles size, increasing volume friction of particles and tempered (Heat treatment
conditions). Further improvements in mechanical properties in aluminum alloy based
casting composite can be achieved by modifying the process parameters metal treatment,
the bonding between the dispersiods and matrix and also reducing micro porosities in the
casting [Pai et al 1993].
2.3.2 Ductility
Ductility refers to the ability of material to accept plastic deformation or strain.
Strain is the elongation per unit length
∆L
Ε= (2.14)
L
30
Ductile material shows considerable elongation while the brittle materials do not show
considerable elongation. The ductility is measured in percent elongation and reduction in
area as follow
L f − L0
% El = x100 (2.15)
L0
Where as Lf is the fracture length and L0 is the original gauge length of last specimen
A0 − A f
RA = × 100 (2.16)
A0
Where Af is the area after fracture and A0 is the original cross sectional area of the test
sample. The measure of the ductility in stress strain diagram also represents the materials
toughness which is important property needed for composite materials [Lindbergh 2005].
Literature reveals that as the strength of the composite material increases the
ductility (toughness) decreases [Gupta and Surappa 1995]. Park et al (2001) reported that
both ductility and toughness decrease with an increase in volume fraction of particles in
aluminum matrix composites in as cast and extruded T6 conditions.
Stefanas and Skolianos (1996) investigated the mechanical behavior of cast SiCp
reinforced in Al-4.5% Cu and 1.5Mg alloy and concluded that the ductility of composite
material decreases with increase in volume fraction of particle using squeeze casting
technique. Rupa (2005) reported that Al-Cu alloy based composite does not decrease the
ductility and depends upon matrix composition. Ductility of 2024 aluminum cast
composite reinforced with Al2O3 particle decreases with increase in volume fraction as
investigated by Azim et al (1995). Similarly Taha (2001) reported that the ductility of
31
cast aluminium matrix composite is generally lower than aluminum matrix material.
However, the ductility can be improved upon suitable heat treatment process. Ejifore and
Reddy (1997) reported that Cu increases strength but reduce ductility of the matrix
materials. The improvements in the ductility can be achieved through the control of
porosity, mechanical working deformation processes, reducing the particle size and
increasing the uniformly distribution of particle in aluminum composites. The ductility of
composite in simple tension loading is dependent on strength of metal matrix and the
microstructural constituents [Srivatsan and Lewandowski 2006]. Aqida, Ghazali and
Hashim (2004) had reported that the ductility of discontinuously reinforced metal matrix
composites relies on the strain rate at which the damage nucleate and growth to cause the
failure. This can be improved by minimizing the porosity content in MMC. Because
fracture takes place at matrix particles interface. The presence of porosity facilitates the
voids coalescence which results in reduction of ductility of composites. Das (2004)
investigated light metal (LM) series of aluminum cast composites and reported that
aluminum cast composites exhibits better combinations of ductility (toughness) and
strength. Rupa and Meenai (2005) investigated high stress 7xxx series aluminum
composite these authers were of the viewed that the good ductility can be achieved in
7xxx alloys through uniformly distributed fine particles by an aging process.
2.3.3 Hardness
Hardness may be defined as resistance to penetration, scratching and abrasion
[Askin and Charles 1993]. Hardness of aluminum alloy based casting composite material
32
depends upon matrix composition, reinforcements, their types, distribution and volume
fraction. Heat treatment also has a significant effect on hardness of those aluminum
composite which give response to the solution treated and aging [Park et al 2001, Gupta
and Surappa 1995]
The strong matrix such as 2xxx 7xxx 6xxx has high hardness which further
improves upon addition of ceramic particles and applying heat treatment [Taha 2001].
The work hardening is the another factor which increase hardness as a result
deformation process which reduces the porosity in increase the bonding strength between
matrix and ceramic particles [Hashim et al 1991, Srivatsan and Lewandowski 2006]
Increasing the Cu and Si content in aluminum matrix increases the hardness of the
composite material [Muzafar and Zeren 2005].
Surappa, (2003), Rohatgi (1981) have reported that hardness of aluminum matrix
reinforced with Al2O3 particles increases with addition of such particles.
Huseyin Sevikcan and Kurnaz (2006) investigated properties of alumina particles
reinforced in aluminum produced by pressure die casting. They had reported that the
hardness of alloy was improved by 43% due to reinforcement of Al2O3 particles and this
increase in hardness was due to the attributes that small particles had more surface area in
the matrix.
Rupa and Dasgupta (2005) conducted a comparative study of Al-Cu alloy base
casting composite using stir casting method and concluded that composite after age
hardening and as in cast condition have high hardness.

33
2.3.4 Abrasive Wear Resistance
The abrasive wear resistance is one of the most important property of the material
needed to resist the damage or progressively loss of surfaces or sub surface of material
working under gritty environmental conditions. [Jokhio et al 2006]. However, the wear is
considered as “system” property rather than a material property [Talat 1994.]
The abrasive wear of metal matrix materials depends upon the wearing conditions
where as the tribological properties of aluminum alloy based casting composite increase
with increases in particle size, volume fraction and also depend upon the type of matrix
material [Shen and Lin 1996], [Nesarikar, Tewani and Graham, 1991].
Literature reveals that as the hardness increases the abrasive wear resistance is
also increases and depends upon the morphology of the microstructural constituents
[Jokhio 1996].
The high abrasive wear resistance of aluminum metal matrix cast composites
(AMMCC) also depends upon proper interfacing, bonding between matrix phase and
reinforcements. Proper wetting is necessary for high abrasive wear resistance. The
interfacial reaction between matrix and reinforcement and formation of brittle phase be
avoided that will decrease the abrasive wear resistance. Several other factors such as
porosity, matrix composition, and heat treatment have strong influence on abrasive wear
resistance. The abrasive wear of resistance aluminum matrix composite is excellent as
compared to monolithic metals due to presence of hard particles.
The abrasive wear resistance of 2024 aluminum composites at the load of 1Kg is
6 time greater than the abrasive wear of the same alloy containing upto 20 % SiC. A
34
Toyota Piston made from aluminum 2024 composite had greater advantage and
impressing abrasive wear even better than cast iron [Gibbon 1988].
Much research work has been conducted to investigate the abrasive wear behavior
of aluminum cast composite materials using different matrix and mostly SiC and AL2O3
particles were used.
For example Shen and Lin (1996) investigate the particle size effects on the
abrasive wear containing 20% SiC reinforced in 7075 aluminum composites using
powder metallurgical process. They concluded that abrasive wear resistance is much
better than matrix materials.
The room temperature wear characteristic of aluminum matrix reinforced with
Al2O3 particles was investigated by Nesarikar, Tewani and Graham (1991). They were of
the view that wear is caused by abrasion of softer surface matrix material.
A dry sliding wear test under the load 5-20 N, was conducted on aluminum
composite. Composites were prepared using Vortex and squeeze casting method and
reinforced with Al2O3 particles by Huseyin et al (2006). They concluded that wear rate of
composite and unreinforced alloy decreased with increasing load. Wear rate decreased
with increase in volume fraction and particle size 125 µm. The wear surface appearance
showed plastic deformation at matrix alloy when the composites wear was caused by
abrasion. They further conclude that the abrasive wear of Al2O3 particles reinforced in
2024 aluminum alloy composite fabricated by vortex method was increased.
Kok (2006) conducted the abrasive wear using pin on disc method. The
experimental result reported that wear properties of 2024 alloy wear were considerably
35
improved with addition of Al2O3 particles and the wear resistance of composite was
much higher than matrix alloy. The wear rate of composite increased with increase of
particle size and volume friction.
The abrasive wear properties of Al-Cu base composite materials have been
evaluated by a large number of investigators [Rupa 2005; Kok 2005]. In most of the cases
the abrasive wear resistance of aluminum composites increased due to control of alloy
and the degree of improvement in abrasive wear resistance depend upon the large extend
on experimental conditions and testing pressure of microstructural constituents. Improper
formations of composite leads to decrease the abrasive wear by diluted heat of
dispersiods particles by the matrix material. This means that wear resistance of
composites depends both on reinforced size, and distribution volume friction. The matrix
strengthening has significant effect on wear properties.
Rupa (2005) concluded that Al-Cu composite have high abrasive wear resistance
due to it high hardness. However, he pointed out the adverse effect on tensile strength.
The similar matrix alloy 2024 reinforced with Al2O3 using vortex method was
investigated by Kok and Ozdin (2007). He found that abrasive wear resistance of
aluminum cast composite was increased as compared to alloy matrix. The abrasive wear
resistance increases with increase in volume friction (Upto 20%) and particle (Al2O3)
size. However, they have reported that the abrasive wear resistance decreases with
increasing the sliding distance, wear load and abrasive grit size. They also concluded that
the effect of excellent abrasive wear resistance was mainly dependent on the effective
resistance of Al2O3 particles to penetration; cutting and grinding by SiC emery papers.
36
Yilnaz and Buytoz (2001) investigated abrasive wear of Al2O3 particulate
reinforce in aluminum based MMCs. They used compocasting technique for
manufacturing of composites. The abrasive wear was conducted using pin on disc with
different grade of SiC emery papers. They concluded that has increasing porosity,
decreasing particle size and increasing grit size of emery paper decreases the abrasive
wear resistance. However the aluminum cast composite shows high abrasive wear
resistance upto 15 % Al2O3 as compared to matrix alloy.
The abrasive wear resistance of A357, A339 and A6061 aluminum matrixes
reinforced with Al2O3 particles, were investigated using compositing techniques by
Garcia et al (1996). They used different particle size and volume friction. The abrasive
results were compared with casting of grey cast iron. They concluded that SiC in
aluminum composite is more effective than Al2O3 particles. This might be due to
different shape of SiC. They reported that abrasive wear increase with increasing particle
volume friction and size. They also found that abrasive wear resistance depends upon the
matrix bonding with ceramic particles. The strength is relevant property as for as the
wear performance is concerned but not toughness as suggested by other authors.
Suresh et al (2003) investigated the effect of various oxide based ceramics particle
on abrasive wear of gravity cast and squeeze cast aluminum composite. They were of the
view that abrasive wear resistance increases with oxide ceramic particles content but
better wear resistance is achieved in case of squeeze casting or the gravity casting of
aluminum composites.
37
Al 5Mg alloy matrix reinforced with different % age of Al2O3 (60µm) particulate
composite was prepared using vertex method by Daud, et al (2003). The composites were
cold rolled (deformation) with different reduction rates. They concluded that Al2O3 after
deformation increases abrasive wear resistance of Al 5 Mg composites. From the above
literature review it is clear that abrasive wear resistance depend upon matrix composition,
type of reinforcements, their size, distribution as well as micro structural characteristics,
porosity, wetting and interfacing bonding between the matrix and ceramics. Presence of
Cu, Zn, Si along with Mg contents has beneficial effect which increase wear abrasive
resistance of aluminum cast composites.
2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH AND ABRASIVE WEAR OF

CAST COMPOSITES
Various major factors which affect the strength and abrasive wear resistance of
aluminum cast composites includes the matrix composition, type of reinforcements, heat
treatments, microstructural constituents, interfacing (wetting and bonding) density,
porosity in aluminum casting composites. Theses major factors include the matrix
composition, heat treatment, Al2O3 particles, microstructure, interfacing (wetting) and
porosity. Theses factors will be discussed in the subsequent sections
2.4.1 Effect of Matrix Composition
As discussed above, that mechanical properties such as strength, ductility
(toughness) hardness and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum alloy base casting
composite materials depend up various factors such as reinforcements type, distribution,

38
size, shape and volume fraction, heat treatment, porosity, wetting and bonding between
ceramic particles and chemical composition of matrix material.
From the above literature one thing is clear that matrix composition plays an
important role in controlling the strength and wear resistance of aluminum cast
composites. Composite material refers to both matrix alloy and ceramics. Some research
in aluminum cast composite is based upon the investigation of the effect of various
matrix composition and particles. For example, the effect of eight different matrix
compositions in mechanical properties was investigated by Maxim et al (1998). They
conducted research on Al 4.5% Cu and used advanced infiltration casting technique. The
effect of Si and Mg content in matrix alloy on tensile strength and toughness was
investigated. They concluded that Si and Mg addition has positive effect on tensile
strength of the aluminum composites. The Mg is a much more effective addition since in
the presence of Cu it take part in formation of ‘S’ phase (Al2 Cu Mg which is very potent
to age hardening precipitates. Presence of Mg makes aluminum Al2O3 particle stronger
interfacing. They further concluded that Mg content 1.5% increases tensile strength by
10% without decreasing the toughness. Both Si and Mg combined effect increases 25%
tensile strength, whereas the Si content decreases toughness of the composites.
Zn has greater solubility in aluminum depending upon the matrix phase
composition and has strong influence on the tensile strength [Frindlyender 2003, Elmas
2002]. Increasing Zn content will also increase fracture toughness (ductility) and abrasive
wear resistance of the composite material [Rupa and Meenia 2005].

39
The addition of Mg and Zr upto 1 in aluminum cast composites increases strength
and toughness by increasing the wetting ability between ceramics and matrix [Gupta and
Surrappa 1995].
The presence of Al2O3 particles in aluminum matrix has the major advantage that
it has high chemical inertness as compared to SiC. Moreover high strength and modulus
of about twice that of aluminum can be obtained [Taha 2001].
Literature reveals various matrixes compositions but the popular matrix
composition is based on age hardenable alloy such as 2xxx 6xxx and 7xxx series
[Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006].
Mostly the pervious matrixes investigated for strength were 2xxx and 6xxx series
aluminum alloys [Baifeng 2007, Ejifor and Reddy 1997]. However, some information is
available in case of 7xxx aluminum matrix composite [Daud et al 2004,
www.metalarcticle.com, 2005].
The effect of Si and Mg on casting properties of 7xxx series of alloy was
investigated by Dailibor et al (2004) who reported that Mg and Si improved the casting
properties of aluminum alloy.
Clinch et al (2004) had optimized the composition of 7xxx aluminum alloy with
Zn and Mg ratio 3:1 and 4:1 respectively. They concluded that low Mg Zn ratio exhibits
better strength and toughness. They further concluded that Cu in matrix composition
strengthens the alloy by precipitation of Al Cu2 or modification of brittle Al-Fe-Si phase
and improves the corrosion resistance.

40
Haizhi (2003) reported that Fe in aluminum casting alloy be restricted to less than
2%. Cu modifies Si phase and prevent die sticking in die casting.
The presence of Si in aluminum matrix improve fluidity and feeding characteristics,
improves corrosion resistance, hardness and abrasive wear resistance [Lee 1998].
2.4.2 Effect of Heat Treatment
The mechanical properties of as cast aluminum composite are inferior due to
inhomogeneties in composition, segregations, microstructural non uniformities and
presence of internal stresses and porosity. In order to optimize the composition,
properties and microstructural uniformity various heat treatment processes such as
annealing, solution treatment and age hardening treatments are applied to the cast
composite. Therefore, heat treatment is to be considered as an integral part of alloy
development and further manufacturing process [Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006, Jokhio
et al 2006].
The main objective, of the thermal treatment is to modify or improve the physical,
mechanical and structural properties to the required level for optimum performance of the
material in service conditions [Jokhio 1996]. The most important heat treatment process
for aluminum cast composites is age hardening or precipitation hardening. Heat treatment
is more effectively applied to those aluminum alloys which are capable to be hardening.
Their equilibrium diagram in Fig: 2.5 shows high solubility at high temperature lower
solubility at low temperature. The selection of heat treatment process and its parameter
depends upon alloys composition, size and shape and the required physical and
41
mechanical properties. The process of age hardening or precipitation hardening is carried
out into three steps.
o Solution treatment
o Quenching
o Aging
Solution treatment involves the heating of alloy to a pre determined temperature and
time depending upon the composition, geometry, size and shape of the parts. Heating
allows the solute atoms to diffuse in the matrix phase and homogenizes the composition.
After solution treatment alloy is rapidly cooled into a particular quenching media usually
water at room temperature that will freeze (trap the solute atoms) in the matrix phase.
This is the super saturated solid solution and lattice is overly stressed by the solute atoms
and is in matastable conditions. With the passage of time at room temperature or upon
heating solute atoms tend to precipitate within the matrix phase in a given form of
particles (Clusters) which impede the motion of dislocation. This strengthens the matrix
phase called age hardening or precipitation hardening [Yilmaz 2004]. The process of age
hardening in Al-Cu alloy is shown in Fig: 2.5.
Fig: 2.5 Section of the aluminum–copper eutectic phase diagram (Polmear 1981)
42
The strengthening by precipitation mechanism is complicated. In the early theory
of age hardening it was thought that hardening occurs due to precipitate of fine particles
which impede the motion of dislocation. Later on, the subsequent study led to more
complete understanding of age hardening. It was thought that the strengthening is not due
to precipitations of particles alone but also due to their uniform distributions of sub
microscopic precipitates and distortion of lattice structure of matrix material. The most
useful theory is coherent lattice theory of age hardening in which the cluster embryos of
the precipitate occurs during aging and form intermediate or transition lattice which
maintains registry (Coherency) with the lattice structure of matrix. This excess phase has
different lattice parameters [Yilmaz 2004]
When there is absence of transition lattice and distortion in alloy matrix will not
be strengthened by precipitation hardening. Therefore, in case of aluminum cast
composites 7xxx 6xxx and 7xxx series wrought alloy matrix and 2xx.0, 3xx.0 and 7xxx.0
cast alloy matrix give good response to the heat treatment [Taha 2001].
Most of the heat treatable alloys contain Mg with Cu, Si and Zn. The
strengthening in these alloys are due to formation of Cu Al2 in aluminum copper alloy
system, MgZn2 in aluminum zinc and magnesium system or AlMg2Si in aluminum
magnesium silicon system and Cu Mg Al2 Phase in Al-Zn-Mg system.
The precipitation treatment is generally carried out at low temperature ranging
from 1150C to 1900C. Time varies from 5 to 48 hrs depending upon the alloy matrix
usually referred by letter T6 temper. [www.metalarcticle.com, 2005]. T6 temper generally

43
has the highest strength practically without sacrifice of other properties and
characteristics. The T is found by experience to be satisfactory and useful for engineering
applications. It is followed by number 1 to 10. The specific sequence of basic treatments
as described below.
T1= Cooled form elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged (not cold work)
T2= Cooled from elevated temperature shaping process cold work and naturally aged
T3= Solution treated cold work and naturally aged
T4 =Solution treated naturally aged
T5 =Cooled from elevated temperature, shaping process and artificially aged.
T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T7 =Solution heat treated and over aged or stabilized
T8= Solution heat treated, cold work and artificially aged
T9 =Solution treated, artificially aged, cold worked.
T10 =Cooled from elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked and artificially aged
[Yilmaz 2004, Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006].
Literature reveals that heat treatment has significant effect on mechanical
properties and microstructure of aluminum cast composite. Process parameters depend
upon the chemical composition hence less information is available to investigate the
effect of heat treatment on properties of aluminum cast composites.
Rupa and Meenai (2005) applied T6 treatment on 7075 aluminum cast composites
reinforced with SiC particles. The composites were heated at 4950C for 8 hours water
quench and then tempered at 1200C for 24 hours. The aged samples were then
44
retrogressed at 2000C for duration of 45 minutes to allow only dissolution of precipitate.
In the second stage, the retrogressed samples were re-aged at 1200C for 2 hours to fully
restore the peak aged condition of T6 temper. They concluded that T6 tempered has
improved the strength as compared to double stage process (retrogressed) over the cast
alloy composites. However, wear is improved as a result of retrogression and re-aging
treatment. A similar matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles using stir casting method was
investigated by Daud et al (2004). They heated samples at 4900C for 2 hours for solution
treatment and quenched in water and tempered at 120 0C for 8 hours only. They conclude
better sliding wear resistance, strength and hardness are achieved as compared to the
matrix materials.
The aging behavior of spray cast 7075 aluminum alloy was investigated by Elmas
(2002). The solution treatment was carried out at 4700C for ½ hour followed by water
quenched and then tempered (aged) at aging temperature 120, 140, 175 0C for selected
time. They observed that aging increases with increase in temperature but better aging
effect on properties were achieved at lower temperature.
Maxim et al (1998) reported that homogenizing and artificial aging T6 and T7
increases 20 % strength of aluminum composite as compared to the natural aging. They
reported that fine ceramics particles exhibit strong relationship between tensile strength
and heat treatment.
Karnezis et al (1998) reported that cast aluminum composite contain Al-7Si alloy
matrix reinforced with SiC particles shows better ductility in alloy matrix and
composites, after solution treatment at 5400C for 12 hours and then quenched in water.
45
6061 aluminum alloy reinforced with SiC particles was investigated by Gupta and
Surappa (1995). The alloy was solution treated at 5300C for one hour and than quenched
in cold water. The alloy was aged isothermally at 1770C for various intervals. The time
aging results well defined peaks. They reported that aging rate is fast in 2 hours in
aluminum stir cast composite and then 8 hours in matrix alloy and resulted high hardness
of the composites as compared to alloy matrix.
A comparative behavior of 2014 Al-Cu alloy and its composites after aging
treatment was investigated by Rupa (2005). The alloys and composites were solution
treated in a muffle furnace at 4950C for 8 hours then quenched in cold water. The
samples were aged at different temperatures (150, 210, 2400C for 1& 2 hours) to optimize
the properties. They concluded that aging treatment improved the over all condition for
all properties in both alloys and composites in cast conditions.
A wear behavior of 7075 aluminum alloys and 7075 Al composites reinforced
with SiC particles was investigated after solution treatment and aging by Venkataraman,
and Sundararajan (2004). They prepared the alloy composite using powder metallurgy
route and applied T6 treatment. They found that wear behaviour of composites increases
with additions of ceramic particles in aluminum matrix.
2.4.3 Effect of AL2O3 Particles
Strength and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum metal matrix cast composites
(AMMCC) depends upon the type of reinforcements, their size and distribution and
interfacing with matrix materials. However, the most of the research was conducted to
46
investigate the influence of Al2O3 particles individually on strength or on wear. Some
investigations were conducted to study the effect of Al2O3 particles on both properties
strength and wear. The inherent properties of Al2O3 particles are attractive because they
have good resistance to oxidation as compared to SiC. Its density is 3.98g / cm3, the
modulus of elasticity E= 372 GPa and tensile strength of Al2O3 particles is 262 MPa
[Altinkok 2006].
The addition of Al2O3 in aluminum matrix using stir casting method has
advantage that it is inert at high mixing (processing) temperature as compared to SiC
[Taha 2001].
The presence of α - Al2O3 particles have the tendency to refine the structure of
matrix which leads to improve the yield strength, wear resistance and co-efficient of
fraction .However, the tensile strength and ductility decreases as reported by Azim et al
(1995).
The effect of Al2O3 particles content and their size on the properties such as
hardness strength and porosity was investigated by Kok (2005). They concluded that
hardness and tensile strength of aluminum cast composite increases with decrease in
particles size. However, the porosity increases with fine particles size due to
agglomeration of particles size. The similar effect of fine particles size (nano matrix
particle reinforced in aluminum matrix composite) and increase in volume fraction was
reported by Kang and Chan (2004).

47
The beneficial effect of increasing particles size and volume fraction on sliding
wear resistance in 2024 Aluminum matrix cast composites was reported by Kok, and
Ozdin (2007).
The effect of Al2O3 particles aluminum cast composite on tensile strength and
wear after rolling was investigated by Daud Bitar and Azim (2003). They reported
beneficial effect on abrasive wear and yield strength but tensile strength decreased with
an increase in volume fraction of Al2O3 particles in reinforced in Al 15 Mg matrix.
However they reported beneficial effect of Al2O3 particles on strength, wear, and
hardness in 7075 aluminum matrix [Daud et al 2004].
The influence of Al2O3 particles reinforced in aluminum matrix composites
developed by using stir casting method was investigated by (Kok 2006), Yidmaz and
Buytoz (2001). They also conclude that abrasive wear resistance of aluminum cast
composite increases with increase in volume fraction and particles size. The similar effect
of Al2O3 particles on abrasive wear resistance was reported by Stevircan and Kurnaz
(2006).
The beneficial effect of high Al2O3 particles upto 55 volume percent on strength
and toughness was reported by Maxim et al (1998) but they used using advanced
infiltration casting technique for development of cast composites.
The beneficial effect of Al2O3 particles on hardness, strength, and wear resistance
in Al-Si alloys was also reported by Surappa and Rohatgi (1981).
Fang et al (1999) suggested that addition of Al2O3 particles would increase the dry wear
or wear corrosion resistance of 6061 aluminum composites.

48
6061 aluminum alloy reinforced with Al2O3 particles was investigated by
Massardier et al (1993) and Baifeng et al (2007). They had concluded that the there was
increase in modulus of elasticity, tensile strength hardness but degrease in ductility.
However both investigators did not use stir casting method.
Generally it is summarized that Al2O3 particles increases the over all performance
of aluminum cast composites except the ductility which decreases.
2.4.4 Effect of Microstructure
The morphology of the microstructural constituents, their orientation, bonding,
distribution, presence of porosity and impurities have strong influence on strength and
wear. Their appearance of the microstructural features depends upon the composition and
processing method and heat treatment operations [Brusethaug, and langsrud 2001]
Literature reveals that microstructure of aluminum cast alloy influences the
properties of aluminum alloy based casting composites materials.
The microstructure of aluminum alloy based casting composite material consists of
matrix phase and particles, their distribution, defects and precipitation of particles, grains
and subgrains [Baifeng et al 2007 and Srivatsan 1996, Daud et al 2004 Redsten et al
1995, www.keytometal.com, 2005].
In recent year increasing the need of high performance aluminum alloy based
casting composites materials for automobile and aerospace industries need to understand
the relationship between microstructure-mechanical properties and processing method
[Srivatsan et al 1991].
49
The main microstructural requirement for aluminum cast composites is the
uniform distribution of ceramics and their interfacing. In stir casting porosity and
interfacing are the major issues which affect the properties of aluminum alloy based
casting composites Taha (2001). These problems have been well documented by Ibrahim
et al (1991), and Hashim, et al (2003).
The interfacing or wetting between the ceramics and particles can be improved by
preheating the ceramics at 9000C, addition of Mg upto 3 %, applying presence during
mixing , casting as reported by Taha (2001), Ibrahim et al (1991), Hashim et al (2003).
The uniform distribution, good interfacing, fine grain matrix and precipitation of
particles increase the strength and abrasive wear resistance as discussed by numbers of
investigators [Chawala et al 2000, Karnezis et al 1998, Lai and Yap 1997].
The microstructural characterization studied in stir casting route was conducted
by Gupta and Surappa (1995). They observed the precipitation behavior and segregations
of alloying elements in the interfacial region between Al alloy matrix and ceramic
particles. This will cause the variation in mechanical properties of cast aluminum
composites.
In stir casting of aluminum alloy matrix uniformity of distributions of ceramics
particles and good bonding between ceramics and matrix is essential that minimizes
porosity and improves the strength and wear as reported by Pai et al (1993).
Azim et al (1995) has observed that Al2O3 in stir casting help in formation of
equiaxed grains and acts as sites for nucleation’s which increases the strength properties.
50
The particle clustering and agglomerations of porosity were observed in cast
aluminum composites Kok (2005).
Kang and Chan (2004) investigated tensile properties of nanometric Al2O3
particles enforced in aluminum matrix. They observed that agglomeration increases with
increase in volume fraction but if the agglomeration is well bonded with matrix, it can
contribute to strengthen of composites.
The study of microstructural evaluation of 6061 MMC reinforced with Al2O3
particles indicates high dislocation density around Al2O3 particles. The formation of
reinforced precipitates constituting sites for dislocation pilling up phenomena will
improve the strength of composites [Bonollo 1997].
The aluminum particles in aluminum cast composites are located at higher
frequency at grain boundaries than in the grain interior. The clustering of alumina
particles and increasing dislocation density around aluminum rich region were observed
in microstructures of cast oxide dispersion strengthening aluminum composites by
Redsten et al (1995).
Daud et al (2004) observed particles agglomeration and porosity in squeeze cast
7075 aluminum composite reinforced with Al2O3 particles. They reported that presence
of alumina particles in 7075 aluminum alloys affects dendrite structure which is
reinforced as compared to aluminum cast alloy. This reinforcing of microstructure in
aluminum cast composites improves hardness and abrasive wear resistance.

51
2.4.5 Effect of Interfacing (wetting) and Porosity
The interfacing compatibility between ceramics, matrix and porosity are the major
factors which affect the overall performance of aluminum cast composites as reported by
large numbers of investigators [Ibrahim Mohammad and Levernia 1991, Hashim et al
1999, 2002, Surappa 1981, Kok 2005, Aquida, Ghazali and Hashim 2004, Taha 2001].
One of the important limitations in fabrication of aluminum metal matrix
composite is the compatibility of reinforcement in matrix. In case of aluminum
composites, Al is covered with a thin layer of oxide. Thin layer blocks the surface
wetting and reacts with some ceramics to form intermetallic phases which affect the final
properties of aluminum composites [Suresh et al 2003]. A Good bonding between
reinforcement and matrix is required for effective load transfer through the matrix to the
reinforcement. This interfacing can be improved through surface oxidation, cooling,
preheating of ceramics particles, melt treatment addition of Mg and apply pressure during
mixing [Taha 2001, Hashim et al 1991].
The wettings extend the intimate contact between the liquid matrix and solid
ceramics. Successful incorporation of solid ceramics particles in casting requires that
melt should wet the solid particles. The problem of wetting is due to surface chemistry of
solid and surface tension of the liquid. The surface modification of ceramic particles with
Mg, Li, Ti, Cu and P by breaking surface tension by rapid mixing will improve the
wettingablity or by reducing the contact angle θ ‹ 90 degree as reported by Hashim et al
(1999).
52
Ibrahim et al (1991), reported that 3% Mg decreases surface tension of pure
aluminum and in the presence of Al2O3 particles a chemical reaction takes place between
Al2O3 and divalent transition metal oxides, resulting in formation of aluminum spinals
such as MgO. Al2O3 promotes interfacial bonding and form strong bonding between both
matrix and ceramics that would result in improvements in the properties of cast
composites.
Hashim et al, (1999, 2002) reported that as the particle size decreases wetting
become very difficult due to increase in surface area of particles and increasing the
tendency of agglomeration. Porosity in stir casting is also the major problem which has
adverse effect on mechanical properties of cast composites [Aquida et al 2004, Hashim et
al 1999 and 2002, Yilmaz, and Buytoz 2001]
Porosity is a defect formed by interfacial reaction occurred in the form of rod or
long fissured pores. Porosity result due to entrapment of gases during stirring, water
vapour content in mould, ceramics particles, hydrogen evolution or shrinkage during
solidification [Aqida 2004]. Porosity content increases with increasing the processing
temperature, prolong mixing increasing volume friction and size [Hashim et al 1991]
In aluminum casting hydrogen is responsible for gas porosity which penetrates the
liquid alloy by following reaction
H2O(v) 1/3 Al2O3 + 2H(in Al)
Upon solidification the hydrogen trapped in solid metal form bubbles that produce
gas porosity [Aqida et al 2004]. porosity is measured by quantitative metallographic
method or through the density using arch median method [Kok 2005] but in case of cast
53
aluminum composites reinforced with Al2O3 particles quantitative method can not
accurately predict the porosity because many pores are filled with ceramic particles.
Therefore theoretical density and experimentally determined density will give
accurate measurement of porosity [Hassan et al 2009]. Porosity depends upon matrix
composition and particle size. However porosity reduces strength, fatigue, ductility and
wear resistance and density of the cast composites [Yilmaz and Buytoz, 2001, Aqida et al
2004, Suresh et al 2003, Hashim 2002]. However, the damping capacity increases with
increasing the porosity content [Aqida et al 2004]
2.5 MODELING
2.5.1 Introduction
Modeling is an art. Now a day’s it is considered as an active branch of
scientific study, mostly used for solving complex problems. Based on the nature of the
problem, various modeling techniques have been reported in the literature for solving the
materials engineering related problems. Theses modeling techniques include physical
modeling, mathematical modeling and computational modeling [Askin and Standridge
1993].
The physical models are the processes by which any object is to be modeled on
scale and provides the visual aids for checking the desired potential of design [Anu
1997].The mathematical modeling requires the use of mathematical set of equations or
logical relationships to describe the real system for solution of problems [Xiaos et al
2009].
54
Mathematical modeling differs from physical modeling in their use of decision
variables. Mathematical modeling can be descriptive (simulation) or prescriptive (such as
linear programming) in nature [Warke, Shanker, and Makhlouf 2005].
A more efficient modeling can be done with the help of computer systems using
computational modeling. The computational modeling requires the use of computers for
development of models. Also logical programming is required for solving complex
problems. Now day’s computational modeling techniques are widely used for research
and development work; especially in the field of materials science and engineering due to
increased accuracy, reliability, efficiency and reduced fatigue of experimental work,
saving time as well as energy as well [Patanker, 2002, Jokhio et al 2009].
Literature reveals that a comparatively new modeling technique which has been
widely used for solving such complex non-linear materials related problems using
computational modeling is artificial neural network models [Houche 2004, Rajagopal
andRajagopalan 1996].
2.5.2 Artificial Neural Networks Modeling
Artificial neural network is a computational modeling technique and relatively
considered as a new field of artificial intelligence because it can simulate intelligence
activities [Talpur 2003]
An Artificial neural network tries to mimic the structure and operations of the
human brain [Jokhio et al 2004].

55
By creating an artificial neural network on computers, complex problems can be
solved such as intelligent control of power plants [Talpur 2003], speech recognition,
prediction of protein, classification of cancer [kough 2008] etc.
The development of intelligent machine began in the 19th century as a combined
effort of many researches was aimed to understand the functionality of brain; such as its
ability to receive input, stored in memory, the logical operations of manipulations, sense
of thinking, learning, recocnizing the activities and finally giving the response in term of
outputs [Talpur 2003, Unar 1999].
A simple hardware and software based on the hypothesis of brain thinking system
developed by Mc Culloch and Pitts in 1943 was considered as an initial systematic study
of artificial neural network. Later on investigators developed networks for pattern
recognition using single layer preceptron.
First artificial neural network was developed in the period of 1950 to 1960 and
was initially implemented as electronic circuits. In the period of 1970 to 1980 the
artificial neural network was utilized in the field of computer science and electronics.
Later on, after the development of various learning algorithms (especially back
propagation learning) in the period of 1982 to 1986 it gained popularity in applications in
almost all disciplines [Ziliochain 2001, Anil et al 1996].
2.5.2.1 Background of Artificial Neural Network
An artificial neural network consists of an architectural network of neurons
organized in a certain pattern. The basic element of artificial neural network is neuron
56
(Fig 2.6) whose structure and working principle is derived from the concept of biological
neuron. For efficient uses of an artificial neural network one must understand the
structure and working principle of biological neuron. Fig: 2.7. This aspect has not been so
clearly defined in most of the research articles.
Fig: 2.6 Biological neuron (Ziliochain 2001)
Fig: 2.7 Working principle of a biological neuron (Jasmin 2003)
A biological neuron (Fig 2.6) consists of the cell body (Soma) as a central part of
neuron which consists of neuclus and protein. All logical functions take place within this
57
part of the neuron and acts as an information processing unit. Neuron is connected with
axon and multitude of dendrite (Tree like structures). Dendrites are connected with cell
body through axon and act to receive information’s. A neuron receives information from
other neurons through large number of dendrites and transmits information through axon
(output channel). The axon is further divided into strand and substrand. The neurons are
connected through synapses (joints), which are the functional units between two neurons.
Upon receiving impulses or information at synapses neuron releases chemicals to
enhance or inhabits the received tendency and emits electrical pulses. The strength of
synaptic can be chemically altered by the brain in response to favorable and unfavorable
stimuli. The synapses act as junctions between axon and dendrite of other neurons. A
neuron fires when collective influence of all impulses reaches to the threshold value and
proceeds to soma through axon structure and gives the output results [Unar 1999, and
Talpur 2003].
A simple artificial neuron is modeled as a device (usually nonlinear) whose
architecture is divided into three parts: input part, processing part and output part. The
input of the neuron may be the input of network of which the neuron is a part, the output
of other neuron or its own neuron. The functionality (Simulation) of output artificial
neuron is achieved upon receiving one or more input Xi (i =1, 2---Xn) to the neuron and
then multiplying by weight Wi (i =1, 2, ---- Wn). Each neuron connection has the weight
value which represents the memory of the network and indicates the strength of synapses
and analogy with neuro-biological synapses (Fig: 2.7). The weighted signals are summed
(Linear combination of value) to produce over all activation value which is compared to
58
the threshold value called activation function of the neuron. In most cases, the bias is
added to the weighted sum. The bias is generally used to speed up the learning process.
When the overall value exceeds the threshold value, a neuron passes data in the form of
simple electrical pulses.
The selection of the activation functions of a neuron depends upon the desired
functionality of neuron and may be linear or nonlinear function. The purpose of
activation function is to confine the neuron’s output to a pre-specified range. The various
activation functions are shown in Fig 2.8.
Fig: 2.8 Various activation functions (Jasmin 2003)
Mathematically, an artificial neuron is expressed as:
Xn
y = f [∑WiXi - b] (2.1),
i=1
Where, Xn is the total number of n inputs. In most cases, threshold contribution “b” is
treated as an extra input X0 to the neuron X0 = -1 and W0 = b. Equation (2.1) Simplifies
as:
59
Xn
y = f [∑Wi Xi] (2.2).

i=1
A neuron has two modes of operation training and testing mode [Talpur 2003]. In
the training mode, a neuron trains to fire or not to fire for a particular input pattern. In the
testing mode, if the input pattern does not belong to the list of the trained pattern of inputs
the firing rule is used to decide whether the shared neuron fire or not fire. The simple
neuron can solve simple problem however, complex problems require the use multiple
neurons working together.his is called neural network which is usually arranged in the
form of input layer, hidden layer and output layer as shown in Fig: 2.9.
Hidden layer
Out put layer

Input layer
Fig: 2.9 Architecture of a simple neural network [Unar 1999]
The input neuron or input layer receives information from environment. The
output neurons of layers send signals out of the system. The hidden neurons or layers are
those which have information within the system [Altinkok and Koker 2005]. The neural
networks are generally classified based on thier architecture (topology and learning
60
method). The most widely used topology is the feedforward network and most common
learning method is the ever back propagation rule [Talpur 2003].
2.5.2.2 Multilayer Feedforward Neural Network
The multilayer feedforward neural network is one of the most popular architecture
due to its easeness in applications [Badeshah 1999]. Another reason of its popularity is
that it allows supervised learning. In this type of learning a network is required to give
some desired output for a certain class of input patterns [Unar 1999]. The feedforward
name is given to this network, because signals always propagate in forward direction
from layer to layer and do not pass from other neurons in the same layer or the previous
layer.
Since the development of feedforward network technique in the late eighties,
theses networks have been applied by large number of investigators. Based upon the
applications, these can be divided into two major groups: For function approximation and
classification. If the output values are continuous, then this network is performing
function approximation. However, if it restricts the output to a finite set of value then it is
performing classification task. Furthermore, multilayer feedforward neural network can
be divided into two major categories: The multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial Bias
function (RBF). However, in the present work, MLP has been used therefore; this
network is described as under.

61
2.5.2.3 Multilayer Perceptron Network
The Multilayer Perceptron network has been successfully applied in almost every
discipline perhaps it is the best known type of feedforward neural network [Unar1999,
and Anil, 1996, Jokhio 2009].
Recently, the Multilayer Perceptron has been used in the field of materials science and
engineering by a large number of investigators [Ozerdem 2007, Jokhio et al 2004, and
Hassan et al 2008]. The topology of multilayer perceptron is similar to multilayer
feedforward as discussed previously. it consists of input layer, hidden layer and output
layer. The number of hidden layers and number of neurons in each layer is not fixed.
Each layer may have different number of neurons depending upon the applications.
Generally MLP network has a different number of neurons and different synaptic weights
for different layers. All neurons in hidden layers have a sigmoidal nonlinearity such as a
1
logistic function Yi = or hyperbolic tangent function Yi = a tanh b(Ui )
1 + exp( −Ui )
Where Ui is the net internal activity of neuron i, Yi is the output of the same neuron and
a,b are the constants. MLP network learn faster with hyperbolic tangent function than
logistic function [Hyken 1999]. Each unit performs a weighted sum of its inputs and pass
this activation level through a transfer function to produce its output. The output layer
neurons may have the same activation as the hidden neurons. However, many
applications use a linear function as the activation function of the outputs neurons.
An important point to emphasis here is that the non linearity is smooth (i.e differentiable
every where). A multilayer perceptron (MLP) is usually trained by using the error back
62
propagation rule. The development of the back propagation learning algorithm for
determining weights in a multilayer perceptron has made these networks the most popular
among the researchers and users of neural networks. The back propagation algorithm is
discussed in the next section.
2.5.2.4 Back Propagation Neural Network Algorithm

The back propagation neural algorithm was developed in the 1980.
The back propagation algorithm works in three steps.
o Forward sweep
o Error calculation
o Back propagation
In forward sweep, each neuron receives information in the form of inputs; calculated
and passed to the neurons of the next layers which receive information and passes it to
the neurons of final layer.
In the next step the error is calculated by comparing the value of the neurons of
output layers to the desired output. If the differences between the actual output and the
teacher(desired output) is within acceptable rang then learning is successful other wise
the error is calculated and learning is called unsuccessful.
In the third step; if the learning is unsuccessful then the error value is propagated
backward through the network to minimize the error between the actual and desired
outputs by adjusting the weighted value. In learning process, these three steps are
repeated until the learning becomes successful by minimizing the error between actual
and desired output within the acceptable range [Hassan et al 2008]. The derivation of the
back propagation algorithm can be found elsewhere [Haykin, 1999; Unar 1999].
63
2.5.3 Neural Networks in Materials Science and Engineering
The neural networks have been applied in almost every discipline for solving
problems such as design, development, processing and controlling of materials,
equipment, and products. In the field of materials science and engineering this technique
has also be effectively applied by a large number of investigators.
For example, Badeshah (1999) had well documented the applications of neural
networks in materials science concerned with the processing, properties and
microstructural evaluation of steels and ductile cast iron. Sha and Edwards (2007) had
brought the researchers attention for towards the use of neural network in materials
science based research work.
The microstructural constitutions such as amount of retained austenite in
austempered ductile cast iron was estimated by using artificial neural networks by
Yascas, Bhdeshia, and Mackay (2006). Martin and William (2003), reported that neural
network modeling, using back propagation algorithm can effectively be used for feature
classification of steel alloy microstructural constitutions (ferrite + pearlite) Maly, Harck
and Novotny (2001) have also reported that neural network approach can be used in
image analysis of complex systems.
Jokhio et al (2004), Sudhakar and Haque (2001), Cherian ,Smith, and Midha
(2000), Ohdar, and Pasha (2003), are the few examples of applications of neural
networks in the field of Materials Science and Engineering concerned with the field of
powder metallurgy.
64
Steel processing and its performance, characterization involving the complex
analysis of problems has been solved by applying neural networks by a large number of
investigators such as Dobrzanski, Sitech (2003), Dobranski , Kowalski, and Maejski
(2005), and Lujie et al (2007). The materials performance depends upon the complex
interrelated materials factors such as chemistry and processing method. Therefore,
experimental observations can not capture all aspects of materials. The material
development and processing and characterizations are difficult and time consuming tasks.
However neural networks have the capability in capturing the experimentally observed
behavior through a learning process.

65
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE & MODELING
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Modeling of high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting
composites for engineering applications require sufficient data. However very little
information is available on development of high strength and wear resistance of
aluminum cast composite using stir casting method. The available information is not
sufficient for neural network modeling. Therefore, wide range of experimental work was
conducted for the development of aluminum matrix alloys and aluminum alloy based
casting composite for high strength and abrasive wear résistance. The details of the
experimental work for data generation and methodology adopted for modeling of high
strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite materials are as
under:
3.2 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RIG
The experimental rig consists of the mixing unit (Fig: 3.1) The rig consist of an
electric motor and mechanical stirrer made of mild steel for mixing the particles in liquid
metal. A rectangular housing made of asbestos and steel frame in which the motor is
fixed. The operating principle of this unit is simple like the conventional mixers used in
chemical processing industries. A graphite crucible is used for melting and mixing of
66
aluminum alloy composites. The molten metal and ceramics (Al2O3) particles were mixed
by using mechanical stirrer which rotates with the help of electric motor and mixes the
particles in a molten aluminum alloy.
Fig: 3.1 Experimental rig for mixing unit
3.3. ALLOYS DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
For alloy development pure aluminum, copper, zinc, magnesium metals and Al2O3
powder were purchased from market in the form of ingots.
Six different master alloys were developed to investigate the matrix alloys and its
composites by taking the following composition in weight percentage in grams as shown
in Table 3.1.
67
Table - 3.1 Theoretically selected alloy compositions in grams for development of
master alloy.
Alloy No: Cu Mg Zn Al
1 0.00 gm 122 gm 150 gm 4728 gm
2 100 gm 140 gm 300 gm 4460 gm
3 400 gm 50 gm 300 gm 4250 gm
4 250 gm 50 gm 0.00 gm 4700 gm
5 150 gm 120gm 300 gm 4430 gm
6 200 gm 125gm 300 gm 4375 gm
For alloy development pure aluminum ingot was melted in gas fire pit furnace in a
graphite crucible at Mehran University of Engineering & Technology (MUET) Workshop
as shown in Fig: 3.2.
Fig: 3.2 Gas fire pit furnace
Alloying element Cu was added first in required quantity after obtaining the liquid
phase of aluminum. The other alloying elements Zn and Mg were added in last and
mixed manually for 10 minutes and cast in sand molds in size of 2 inch dia and 1 feet
length as shown in Fig: 3.3 and 3.4.

68
Fig: 3.3 Casting of aluminum alloys Fig: 3.4 Developed master alloys
3.3.1 Development and Casting of Composites Samples
For further development of aluminum cast composite material, each alloy was
melted using electrically heated and electronically temperature controlled bath furnace as
shown in Fig: 3.5. Weighted quantity 500 gm of aluminum alloys were melted in crucible
using electrically heated two bath furnaces. Temperature was held at 850 0C for 30
minutes (Fig: 3.6). The required quantity of aluminum oxide powder was preheated at
900 0C for one hour using same electrically heated furnace. Al2O3 particles in weight
percentage of 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and 15% were mixed for 10 minutes as shown in (Fig:
3.7). The melt were purged with nitrogen gas for few seconds (Fig: 3.8). After purging of
samples they were cast in steel mold in size of 1/2 inch dia and 8 inches length as shown
in Fig: 3.9. The steel molds were drilled on opposite sides for evolutions of gases in order
to minimize the porosity contents.

69
Fig: 3.5 Electrically heated furnace. Fig: 3.6 Melting of master alloy
Fig: 3.7 Arrangement of mixer. Fig: 3.8 Purging N2 gas cylinder
Fig: 3.9 Casting of samples in a prepared metal mold
3.4 SAMPLES PREPARATION
100 standard specimens were prepared using lath machine at MUET workshop for
tensile tests as shown in Fig: 3.10 and Fig: 3.11. The coolant was used during the
70
machining of the samples to avoid heating of samples. The specimen size consists of
11.28 mm diameter and 56 gauge length, radius r = 6 mm and 130 mm total length.
Fig: 3.10 Preparation of samples Fig: 3.11 Prepared standard specimens for
on lath. tensile test.
3.5 PRECIPITATION TREATMENT PROCESSES
Sixty (60) samples were heat treated at Metallurgical Engineering Department
using electrically heated muffle furnace. Samples were heated at 580 0C for 1/2 hour
water quench (solution heat treatment). After solution treatment all were tempered at 120
0
C for 24 hours and air cooled.
3.6 TENSILE TESTS
The tensile tests of all samples were conducted at the Department of
Metallurgical Engineering Dawood College of Engineering & Technology (DCET)
Karachi using Universal Tensile Testing Machine (Fig: 3.12). The tensile test parameters
are given in Table 3.2.

71
Fig: 3.12 Universal tensile testing machine used at DCET Karachi for tensile tests
Table 3.2 Parameters of tensile testing machine.
Order number 1 2.5 CAST SAMPLE

Charge Rs 300
Test standard ASTM
Tester
Customer M. H JOKHIO
Material ALUMINUM CAST COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Extensometer
Load cell MAX: 250 KN
Pre-load 2 N/mm²
Pre-load speed 10 mm/min
Test speed 50 mm/min
3.7 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The chemical analysis of raw material and developed alloys were conformed.
For this purpose 15 mm dia and 15 mm length samples were prepared for chemical
analysis. The analysis was carried out using Spectrometer available at DCET Karachi and
72
Scanning electron microscope available at Mining Engineering Department MUET
Jamshoro (Fig: 3.13) was used for analysis. The particle size of aluminum oxide particles
were also analyzed using Horiba particle analyzer (Fig: 3.14).
Fig: 3.13 SEM used for analysis. Fig: 3.14. Horiba particle size analyzer
3.8 HARDNESS TESTS
Hardness of all samples was determined using Vickers hardness Testing Machine
at 1 kg load (Fig: 3.15). Samples surfaces were smoothed by grinding at 120 -500 mesh
emery papers and were polished using 600-1200 mesh emery papers. Four readings of
each sample were taken and mean diagonal area was calculated for recording the Vickers
hardness value.
73
Fig: 3.15 Vickers hardness test
3.9 ABRASIVE WEAR TESTS
The abrasive wear tests of all samples were carried out using sample (pin) on disc
method (weight loss in gram method). All samples were weighted using electronic
balance (Fig: 3.16). The samples were fixed in machine attachment for wear test as
shown in Fig: 3.17. The abrasive wear set up is shown at Fig: 3.16-3.18. The 150 mesh
emery paper was fixed on disc with steel frame and used for abrasive wear test.
The emery paper was removed after each 15 minutes and four readings of each
sample were taken for wear test. The machine speed was fixed at 1500 rpm; and a load of
1 kg was fixed though out the test. Lubricants water flow rate, emery papers were kept
constant except the samples chemistry which vary from sample to sample for each test.
Four readings were taken for every sample and total weight loss in grams and average
weight loss in grams were calculated.

74
Fig:. 3.16 Electronic balance. Fig: 3.17 Abrasive wear test Fig: 3.18 Abrasive wear
tests Machine.
3.10 MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY AND POROSITY
The density of all samples was measured by weight in air divided by volume
method at Department of Civil Engineering MUET Jamshoro. The theoretical density of
all samples was calculated from the average composition from the elemental density of
metals as given in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4.
Table 3.3 Average compositions used for calculation of theoretical density of alloys
Alloy No % Si % Fe % Cu % Mg % Zn % Al Theoretical density gm/cm3

1 1.1 0.92 0.066 2.21 3.0 92 2.85 gm/cm3
2 2.8 0.72 2.45 2.15 5.0 84 2.99 gm/cm3
3 3.8 0.78 7.0 1.28 5.16 75 3.17 gm/cm3
4 2.6 1.0 4.7 0.6 0.6 89 3.0 gm/cm3
5 3.2 0.46 2.7 1.8 4.4 85 2.98 gm/cm3
6 4.3 0.62 3.0 2.0 5.16 81 2.99 gm/cm3
Table 3.4 Theoretical density of metals in gm/cm3
Si Fe Cu Mg Zn Al
2.329 gm/cm 7.6 gm/cm 8.69 gm/cm 1.738 gm/cm 7.1338 gm/cm 2.7 gm/cm3
3 3 3 3 3
75
3.11 METALLOGRAPHY
The metallographic studies were mostly conducted using Optical Metallurgical
Microscope at MUET Jamshoro and Pakistan Steel Mills Laboratories. Scanning Electron
Microscope (Fig: 3.13) was also used at MUET for metallographic study for few
samples. The samples were prepared after grinding using 120-1200 mesh emery papers.
After grinding the samples were polished using alfa aluminum oxide powder, and then
they were etched in prepared Keller’s solution. Keller’s etchant consist distilled water
190 ml, nitric acid 5 ml, hydrochloric acid 3 ml, hydrofluoric acid 2 ml
3.12 MODELING METHODOLOGY
The modeling methodology depends upon the nature of problem. The present
research involves the modeling for high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy
base casting composite materials whose performance depends upon composition,
processing parameters and heat treatment conditions. These variables have strong
influence on strength and wear. Obviously complicated nonlinear relationship exists
between composition, processing parameters and their resulting mechanical properties.
To search for optimum composition for high strength and wear a nonlinear relationship is
to be established for best results which include the selection of input and output
parameters as well as the architecture and learning algorithm.
As discussed in literature review that the complexity of this nonlinear behavior of
materials related performance can more efficiently be modeled using artificial neural. The
artificial neural network is a comparatively new field of artificial intelligence which tries
76
to mimic the structure and operation based on biological neural systems such as human
brain by creating an artificial neural network on computers [Unar 1999, Talpur 2003,
Jokhio, et al 2004].
Therefore, artificial neural network modeling methodology is used for modeling
of high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite material.
The efficient neural network modeling requires the design of neural network architecture
which includes the selection of inputs layer, hidden layer, outputs layer as well as the
selection of learning algorithm , training and testing ( validations) of model as described
below:
3.12.1 Architecture of the Model
The type of artificial neural network used in this study is multilayer preceptron
(MLP) network. It is a feedforward type of ANN model consisting of input layer, hidden
layer and output layer. Each neuron in layer receives inputs from all of the neurons of
preceding layer. The design architecture of the developed model is shown at Fig: 3.19.
Compositions such as Fe, Si, Cu, Mg, Zn, Al2O3 and Al in weight % age were
selected as input parameters of the model. The processing parameters such as melting
temperature in 0C, melting time in minutes, tempering temperature in 0C, tempering times
in minutes and density of the materials in g/cm3 were also chosen as input parameters of
the model. The experimentally determined mechanical properties such as tensile strength
in MPa, elongation in % age, hardness in HV and abrasive wear resistance (average
weight loss in grams) were selected as output parameters of the model.

77
The tangent hyperbolic and linear activation functions were selected as transfer functions
in hidden layer and output layer neurons respectively. The model consists of fourteen
input neurons, nine hidden neurons and four output neurons.
Fig: 3. 19 Design of neural network model.
3.12.2 Training of Neural Network Model
MLP Networks are trained by using the well known error–back propagation
training algorithm. The description and derivation of this algorithm can be found in any
standared text on artificial neural networks [e.g Hayken 1999]. The network runs
repeatedly with different neurons, until the output is satisfactorily accurate.

78
For training of neural network pack propagation algorithm was programmed in
MATLAB.
The model consisted of 14 inputs which include Si, Fe, Cu, Mg, Zn, Al2O3, AL
matrix, density, melting temperature, holding and mixing time, solution treatment
temperature, solution treatment time, tempering temperature, and tempering time. All
data were normalized before training .Training is the act of continuously adjusting their
connection weights until they reach unique values that allow the network to produce
outputs that are close enough to the desired outputs.
The accuracy of developed model therefore, depends upon these weights. Once
optimum weights are reached, the weights and biases value encode the networks state of
knowledge. Therefore, using network on new case is merely a matter of simple
mathematical manipulation of these values.
3.12.3 Validation of Model
For validation of the model ten alloys from experimental data base were used for
measuring the validity of the trained model. For these purpose five (5) alloys as in cast
condition and five (5) alloys in as heat treated conditions were used for validation of the
trained models for both conditions. The experimentally determined mechanical properties
were compared with the mechanical properties as determined by artificial neural network
model. The further detailed of the experimental results such as composition properties
and modeling are given in chapter 4.

79
3.12.4 Modeling (Optimization) of Composition for High Strength and Wear
Modeling for high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting
composite materials need to model alloy compositions and searching a wide range of
data. For this purpose the trained models knowledge was used for optimization for high
strength and wear resistance. More than 500 alloy compositions were modeled and
searched for high strength, ductility (elongation), hardness and abrasive wear resistance.
The sensitivity analysis of each input parameter within the minimum and maximum
limits were investigated for best optimum results.

80
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents both the experimental and simulated results. The chemical
analysis of raw materials and other details for data generation have been presented. A
neural network model has been developed with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. It
has been demonstrated that the developed model is reasonably accurate and suitable for
the application.
4.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The chemical analysis of raw materials was carried out by using the Scanning
Electron Microscope (EDS) system. The EDS analysis report as shown in Fig: 4.1-4.5
confirms that the raw materials Al, Cu, Zn, Mg and Al2O3 purchased from the local
market are 95 -99 % pure form except the Mg ingot which contains 5-10 % Al which do
not affect the desired mechanical properties. The EDS analysis reports of the initially
developed alloy groups 1-4 (Fig: 4.6-4.18) indicate some variations in chemical
composition within the same alloy. This variation in chemical composition is observed in
those alloys which contain Cu which have higher melting temperature. The Spectrometer
analyses for chemical composition presented in Appendix- A and Table A 1- 6 indicates
small variation as compared to EDS analysis. Spectrometer analysis reports of chemical

81
composition of alloy group 1-6 shown in Fig: 4.19-4.24 indicates the presence of Si in
most of alloys above 1 % and higher % ages of Si in some of the alloys were due to
melting and initially sand casting of master alloys. The presence of Si in aluminum
casting alloys is usually considered as an impurity in aluminum casting alloys. However,
the presence of Si has encountered beneficial effect on strength and wear resistance as
reported by large numbers of investigators [Maxim et al 1998, Dailibor et al 2003, Lee
1998 and Haizhi 2003]. The analysis report shows that the presence of Fe is less than 1%
in most of the alloys. The presence of Fe in most of the developed alloys was due to use
of mild steel stirrer and mixing of Al2O3 particles at high temperature (8500C). Generally,
Fe is also present as an impurity in aluminum casting alloys and form intermetallic
compound which may have beneficial effect on strength and wear when present in small
quantity. Haizhi (2003) reported that Fe must be present in aluminum casting alloy less
than 1 %. The exceeding in % age of Fe in aluminum casting alloy along with Si reduces
the strength properties by forming AlFeSi intermetllic compound. Theoretical
composition of alloys means composition of the initial material containing; Cu, Mg, and
Zn were selected for developments of master alloys Vs, the actual experimental
composition as determined by spectrometer analysis of the same elements in the master
alloys shows small variation as given in Table 4.1 and Fig: 4.25. The analysis report as
shown in Fig: 4.25 indicate that the actual compositions results are matching with the
theoretical composition. Literature reveals that the composition plays important role on
strength and wear resistance as reported by large numbers of investigators [Maxim et al
1998, Haizhi 2003, Ejofor and Reddy 1997]. Increasing % age of these alloying elements
82
up to 5 % will increase mechanical properties of cast aluminum composites. Further
increasing alloying elements would decrease the strength properties due to formation of
intermetallic compounds as reported by [Ibrahim, Mohemed, and Levrnia1991,
Fridlyander 2003]. Horiba particle analyzer result indicates that the average particle size
is 41.8 micron which is automatically determined by machine with high accuracy
(Appendix B and Table B-1). The particles size of aluminum oxide is another factor
which also affects the strength and abrasive wear. As the particle size decreases the
tensile strength increases and abrasive wear decreases [Shen and Lin 1996].
Fig: 4.1 Analysis of aluminum ingot Fig: 4.2 Analysis of copper ingot
83
Fig: 4.3 Analysis of Mg ingot Fig: 4.4 Analysis of Al2O3 powder
Fig: 4.5 Analysis of zinc ingot Fig: 4.6 Analysis of sample 1

84
Fig: 4.7 Analysis of sample 1 Fig: 4.8 Analysis of sample 1

85

86

87
Alloying elements in weight % Analysis report of alloy 1 Analysis report of alloy 2
Composition in weight % age

4 6
3.5 5
3 Si Si
2.5 Fe 4 Fe
age
2 Cu 3 Cu
1.5 Mg
2 Mg
1 Zn
0.5 Zn
1
0
0
C 0 C 25 TR .5A 0HT 15B
1
11 1. 5H 1
T
5C
0C
0C
2C
5B
0A
11 1
2H
.
12
22
21
22
21
21
Numbers of alloys Numbers of alloys
Fig: 4.19 Analysis of alloy 1 Fig: 4.20 Analysis of alloy 2
Analysis report of alloy 3 Analysis report of alloy 4

A llo i n g e le m e n t s in w e ig h t %
A llo y in g e l e m e n ts i n
8 6
5 Si
w e ig h t % a g e
6 4 Fe
Si
age
4 3 Cu
Fe 2 Mg
2
Cu 1 Zn
0 0
Mg
3C
31 C
C
Zn
31 HT
4C
32 A
31 H T
32 T
4 C
3.5 HT
41 5H T
5B
4 H.T
41 T
5C
4. H T
4. T
5H
1
3. 5
H
H
30
A
5
0B
5A
41
E
2.
10
0B
5R
.5
2.

88
Analysis report of alloy 5 Analysis report of alloy 6

A llo y in g e le m e n ts in w e ig h t
A llo y in g e le m e n ts in w e ig h t %
6 6
5 Si 5 Si
4 Fe 4 Fe
% age
age
Cu 3 Cu
2 Mg Mg
2
1 Zn Zn
1
0
0
610HT 1
610HT 2
6 10HT
6 2 .5 H T
6 5HT
6 15HT
6 C7
6 0 C
6 5C
6 10C
6 15C
3.5 T
51 T
5 HT
5 C2
5 1 .T
5 C1
5 HT
2
0H
0H
H
C
25
5
5
6 .5
5
10
5
Table 4.1 Theoretical composition & actual average composition in weight percent
as determined by X-ray and Spectrometer test results.
Alloy Theoretical Actual Theoretical Actual Theoretical Actual

Composition Composition Composition Composition Composition Composition
of Cu of Cu of Mg of Mg of Zn of Zn
in wt % age in wt % age in wt % age in wt % age in wt % age in wt % age
1 0.0 0.066 2.5 2.20 3.1 3.0
2 2.0 2.45 2.77 2.15 5.5 5.0
3 8.0 7.0 1.0 1.28 6.0 5.16

4 5.0 4.7 0.5 0.6 0.0 .0.6
5 3.0 2.7 2.0 1.8 5.0 4.4
6 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 6.0 5.16
89
Theoritical Vs Actual composition of master

alloys
10
Alloing elements in
Th Com of Cu
8
w eight % age
Ac Comp of Cu
6
Th Com of Mg
4
Ac Com of Mg
2
Th l Com of Zn
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 Ac Com of Zn
Numbers of master alloys
Fig: 4.25 Theoretical composition Vs the actual composition of alloys
4.3 TENSILE STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY (ELONGATION)
The detailed tensile test results including the results of stress and strain diagrams
of as cast and as heat treated samples are given in Appendix C. The tensile strength
results of alloy group 1-6 as determined from tensile test and the ductility measured in
term of elongations are given in Table 4.2-4.7 and Fig: 4.26-4.33. The tensile test results
as shown in Fig: 4.26-4.33 indicates that alloy 1, 2 and 5 exhibits good tensile strength
and ductility. Alloy 5 shows highest tensile strength as compared to other alloys.
However the alloy 3 shows poor tensile strength as compared with alloy 5.
The tensile test results of alloy group 1(Fig: 4.26) show high tensile strength (214
MPa) and ductility maximum up to 22 % as compared to alloy group 3 and 4. This alloy
group shows the higher ductility than to alloy group 2. This highest ductility was present
due to absence of Si and Cu contents. The similar effect of Si content in aluminum matrix
90
was reported by [Haizhi 2003]. However, the presence of Cu alloy is treated at higher
temperature and longer holding time in order to obtain uniformity in chemical
composition. The melting and treating alloys at lower temperature and time will reduce
the porosity content in this alloy group. Aqida Ghazali and Hussain (2004) reported that
treated alloy at lower temperature will reduce hydrogen content in cast composite which
will reduce porosity content and results to enhance strength and toughness.
The tensile test results of alloy group 2 (Fig: 4.27) shows higher tensile strength
(maximum 225 MPa) as compared to alloy group 3, 4 and 6. This higher tensile to
strength along with good ductility up to maximum 16.6 %, mostly in case of heat treated
conditions was achieved due to presence of Cu-Mg-Zn content. Literature reveals that
this group yields highest strength as also reported by large number of investigators
[Fridlyander 2003, Dalibor, Serak and Ekrt 2003, Senkov et al 2005, Srivatsan and
Vasudevan 2006].
Ibrahim et al (1991), Hashim et al (1999), Taha (2001) and Maxim et al (1998)
reported that the presence of Mg along with Cu and Zn enhances wetting ability of the
ceramic particles, reduces porosity and precipitate the fine particles after heat treatment
and hence increases strength properties. The literature reveals that as the strength
increases, the ductility will decrease [Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006, Srivatsan
Lewandowski 2006, www.metalaricles.com 2005]. The similar results were found in
alloy group 2.
Considering the tensile test results of alloy group 3 (Fig: 4.28) indicate poor
tensile strength (165 MPa) and ductility maximum 14 %. This decrease in tensile strength
91
and ductility (elongation) was achieved due to presence of highest % age of Cu content
upto 7 %, Si content upto 4 % and high Zn content upto 6 %.
The higher Cu Content needs high melting temperature and longer holding time.
The higher melting temperature increases the porosity content and results in the
formation of intermetallic compound when Cu is above 5 % in aluminum alloy. The
maximum solubility of Cu in aluminum matrix is upto 5 %, further increase in Cu content
will reduce the strength and ductility in aluminum cast composites as also reported by
Strivatsan and Vasudevan (2006), Strivatsan and Leandowski (2006), Fridlyander (2003),
and Haizhi (2003).
The tensile test results of alloy group 4 (shown in Fig: 4.29) indicate good tensile
properties in cast condition but show decrease in properties after heat treatment. This
decrease in strength properties was due to absence of Mg and Zn content within this alloy
group. The presence of Mg and Zn enhances the strength properties after heat treatment.
The presence of Mg will reduce porosity content and precipitate fine particles along with
Zn that will increase the strength properties. The effect of Mg and Zn in aluminum alloy
matrix composites was reported by Ibrahim et al (1991), Maxim et al (1998), Fridlyander
(2003).
The tensile test results of alloy group 5 are given in Fig: 4.30, and show highest
tensile strength upto 300 MPa as compared to all alloy groups 1- 4 and 6 (Fig: 4.32). This
alloy also shows good ductility up to 17 %. These tensile test results give us information
that it is possible to develop high strength aluminum alloy base casting composite
materials reinforced with 10-15 % Al2O3 particles using stir casting method. The highest
92
tensile strength 297 MPa was achieved in case of aluminum composite material
containing 10 % Al2O3 particles with 2.5 % Cu and 4 % Zn and 2.77 % Mg.
The Similar effect of Cu-Mg-Zn in aluminum alloy matrix was reported by
Fridlyander (2003). He further reported that Cu content upto 2.5 to 3 % in presence of 4
% Zn content does not decrease elongation but show high tensile strength in 7000 series
of aluminum alloy containing Cu-Mg-Zn. However he did not investigate the composite
materials. Ibrahim, et al (1991), Srivatsan et al (1999), Hashim (1999) reported that Mg
content upto 3 % will exhibit better effect to enhance the strength properties by
increasing wetting ability , interfacing and bonding of ceramic with aluminum matrix
composites. The further increase in Mg content may reduce the properties of aluminum
cast composites. The Zn content in this group is less than 4.5 % and slows better strength
as compared to alloy group 2 which contain 3 % Zn. Experimental tensile strength result
of alloy group 6 (Fig 4.31) do not shows to enhance the strength properties this decrease
in strength properties were due to presence of high % age of Cu and Zn, this group show
similar behavior of alloy group 3. The tensile test results and elongation in % age of all
alloys groups are given in Table 4.2-4.7.

93
Table 4.2 Tensile test results of alloy group 1
S No Samples T. S (MPa) Elongation in % age

1 1 C 152.57 13.7
2 1 2.5 C 168.0 19.54
3 15 C 155.21 15.61
4 1 10 C 154.0 15.73
5 1 15 C 117.382 6.96
6 1HT (Heat treated) 167.23 20.0
7 1 2.5 HT 214.60 22.69
8 1 5 HT 199.30 18.55
9 1 10 HT 177.82 18.88
10 1 15 HT 156.74 14.84
S No Samples T.S (MPa) Elongation in %age

1 2 C 146.10 15.25
2 2 2.5 C 169.68 5.61
3 2 5 C 152.86 5.29
4 2 10 C 139.11 10.91
5 2 15 C 138.19 11.15
6 2 HT 181.13 16.59
7 2 2.5 HT 225.38 15.51
8 2 5 HT 220.00 16.61
9 2 10 HT 194.14 15.73
10 2 15 HT 165.19 11.20

1 3 C 96.0 13.84
2 3 2.5 C 130 10.14
3 3 5C 113.55 14.16
4 3 10 C 98.35 7.19
5 3 15 C 85.69 7.97
6 3 HT 148.49 12.13
7 3 2.5 HT 165.95 14.05
8 3 5 HT 165.6 11.48
9 3 10 HT 135.30 10.31
10 3 15 HT 128.25 10.27
94
Table 4.5. Tensile test results of alloy group 4

1 4 C 160.16 15.0
2 4 2.5 C 166.16 16.38
3 4 5 C 130.3 12.98
4 4 10 C 126.46 14.11
5 4 15 C 124.60 16.46
6 4 HT 167.75 16.40
7 4 2.5 HT 164.88 16.40
8 4 5 HT 151.12 14.38
9 4 10 HT 144.05 14.70
10 4 15 HT 112.0 11.16
S No Sample No T.S (MPa) Elongation in % age

1 50 C 159.97 12.89
2 5 25 C1 148.99 10.48
3 5 5 C2 125.34 5.21
4 5 10 C 115.37 4.97
5 5 15 C 111.5 4.91
6 5 0 HT 181.2 9.78
7 5 2.5HT 222 12.37
8 5 5 HT 257 13.79
9 5 10 HT 297 16.98
10 5 15 HT 227 15.97
S No Sample No T.S (MPa) Elongation in % age

1 6 0 C 142 2.06
2 6 2.5 C 115 6.83
3 6 5 C 115.5 4.91
4 6 10 C 105.68 6.06
5 6 15 C 114 7.26
6 6 0 HT 167 8.56
7 6 2.5 HT 166 7.5
8 6 5 HT 161 7.5
9 6 10 HT2 164 8.0
10 6 15 HT 158 7.0
95
T.S & Elongation of alloy 1 T.S & Elongation of alloy 2

T . S . in M P a & E lo n g a t io n in
T . S . in M P a & E lo n g a t io n
250 250
200 200
in % a g e
% age
150 T.S MPa 150 T. S MPa

100 El % age 100 El %age
50 50
0 0
1 HT
1 2 .5 H T
1 5 HT
1 10 HT
1 15 HT
1 C
1 2.5 C
1 5 C
1 10 C
1 15 C
2 HT
2 2 .5 H T
2 5 HT
2 10 HT
2 15 HT
2 C
2 .5 C
2 2 .5 C
210 C
2 15 C
Alloy number Alloy number
Fig: 4.26 Tensile strength & elongation Fig: 4.27. Tensile strength & elongation
of alloy 1 of alloy 2
180 180
160 160
140 140
T .S . in M P a
T .S in M P a
120 120
100 T. S MPa 100 T. S MPa
80 80 El % age
El % age
60 60
40 40
20
20
0
0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
C C 5 C C C H T HT HT HT HT C 2.5 5 10 15 HT 2.5 5 10 15
3 2.5 0 5 .5 0 5
3 3 1 3 1 3 32 3 5 31 31 C C C C HT HT HT HT
3
Fig: 4.28. Tensile strength and elongation Fig: 4.29. Tensile strength and elongation
of alloy 3. of alloy 4.
96
T . S in M P a & E lo n g a t i o n
T .S . in M P a & E lo n g a tio n in %
350 200
300 150
in % a g e
250 T.S T.S
200 100
Elongation
age
Elongation
150 50
100
0
50
0
6 1 .5 C
6 101 0C
6 1 10 0 5C
6 1 1 0H T
6 20 C
6 1 5C
T
0 HT
0 1 T2
6 1 10 5 T
0 H
5H
6 2.5H
6 01
0
0
52 C
5 HT
5 HT
51 C
51 2
5 C
55 T
HT
5 0 HT
5 1
61
5C
5
5C
H
0
0
2 .5
5
15
1
Fig: 4.30. Tensile strength & elongation Fig: 4.31. Tensile strength & elongation
of alloy 5. of alloy 6.
T.S. of alloy 1,2,3,4,5,6 Elongation of alloy 1,2,3,4,5,6
350 25
E lo n g a t io n I in % a g e
300 Alloy 1 Alloy 1

20
T . S . in M P a
250 Alloy 2 Alloy 2

200 Alloy 3 15
Alloy 3
150
Alloy 4 10 Alloy 4
100
Alloy 5 5 Alloy 5
50
0 Alloy 6 0 Alloy 6
C T H 5
HT 0 C 2 5C 10 C HT T HT HT
25
0C
10 T
0C
C
HT
HT
1
5
25 15
0H
5H
10 15
5H
15
0
15
25
Fig: 4.32. Comparisons of tensile Fig: 4.33. Comparisons of elongations in%

strength of alloys age of alloys
97
4.3.1 Comparison of the Strength and Ductility (elongation)
Comparison of the strength and ductility (elongation) properties with the previous
work conducted by other investigators are given in Table 4.8. They have used various
aluminum alloy matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles using stir casting method.
Table 4.8 Comparison of tensile strength and elongation results with the results of
other investigators.
Author Location Period Matrix Reinforcement Process Strength El

Name Composition Used
Jokhio Pakistan 2009 Al-Cu-Zn-Mg Particulate Stir 279MPa 17 %
Al2O3 48µm casting
Kok, Ozdin Turkey 2007 Al-Cu 2024 10% Al2O3 Vortex 112 MPa Not
Max determined
Yilmaz Turkey 2001 Si.46 MM .17 Al2O3 20µm 15 Stir 195 MPa Not
Val% casting determined
Daud, et al Egypt 2003 Al 5 Mg Al2O3 60µm Stir 200 Mpa 3%
7% Al2O3 casting
Surapppa & India 1981 Al- 11.8% Al2O3 53-63µm Vertex 157Mpa 6%
Rohatgi Si 1-4% Al2O3 with 1%
Al2O3 2.5%
118 Mp
with 4%
Al2O
Stefanos Greece 1996 4.5% Cu, Al2O3 50µm 20 Stir 194 Mpa Not
Skolianos 1.5% Mg 24 .2% casting determined
Azim, et all Egypt 1995 2024 4.12 Cu Al2O3 50-150 Vertex 132 MPa 3.2%
and 1.94 Mg µm 10% Al2O3
Rupa India 2005 7075 Al-Cu- Si Cp 40 µm Stir As cast 1.5-5%
DasGupta Mg-Zn Cu 15 wt% casting alloy
& 1.6, Mg 2.5, 63 MPa
Humaira Zn 5.6 T61
Meenai 00MPa
Jokhio Pakistan 2009 Appox: same 48 um Al2O3 Stir Jokhio 10-17%
as above casting 297 MPa Jokhio
The above Table 4.8 clearly indicates that the research conducted by Jokhio at MUET
Jamshoro shows superior strength and ductility. This also reveals that present research
conducted to investigate Al-Cu – Mg –Zn Matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles using
stir casting method is most economical method.

98
4.4 HARDNESS
Hardness of all samples was determined using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine
at 1 kg load. The detailed results of the tests are given in Appendix-D and Tables D1-6.
The hardness of all samples was determined using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine at
the low load (1Kg).
The Vickers test at low load give, more accurate readings in case of aluminum
alloy as reported by Yilmaz (2004), Gupta and Surappa (1995). They use 0.5 to 10 Kg
load using Vickers test. The hardness test results, of alloy group 1 to 6 are depicted in
Fig: 4.34-4.40. The alloy group 1 shows the lowest hardness values (HV50) as compared
to all alloys as shown in Fig: 4.34 and 4.40. This was due to absence of Cu and Si in most
of the alloys. Cu along with the presence of Si increases the hardness value of the
aluminum alloys as reported by Muzafar and Zereen (2005). The alloy group 2 (Fig:
4.35) shows better hardness as compared to alloy group 1. This may increase due to
increase of Cu and Si content within this group. The similar effect of Cu in aluminum
alloy matrix was reported by Rupa and Dasgupta (2005). He reported that in Cu –Al alloy
hardness is improved not only due to age hardening but also increase in a cast condition.
The increase in hardness HV upto 250 was achieved due to heat treatment process within
this alloy group.
Alloy group 3 (Fig: 4.36 and 4.40) shows the highest hardness value (HV 500) as
compared to all alloy groups. This increase in hardness in cast and heat treated conditions
is due to presence of highest Cu and Zn content which form intermetallic compounds
with ceramics particles. The similar effects of Cu and Zn are reported by Taha (2001),
99
Muzafar and Zereen (2005), Surappa (2003), and Rohatgi (1991). They found that the
increase in hardness in aluminum matrix containing Cu-Zn increases with increase in
ceramic (Al2O3) content. The lowest hardness test results in as cast and heat treated
condition were found in alloy 4 (Fig 4.37). These were due to absence of Zn and Mg
content within this group. The absence of Zn and Mg do not strengthens the alloy matrix
with ceramic particles. Similar effect of Mg and Zn was reported by Ibrahim, et al (1991),
Hashim, et al (1999). They reported that Mg increases the wetting ability and strength of
the alloy matrix.
The hardness test result of alloy group 5 (Fig: 4.38) shows high hardness but
generally less then alloy 3. This increase in hardness in as cast and heat treated was the
function of Cu, and Mg contents with Zn content upto 5%. The Mg content upto 3% in
aluminum cast composite increase the wetting and bonding which also increase hardness
in aluminum cast composites as already reported by Ibrahim, et al (1991), Rohatgi
(1981), and Maxim et al (1998). Similarly the alloy 6 (Fig: 4.39) shows good hardness
but lower tensile strength due to high content of Cu Zn and Si as already discussed.
100
Hardness of alloy 1 Hardness of alloy 2
150 400
350
H a rd n e s s in H V
300
100 250
200 HV
HV 150
50 100
50
0
0
22 2H T
2C
C
5C
0C
5C
T
22 H T
25 H T
21 H T
21 H T
25
5H
22
21
21
B
5A
5B
0A
1C
0
5
5C
C
5A
B
1H
11
11
15
1.5
11
12
Fig: 4.34 Hardness of alloy 1 Fig: 4.35 Hardness of alloy 2
Hardness of alloy 3 Hardness of alloy 4
600 120
100
500
H ardnes s in H V
80
H a r d n e s s in H V
400
60 H.V
300 H.V
40
200
20
100 0
4H .T
4 .5
4C
425A C
4.5C
410C
415C
4 2.5R
4.2.5A
4 2.5B
0 4.5B
3C 325C 35C 310C 315C 3H.T 325 325B 35B 310B 315A

101
Hardness of alloy 5
Hardness of alloy 6
400
350
350
300
300
H a r d n e s s in H V
Hardness in HV
250
250
200
200 H.V H.V
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
6C
HT
5C
0C
5C
61 T
T
HT
C
6 1
61 2
T
T
1
5H
T
5 HT
5H
C
T
2
C
61
61
2 .5
C
H.
5H
H
0H
0H
C
H.
H.
2 .5
6
10
15
0
6
25
61
5
2.
6
5
8.
5
6
5
3.
6.
5
5
Alloy number
Alloy number
Hardnes of alloy 1,2,3,4,5,6.
600
Series1
500
400 Series2
300 Series3
200 Series4
100 Series5
0 Series6
0 HT
25HT
5HT
10HT
15HT
25
0 C
5C
10C
15C
Alloy number
Fig: 4.40 Comparisons of the hardness of alloys
4.5 ABRASIVE WEAR RESISTANCE
The abrasive wear test results of all samples are given in Appendix- E and Tables.
E 1-6. The total weight loss in grams and average weight loss in grams of each alloy is
shown in Fig: 4.41-4.48.

102
The abrasive wear test results of alloys indicate that the alloy group 1 and 4 (Fig:
4.41 and Fig: 4.44) shows larger weight loss in grams resulting very poor wear resistance.
However the alloy group 3 (Fig: 4.43) shows lowest weight loss in grams resulting the
highest abrasive wear resistance as compared to all alloy group (Fig: 4.47 and Fig: 4.48).
The alloy groups 5 (Fig: 4.45) shows higher abrasive wear resistance as compared to
alloy group 2 (Fig: 4.42). The experimental results indicate that the abrasive wear largely
depends upon the hardness value. The highest abrasive wear resistance in alloy 3 was due
to their highest hardness as compared to other alloy groups. The abrasive wear resistance
increases with increasing of Al2O3 particles content. The abrasive wear resistance not
only depends upon the hardness but also depend upon interfacing, and bonding of the
ceramics particles. The interfacing and bonding depends upon the matrix composition
and heat treatment operations. This phenomenon was noted in alloy group 2 and 5 which
shows the high hardness, wear and strength. Shen and Lin (1996), Nesarikar, Tewani and
Graham (1991) also observed that the abrasive wear resistance increases with increase in
Al2O3 particles content in aluminum matrix cast composites.
Rupa and Gupta (2005), and Kok (2005) observed that the abrasive wear
resistance depends upon test conditions, matrix composition, and particles size. The most
of the previous work was conducted on specific topics such as effect of ceramic particles
on wear or hardness or porosity individually. No comprehensive investigations were
conducted to correlate the strength and wear which are the most important properties for
structural machine components which have been only investigated in the present work.
103
Experimental results of alloy group 5 indicate the best combination of strength,
hardness and abrasive wear resist with 10% Al2O3 particles. This sample shows 297 MPa
strength and average weight loss approximately 0.4 gm (Fig: 4.45) which indicates high
abrasive wear resistance.
The comparision of the abrasive wear resistance results of the present
investigation with the results of the research conducted by other investigators is difficult
task. Because every investigation were carried out at different test parameters such as
speed of machine , type and grade of emery papers used and testing time etc. However
the present investigation shows the higher tensile strength values as compared to same
work done by other investigators. The corelation of strength with the abrasive wear
resistance of cast aluminum composite is a unique type of research which has not been
conducted yet by other investigators.
Abrasive wear of alloy 1 Abrasive wear of alloy 2

A b ra s iv e w e a r re s is t a n c e
6
A bra s iv e w ea r re s is tan c e
6
5 5
( w t : lo s s in g m )
Total Total
(w t: lo s s in g m )
4 wt 4 wt
3 loss 3 loss
2 2
Avera Avera
1
1 ge wt ge wt
loss 0 loss
0
1 H .T
12 5 H T
1 5HT
11 0 H T
1 1 5H .T
1C
1 25C
1 5C
1 10C
1 15C
C
2 C
2 C
2 5C
2 C
2 H .T
15 T
T
2 H.T
2 5 H .T
25
10
2 0 H.
H.
5
1
2
25
1
2
Fig: 4.41 Abrasive wear of alloy 1 Fig: 4.42 Abrasive wear of alloy 2
104

5 7
4 6
(w t : lo s s in g m )
Total Total
5
3 wt wtlos
4
loss s
2 3
Avera 2 Avera
1
ge wt 1 ge wt
0 loss 0 loss
32 C
42 C
31 C
3 2 H.T
41 C
4 2 H.T
31 C
3 C
3 0 .T
3 1 H.T
41 C
5C
.5 C
4 1 H .T
3 5H . T
.5C
.T
4 1 H .T
.T
4 5 .T
35
45
3
0
5
0
4
H
5H
5H
.5H
.5
0
4
Fig: 4.43 Abrasive wear of alloy 3. Fig: 4.44 Abrasive wear of alloy 4

5 5
4
A b ra s iv e w e a r re s i s t a n c e
Total 4
A b ra s i v e w e a r re s i s t a n c e
Total
3 wt 3 wt
loss loss
2 2
1 Avera 1 Avera
ge wt 0 ge wt
0 loss loss
1 T T T C . 5C 5 C 0C 5C H T T T 1 H T T 2
0 C 5C C 2 0 C 5 C 0H H T 5H H H T 0 0 6 2 6 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 .5 H 1 0 H 1 0 5 1 0 H
5 52 5 5 5 1 5 1 5 2.5 5 5 10 15 6 1 6 6 6 0 10 6 10
5 5 61 6 6
Fig: 4.45 Abrasive wear of alloy 5 Fig: 4.46 Abrasive wear of alloys 6
105
Wear of alloy1,2,3,4,5,6. Wear of alloy1,2,3,4,5,6.

re s is t a n c e (a v e ra g e l w t : lo s s
re s i s t a n c e ( t o t a l w t : l o s s in
1.6 7
Alloy 1 Alloy 1
1.4 6
A b ra s iv e w e a r
Alloy 2
A b ra s iv e w e a r
1.2 Alloy 2 5
1 Alloy 3 4 Alloy 3
in g m )
gm )
0.8 3
Alloy 4 Alloy 4
0.6
2 Alloy 5
0.4 Alloy 5
1
0.2 Alloy 6 Alloy 6
0 0 HT 0
25H T
5HT
10H T
15H T
25
0 C
5C
10C
15C
25
0C
5C
25 T
10 T
C
C
HT
15 T
HT
0H
5H
10
15
H
Fig: 4.47 Abrasive wear of alloys. Fig: 4.48 Abrasive wear of alloy
average weight loss total weight loss
4.6 DENSITY AND POROSITY
The details of the bulk density, theoretical density and calculated porosity are
given in Appendix –F and Table F 1-4. The density and porosity of all alloys are shown
in Fig: 4.49-4.56.
The density of aluminum cast composites materials depends upon the porosity
and chemistry of the materials. The density results of alloy group 1, 2 and 5 (Fig: 4.49
4.50 and 4.53) shows the density value 2.4 to 2.8 gm /Cm3 and also shows very small
porosity contents as compared to alloy 3 and 4. Porosity increases with increase in Cu
content in alloy 3 and 4 because these alloys were heated to higher temperature as
compared to alloy 1, 2, and 5. Higher heating and longer holding time trapes the
hydrogen gas during melting and pouring which results in the evolvation of gases during
solidification and cause to create porosity in aluminum cast composites. The porosity
content in alloy 3 and 4 is clearly visible in photomicrograph shown in Fig: 4.66-4.74 and
106
Fig: 4.86, using Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopic investigations. Another
factor is the addition and increasing the volume fraction of Al2O3 particles in aluminum
matrix. The porosity can be minimized by purging with nitrogen gas during melting as
well as the heat treatment will also reduce the porosity content in aluminum cast
composites. The addition of low melting materials such as Mg and Zn content also
reduces the porosity content in aluminum cast composites.
The experimental results (Fig: 4.56) indicate that alloy group1, 2 and 5 contents
lowers the porosity. Therefore, this alloy group possesses high tensile strength as
compared to alloy 3, 4 and 6. The experimental results show that density and porosity are
related with each other and have strong influence on the strength properties. However it
has no significat effect on abrasive wear resistance. The similar results were found by
Hashim, et al (2003), and Aqida et al (2004). They observed that the porosity is common
factor in stir casting and reduce strength properties.
Ibrahim et al (1991), and Hashim, et al (1999) reported that the addition of Mg
content aluminum and aluminum alloy based casting composites reinforced with Al2O3
particles reduce porosity content by formation of MgO.Al2O3, which promotes strong
bonding. Interfacing with ceramic particles will enhance the strength properties.
107
Density & porosity of alloy 1
Density in gm/cm3 &

3
porosity in % age
Bulk
2.5
density D
2 /cm3
1.5
1 Porosity
0.5 percentage
0
1 HT
1 10HT
1 C
1 5C
1 10C
1 15C
1 25
1 15
1 5B
Alloy number
Fig: 4.49 Density & porosity of alloy 1.

Density in gm/cm3 & porosity
3.5
Bulk
3 dens
2.5 ity D
in % age
2 /cm3
1.5
Poro
1 sity
0.5 perc
0 t
T 5
2C 2 5C 5C 1 0C 15C 2H 2 5A .5B 1 0B 21
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Alloy number
Fig: 4.50 Density & porosity of alloy 2

108

3
Bulk
2.5 dens
2 ity D
in % age /cm3
1.5
1 Poro
sity
0.5
perc
0 t
31 C
A
3 T
C
5C
5A
10
15
5B
0
H.
5C
5C
3
31
2.
2.
3
3
3
3.
3
Alloy number

3
Bulk
2.5 dens
2 ity D
in % age
/cm3
1.5
1 Poro
sity
0.5
perc
0 t
5C
5
0B
4 .T
C
C
5C
5C
5
5A
41
4.
H
0
4
41
41
2.
2.
41
4
4
4
Alloy number

109

3.5
Bulk
3 dens
2.5 ity D
in % age 2 /cm3
1.5
1
Poro
sity
0.5
perc
0 t
2. T
T
1
5 HT
HT
5C
5 C
C
C
5C
0H
5H
5H
10
15
0
10
5
15
52
5
5
5
Alloy number

3
Bulk
2.5 dens
in % age
2 ity D
1.5 /cm3
1 Poro
0.5 sity
0 perc
t
01 1
T
61 H T
6 C
01 T
HT
HT
6C
61 H T
61 5 H
5H
H
5H
0
61
15
25
5
6
0
2.
0
6
6
6
Alloy number

110
Density of alloys 1,2,3,4,5,6
3.5
Dens it y in g m /c m 3 3 Alloy 1
2.5 Alloy 2
2 Alloy 3
1.5 Alloy 4
1
Alloy 5
0.5
0 Alloy 6
T
T
T
HT
C
25
5C
R
C
5C
0 10 H HT 5 H
H
1 0 10 15
25
Alloy number
Fig: 4.55 Density of alloys
Porosity of alloy 1,2,3,4,5,6
1.2
P oro s ity in % a g e
Series1
1
0.8 Series2
0.6 Series3
0.4 Series4
0.2 Series5
0
Series6
25
25 T
T
C
5C
C
C
HT
HT
H
5H
15
10
HT
0
10
15
0
Alloy number
Fig: 4.56 Porosity of alloys

111
4.7 MICROSTRUCTURE
The metallographic studies were conducted using Optical Metallurgical
Microscope at MUET and Pakistan Steel Mills laboratories. Scanning Electron
Microscope was also used at MUET for some investigations. The results of the
photomicrographs are shown in Fig: 4.57-4.88.
The experimental results of metallographic investigation reveal that alloy 1, 2 and
5 show good distributions of ceramic particles as compared to alloy 4 and 3 which do not
show distribution of Al2O3 particles. This may be due to presence of high Cu content and
zinc content which form intermetallic compound with Zn and Al2O3. These alloys 3 and 4
microstructures (Fig: 4.66-4.74 and 4.86) clearly shows large number of porosities at
different magnifications and many ceramic (Al2O3) particles are imbedded into the pores.
Therefore qualitative metallographic investigation is impossible. Kok (2005) and
Ibrahim, et al (1991) also observed the similar microstructural behavior in aluminum cast
composites using stir casing method. The uniform distribution of the particles also
depends upon chemistry of the aluminum matrix. For example Ibrahim , et al (1991),
Hashim et al (2003), and Maxim et al (1998), observed that Mg content in aluminum cast
composite will increase interfacing, bonding of ceramic particles would help in bringing
uniformity in microstructure distribution in aluminum matrix. The photomicrograph of
alloy 1,2 and 5 content 10 % Al2O3 shows excellent microstructural appearance which is
due to presence of higher Mg content which creates the interfacing and bonding with
Al2O3 particles. Therefore, alloy 5 sample shows highest tensile strength and wears
resistance. The experimental result indicates that the strength not only depends upon
112
matrix composite but also depends upon uniformly distributions of ceramic particles
(Al2O3) in aluminum matrix and precipitation of fine particles after precipitation
hardening. The precipitate particles were observed in samples 1-5 by using Optical and
Scanning Electron Microscope as shown in photomicrographs Fig:4.83-85 and Fig: 4.87.
The similar results were found by a large number of investigators [Taha 2001, Kok 2005,
Ibrahim Muhammad and Strivatsan 1991, Rohatgi 1991, Ozdin 2007].
Fig: 4.57 Microstructure of alloy 1 HT X 100. Fig: 4.58 Microstructure alloy 1 2.5
HT X 100
Fig: 4.59 Microstructure of alloy 1 5 HT X 100. Fig: 4.60 Microstructure alloy 1

10 HT X 100
113
Fig: 4.61 Microstructure of alloy 2 HT X 100 Fig: 4.62 Microstructure of alloy

2 2 5% Al2O3
Fig: 4.63 Microstructure of alloy 2 Fig: 4.64 Microstructure of alloy 2

5% Al2O3. 10% Al2O3
Fig: 4.65 Microstructure of alloy 2

15 % Al2O3
114
Fig: 4.66 Microstructure of alloy 3HT Fig: 4.67 Microstructure of alloy 3 2.5
HT X 100
Fig: 4.68 Microstructure of alloy 3 5 HT Fig: 4.69 Microstructure alloy 310

HT X 100
Fig: 4.70 Microstructure of alloy 3 15 HT

115
Fig: 4.71 Microstructure of alloy 4 cast Fig: 4.72 Microstructure of alloy 4 5 C
Fig: 4.73 Microstructure of alloy 4 10 C Fig: 4.74 Microstructure of alloy 4 15 C
Fig: 4.75 Microstructure of alloy 5 Fig: 4.76 Microstructure of alloy 5 2.5

116
Fig: 4.77 Microstructure of alloy 5 5. Fig: 4.78 Microstructure of alloy 5 10
Fig: 4.79 Microstructure of alloy 5 15. Fig: 4.80 Microstructure of alloy 6C
Fig: 4.81 Microstructure of alloy 6 5HT. Fig: 4.82 Microstructure of alloy 610 HT
117
Fig: 4.83 Microstructure of alloy 1HT Fig: 4.84 Microstructure of alloy 2HT
showing some precipitation showing some precipitation
Fig: 4.85 Microstructure of alloy 5 10 HT. Fig: 4.86 Microstructure of sample 3C

showing some precipitation showing porosity
118
Fig: 4.87 Microstructure of sample 4HT Fig: 4.88 Microstructure of sample 4C.
showing precipitation of cu
4.8 MODELING AND TRAINING
The modeling for high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminum alloy
based casting composite material for engineering application requires the learning
knowledge of the huge data base considering nonlinear behavior of various metallurgical
factors, such as composition and processing parameters including the heat treatment
processes with the desired properties. The modeling results consist of the training, testing
(validation) and optimizing results for optimum compositions for high strength and wear
resistance.
Literature review indicates that the artificial neural network modeling is powerful
tool for modeling, prediction and optimization of such problems [Bhadesha, et al 1999, Li
119
et al 2004, and Dobrzanski, et al 2005]. The performance of artificial neural network
modeling depends upon model, its database and training algorithm [Sha and Edwards
2007].
Actually the neural network modeling is, in general a method of regression
analysis in which a very flexible nonlinear function such as heat treatment process
parameters are to be fitted to the experimental data due to presence of hidden neurons
between input and output.
The results indicate that a neuro model containing one hidden neuron is not sufficient to
capture the non-linear information from the database [Shah, 2003]. Increasing the number
of hidden neurons can improve the performance of the network. The number of hidden
layer is also a crucial decision. However, it has been proved mathematically that a single
hidden layer feedforward neural network is sufficient for successful results, provided that
a sufficient number of neurons have been used. The selection of input parameter which
affects the output (mechanical properties) is also an important aspect of modeling.
Moreover, the selection of a good learning algorithm is also important.
As mentioned earlier, this work uses the multilayer perception (MLP) architecture
of feed forward neural networks. MLP networks were introduced in the 1980s. These
networks have been used extensively in almost every branch of science and engineering.
These networks are trained by using the well known error back- propagation algorithm.
The derivation of this algorithm is available in almost every test book of neural network
or soft computing [e.g Haykin, 1999].

120
This algorithm is more than twenty years old but its usefulness has never gone
down. This algorithm dominates the literature in research of the applied neural networks.
Besides other applications, the MLP networks have been popular in metallurgical
applications. Hassan et al (2009) have investigated density, porosity and hardness of
aluminum composite by using an MLP network. They used 10 neurons in the hidden
layer. There were two inputs and three outputs of the network. Similarly the effect of heat
treatment and abrasive wear resistance was modeled and investigated by Xluji et at
(2007). A model structure with 4:10:5, topology was used by Ozerdum and Kotukish
(2007) to predict mechanical properties of hot rolled carbon steel bar.
Looking at the success of MLP network in other application, we decided to use
this architecture of neural networks for the application under investigation. The inputs,
outputs of the proposed model are already depicted in Fig: 3.24. 80 data sets were
prepared for training as given in Appendix-G Table G 1-2. After extensive simulation
results, it was found that nine neurons in the hidden layer are sufficient for this
application. The sum of square error (SSE) various numbers of epochs is plotted in Fig:
4.89. The SSE of 0.0001 was achieved only in 70 epochs. This performance was achieved
by using the error back propagation algorithm with adaptive learning rate and
momentum.
121
1
Performance is 9.92021e-005, Goal is 0.00010101
10
0
10
Training-Blue Goal-Black
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
70 Epochs
Fig:. 4.89 Shows the training results of aluminum composites
Considering the training results of tensile strength, elongation, hardness and
abrasive wear as given in Appendix H Table H 1 and shown in Fig: 4.90 to 4.93 The
training results indicate that tensile strength and hardness data were well trained as
compared to elongation and abrasive wear data. However trained data is within
acceptable range of the variation 2-10 %. The data is given in the Appendix-H Table H 1
and plotted in Fig: 4.90-93.

122
Experimental tensile strength vs the tensile Experimental elongation vs the elongation

strength determined by neural network model determined by neural network model
350
T ens ile s trength in M P a
E lo n g a t io n in % a g e
25
300
20
250
200 Series1 15 Series1
100 5
50
0
0
1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78
Fig: 4.90 Trained data of tensile strength Fig: 4.91 Trained data of elongations
superimposed on the experimental data superimposed on the experimental data
Experimental hardness vs the hardness Experimental abrasive wear vs the abrasive wear
determined by neural network model determined by neural network model
600
A bra s i v e w ear (weight
2
500
Hardnes s in HV
1.5
lo s s in gm )
400
Series1 Series1
300 1
Series2 Series2
200
0.5
100
0 0
1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73
Fig: 4.92 Trained data of hardness Fig:4.93 Trained data of abrasive wear
superimposed on the experimental data. superimposed on the experimental data.
The SSE, SSW and effective number of parameters of the model were determined
to be 0.24, 124.7 and 12.19 respectively as shown in Fig: 4.94.

123
5
Squared Training Error = 0.246441
10
SSE
10
-5
10
6
Squared Weights = 124.735
10
SSW
4
10
2
10
Effective Number of Parameters = 12.197
100
# P aram ete rs
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
344 Epochs
Fig: 4.94 Shows the SSE, SSW and effective parameter results
The values of the weights and biases are given as in Appendix H (Table H 2). It may be
noted that tangent hyperbolic function and linear transfer function were used in the
hidden layer neurons and output neurons respectively.
Therefore, using trained models knowledge on new case is merely a matter of
simple mathematically manipulation of these values will also be used to determine the
validity of the model as discuss in next section.
4.8.1 Validation
To test the generalization performance of the present trained model with the
actual experimental results of the unseen data feed to the model is essential for validation
124
of the model. For this purpose 10 datasets, five from as cast and 5 from as heat treated
conditions were used. These 10 datasets were fed to the network as input (Table G 3,
Appendix G 3). The inherent knowledge spectrum of the trained network give results
which were compared with the experimental results are given in Table 4.9 and shown in
Fig: 4.95 4.98. The mechanical properties such as tensile strength elongation, hardness
and abrasive wear resistance as determined by the model are very close to the
experimentally determined mechanical properties which indicate the validity of model.
Table 4.9 Comparison of properties of as cast as heat treated composite determined

by lab tests & ANNs model for validation
Sn Alloy Ex: NN Ex: NN Ex: NN Ex: NN

No: T.S T.S Elong Elong HV HV Wt: Wt:
MPa MPa %age %age loss loss
1 1 25C 160 155.9 16 13 130 139.9 0.9 1
2 3.5 C 100 96.9 12 9.3 240 250 0.858 0.8
3 315 CB 106.25 110 9.77 9.4 270 264 0.6 0.8
4 5 2.5C 156.22 165 10.66 13 123 106 1 0.9
5 610C 105.68 115 6.06 10 200 191 0.6 0.8
6 1 2.5HT 186.57 195.3 15.49 19 140 157 0.89 0.9
7 32.5EHT 165 166.9 14 11.7 430 457 0.63 0.7
8 4 2.5B 161.97 160.8 16.18 17 80 79.2 0.92 1.2
9 410HT 144.5 145.8 14.7 17 115 124 1.02 1
10 5 3.5 HT 222 229.8 10.75 13.5 340 377 0.6 0.5
125
Experimental tensile strength vs the E xperimental elongation vs the elongation

tensile strength determined by neural determined by neural net work model
network model
20
E lon gatio n i n %
T e n sile str e n g t h
300 15
Series1
in M Pa
age
200 Series1 10
Series2
100 Series2 5
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
Fig: 4.95 Tensile strength alloy Fig: 4.96 Elongation of alloy
Experimental Hardness vs the hardness Experimental abrasive wear vs the abrasive

determined by neural network model wear determined by neural net work model
500 1.5
Hardness in HV
Hardnes s in HV
400
200 Series2 0.5 Series2
100
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
Fig: 4.97 Hardness of alloys Fig: 4. 98 Abrasive wears of alloy
The similar work was conducted by Hassan et al (2007). They investigated
mechanical properties of compocast aluminum composite reinforced with SiC. They
selected 46 data for training and 8 data for validation. Altinkok and Koker (2005) and
Altinkok (2006) predicted tensile and density properties in practice reinforced in metal
matrix composite using neural network modeling. They only used 15 datasets for training
and 5 samples for validation.

126
Lujie et al (2007) used 25 datasets for training and only five for validation in
determining heat treatment, hardness and abrasive wear of (HVHSS) steels. Similarly
Ozerdam and Kolukisa (2007) used 33 samples for training and 11 samples for validation
process in predicting the mechanical properties of carbon steel bar.
From above discussions it is clear that the present investigation which involves 80
datasets for training and 10 datasets for validation is an optimum approach for training as
well as validation of the model. The training, testing and validation results of model are
shown in Fig: 4.99-4.100 which approaches the close relation between training and
validation. The training and validation error is 0.7. This error was due to scattering of the
database such as minimum and maximum variation in Si and Fe content in samples.
2
Performance is 0.708938, Goal is 0
10
0.7 Training
Validation
Test
0.6
T raining- B l ue V alidat i on-G reen
1
0.5 10
S quared E rro r
0.4
0.3
0
10
0.2
0.1
-1
0 10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 5 10 15
Epoch 15 Epochs
Fig: 4.99 Testing of training and validation Fig: 4.100 Testing of training and
of model validation of model
127
4.8.2 Optimization for High Strength and Wear
Optimization is an important aspect in research and development work. The
optimization in case of material development involves maximizing the desired properties
or target by minimization of the unnecessary costly input variables [Jokhio, et al 2006].
The neural network modeling is on effective tool for optimization of the composition,
processing parameters and the required mechanical properties for efficient design [Jokhio
et al (2005), Kowassaki and Maejski (2005]. For optimization purpose 10 alloys (5 from
as cast and 5 from as heat treatment condition) were selected. The compositions of alloys
were optimized between minimum and maximum value of the all input parameters within
the specified range. The effects of the composition on mechanical properties were
investigated for high strength, wear and toughness. The optimizations results presented in
Table 4.10 and shown in Fig: 4.101-4.104 indicates that the tensile strength, elongation,
hardness and abrasive wear can further be improved in both conditions. But in case of
heat treatment alloys, model shows remarkable improvement in all properties as
compared to casting. Dutta et al (1998) had also reported that the strength and toughness
of particulate reinforced aluminum composite could be optimized over a wide range of
composition through heat treatment. The aluminum alloy group 1, 2 and 5 are further
optimized for maximum strength and wear. The experimental results indicate that the
aluminum alloy based casting composites materials properties can be optimized to the
maximum tensile strength of 320 MPa and abrasive wear 0.8gm/ 15 mints having the
matrix composition containing 0.1% Si, 0 % Fe, 0.1% Cu, 1%, Mg. Where as in case of
heat treatment, alloy 5 shows highest strength and abrasive wear. Its strength and
128
ductility can further be improved through optimization of the composition to 390 MPa
tensile strength and having the highest ductility (i.e 20.8 %) containing 15 % Al2O3
particles in aluminum matrix. The matrix composition is 0.1% Si, 0 % Fe, 0.1% Cu, and
1% Mg .This alloy composition after precipitation hardening shows best combinations of
highest strength, toughness and abrasive wear resistance. The similar effect of low Cu,
Mg and Zn content in modeling of mechanical properties of commercial alloy was
reported by Zender (2007).
It has been observed that Cu increases strength in aluminum cast composites but in case
of age hardening increasing Cu content will decrease the strength and ductility in absence
of the Mg contents. The similar effect of Cu in aluminum cast composite was reported by
number of investigators [Taha 2001, Muzafar and Zereen 2005, Surappa 2003, and
Rohatgi 1991].
Table 4.10. Table used for plotting actual vs optimized properties

Alloy T.S T.S Elong Elong: HV HV W Val W OP
Name Val OP Val OP Val 0P
1 5C 0155.9 0182.7 0013.0 0014.5 0139.6 0019.6 0001.0 0000.9
3 5C 0096.9 0128.4 0009.3 0009.9 0250.1 0273.2 0000.8 0000.7
315 CB 0110.6 0130.6 0009.4 0008.3 0264.0 0411.1 0000.8 0000.6
5 2.5C 0165.3 0165.3 0013.2 0013.2 0106.3 0106.3 0000.9 0000.9
610C 0115.6 0135.8 0010.4 0011.2 0191.4 0137.6 0000.8 0000.8
125 HT 0195.3 0193.8 0019.1 0019.4 0157.4 0134.8 0000.9 0000.9
32.5EHT 0166.9 0413.5 0011.7 0024.3 0457.3 0173.0 0000.7 0000.7
4 2.5B 0160.8 0187.5 0017.0 0019.2 0079.2 0012.7 0001.2 0001.1
410HT 0145.8 0230.7 0017.3 0021.5 0124.4 0144.4 0001.0 0000.9
5 3.5 HT 0229.8 0255.8 0013.5 0014.1 0377.0 0429.2 0000.5 0000.4
129
Actual vs optimized tensile strength of alloys Actual vs optimized elongation of alloys
450 30
T e n s il e s t re n g t h in M P a
400
E lo n g a t io n i n % a g e
25
350
300 20
250 T.S Val Elong Val
15
200 T.S OP Elong: OP
150 10
100
5
50
0 0
5 C 3 5 C C B .5 C 1 0 C H T H T .5 B 0 H T H T
C
5C
0C
42 T
B
53 T
C
HT
32 T
B
35
0H
2 6 2 5 .5 E 4 2 4 1
5C
5H
1
.5
.5
5 .5
61
31 5
.5 E
52
1
53
.5 1 32
41
31
12
Alloy name Alloy name
Fig: 4.101 Optimized tensile strength Fig: 4.102 Optimized elongations
Actual vs optimized hardness of alloys Actual vs optimized abrasive wear of alloys

A b r a s iv e w e a r ( w e i g h t
500 1.4
1.2
400
1
lo s s in g m )
300 0.8
HV Val W Val
200 0.6
100 HV 0P 0.4 W OP
0 0.2
0
C
5C
0C
41 B
42 T
C
B
53 T
32 H T
HT
35
5
H
0H
5C
.5
61
5E
1
52
31 C
5C
12 0C
4 2H T
41 5B
61 C
5 3 0H T
5 2 CB
32 H T
HT
31
12
35
.5
5E
1
5
Alloy name
Alloy name
Fig: 4.103 Optimized hardness Fig: 4.104 Optimized abrasive wear

130
4.8.3 Modeling for High strength and Abrasive Wear Resistance Aluminum Alloy
Base Casting Composites
Modeling for high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminum alloy base
casting composites material needed large comprehensive data for analysis and modeling.
More than 500 alloy compositions were searched (as mentioned in Appendix –I and
Table 1-45) from the trained model. Modeling results for high strength and abrasive
wear resistance are very interesting in case of casting and heat treated conditions as
shown in Fig: 4.105 to Fig: 4.140. Model shows that increasing Cu content up to 5 % will
increase the tensile strength, hardness, elongation and abrasive wear resistance. Further
increase of the Cu content will reduce ductility and abrasive wear resistance of 3 % Zn
2.5 % Mg in aluminum matrix in case of cast condition as shown in Fig: 4.105-4.108.
Effect of Cu on tensile strength cast aluminium Effect of Cu on elongation of as cast aluminium

composites composites
T e n s ile s t re n g t h in M P a
E lo n g a tio n i n % a g e
300 16
250 14
2.5%Al2O3 12 2.5%Al2O3
200 10
5% Al2O3 5% Al2O3
150 8
10 % Al2O3 6 10 % Al2O3
100
15% Al2O3 4 15% Al2O3
50 2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu
Cu % age Cu % age
Fig: 4.105 Modeling effect of Cu on Fig: 4 106 Modeling effect of Cu on

strength. elongation
131
Effect of Cu on hardness cast aluminium Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of cast aluminium

A b ra s iv e w e a r (w e ig h t
700 1.2
H ardnes s in H V
600 1
2.5%Al2O3 2.5%Al2O3
lo s s in g m )
500
5% Al2O3 0.8
400 5% Al2O3
300 0.6
10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
200 0.4
15% Al2O3 15% Al2O3
100 0.2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu
Cu % age Cu % age
Fig: 4.107 Modeling effect of Cu Fig: 4. 108 Modeling effect of Cu

on hardness on abrasive wear
The increase of Si also shows positive effect on strength and elongation when it
is less than 3 % in aluminum matrix containing 3 % Zn and 2.5 % Mg contents in case of
casting condition. (Fig; 4.109 and Fig: :4.110) Maxim et al (1998) also reported that Si &
Mg addition has positive effect on strength. Baifeng et al (2007) reported high strength (i-
e 6061) aluminum matrix containing Si reinforced with Al2O3. They reported beneficial
effect of Al2O3 p up to 30%. They used hot extrusion process.

132
Effect of Si on tensile strength of as cast Effect of Si on elongation of as cast aluminium

T ens ile s trength in M P a aluminium composites composites
300 16
E longation in % age
14
250
2.5%Al2O3 12 2.5%Al2O3
200 10
5% Al2O3 5% Al2O3
150 8
10 % Al2O3 6 10 % Al2O3
100
15% Al2O3 4 15% Al2O3
50 2
0 0
.9Si 1Si 2Si 3Si 4Si 5Si .9Si 1Si 2Si 3Si 4Si 5Si
Si % age Si % age
Fig: 4. 109 Modeling effect of Si on Fig: 4.110 Modeling effect of Si

strength elongation
Effect of Si on hardness of as cast aluminium Effect of Si on abrasive wear of as cast aluminium
500
A b ra s iv e w e a r ( w e ig h t
1.6
1.4
400 2.5%Al2O3 1.2 2.5%Al2O3

lo s s in g m )
300 5% Al2O3 1 5% Al2O3

0.8
200 10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
0.6
15% Al2O3 0.4 15% Al2O3
100
0.2
0 0
.9Si 1Si 2Si 3Si 4Si 5Si .9Si 1Si 2Si 3Si 4Si 5Si
Si % age Si % age
Fig: 4.111 Modeling effect of Si on Fig: 4. 112 Modeling effect of Si on

hardness abrasive wear
The modeling effect of Fe shows negative effect on properties in cast aluminum
composites as shown in Fig: 4.113-4-4.116. Increasing Fe contents have adverse effect on
mechanical properties. Haizhi (2003) reported that Fe in aluminum casting alloy should
be less than 1%. The exceeding in % age of Fe in aluminum casting alloy along with Si
will reduce the strength properties by forming AlFeSi intermetallic compound.

133
Effect of Fe on Tensile Strength of cast aluminium Effect of Fe on elongation of as cast aluminium

E lo n g a tio n i n % a g e
250 16
T en s i l e S tr e n g th in
14
200 12 2.5%Al2O3
2.5%Al2O3
10 5% Al2O3
150 5% Al2O3
MPa
8
6 10 % Al2O3
100 10 % Al2O3
4 15% Al2O3
50 15% Al2O3 2
0
0 0 1 2 3
0 Fe 1 Fe 2 Fe 3 Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe
% age of Fe Fe % age
Fig: 4.113 Modeling effect of Fe on Fig: 4.114 Modeling effect of Fe on

strength elongation
Effect of Fe on hardness of as cast aluminium Effect of Fe on abrasive wear of as cast aluminium

reinforced with Al2O3composites reinforced with Al2O3composites
los s i n gm )E lo ngation in
250 1.6
A br as iv e w e ar (w eight
2.5%Al2O3 1.4 2.5%Al2O3

200
Ha rdne s s i n HV
1.2
5% Al2O3 5% Al2O3
% age
150 1
0.8
100 10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
0.6
15% Al2O3 0.4 15% Al2O3
50
0.2
0 0
0 Fe 1 Fe 2 Fe 3 Fe 0 Fe 1 Fe 2 Fe 3 Fe
Effect of iron (Fe) Effect of iron (Fe)
Fig: 4.115. Modeling effect of Fe on Fig: 4. 116 Modeling effect of Fe on

hardness abrasive wear.
Mg has beneficial modeling effect on mechanical properties when the Mg is
above 2 %, There is positive effect on strength, ductility, hardness and wear as shown in
Fig: 4.117-4.120. Similar beneficial effect of Mg contents in cast composites was
reported by Maxim et al (1998). Ibrahim et al (1991) reported that 3% Mg, decreases

134
surface tension of pure aluminum and in the presence of Al2O3 particles a chemical
reaction between Al2O3 and divalent transition metal oxides takes place, resulting in
formation of aluminum spinals such as MgO and Al2O3, which promote interfacial
bonding and form strong bonding between both matrix and ceramics that would result in
improvements in the properties of cast composites.
Effect of Mg on tensile strength of cast Effect of Mg on elongation of cast aluminium

aluminium composites composites
T ens ile s trength in M P a
200
E l ongation in % age
16
2.5%Al2O3 14
150 12 2.5%Al2O3
5% Al2O3 10 5% Al2O3
100 8
10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
6
50 15% Al2O3 4 15% Al2O3
2
0 0
0 .5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4 0 .5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4
Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg
Mg % age Mg % age
Fig: 4. 117 Modeling effect of Mg on Fig: 4.118 Modeling effect of Mg on

tensile strength . elongation.
Effect of Mg on hardness of cast aluminium

Effect of Mg on abrasive wear of cast aluminium
composites
composites
Abrasive wear ( weight
300
1.6
Hardnes s in HV
250 2.5%Al2O3 1.4

2.5%Al2O3
loss in gm )
200 1.2
5% Al2O3 1 5% Al2O3
150 0.8
10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
100 0.6
15% Al2O3 0.4 15% Al2O3
50
0.2
0 0
0 .5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4 0 .5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4
Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg
Mg % age Mg % age
Fig: 4.119 Modeling effect of Mg on Fig: 4.120 Modeling effect of Mg on

135
On the other hand, Zn content up to 5 % improves the strength. Further increase
in Zn content decreases the strength but improves hardness and wear resistance in
aluminum cast composite materials, as shown in Fig: 4.121-4.124.
Effect of Zn on tensile strength of cast aluminium

Effect of Zn on elongation of cast aluminium
composites
composites
T ens ile s tr ength i n
250 20
200 2.5%Al2O3
15 2.5%Al2O3
MPa
150 5% Al2O3
5% Al2O3
100 10 % Al2O3 10
10 % Al2O3
50 15% Al2O3
5 15% Al2O3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn 0 Zn 1 Zn 2 Zn 3 Zn
Zn % age % age of Zn
Fig: 4.121 Modeling effect of Zn on Fig: 4.122 Modeling effect of Zn on

strength elongation
Effect of Zn on hardness of cast aluminium Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of cast aluminium

A bras iv e w ear ( w eight
1000 1.6
1.4
los s in g m )
800 1.2 2.5%Al2O3

2.5%Al2O3
1 5% Al2O3
600 5% Al2O3 0.8
10 % Al2O3 0.6 10 % Al2O3
400
0.4 15% Al2O3
200 15% Al2O3 0.2
0
0
0 Zn
1 Zn
3 Zn
4 Zn
5 Zn
6 Zn
7 Zn
8Z n
n
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
8Z
0
1
3
4
5
6
7
Zn % age Zn % age

Other important modeling results were also achieved as discussed below:
The modeling results show the highest strength and abrasive wear resistance in
case of heat treated aluminum alloy based casting composites. The modeling result shows
136
that alloy content 2.3 % Mg, 3 % Zn with increasing the Si content will continuously
improve the tensile strength, hardness, elongation and abrasive wear resistance up to
maximum 6 % Si contents. The tensile strength reached maximum 466 MPa with 20 %
elongation having highest hardness and abrasive wear resistance. The AL2O3 content up
to 2-5 % have beneficial effect on strength hardness and wear as shown in Fig: 4.125-
4.1128.
Effect of Si on tensile strength of as heat treated Effect of Si on elongation of as heat treated

aluminium reinforced with Al2O3composites aluminium reinforced with Al2O3composites
Tens ile strengt h in M P a
500 25
400
2.5%A
El ongation in % age 20
2.5%A
l2O3 l2O3
300 5% 15 5%
Al2O3 Al2O3
200 10 % 10 10 %
Al2O3 Al2O3
100 15% 5 15%
Al2O3 Al2O3
0 0
1 Si 2 Si 3 Si 4 Si 5 Si 6 Si 1 Si 2 Si 3 Si 4 Si 5 Si 6 Si
Si % age Si % age
Fig: 4. 125 Modeling effect of Si on Fig: 4.126 Modeling effect of Si on

strength HT elongation HT
Effect of Si on hardness of as heat treated Effect of Si on abrasive wear of asheat treated

aluminium reinforced with Al2O3composites aluminium composites
1000
Abrasive wear ( weight
1.2
2.5%A
Hardness in HV
800
l2O3 1
los s in g m )
5% 2.5%Al2O3
600 0.8
Al2O3 5% Al2O3
400 10 % 0.6
Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
15% 0.4
200 15% Al2O3
Al2O3 0.2
0
1 Si 2 Si 3 Si 4 Si 5 Si 6 Si
0
1 Si 2 Si 3 Si 4 Si 5 Si 6 Si 7 Si 8 Si
Si % age
Si % age
Fig: 4.127 Modeling effect of Si on Fig: 4.128 Modeling effect of Si on

hardness HT abrasive wear HT
137
Lee (1998) developed the high strength aluminum casting alloy for high
temperature application. He has reported that increasing the Si content in aluminum will
improve the strength, and wear. The beneficial effect of Si in aluminum cast composite
material was reported by Ejifor and Reddy (1997). They reported that addition of ceramic
particles Si C and Al2 O3 in Al Si alloy will improve the strength and wear properties.
They further reported that aluminum Si alloy containing Mg produces the hardening by
forming Mg2 Si precipitates in sand cast alloys. They also reported that wetting, and
bonding strength is achieved in Al-Si system reinforced with Al2 O3 particles in the
presence of Mg content.
Maxim et al (1998) reported that Si & Mg addition has positive effect on strength
Baifeng et al (2007) also reported high strength 6061 aluminum matrix containing Si
reinforced with Al2O3. They reported beneficial effect of Al2O3P up to 30 %. They used
hot extrusion process.
The model suggests that increasing Cu contents and Zn content will increase the
hardness and abrasive wear resistance but will decrease the strength and ductility in case
of heat treated aluminum cast composites. Therefore model suggests that low Cu content
less than 1 % and Zn content up to 3-5 % in the presence of Mg contents 2-3 % will
improve mechanical properties of aluminum cast composite after heat treatment as shown
in Fig: 4.129-4.136.
138
Effect of Cu on tensile strength ofas heat Effect of Cu on Elongation of as heat treated

treated aluminium composites aluminium composites
Tensile strength in MPa
200 20
Elongation in % age
180 18
160 16
140 2.5%Al2O3 14 2.5%Al2O3
120 12 5% Al2O3
5% Al2O3
100 10
10 % Al2O3 8 10 % Al2O3
80
60 15% Al2O3 6 15% Al2O3
40 4
20 2
0 0
u
u
C
C
7
0
Cu % age Cu % age
Fig: 4.129 Modeling effect of Cu on Fig: 130 Modeling effect of Cu on

strength elongation
Effect of Cu on hardness of as heat treated Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of as heat treated
aluminium composites aluminium composites
Abrasive wear ( weight loss
900 1.2
800
1
Hardness in HV
700
2.5%Al2O3 2.5%Al2O3
600 0.8
in gm)
500 5% Al2O3 5% Al2O3

0.6
400 10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
300 0.4
15% Al2O3 15% Al2O3
200
0.2
100
0 0
u u u u u
u
u
C C C C C
C
C
0 1 3 5 7
0
Cu % age Cu % age
Fig: 4.131 Modeling effect of Cu on Fig: 4.132 Modeling effect of Cu on

Effect of Zn on tensile strength of as heat treted Effect of Zn on hardness of as heat treted

T ens ile strengt h in
300 500
Hardness in HV
250 2.5%Al2O3 400 2.5%Al2O3

200
MPa
5% Al2O3 300 5% Al2O3

150
100 10 % Al2O3 200 10 % Al2O3
50 15% Al2O3 100 15% Al2O3
0
0
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn
Zn % age Zn % age

strength hardnes
139
Effect of Zn on elongation of as heat treted Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of as heat treted

25 1.2
A bras iv e wear
20 2.5%Al2O3 1 2.5%Al2O3
15 5% Al2O3 0.8
5% Al2O3
0.6
10 10 % Al2O3 10 % Al2O3
0.4
5 15% Al2O3 0.2 15% Al2O3
0 0
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6
Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn Zn
Zn % age Zn % age

elongation abrasive wear
Similarly it is reported in ( www.metalarticle.com ) that Al-Cu-Si alloys with
more than 3 to 4 % Cu are heat treatable, but usually heat treatment is used only with
those alloys that contain magnesium, which enhances their response to heat treatment.
Without magnesium, response is too slow for heat treatment to be economical.
However, the model suggests that as density increases, the strength, elongation
and hardness is increased upto the actual density of aluminum (2.7 g/cm3). The density is
related with porosity therefore, as the density increases, the porosity will decrease
resulting to enhance the strength and, elongation. Further increase in density will reduce
the properties. Modeling results suggest that density (porosity) has little effect on
abrasive wear as shown in Fig: 4.137-140, which means that porosity, has no relation
with abrasive wear.

140
Effect of density on tensile strength of as heat

Effect of density on Elongation of as heat treted
treted aluminium composites aluminium composites
T en s ile s tr eng th in M P a
250 25
E l o n g a t io n in % a g e
200 2.5%Al2O3 20 2.5%Al2O3
150 5% Al2O3 15 5% Al2O3
100 10 % Al2O3 10 10 % Al2O3
15% Al2O3 15% Al2O3
50 5
0 0
2 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7
Density Density
Fig: 4.137 Modeling effect of density Fig: 4.138 Modeling effect of density
on strength on elongation
Effect of density on hardness of as heat treted

aluminium composites Effect of density on abrasive wear
A bras iv e w ea r (w e ig h t lo s s
1.2
160
1
140 2.5%Al2O3
H a rd ne s s in H V
120 2.5%Al2O3 0.8

in g m )
100 5% Al2O3
5% Al2O3 0.6
80 10 % Al2O3
60 10 % Al2O3 0.4
15% Al2O3
40 15% Al2O3 0.2
20
0
0
2 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
2
9
2.
2.
2.
2.
Density Density in g/cm3
Fig: 4.139 Modeling effect of density on Fig: 4.140 Modeling effect of density
on hardness on abrasive wear
141
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGEESSIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
The main objective of this work was the modeling for high strength and wear
resistance aluminum alloy based casting of composite material using artificial neural net
works. The main conclusion of this project is that artificial neural networks are very
successful in modeling of the problem under consideration. The multiple perceptron
architecture has been used with 14 inputs, 9 hidden layer neurons and 4 outputs.
The specific conclusions are divided in to two parts one is materials development and
other is modeling is given as under:
5.1 MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
1) Approximately 100 datasets were experimentally developed using stir casting method
for the purpose of neural network modeling. Data consists of composition of alloys
process parameters, heat treatment and mechanical properties such as strength and
abrasive wear.
2) The aluminum matrix containing up to 2.0 % Cu, 2.5 % Mg and 5 % Zn reinforced
with 10 % Al2O3 particles yields highest tensile strength up to 300 MPa and highest
abrasive wear resistance as predicated during the experimental work.
3) Al- Zn-Mg alloy matrix reinforced with Al2O3 has highest ductility (20%) as
compared to Al-Cu-Zn-Mg matrix.

142
4) Al-Cu-Zn matrix containing 7 % Cu and 5.16 % Zn shows highest hardness and
abrasive wear resistance but shows very poor tensile strength in cast and heat treated
conditions.
5) The presence of Mg in the range of 2 to 3 % shows beneficial effect on strength in
aluminum cast composites by increasing the wetting, bonding strength and produce
more uniform distribution of Al2O3 particles in micro structural appearance .
6) The solution treatment at 580 0C for ½ hour and temperature at 120 0C for 24 hours
increases the tensile strength and abrasive wear resistance.
7) The strength of aluminum alloy base casting composites depends upon matrix
composition and heat treatment. The strength increases with increase the Al2O3
content up to maximum 10 % addition of Al2O3 particles in case of heat treated
conditions where as in case casting condition up to 2.5 % addition of Al2O3 particles
increases strength.
8) Strength and abrasive wear can further be improved through the optimization of
composition. The remarkable improvement in tensile strength and abrasive wear
resistance is noted in case of heat treated alloy composites.

143
5.2 MODELING
1) Modeling of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum alloy based
casting composite material is an initial attempt because no comprehensive database is
available for such type of modeling.
2) The nonlinear relationship of the composition, processing parameters, and heat
treatment with tensile strength, elongation, hardness and abrasive wear resistance has
been developed by using multilayer perceptron network. Result shows that a well trained
model with 9 hidden neurons has smaller training error and has better performance as
compared to lesser number of neurons. The proposed neural network model with 14
inputs, 9 hidden neurons with 4 outputs trained within 30 second having good
generalization ability to predict accurately the output of the unseen test data.
3) The multilayer perceptron (MLP) architecture with back propagation learning
algorithm after successful training can more effectively be used for prediction of tensile
strength, ductility (Elongation), hardness and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum alloy
based cast composites reinforced with Al2O3 particles.
4) The ANN based model shows good agreement with the experimental results in
training, testing (validation) and further modeling. The application of trained ANN model
for material design, development, analysis as well as testing can reduce huge
experimental work which otherwise takes longer hours of a tedious and complex
materials development and testing procedure. The applications of ANN model also
reduce the overall material cost by optimizing the composition and process parameters.
144
5) The modeling for high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy base casting
composites results suggest the increasing the Cu content up to 6 % in aluminum matrix
with 0.8 % Si, 0.8 % Fe and 3 % Zn in case of casting condition have highest strength
and abrasive wear.
6) Model suggests that increasing Fe content will reduce the strength in casting
composites.
7) A very interesting result was obtained during the modeling of high strength and
wear resistance aluminum cast composites that increasing “Si” up to 6 % along with 2 %
Mg 3 % Zn content will shows the highest tensile strength up to 500 MPa highest
toughness (20% elongation) and abrasive wear resistance 0.2grm / hr in heat treated
condition using stir casting method.
8) The knowledge spectrum of the model suggests very useful information that
increasing Mg content and density will improve the strength and wear. The model also
suggests that decreasing the processing temperature from 900 0C to 700 0C will enhance
the strength properties.
9) Investigating the desired mechanical properties and abrasive wear of aluminum
cast composite material need the development of alloy is a time and energy consuming
task. The present neural network model can more effectively be used for development of
aluminum alloy base casting composite materials for various engineering applications at
most economical level within a very short time due to use of the present train model.
10) The heat treatment process has also significant influence of properties of
aluminum alloy cast composite materials for engineering applications.

145
5.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
1. The aluminum silicon alloy with 3 % Zn and 2 % Mg reinforced with Al2O3
particles be experimentally investigated for highest strength, toughness and abrasive wear
resistance.
2. Al-Mg-Zn, Al – 1.2 % Cu -3 % Zn and 3 % Mg alloy reinforced with Al2O3
particles to be further investigated using squeeze casting technique.
3. Al – Ti matrix reinforced with Al2O3 be also investigated for high strength and
wear.
4. Effect of various heat treatment process parameters (temperature and time) on
microstructural constitutes and mechanical properties are to be investigated for such
aluminum cast composites.

146
REFERENCES
1. Altinkok Necat (2006) “Use of Artificial Neural network for Predication of

Mechanical Properties of α –Al2O3 Particulates Reinforced in Al-Si 10 Mg Alloy
Composites Prepared by Using Stir Casting Process” Journal of Composite Material Vol
40, No 9 pp 779-793.
2. Altinkok Necat and Koker Rasit (2006) “ Modeling of the Prediction of Tensile and
Density Properties in Particles Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites by Using Neural
Networks” Journal of Material & Design 27, pp 625-631.
3. Altinkok Necat and Rasit Koker (2005), “Use of Artificial Neural Network for
Prediction of Physical Properties and Tensile Strength in Particles Reinforced Aluminum
Matrix Composites.” Journal of Materials Science 49, pp 1767-1770.
4. Anil K.Jain, Jianchang Mao and Mohiuddin (1996), “Artificial Neural Network a
Tutorial” IEEE March 1996.
5. Anu Mania, (1997), “Introduction to Modeling and Simulation” Proceedings of

Winter Simulation Conference, pp 7-10
.
6. Aqida S.N, Ghazali M.I and .Hashim .J: (2004), “Effect of Porosity on Mechanical
Properties of Metal Matrix Composites an Overview” Journal of Technology 40 A Jun
2004 pp17-32.
7. Askin Ronal G, Charles Standridge .R, (1993) “Manufacturing System”, John Wily
& Son’s pp 7-20.
8. Azim Abdel A.N. Shash,Y .Mostafa,S.F, Younan,A. (1995), “Casting of 2024 Al

Alloy Reinforced with AL2O3 Particles” Journal of Materials Processing Technology 55,
pp 199-205.
9. Badeshah H.K.D.H., (1999),”Neural Network in Materials Science” ISI, Jounral

International Volume, 39 No: 10, pp 969-979.
10. Baifeng Luan, Gaohui, W.U, Qing, Liu, Hanscen,N., and Tingquan.Lei (2007),
“Microstracture and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Al2O3p / 6061 Al
Composites” Key Engineering Materials Vol: 353-358, pp 1390-1393.
11. Bonollo.F, (1997), “Mechanical and Impact Properties of (Al2O3)p / 2041 and
(Al2O3)p /6061 Al Metal Matrix Composites in the 25-200 OC Range” Journal of
Applied Composite Material 4 pp 173-185.
147
12. Brusethaug, String Yngve langsrud, (2001), “Aluminum properties a Model for
Calculating Mechanical Properties in Al SiMg Fe – Foundry Alloys” Materials Science
and Technology Vol 18(1) pp3-6.
13. Chang Chen and Chun- Guang Chao, (2000), “Effect of Particle Size on
Distribution on the Properties of High Volume fraction SiCp – AL- Based Composites”
Metallugical and Materials Tansection A. Vol. 31A, pp 2351-232358.
14. Chawala N, Habel.U , Shen Y.L, .Andres.C , Jones J.W.,and Allison J.E,(2000)
“Effect of Matrix Microstructure on the Tensile and Fatigue Behaviour of SiC Particle-
Reinforced in 2080 Al Matrix Composites”.Metallurgical and Materials Transection
A.Vol 31A . PP 531-539.
15. Chawla K.K.(1998), “Composite Materials”, 2nd Edition, pp. 204, Springer Pub:
1998..
16. Cherian R.P, Smith I.N, Midha P.S,(2000) “A Neural Network Approach for
Selection of Powder Metallurgy Materials and Process Parameter” Journal of Artificial
Intelligence in Engineering 14, PP 39-44.
17. Clinch.R. Davval, S.J.Harris, W., Heppies, N.J.H, .Holroyd, M.L.Lawday, B.Noble,
(2004), “A Microstructural Engineering – Based Aproch to 7000 Series Alloy
Optimization”, Materials Form Vol: 28, pp 145-151.
18. Dalibor Vojtech, Jan Serak and Ondrej Ekrt, (2003), “Improving the Casting
Properties of High Strength Aluminum Alloys” Material in Technologue 38, pp 99-100.
19. Das.S, (2004), “Development of Aluminum Alloy Composites for Engineering

Applications” Trans, Indian institute of Metals, Vol: 27 No 4 August 2004, PP 325-334,
20. Daud A Abou El-Khair and abdul Azin A.N (2004), “ Effect of Al2O3 particles
Micro structure and sliding wear of 7075 Al- Alloy Manufactured by Squeeze Casting
Method” Journal of .Materials Engineering and Performance 13, pp 135-143.
21. Daud A. El-Bitar. T, and Abd El Azim (2003) “Tensile and wear properties of
Rolled Al 5 Mg –Al2O3 or C particulate composites” Journal of materials engineering and
performance vol 12 pp 390-397.
22. Deschamp.D. Solas.Y., Brechet, (1999), “Modeling of Microstructure Evaluation

and Mechanical Properties in age Hardening Aluminum Alloys”. Proceedings of
Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Processes” EUMAT 99, Vol.3, Mchen
Germany.
23. Dobranski L.A., Kowalski.M. Maejski J. (2005), “Methodology of Mechanical

Properties Predication for the Metallurgical Products from Engineering Steels Using
148
Artificial Intelligence Methods” Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164-165, PP

1500-1509.
24. Dobrzanski; L.A Sitech .W, (2003) “Application of Neural Networks in Steels
Chemical Composition Design” Jounral of Brazilian Society Mech: Sci: Vol 25 No: 2,
PP 1-7.
25. Ejiofor Ju and Reddy, R.G., (1997), “Developments and Processing and Properties
of Particulate AL-Si Composites” JOM Nov: (1997) pp 31-37.
26. Elaisson, J; sandstorms R., (1995) “Application of Aluminum Matrix Composites”

Key Engineering Materials Terms Tech. Pub. Vol: 10 pp 33-36.
27. Elgum Serdar Z (1999) , “Aluminum / Composites”.htlm Nov 1999.
28. Elmas Salama, (2001) Aging Behavior of Spray Cast AL-Zn-Mg–Cu Alloy s
Turkish Jounral of Engineering and Environmental Science 25 , pp 681-686.
29. Fang Synergistic C K (1999) “Effect of Wear and Corrosion for Al2O3 Particles
Reinfoced in 6061 Aluminum Matrix Composites” Metallurgical and Materials
Transaction A Vol 30A March 1999 pp 643.
30. Frindlyander L.N, (2003), “High Strength Aluminum Alloys with Zinc, Magnesium
and Copper” Metal Science and Heat treatment Vol.45 No 9, 2003, pp 9-10.
31. Gallister, W.D, Jr.(1997) “Materials and Engineering: An Introduction”, 4th Ed.
John Willy & Sons New Yark.
32. Genel .K. Kurnaz S.C, .Drman M, (2003), “Modeling Tribological Properties of
Alumina Fiber Reinforced Zn–Aluminum Composites Using Artificial Neural Network”
Journal of Materials Science & Engineering A 363 July 2003, pp 203-210.
33. Gibbons John. H. (1998), “Advanced Materials by Design” June 1988 NTIS order
# PB88-
34. Gupta M and Surappa, M.K, (1995), “Processing Microstructure Properties of Al

based Metal Matrix Composites” Vol 104 -107, pp 259-274.
35. Haizhi Ye, (2003), “An Overview of the Developments of Al-Si Alloy Based
Materials for Engine Applications” JMEPEG, 12, PP 288-297.
36. Hashim, J, Loony.L, and Hashmi M.S.J, (1999), “Metal Matrix Composites
Production by Stir Casting Method” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 92- 93,
pp, 1-7.
149
37. Hashim, Loony.L, Hashmi M.S.J, (2003), “Particle Distribution in Cast Metal
Matrix Composite Part -1”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123, PP 251-
257.
38. Hassan Adel Mehmood , Abdulla Alrashsdan,Mohammed T.Hayajneh,Ahmed

Turki Nayyas, (2009) “Prediction of Density Porosity and Hardness of an Aluminum–
Copper-Based Composites Material Using Artificial Neural Networks” Journal of
Materials & Processing Technology 209 pp 894-899.
39. Haykin, S, (1999), “Neural Networks a Comprehensive Foundation”, 2nd Edition,

Prentice Hall, New Jercy, 1999.
40. Herling, Darell R. Grant, Glenn J, Wrrent Hunt, Jr. (2001), “Low Cost Metal
Matrix composites” Journal of Advanced Materials and Process July (2001) pp37-40.
41. Hoover, W.R (1994), “In the Commercialization of Castable Aluminum

Composites”. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Cast Metal Matrix
Composites Tuscaloosa, 1994,
42. Houche S. Bou (2004) “Modeling of Ladle Metallurgical Treatment Using Artificial
Neural Networks” The Arabian Journal of Materials Science and Engineering Vol: 29
No: 18, April 2004.
43. Hunft,Jr Warren H. (2004), “Automotive Applications of Metal Matrix

Composites” Aluminum Consultants Group, Inc Danied B. Miracle, Air force Research
laboratory Report, pp 1029-1032.
44. Huseyin Sevik, S.Can Kurnaz,(2006), “Properties of α Alumina Particulate

Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Produced by Pressure Die Casting” Materials and Design 27
pp, 676-683.
45. Ibrahim, I.A. Mohammed, F.A and Lavernia, E.J., (1991), “Particulate Reinforced
Metal Matrix Composites a Overview” Journal of. Materials Science. 26, pp. 1137-1155.
46. Jasmin Steinwender, Sebastian Bitzer.(2003), “Multilayer Preceptron” Seminar

Cognitive Architecture University of Osnabrueck 16th April 2003.
47. Jokhio (1996), “Effect of Retained Austenite on Abrasive Wear Resistance of

Carburized SAE 8822H Steel”, Master Thesis in Manufacturing Engineering MUET
Jamshoro and METU, Ankara, Turkey.
150
48. Jokhio M.H M.I.Panhwar and M.D Memon (2006) “Effect of Microstructural
Constituents on Abrasive Wear Resistance of Carburized SAE 8822 H Steel”. QEST
Research Journal of Engineering, Sciences and Technology Volume 7 No: 1 Jan-Jun
2006.
49. Jokhio M.H Panhwar M.I and Shaikh G.Y (2006) “Manufacturing of Cast Iron
Using Software Solution for Optimization” Quarterly Mehran University Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology Vol 25 No 4 Oct 2006 pp 362-369
50. Jokhio M.H, Panhwar M.I and Unar M.A (2009), “Modeling Mechanical Properties
of Cast Aluminum Alloys”, Quarterly Mehran University Research Journal of
Engineering and Technology, Vol 28. No: 3 July 2009. pp 367-376.
51. Jokhio M.H, Panhwar M.I, Baloch M.M Memon SA., (2007) “Aluminum is a Cost
Competitive Material for Saving Energy and Environment” Fist National Conference on
Energy and Environments 22 -25 April 2007 held at QUEST Nawabshah Sind Pakistan.
52. Jokhio, M.H, Panhwar M.I, and Unar M.A (2004), “Neural Networks Application
in Powder Metallurgical Process”, Proceedings of an International Conference, on
Frontier of Advanced Materials Lahore, Pakistan, 2004.
53. Kang Young-Chang, Chan Samy Lap-Ip, (2004), “Tensile Properties of Nanometric
Al2O3 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Composites” Materials Chemistry and Physics
86 pp 438 -443.
54. Karnezis P.A,.Durrant G,and Contor.B, (1998) “Microstructure and Tensile

Properties of Squeeze Cast SiC Particulate Reinforced Al-7Si Alloy”, Materials Science
and Technology Feb. 1998, Vol 16 97 pp2017-2029
55. Kaufman J.G, (1999), “Properties of Aluminum Alloys J.G. Kaufman, Editor, ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.
56. Kok .M, (2003), “Production and Mechanical Properties of Al2 O3 Particles
Reinforced in 2024 Aluminum Alloy Composites”. Journal for Materials Processing
Technology 161, PP 385-387.
57. KoK M (2006) “ Abrasive Wear of Al2O3 Particles Reinforced 2024 Aluminum
Alloy Composites Fabricated by Vertex Method” Composite part A 37, pp 457-464..
58. Kok M and Ozdink.(2007) “Wear resistance of aluminum alloy and its Composites
reinforced by Al2O3 particles” Journal of Material Processing Technology 183 pp 301-
309.
151
59. Kough Ander, 2008, “What are Artificial Neural Networks” Neural Network
Technology Volume 26 Number 2 Feb: 2008.
60. Kuntz Myer, (2002), “Handbook of Materials Selection”, Edited by Myer Kutz
ISBN 0-471-35924-6 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York .
61. Kunze, J.M., Bampton, C.C., (2001), “Challenges to Developing and Producing
MMCs for Space Applications” JOM, p. 22, (April 2001)
62. Lai Lu .L M.O, Lai and Yap.S.H, (1997), “Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties of AL-4.5wt: % Cu/15 wt6: SiC Composites Prepared Using Ball Mill” 192
Materials Science and Technology, March 1997.Vol 13.
63. Lee JA (1998). “High-Strength Aluminum Casting Alloy for High-Temperature

Applications’ (MSFC Center Director's Discretionary Fund Final Project No. 97-10)
NASA.
64. Li. H.J, Qi L.H, Han, H.M and Guo.L.J (2004).; “Neural Networks Modeling and
Optimization of Semisolid Extrusion for Aluminum Matrix Composites”, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 151, pp 126-132.
65. Lindberg Roy. A (2005), “Processing and Materials for Manufacturing” Second
Edition Printice Hall of India pp 54-57.
66. Liu..Z.A,, Wang.G.W., Goe.W, (1996), “Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Hot

Rolled C-Mn Steel Using Artificial Neural Network” Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 57, pp332-336.
67. Lloyd (1099) “Particle Reinforced Aluminum and Magnesium Matrix Composites”.
Int. Mater. Rev.39: pp 1–23.
68. Luji xu, Tiandong xing, Shizhongwei Tao peng, Youngzhen Zhang and Rui long
(2007). “Artificial Neural Network Predication of Heat Treatment Hardness and Abrasive
Wear Resistance of High Vanadium, High Speed Steel” (HVHSS)” Journal of Materials
Science 42 pp 2565-2573.
69. Maly .M Harck.R Novotny.D.,(2006) , “Neural Network Approach in Image

Analysis of Complex System” Vacuum 61, PP, 233-227.
70. Martin William (2003) Application of a Backproagation Algorithm for Feature

Classification of Steel Alloys” Automatic Microstructure Characterizations Using
Machine Learning May 2003.
152
71. Massardier V, Fougeres.R,and Merle P, (1993) “Mechanical Properties of

Aluminum Alloy Based Metal Matrix Composites Reinforced with a Platelete” Journal of
De Physique 111 Vol 3 Nov: 1993. pp 307-308.
72. Maxim L ,Seleznew,. Igor,L. Selzenev, James A,.Cornie, All,. S.Argon and
Ralph,P, . Mason,(1998), “Effect of Composition Particle Size and Heat Treatment on
Mechanical Properties of Al-4.5 % Cu, Based, Alumina Particulates Reinforced
Composites”, SAE International Congress DETOIT, M I Feb 23-26 1998.
73. Muzaffer Zeren (2005) “Effect of Copper and Silicon Content on Mechanical
Properties in Al–Cu–Si–Mg Alloys” Journal of Materials Processing Technology 169 pp
292–298
74. Nesarikar A.R., Tewani S.N. and Graham EE, (1991) “Room Temperature Wear
Characteristics of Al2 O3 Particles – Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Composites” Materials
Science and Engineering A 147, PP 191-199.
75. Nguyen, Hieu (2005) “The Effects of Solidification Rates on Porosity Formation
and Cast Microstructure of Aluminum Alloy A356” Laboratory Module 3 Feb 1, (2005).
76. Ohdar R.K., Pasha S (2003) “Predication of Process Parameters of Metal Powder
Preformed Forging Using Artificial Neural Network (ANW)”. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 132, (2003) pp, 227-234.
77. Ozerdem Mehmet, Sirac, Kolukisa Sadat (2007), “For Predicting the Mechanical
Properties of Non Resulfurized Steels”, Journal of Materials Science and Technology,
Article in Press 2007.
78. Pai B.C Pllia,R.M, and Satyanaryanak.G, (1993), “Stir cast Aluminum Alloy
Matrix” Key Engineering Materials Vol 79 -80, (1993) pp 117 128.
79. Park, B.G Crosky, A. G, . Hellier A. K, (2001), “Material Characterization and

Mechanical Properties of Al2O3 Al Metal Matrix Composites” Journal of Materials
Science 36 pp 2417-2426.
80. Patanker V (2002) “Computational Modeling of Flow and Heat Transfer in

Industrial Applications” International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 23, PP 2002
81. Patternson D. (1996). “Artificial Neural Network” Hall Prentice, 1999.
82. Pollak, P. In (1994) “Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites” Activities at the

Aluminum Association Inc. 2nd Introduction Conference on Cast Metal Matrix
Composites
153
83. Rajagopal Ramesh and Purmina Rajagopalan, (1996), “Application of Neural

Network Modeling in Manufacturing” Proceeding of the 19th Annual Hawaii
International Conference on System Science 1996.
84. Redsten A.M Klier, E.M..Brown, A..M .Dunand D.C (1995),”Mechanical

Properties and Microstructure of Cast Oxide–Dispersion- Strengthened Aluminum”
Journal of Materials Science and Engineering A 201, pp88-102.
85. Rohatgi Pradeep, (2001), “Cast Metal Matrix Composites: Past, Present and
Future” AFS Transactions 01-133 Silver Anniversary Paper 2001 (Page 1 of 25),
86. Rohatgi Perdeep, (1991), “Cast Aluminum Matrix Composites for Automotive
Applications”; JOM the Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society; April 1991;
pp. 10-15.
87. Rupa Dasgupta T, Humaira, Meenai (2005), “SiC Particulate Dispersed

Composites of an Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy: Property Comparison With Parent Alloy”
Materials Characterization 54 pp 438– 445
88. Sha M.A, Edwards K.L (2007), “Use of Artificial Neural Network in Materials
Science Based Research” Journal of Materials Science and Design 28 2007 pp 1747-
1752.
89. Shah Iqbal, (2002),“Modeling Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel”

Master Theses Cambridge University U.K 2002
90. Shen Chai Yuan and SU-Jien Lin, (1996), “Particles Size Effects on the Abrasive
Wear of 20 vol % SiCp /7075 Al Composite” Cripta Material Vol. 35.No,11 pp1271 -
1276.
91. Siddique M.N.H and Tokhi M.O, (2001) “Training NN work Back Propagation Vs
Genetic Algorithms” IEEE International Conference on Neural Network 2001.
92. Srivatsan T.S, Ibrahim I.A Mohammad F.A Lavernia J.A (1991) “Processing
Techniques for Particulate Reinforce Metal Aluminum Matrix Composites” Journal of
Material Science 26 pp 5965-5976
93. Stefanos Skolianos, (1996)., “Mechanical Behavior of Cast SiCp Reinforced with
Al 4.5% Cu -1.5% Mg Alloy” Journal of Materials Science and Engineering A210 pp 76-
82.
94. Strivatsan T. S. and Vasudevan Satish (2006). “The Science, Technology, and
Applications of Aluminum” Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Akron
Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
154
95. Strivatsan T.S (1996), “Microstructure, Tensile Properties and Fracture Behaviour
of Al2O3 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Metal Matrix Composites” Journal of
Materials Science 31 pp 137-138.
96. Strivatsan, T. S. Lewandowski (2006) “Advanced Structural Materials: Properties,

Design Optimization, and Applications” by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
97. Sudhakar KV and Mohammed E Haque (2001) “Mechanical Behavior of Powder

Metallurgy Steel Experimental Investigation and Artificial Neural Network Based
Prediction Model JMEPEG” Vol. 10(1) Feb: 2001 PP. 131-160
98. Suganuma T., Tanaka, A.(1989), Journal of Iron & Steel Inst. of Japan, Vol. 75 p.
376 (1989)
99. Surappa M.K ,(2003), “Aluminum Matrix Composite Challenges and Opportunities”
Sadhana Volume 28 part 1&2 Feb/April 2003 pp319-334
100. Surappa, M.K. and Rohatgi, P.K.,(1981), “Preparation and Properties of Cast
Aluminum Ceramics Particle Composites” Journal of Materials Science 16 , PP 983-993.
101. Suresh K.R, Nianjan H.B,.Martin.P Jebaraj, Chowdiah M.P. (2003), “Wear of AL
and Composites” wear 255 pp638-642.
102. Taha .A. Mohammad, (2001), “Industrialization of Cast Aluminum Materials

Composites (AMMCs)” Jounral of Materials and Manufacturing Processes http /
www.inform world.com Sep: 2001, pp 618-641.
103. Talat ,(1994), “Aluminum Matrix Composites Materials” Lecture 1402,  EAA -
European Aluminum Association .
104. Talpur, Mir Imtiaz .Hussain. (2003) “Intelligent Control Using Neural Network”
M.E Thesis MUET, Jamshoro.
105. Unar .M.A, (1999) “Neural Network Modeling of Ships” Ph. D thesis U.K
106. Venkatararaman B, Sundararajan.G, (2004), “Correlation Between the

Characteristics of the Mechanically Mixed Layer and Wear Behavior of Aluminum AL-
7075 Alloy and AL7075 alloy and AL–MMCs” Journal of Wear 245 pp 22-28.
.
107. Warke, V.S. Shanker S,.Makhlouf M.M, (2005) “Mathematical Modeling and
Computer Simulation of Molten Aluminum Cleaning by Rotating Impeller Degasser part
II Removal of Hydrogen Gas and Solid Particles” Journal of Materials and Processing
Technology.
155
108. Warren H. Hunft, Jr. (2004) “Automotive Applications of Metal Matrix

Composites” ‘ Aluminum Consultants Group, inc Danied B. Miracle, Air force Research
laboratory Report, pp 1029-1032.
109. www.keytometal.com (2005) Aluminum Alloy 7075: “The Relation Between

Microstructure & Toughness” 25/5/2005.
110. www.Keytometals.com (2005), “AL Matrix Composites with Discontinuous SiC

Reinfocements”, 2/5/2005.
111. Xiaos hu lu (2009), “Past, Present and Future Mathematical Models for Buildings”
Intelligent Buildings International 1, P23-38.
112. Xing Xu Liujie, Jaindong. Weishizhon G, Peng Tao. Zhang Xongzhen. Long Rui
,(2007), “Artificial Neural Network Prediction of Heat Treatment Hardness and Abrasive
Wear Resistance of High-Vanadium High Speed Steel (HVHSS)” Journal of Materials
Science 42 PP 2565-2573
113. Yescas M.A, Bhdeshia H.K.D.H, Mackey D.J (2001). “Estimation of the Amount of
Retained Austenite in Austempered Ductile Irons Using Neural Networks” Materials
Science and Engineering .A 311, pp 1262.173..
114. Yilmaz Hamidi Sencer (2004), “Characterization of silicon Carbide Particulate

Reinforced Squeez Cast Aluminum 7075 Matrix Composite” Master Thesis METU Aug
2004.
115. Yilmaz.O, .Buytoz.S, (2001), “Abrasive Wear of Al2 O3 Reinforced Aluminum

Based MMCs” Journal of Composites Science and Technology 61, 2381-239 2001
116. Zander John (2007), “Modeling Mechanical Properties by Analyzing Data Sets of
Commercial Alloys” Master Thesis in Material Science Engineering Royal Institute of
Technology Sweden pp 7-35.
117. Ziliochain Ali (2001) “Fundamental of Neural Networks” CRE Press LLC.
156
APPENDEX FOR TABLES AND FIGURES
APPENDIX- A
Table A .1 Chemical analysis of samples alloy 1
Sample No Si Fe Cu Mg Zn Al
1C 0.80 0.9 .0038 2.15 3.10 93.0

12.5C 0.80 0.9 0.0071 2.25 3.15 93.3
110C 0.80 1.15 0.0041 2.36 3.05 93.2
115C 0.80 0.90 0.0053 2.37 3.00 93.4
1 2.5 0.80 0.97 0.0038 2.29 3.04 93.4
1 2.5 0.80 1.01 0.0036 2.28 3.00 93.5
1 2.5HTR 3.51 0.92 0.019 2.16 3.15 88.4
1 5B 0.80 0.78 0.0054 2.15 2.90 93.9
1 5A 0.80 0.91 0.0063 2.20 2.98 93.6
1 10H.T 0.80 0.98 0.003 2.24 2.93 93.6
1 10HT 3.59 0.91 0.79 1.94 3.06 87.7
1 15 0.80 1.09 0.0050 2.29 2.98 93.3
1 15B 0.80 0.66 0.003 2.13 2.86 93.3
Average 1 0.92 0.066 2.21 3.0 92.58
composition
Table A.2 Chemical analysis of samples alloy 2
2C 3.86 .84 1.91 2.35 5.16 83.1

2 2.5C 4.04 1.18 2.52 2.4 5.16 80.0
2 2.5C 2.21 0.74 1.97 2.4 5.16 84.7
2 5C 3.71 .51 3.49 1.9 4.95 83.5
2 10C 3.95 0.96 3.33 2.17 5.16 81.1
2 15C 2.95 .123 2.61 1.65 4.32 84.32
2 HT 0.80 0.73 1.58 2.40 5.16 89.3
2 2.5A 0.80 0.96 1.87 2.4 5.16 88.6
2 2.5B 3.62 0.77 2.75 2.13 5.16 82.5
2 5B 2.23 0.79 1.91 2.4 5.16 84.8
2 10C 3.95 0.96 3.33 2.17 5.16 81.1
2 10B 0.80 0.72 1.91 2.23 5.16 88.8
157
2 10A 4.08 0.78 2.69 1.92 5.16 82.1

2 15C 2.95 .123 2.61 1.65 4.32 84.32
Average 2.8 0.72 2.45 2.15 5.0 84
composition
3C 3.71 0.64 5.23 1.24 5.16 78.4
3 2.5C 3.84 0.84 7.20 1.16 5.16 71.2
3.5C 3.71 0.76 6.70 1.23 5.16 76.8
3 5CA 3.77 0.70 5.9 1.33 5.16 76.7
3 10C 4.03 0.72 6.90 1.38 5.16 74.0
3 15CB 3.61 0.68 7.2 1.23 5.16 70.0
3 15CA 3.70 0.71 7.2 .92 5.16 73.9
3 H.T 3.64 0.80 7.16 0.99 5.16 74.6
3 2.5EHT 3.92 0.83 7.20 1.09 5.16 71.1
3 2.5BHT 3.93 0.89 7.20 0.98 5.16 74.7
3. 5AHT 3.96 1.17 7.22 2.39 5.16 81.6
3 5BHT 3.84 0.75 7.5 1.34 5.16 73.5
3 10BHT 3.55 0.81 7.2 1.19 5.16 70.9
3 10HT 3.92 0.72 7.07 1.28 5.16 74.8
3 15AHT 3.78 0.82 6.35 1.16 5.16 77.0
3 15HT 3.90 0.8 6.81 1.24 5.16 75.4
3 2.5HT 3.93 0.67 5.81 1.61 5.16 76.5
Average 3.8 0.78 7 1.28 5.16 75
composition
4C 3.36 0.90 5.17 0.51 0.58 87.6
4C 3.28 0.84 4.13 0.90 0.68 88.1
4 2.5C 0.80 1.06 4.80 0.386 0.83 91.5
4 5C 3.54 1.00 4.40 0.75 0.84 87.2
4 10C 3.14 0.98 4.02 0.86 0.74 88.7
4 15C 0.80 0.95 5.11 0.329 0.342 92.9
4 H.T .0.80 1.11 5.38 0.47 0.386 92.3
4 2.5AHT 3.52 1.00 4.38 0.87 0.90 87.3
4 2.5RHT 0.80 1.0 4.99 0.417 0.378 92.8
4 2.5BHT 0.80 0.98 4.80 0.385 0.420 93.0
4.5HT 3.48 0.80 4.16 0.80 0.72 88.0
4 5BHT 3.59 1.09 4.55 0.57 0.65 87.6
4 10BHT 3.05 1.05 4.61 0.318 0.61 88.7
A 410HT 3.90 1.58 5.17 0.61 0.61 86.2
158
4.10HT 3.50 1.22 4.41 0.461 0.53 87.8

4 15 3.04 1.09 5.22 0.473 0.68 87.6
4 15B 1.07 1.02 4.77 0.394 0.94 90.9
Average 2.6 1 4.7 0.559 0.63 89
composition
Sample Si Fe Cu Mg Zn Al
5 HT 3.61 0.5 2.63 2.00 4.03 85.3
5 2.5HT 2.87 .083 2.61 2.13 4.31 86.5
5 3.5HT 2.41 .274 2.05 1.79 5.61 85.9
5 5HT 3.91 .78 1.87 2.17 4.61 84.5
5 6.5H.T 1.39 .33 2.56 1.48 5.61 87.1
5 8.5H.T 1.39 .334 2.77 1.82 2.81 87.2
5 10HT 3.09 .58 2.82 1.95 4.04 85.5
5 13.5HT 2.80 .310 3.18 1.67 4.17 86.0
5 15 HT 3.33 .52 1.85 1.64 4.55 86.3
5 C 4.21 .67 2.74 1.66 5.09 83.4
5 25C1 3.89 .59 3.32 1.84 4.09 84.3
5 2.5 C2 3.92 .56 2.67 1.87 3.44 85.6
5 5 C2 3.71 .51 3.49 1.9 4.95 83.5
5 10 C 4.07 .59 3.4 1.89 4.29 83.8
5 10 C 2 3.86 .63 2.59 2.03 4.41 84.4
5 15 C 2.95 .123 2.61 1.65 4.32 84.32
Average 3.2 0.46 2.7 1.8 4.4 85.
composition
Table A.6. Chemical analysis of samples alloy 6
Sample Si Fe Cu Mg Zn Al
6 0C 4.10 .79 3.30 1.86 5.16 80.7
6 5C 4.22 .59 2.97 1.85 5.16 82.9
6 10C 3.87 .57 3.17 1.65 5.16 81.7
6 15C 4.27 .75 4.08 1.88 5.16 80.4
6 C7 4.25 .67 2.54 2.40 5.16 80.7
6 10HT 3.81 .59 2.20 2.40 5.16 80.4
6 2.5HT 3.46 .464 2.80 2.40 5.16 82.1
610HT1 3.84 .56 4.02 1.90 5.16 79.8
6 5HT 3.71 .67 3.55 2.40 5.16 81.4
610HT2 4.04 .65 1.88 2.40 5.16 79.2
6 15HT 8.0 .55 3.13 2.30 5.16 84.1
Average 4.3 0.62 3. 2. 5.16 81
composition
159
APPENDEX-B
Table B.1. Aluminum oxide particle size analysis report
Filename Aluminum Oxide1_Average<C>

Circulation Speed 10
Ultra sonic 02:00
Laser T% 92.2(%)
R.R.Index 1.60-0.10i
S.P. Area 3398.3(cm2/cm3)
Median 40.2319(µm)
Diameter on % (1)5.000 (%)- 4.4719(µm)
(2)10.00 (%)- 7.1923(µm)
(3)20.00 (%)- 18.3840(µm)
(4)30.00 (%)- 28.0643(µm)
(5)40.00 (%)- 34.6674(µm)
(6)60.00 (%)- 45.8200(µm)
(7)70.00 (%)- 52.0440(µm)
(8)80.00 (%)- 60.1099(µm)
(9)90.00 (%)- 73.7177(µm)
(10)95.00 (%)- 87.5124(µm)
% on Diameter 80.00 (µm) - 92.740(%)
70.00 (µm)- 87.963(%)
60.00 (µm)- 79.897(%)
50.00 (µm)- 66.913(%)
40.00 (µm)- 49.558(%)
30.00 (µm)- 32.506(%)
20.00 (µm)- 21.249(%)
10.00 (µm)- 13.420(%)
5.000 (µm)- 6.059(%)
1.000 (µm)- 0.109(%)
Mean 41.7326(µm)
0.115 0.000 0.000
0.131 0.000 0.000
0.150 0.000 0.000
0.172 0.000 0.000
0.197 0.000 0.000
0.226 0.000 0.000
0.259 0.000 0.000
0.296 0.000 0.000
0.339 0.000 0.000
0.389 0.000 0.000
0.445 0.000 0.000
0.510 0.000 0.000
0.584 0.000 0.000
0.669 0.000 0.000
0.766 0.000 0.000
0.877 0.051 0.051
160
1.005 0.060 0.111

1.151 0.123 0.235
1.318 0.149 0.383
1.510 0.182 0.565
1.729 0.215 0.780
1.981 0.265 1.045
2.269 0.321 1.366
2.599 0.396 1.762
2.976 0.519 2.281
3.409 0.686 2.968
3.905 0.897 3.865
4.472 1.136 5.001
5.122 1.288 6.288
5.867 1.438 7.726
6.720 1.516 9.243
7.697 1.513 10.755
8.816 1.406 12.161
10.097 1.356 13.517
11.565 1.319 14.836
13.246 1.327 16.163
15.172 1.410 17.572
17.377 1.608 19.180
19.904 1.976 21.156
22.797 2.599 23.755
26.111 3.581 27.336
29.907 5.013 32.349
34.255 6.869 39.218
39.234 8.862 48.080
44.938 10.381 58.461
51.471 10.748 69.209
58.953 9.698 78.907
67.523 7.638 86.545
77.339 5.343 91.888
88.583 3.418 95.306
101.460 2.074 97.380
116.210 1.239 98.620
133.103 0.685 99.304
152.453 0.447 99.752
174.616 0.248 100.000
200.000 0.000 100.000
229.075 0.000 100.000
262.376 0.000 100.000
300.518 0.000 100.000
344.206 0.000 100.000
394.244 0.000 100.000
451.556 0.000 100.000
517.200 0.000 100.000
592.387 0.000 100.000
161
APPENDEX – C, Stress Strain diagrams

14
12
150
10
8
Stress in N/mm²
Strain in %
100
6
4
50
2
0
0
100
150
50
0
0 5 10 15 20
Strain in %
Stress in N/mm ²
Diamet L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBrea ε-F
er d0 max d0 k max
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
1 11.28 56 152.57 152.57 13.71 13.71 1 11.28 56 168.97 168.55 19.60 19.54
Fig:C.1 Stress strain diagram of alloy 1 C Fig: C.2. Stress strain diagram of
alloy1 2.5C
162
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
100
Stress in N/mm²
100
50
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Strain in % Strain in %
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Series Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0 d0
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % n=1 mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
1 11.28 56 154.74 152.74 14.84 14.84 X 11.28 56 160 160. 15.78 15.73
Fig: C.3 Stress strain diagram of alloy1 5 C. Fig: C.4 Stress strain diagram alloy10C
200
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
100
50
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Series Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0 d0
n=1 mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
X 11.28 56 167.79 166.58 20.16 20.10 1 11.28 56 214.61 214.12 22.75 22.69
Fig: C.5 Stress strain diagram alloy 1 HT. Fig: C.6 Stress strain diagram alloy1
2.5HTR
163
200
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
100
50
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max

Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max d0
d0
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
1 11.28 56 180.88 180.88 16.73 16.73 1 11.28 56 177.05 177.05 20.67 20.67
Fig: C.7 Stress strain diagram alloy 1 5HT Fig: C.8 Stress strain diagram alloy
110 HT
140
150
120
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
80
60
40 50
20
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBrea ε-F
d0 d0 k max
1 11.28 56 146.10 146.10 15.26 15.26 1 11.28 56 169.68 169.68 15.61 15.61
Fig:C.9 Stress strain diagram alloy 2 C Fig:C.10 Stress strain diagram alloy
2.5C HT
164
140
150
120
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
80
60
50 40
20
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 141.11 139.17 10.97 10.91
1 11.28 56 152.86 152.86 15.79 15.79
Fig: C.11.Stress strain diagram alloy 2 5 Fig: C.12 Stress strain diagram alloy 2
10 C
140 200
120
150
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
100
60
40
50
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 5 10 15
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak
ε-F
d0 d0 max
1 11.28 56 138.19 138.19 11.15 11.15 1 11.28 56 181.13 173.95 16.65 16.59
Fig: C.13. Stress strain diagram alloy 210C Fig: C.14 Stress strain diagram alloy
2HT
165
250
250
200
200
150
Stress in N/mm²
150
Stress in N/mm²
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 225.38 223.13 15.57 15.51 1 11.28 56 220.02 220.02 16.61 16.61
Fig: C.15 Stress strain diagram alloy 2 2.5HT. Fig: C.16 Stress strain diagram alloy
2.5 HT
200
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
100
50
50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 5 10 15
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 194.14 194.14 15.73 15.73 1 11.28 56 165.19 165.19 11.20 11.20
Fig: C.17 Stress strain diagram alloy 2.10HT. Fig: C18 Stress strain diagram
alloy2.15HT
166
100
140
80 120
100
60
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
40 60
40
20
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBrea ε-F max Series Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0 k d0
Nr mm mm N/mm N/mm % % n=1 mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
² ²
x 11.28 56 130. 130.33 10.14 12.18
2 11.28 56 96.16 96.16 13.84 13.84
Fig: C.19 Stress strain diagram alloy 3C Fig: C.20 Stress strain diagram alloy 32.5C
100
120
80
100
60
Stress in N/mm²
80
Stress in N/mm²
60 40
40
20
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
Strain in %
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Strain in %
d0 d0 k max
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm % %
²
1 11.28 56 113.5 113.5 14.36 14.36
1 11.28 56 98.35 98.35 7.69 7.69
5 5
Fig: C.21 Stress strain diagram alloy 35C Fig: C.22 Stress strain diagram alloy
310C
167
80
140
120
60
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
40
60
20 40
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 85.69 85.69 7.97 7.97 1 11.28 56 148.49 148.49 12.17 12.17
Fig: C.23 Stress strain diagram alloy 315C Fig: C.24 Stress strain diagram alloy
3HT
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
100
Stress in N/mm²
100
50
50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F
d0 d0 max
1 11.28 56 166.95 166.95 14.05 14.05 1 11.28 56 165.06 165.06 11.48 11.48
Fig:C.25 Stress strain diagram alloy 3 2.5HT Fig:C.26 Stress strain diagram alloy
3 .5HT
168
140
140
120
120
100
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
80
60
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 135.30 135.30 10.31 10.31 1 11.28 56 128.25 122.85 10.80 10.74
Fig:C.27 Stress strain diagram alloy 310 HT Fig:C.28 Stress strain diagram alloy
3 15HT
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
100
Stress in N/mm²
100
50
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15
d0 d0 k max
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % Nr mm Mm N/mm² N/mm² % %
1 11.28 56 160.35 153.73 18.41 18.35 1 11.28 56 161.97 161.97 16.18 16.18
Fig:C.29 Stress strain diagram of alloy 4C Fig:C.30 Stress strain diagram of alloy
42.5 C
169
120
140
120 100
100
80
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Diameter d0 L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diamete L0 Fmax FBreak εBrea ε-F
r d0 k max
1 11.28 56 132.87 126.71 14.54 14.48
1 11.28 56 124.11 123.82 16.46 16.41
Fig:C.31 Stress strain diagram alloy 4.10C Fig:C.32 Stress strain diagram alloy
4.15 C
150 150
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 167.7 167.7 16.46 16.46 1 11.28 56 164.3 164.3 16.40 16.40
5 5 8 8
Fig: C.33 Stress strain diagram alloy 4HT Fig: C.34 Stress strain diagram alloy
4 2.5HT
170
140
140
120
120
100
100
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
80
80
60
60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 144.05 143.90 14.76 14.70 1 11.28 56 143.22 143.22 18.59 18.59
Fig: C.35 Stress strain diagram alloy 4.5HT Fig: C.36 Stress strain diagram alloy
4.10 HT
140
150
120
100
Stress in N/mm²
100
Stress in N/mm²
80
60
50
40
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 5 10 15
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 159.97 78.23 12.66 10.40 1 11.28 56 148.99 148.58 16.48 16.42
Fig:C.37 Stress strain diagram alloy 5 C. Fig: C38 Stress strain diagram alloy
2.5 C
171
140
140
120
120
100
100
² m m/ N n i s s e r t S
Stress in N/mm²
80 80
60 60
40 40
20
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter d0 L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0
Nr mm mm N/mm² N/mm² % % Nr mm mm N/mm N/mm % %
1 11.28 56 148.99 148.58 16.48 16.42 1 11.28 56 125.34 125.34 5.21 5.21
Fig:C.39 Stress strain diagram alloy 2.5 C. Fig: C.40 Stress strain diagram alloy
5C
120
120
100
100
80
80
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
60
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Diamete L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
r d0
d0
1 11.28 56 115.16 115.16 6.83 6.83 1 11.28 56 111.45 109.89 4.97 4.91
Fig: C41 Stress strain diagram alloy 510 C. Fig: C.42 Stress strain diagram alloy
515 C
172
300
200
150
200
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
100
50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Diameter d0 L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0
1 11.28 56 287.8 287.8 5.46 5.46
1 11.28 56 181.20 181.20 9.78 9.78 3 3
Fig: C.43 Stress strain diagram alloy 5 0 HT. Fig: C.44 Stress strain diagram alloy
5 2.5 HT
250 300
200
200
Stress in N/mm²
150
Stress in N/mm²
100
100
50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 5 10 15 20
Diameter d0 L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max
d0
1 11.28 56 257.09 255.46 13.92 13.87 1 11.28 56 296.6 291.4 20.78 20.72
8 8
Fig: C.45 Stress strain diagram alloy 5 5 HT. Fig: C 46 Stress strain diagram alloy
5 10 HT
173
250
140
200 120
100
150
Stress in N/mm²
²mm/N ni ssertS
80
100
60
40
50
20
0
0 5 10 15 0 0 2 4 6
Strain in %
Strain in %
Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F max Diameter L0 Fmax FBreak εBreak ε-F
d0 d0 max
1 11.28 56 227.41 225.96 15.97 15.92 1 11.28 56 142.12 142.12 3.87 3.87
Fig: C.47 Stress strain diagram alloy 5 15 HT Fig: C.48 Stress strain diagram alloy
6C
120
80
100
60
80
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
60 40
40
20
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 115.16 115.16 6.83 6.83 1 11.28 56 83.64 83.64 7.05 7.05
Fig: C.49 Stress strain diagram alloy 6 2.5 C. Fig: C.50 Stress strain diagram alloy
65C
174
120
100
100
80
80
Stress in N/mm²
60
Stress in N/mm²
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
d0 d0
Nr 11.28 56 N/mm² N/mm² % %
1 11.28 56 96.32 96.32 7.82 7.82 1 12.5 30.08 105.68 105.68 6.06 6.06
Fig: C.51 Stress strain diagram alloy 6 5 C. Fig:: C.52 Stress strain diagram alloy
6 10 C
120
100
150
80
Stress in N/mm²
Stress in N/mm²
100
60
40
50
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 114.78 114.78 7.26 7.26 1 11.28 56 161.59 161.02 7.56 7.50
Fig:C.53 Stress strain diagram alloy 6 15C Fig:C.54 Stress strain diagram alloy
6 5 HT
175
150
150
Stress in N/mm²
100
Stress in N/mm²
100
50
50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
d0 d0
1 11.28 56 167.52 167.52 8.05 8.05 1 11.28 56 158.65 158.65 7.22 7.22
Fig: C.55 Stress strain diagram alloy 610 HT. Fig: C.56 Stress strain diagram alloy
6 15 HT
176
APPENDEX –D
Table D.1 Hardness of samples of alloy 1
SAMPLE 1 2 3 4 MEAN HV
1C 0.125 0.120 0.1295 0.1275 0.1255 118.65
1.25C 0.129 0.129 0.129 0.129 0.129 111
1 5C 0.112 0.112 0.114 0.114 0.113 140
110C 0.121 0.136 0.136 0.136 0.132 106
115C 0.122 0.123 0.121 0.122 0.122 124
120 0.178 0.192 0.199 0.199 0.192 52
1HT .164 .160 .162 .162 0.162 70
1.25 0.143 0.131 0.131 0.136 0.135 101.7
125A 0.116 0.116 0.114 0.114 0.115 140
125H.TR 0.180 0.180 0.164 0.164 0.172 62.8
1.5B 0.167 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.152 80
1.5A 0.131 0.131 0.131 0.121 0.128 113
110 0.134 0.128 0.132 0.1325 0.132 106
110H.T 0.121 0.121 0.155 0.155 0.138 97.35
115 0.121 0.121 0.121 0.121 0.121 125
115B 0.163 0.163 0.142 0.142 0.152 80
Table D.2 Hardness of samples alloy 2
Sample 1 2 3 4 MEAN HV
2C 0.102 0.102 0.126 0.128 0.117 135
225C 0.107 0.107 0.120 0.120 0.113 145
2 5C 0.132 0.130 0.130 0.130 0.1305 108
210C 0.118 0.100 0.109 0.109 0.109 100
215C 0.080 0.080 0.120 0.120 .100 85
2HT .078 .078 .079 .078 .0785 320
225A 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 378
2-5B 0.069 0.070 0.070 0.068 0.069 350
225B 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 378
210A 0.065 0.065 0.08 0.08 0.072 357.6
215 0.098 0.098 0.086 0.086 0.092 219
SAMPLE 1 3 6 8 MEAN H.V

3C 0.213 0.140 0.095 0.095 0.135 101.7
325C 0.110 0.110 0.067 0.065 0.95 205
35C 0.074 0.073 0.091 0.105 0.0857 252
310C 0.106 0.070 0.070 0.097 0.084 262.75
177
315C 0.088 0.086 0.080 0.80 0.083 270

315CB 0.08 0.086 0.083 0.083 0.083 270
3H.T 0.127 0.127 0.077 0.061 0.098 193
325 0.800 0.057 0.07 0.07 0.070 380
325B 0.067 0.067 0.065 0.065 0.066 425
325E 0.08 0.06 0.060 0.060 0.065 430
35A 0.09 0.09 0.086 0.086 0.088 240
35B 0.069 0.069 0.059 0.059 0.0893 232
35CA 0.114 0.94 0.094 0.078 0.100 252
310A 0.082 0.071 0.063 0.062 0.0695 383.8
310B 0.071 0.057 0.111 0.058 0.0742 336.74
315A 0.066 0.066 0.066 0.083 0.070 378
315 0.101 0.080 0.080 0.095 0.089 234
Sample Test1 T2 T3 T4 Mean H.V

4C 0.130 0.139 0.138 0.147 0.1385 97.35
425A C 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.171 156 76
4.5C 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 .147 85.7
410C 0.157 0.130 0.184 0.157 .157 75
415C 0.139 0.139 0.155 0.171 .151 81
4H.T 0.200 0.207 0.172 0.172 187 53
4.2.5A 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 .147 85.7
42.5B 0.152 0.150 0.154 0.152 0.152 80
42.5R 0.155 0.155 0.150 0.160 .155 77
4.5B 0.148 0.162 0.157 0.162 .157 75
4.5 0.160 0.155 0.150 0.155 .155 77
410 0.156 0.156 0.152 0.152 .151 80
410B 0.16 0.160 0.160 0.164 .162 60
415 0.147 0.147 0.161 0.161 .166 67.2
415B 0.196 0.196 0.181 0.181 .185 54
Sample No 1 2 3 4 MEAN H.V

5 0C 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 .145 84.6
5 25C1 0.124 0.124 0.122 0.122 0.123 123
5 5 C2 0.129 0.129 0.122 0.122 0.125 125
5 10 C 0.129 0.129 0.126 0.122 0.126 127
5 15 C 0.129 0.129 0.129 0.130 0.129.5 110
5 0 HT 0.87 0.057 0.070 0.074 0.078 300
5 2.5 HT 0.80 0.058 0.070 0.070 0.074 330
5 3.5 H.T 0.076 0.076 0.072 0.072 0.074 340
5 5HT 0.78 0.058 0.070 0.068 0.074 340
5 6.5 H.T 0.075 0.090 0.074 0.096 0.082 275
178
5 8.5 H.T 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 228

5 10HT 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.061 500
513.5 H.T 0.085 0.085 0.085 0.085 0.085 256
5 15 HT 0.062 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063 490
Table D.6 Hardness of samples lot 6
Sample No 1 2 3 4 MEAN H.V

6C 0.162 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.152 80
6 2.5 C 0.126 0.126 0.076 0.060 0.096 200
6 5C 0.126 0.126 0.074 0.060 0.093 220
6 10C 0.074 0.074 0.091 0.105 0.087 240
6 15C 0.073 0.073 0.090 0.104 0.085 256
6 HT 0.106 0.071 0.071 0.098 0.085 260
6 2.5HT 0.104 0.070 0.072 0.097 0.086 255
6 10HT1 0.102 0.074 0.070 0.098 0.087 250
6 5HT 0.120 0.120 0.070 0.070 0.090 180
6 10HT2 0.100 0.100 0.090 0.094 0.096 200
6 15HT 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.060.5 289
179
APPENDEX-E
Table E.1 Abrasive wear test of samples alloy 1
Alloy1 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Total Final wt Initial wt f Average
wt loss of sample samples wt loss in
gm
1C 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 5 5.8 10.8 1.25
1 25C 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 4.4 6.0 10.4 1.1
1 5C 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.0 4 6.5 10.5 1.0
1 10C 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 3.9 8.6 12.5 0.979
1 15C 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 3.5 8.8 12.3 0.875
1 H.T 1 1.0 1.0 0.8 3.8 8.0 11.8 0.95
125HT 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 3.6 8.5 12.1 0.9
1 5HT 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 3.3 9.3 12.6 0.825
110HT 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 2.8 7.7 10.5 0.70
115H.T 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 3.0 9.0 12.0 0.75
Alloy 2 Test 1 Test 2 Test Test 4 Total wt Final wt Initial wt of Average

3 loss of sample samples wt loss in
gm
2 C 1.4 1.2 1 1.2 4.8 7.4 12.2 1.2
2 2.5C 1.2 1.1 1 1 4.3 9.0 13.3 1.075
2 5C 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 3.4 9.0 12.4 0.85
2 10C 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.9 8.6 11.5 0.725
2 15C 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.5 9.2 11.7 0.625
2 H.T 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 2.9 9.3 12.2 0.725
2 2.5H.T 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 3.0 8.7 11.7 0.75
2 5H.T 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 2.7 8.7 11.4 0.675
2 10H.T 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.4 8.3 10.7 0.60
2 15H.T 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 3.4 9.3 12.7 0.85
Alloy 3 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Total wt Final wt Initial wt of Average

loss of sample samples wt loss in
gm
3 C 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 4.4 7.6 12.0 1.1
3 2.5C 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 4 9.0 13 1.0
3 5C 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 3.3 12.2 15.5 0.825
3 10C 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 2.3 9.7 12.0 0.575
3 15C 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 2.6 10 12.6 0.65
3 H.T 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 2.5 9.3 11.8 0.625
3 2.5H.T 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 2.0 9.5 11.5 0.50
3 5H.T 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 2.1 9.9 12.0 0.525
3 10H.T .1 .1 .1 0.9 3.9 10.4 14.3 0.975
3 15H.T 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.8 3.6 10.6 14.2 0.90
180
Alloy 4 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Total wt Final wt Initial wt of Average

loss of sample samples wt loss in
gm
4 C 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 5.9 7.8 13.7 1.475
4 2.5C 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 5.2 8.7 13.9 1.3
4 5C 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 4.4 7.9 12.3 1.1
4 10C 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 4.2 8.8 13.0 1.05
4 15C 1 0.9 1.0 0.9 3.8 9.1 12.9 .95
4 H.T 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 4.3 8.1 12.4 1.075
4 2.5H.T 1 0.9 0.8 1 3.7 8.4 12.1 .925
4 5H.T 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.2 5.1 8.2 13.23 1.27
4 10H.T 1 1.1 1.0 1.0 4.1 8.9 13.0 1.025
4 15H.T 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.3 4.6 8.3 12.9 1.15

Alloy 5 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Total wt Final wt of Initial wt of Average
loss samples sample wt loss in
gm
5 0C 1.2 1.1 1 1.1 4.4 7.16 11.5 1.1
525C1 1.1 0.9 1 1 4 7.93 11.93 1
5 5 C2 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.80 3.28 8.46 11.74 0.82
5 10 C 0.80 0.72 0.75 0.73 3 6.90 119.9 0.75
5 15 C 0.90 0.70 0.65 0.68 2.83 8.18 11.01 0.70
5 0HT 0.9 0,8 0.8 0.7 3.2 8.5 11.7 0.8
5 2.5HT 0.7 0.7 0.68 0.68 2.76 7.95 10.71 0.69
5 5HT 0.7 0.64 0.7 0.68 2.64 8.38 11.0 0.66
5 10HT 0.5 0.5 0.40 0.40 1.8 7.74 9.5 0.45
5 15 HT 0.5 0.4 0.36 0.36 1.62 9.18 10.8 0.405
Table E.6 Abrasive wear test of alloy 6
Alloy 6 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Total Final wt of Initial wt Average

wt loss samples of sample wt loss in
gm
610 0 C 1 0.80 0.80 0.80 4.4 6.34 10.74 1.1
6 2.5C 1 1.0 1.2 0.8 4 6.5 11.5 1.0
610 5C 0.7 0.65 0.68 0.68 2.71 6.59 9.3 0.677
61010C 0.62 0.60 0.60 0.58 2.40 9.23 11.63 0.60
61015C 0.6 0.6 0.55 0.57 2.72 7.72 10.44 0.675
610 0HT 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 7.99 10.59 0.65
610 2.5HT 0.7 0.7 0.66 0.60 2.64 8.69 11.35 0.66
61010HT1 0.7 0.66 0.66 0.60 2.62 9.33 12 0.65
610 5HT 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.70 2.8 7.87 10.74 0.70
61010HT2 0.7 0.65 0.65 0.60 2.60 9.0 11.6 0.65
610 15HT 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.55 2.40 8.98 11.36 0.60
181
APPENDEX-F
Table F.1 Density and porosity of as cast samples alloy1-6
S No Alloy No Bulk density D Theoretical density D Porosity percentage

gm/cm3 gm /cm3
1 1C 2.33 2.85 0.52
2 12.5 2.34 2.85 0.51
3 110C 2.33 2.85 0.52
4 115C 2.30 2.85 0.62
5 120C 2.30 2.85 0.62
6 2C 2.769 2.99 0.22
7 225C 2.79 2.99 0.20
8 2 5C 2.856 2.99 0.134
9 210C 2.80 2.99 0.19
10 2 15C 2.79 2.99 0.20
11 3C 2.52 3.17 0.65
12 3 2.5C 2.525 3.17 0.64
13 3.5CA 2.60 3.17 0.57
14 310C 2.6 3.17 0.5
15 315CA 2.525 3.17 0.65
16 4C 2.147 3.0 0.85
17 4C 2.0 3.0 1.0
18 4 2.5C 2.17 3.0 0.83
19 4 5C 2.2 3.0 0.8
20 415C 2.147 3.0 0.853
21 410 C 2.16 3.0 0.84
22 6C 2.7 2.99 0.29
23 5 0C 2.95 2.98 0.03
24 525C1 2.8 2.98 0.18
25 5 5C 2.82 2.98 0.16
26 5 10 C 2.76 2.98 0.22
27 5 15 C 2.72 2.98 0.26
28 6 2.5HT 2.65 2.99 0.34
29 6 5HT 2.70 2.99 0.29
30 6 15HT 2.75 2.99 0.24
Table. F.2 Density and porosity of as heat treated samples alloys used for validation

gm /cm3 gm/cm3
3 15C 2.4 2.85 0.45
15 3.5C 2.55 3.17 0.62
18 315CB 2.6 3.17 0.57
30 5 2.5 C2 2.88 2.98 0.10
36 610C 2.75 3.0 0.25
182
Table F.3 Density and porosity of as heat treated samples alloy 1-6

gm /cm3 gm/cm3
1 1HT 2.8 2.85 0.05
2 1-2.5 2.8 2.85 0.05
3 12.5HTR 2.84 2.85 0.01
4 1.5B 2.58 2.85 0.27
5 1.5A 2.50 2.85 0.35
6 110H.T 2.57 2.85 0.28
7 110HT 2.4 2.85 0.45
8 115 2.4 2.85 0.45
9 115B 2.58 2.85 0.27
10 2HT 2.88 2.99 0.2
11 225A 2.95 2.99 0.11
12 225B 2.77 2.99 0.04
13 2.5B 2.86 2.99 0.22
14 210B 2.85 2.99 0.13
15 210A 2.88 2.99 0.11
16 215 2.6 2.99 0.39
17 3 H.T 2.75 3.17 0.42
18 32.5B 2.70 3.17 0.47
19 3.5A 2.6 3.17 0.57
20 3.5B 2.6 3.17 0.57
21 310B 2.7 3.17 0.47
22 310 2.75 3.17 0.42
23 315A 2.70 3.17 0.42
24 315 2.70 3.17 0.42
25 32.5 2.54 3.17 0.63
26 4 H.T 2.02 3.0 0.98
27 4 2.5A 2.1 3.0 0.9
28 4 2.5R 2.21 3.0 0.79
29 4.5 2.1 3.0 0.9
30 4.5B 2.1 3.0 0.9
31 410B 2.5 3.0 0.5
32 A410 2.1 3.0 0.9
33 415 2.04 3.0 0.96
34 415B 2.21 3.0 0.79
35 415R 2.66 3.0 0.34
36 5 5H.T 2.7 2.98 0.28
37 5 8.5H.T 2.78 2.98 0.20
38 5 6.5H.T 2.81 2.98 0.17
39 5 10HT 2.60 2.98 0.38
40 5 13.5HT 2.66 2.98 0.32
41 5 0HT 2.7 2.98 0.28
183
42 5 2.5HT 2.78 2.98 0.2

43 5 5HT 2.81 2.98 0.17
44 5 10HT 2.8 2.98 0.18
45 5 15 HT 2.66 2.98 0.32
46 610 0HT 2.7 2.99 0.29
47 610 .5HT 2.78 2.99 0.21
48 61010HT1 2.81 2.99 0.18
49 610 5HT 2.8 2.99 0.19
50 61015 HT 2.7 2.99 0.28
Table F.4 Density and porosity of as heat treated samples alloys used for validation

gm/cm3 gm/cm3
3 1-2.5 2.65 2.85 .2
21 3 2.5E 2.7 3.17 .47
31 42.5B 2.2 3.0 .8
37 410 2.4 3.0 .6
48 5 3.5HT 2.8 2.98 .18
187
APPENDEX - H
Table H.1 Experimental and trained data
SNO Ex T.S NN TS Ex NN Ex HV NN HV Ex Wear NN

MPa MPa Elong % Elong % Wear
age age
1
0157.0 0152.6 0013.7 0015.6 0113.0 0118.7 0001.3 0001.3
2
0152.8 0168.0 0019.5 0014.0 0117.6 0111.0 0001.1 0001.1
3
0137.2 0154.0 0015.7 0012.2 0106.8 0106.0 0000.9 0001
4
0127.2 0117.0 0015.0 0011.4 0128.8 0124.0 0000.9 0000.9
5
0114.3 0101.0 0017.0 0011.6 0063.9 0052.0 0000.9 0001
6
0130.7 0146.0 0015.3 0011.9 0132.3 0135.0 0000.9 0001.2
7
0171.2 0169.7 0015.6 0014.3 0150.7 0145.0 0001.0 0001.1
8
0139.3 0152.9 0015.3 0012.6 0112.9 0108.0 0000.9 0000.8
9
0121.9 0139.1 0011.0 0011.9 0083.2 0100.0 0000.9 0000.7
10
0115.3 0138.2 0011.5 0011.2 0082.4 0085.0 0000.9 0000.6
11
0117.6 0096.0 0013.8 0011.4 0100.7 0101.7 0000.9 0001.1
12
0112.2 0130.0 0010.1 0010.7 0218.5 0205.0 0000.8 000.1
13
0104.7 0113.0 0014.2 0010.0 0234.1 0252.0 0000.8 0000.8
14
0099.8 0098.4 0007.7 0009.3 0270.4 0262.7 0000.7 0000.6
15
0106.2 0085.7 0008.0 0010.3 0261.5 0270.0 0000.8 0000.5
16
0153.9 0160.2 0015.0 0016.1 0098.9 0100.0 0001.4 0001.5
17
0151.5 0166.2 0016.4 0015.8 0112.8 0097.4 0001.4 0001.5
18
0160.5 0162.0 0016.2 0015.6 0078.5 0076.0 0001.3 0001.3
19
0150.5 0130.3 0013.0 0014.3 0077.8 0085.7 0001.1 0001.1
20
0147.0 0124.6 0016.4 0013.1 0071.3 0081.0 0001.0 0001.1
21
0134.7 0126.0 0012.0 0013.4 0070.6 0075.0 0001.1 0001.2
22
0131.5 0145.0 0015.0 0012.2 0088.1 0080.0 0000.9 0001.1
23
0157.9 0160.0 0012.9 0012.6 0083.8 0084.6 0001.0 0001.1
24
0132.2 0149.0 0010.5 0011.9 0123.9 0133.0 0000.9 0001
25
0115.0 0125.3 0005.2 0010.8 0162.7 0125.0 0000.8 0000.8
26
0115.7 0115.4 0005.0 0010.8 0136.7 0127.0 0000.8 0000.8
27
0150.1 0107.6 0008.6 0012.5 0100.1 0110.0 0000.9 0000.7
28
0127.5 0115.0 0006.8 0011.4 0200.7 0200.0 0000.8 0000.8
29
0119.7 0111.5 0004.9 0010.7 0196.7 0220.0 0000.8 0000.7
188
30
0105.2 0114.0 0007.3 0009.4 0249.9 0256.0 0000.7 0000.6
31
0193.6 0167.2 0020.0 0017.3 0061.3 0070.0 0000.9 0001
32
0197.8 0180.9 0016.7 0019.4 0107.1 0101.7 0000.9 0000.9
33
0231.3 0214.6 0022.7 0021.3 0059.7 0062.8 0001.0 0000.9
34
0184.2 0190.0 0018.0 0017.8 0069.7 0080.0 0000.9 0000.9
35
0179.3 0199.3 0018.6 0017.3 0126.4 0113.0 0000.8 0000.8
36
0163.3 0167.8 0020.1 0016.9 0100.1 0106.0 0000.8 0000.7
37
0166.5 0177.8 0016.9 0016.2 0096.6 0097.4 0000.9 0000.8
38
0162.5 0156.7 0014.8 0015.1 0119.3 0125.0 0000.8 0000.7
39
0179.5 0177.3 0018.9 0016.2 0083.1 0080.0 0000.8 0000.8
40
0177.7 0181.1 0016.6 0014.2 0323.5 0320.0 0000.6 0000.7
41
0245.2 0220.0 0016.2 0016.2 0374.5 0378.0 0000.6 0000.8
42
0211.3 0225.4 0015.5 0013.4 0384.2 0378.0 0000.6 0000.7
43
0214.8 0220.0 0016.6 0013.8 0362.1 0350.0 0000.7 0000.7
44
0192.3 0194.0 0015.7 0012.4 0348.6 0357.0 0000.6 0000.7
45
0201.5 0177.0 0015.2 0012.8 0356.2 0357.0 0000.7 0000.6
46
0160.9 0165.2 0011.2 0010.6 0226.7 0219.0 0000.8 0000.8
47
0148.4 0148.5 0012.2 0011.8 0194.1 0193.0 0000.7 0000.6
48
0166.2 0165.9 0014.1 0011.9 0433.1 0425.6 0000.7 0000.6
49
0186.3 0165.1 0011.5 0011.3 0523.8 0538.0 0000.6 0000.6
50
0158.8 0137.4 0010.1 0010.4 0524.3 0532.0 0000.7 0000.9
51
0130.1 0135.0 0010.0 0010.2 0336.3 0336.0 0001.0 0000.9
52
0159.2 0135.3 0010.3 0011.0 0391.1 0383.0 0000.8 0000.9
53
0141.7 0128.0 0010.5 0010.0 0362.7 0378.0 0000.8 0001
54
0105.4 0128.3 0010.7 0008.8 0255.6 0234.0 0000.9 0001
55
0153.0 0160.0 0013.0 0010.6 0384.0 0380.0 0000.7 0000.8
56
0144.2 0167.8 0016.5 0015.5 0062.5 0053.0 0001.2 0001.1
57
0152.8 0161.2 0015.0 0015.9 0087.0 0085.7 0001.1 0000.9
58
0164.8 0164.9 0016.4 0017.6 0075.0 0077.0 0001.2 0001
59
0173.8 0151.1 0014.4 0016.6 0076.0 0077.0 0001.1 0001
60
0153.7 0143.9 0021.8 0016.5 0071.9 0075.0 0001.1 0001
61
0134.0 0143.0 0018.0 0016.9 0066.8 0060.5 0001.0 0001
62
0133.1 0146.0 0014.0 0016.1 0063.9 0060.0 0001.0 0001.2
63
0115.9 0111.0 0015.0 0014.2 0069.8 0067.0 0001.0 0001.1
189
64
0118.9 0112.0 0011.2 0014.9 0048.3 0054.0 0000.9 0001.2
65
0128.4 0111.6 0015.4 0017.4 0049.7 0051.0 0000.9 0001.2
66
0273.9 0277.0 0012.3 0018.3 0303.0 0300.0 0000.7 0000.3
67
0284.5 0275.0 0010.0 0017.2 0230.2 0228.9 0000.6 0000.8
68
0250.0 0295.0 0020.7 0015.9 0287.1 0275.7 0000.7 0000.8
69
0214.3 0194.0 0011.6 0013.3 0316.4 0320.0 0000.5 0000.6
70
0201.8 0177.0 0016.0 0012.0 0276.1 0256.0 0000.5 0000.5
71
0186.3 0181.2 0009.8 0015.1 0296.9 0300.0 0000.8 0000.8
72
0215.7 0222.0 0012.4 0014.5 0330.0 0330.0 0000.6 0000.7
73
0218.4 0257.1 0013.9 0014.8 0358.7 0340.0 0000.6 0000.7
74
0241.8 0297.0 0017.0 0014.0 0399.3 0400.0 0000.5 0000.4
75
0229.3 0227.0 0016.0 0012.7 0383.7 0390.0 0000.5 0000.4
76
0170.2 0167.0 0008.6 0010.0 0260.4 0260.0 0000.6 0000.6
77
0182.2 0166.0 0007.5 0012.3 0249.6 0255.0 0000.7 0000.7
78
0169.0 0165.0 0008.0 0011.8 0219.9 0250.0 0000.8 0000.7
79
0142.0 0161.0 0007.5 0010.9 0187.1 0180.0 0000.8 0000.7
80
0164.7 0158.0 0007.0 0009.7 0281.1 0289.0 0000.6 0000.6
Table H.2 Weight and biases values of the trained model
The final weights and biases are:

Input weights =
1.0e+003 *
Columns 1 through 7
0.0503 0.5161 -0.0456 -0.2708 0.5392 0.5081 -0.0734
-0.0755 0.6875 -0.0027 -0.2775 -0.1723 0.8480 -0.0229
0.8717 0.7607 -0.7549 -1.0129 -1.3337 -0.0119 -0.3765
-0.0590 1.5585 0.1441 -0.2720 -0.0095 -0.6716 -0.0403
-0.1126 0.0635 0.0548 0.0027 0.1234 -0.8518 -0.0038
0.1359 -0.7177 -0.1923 0.2673 -0.5499 -1.3107 0.0356
-0.0069 -0.1670 0.1172 1.3236 0.0900 0.5691 0.1281
-0.4953 0.7225 0.0055 0.3089 -0.3864 -0.1164 0.0901
-0.6049 0.2744 -0.1527 0.2105 0.0123 0.6510 0.1330
Columns 8 through 14
-0.0068 -0.0007 6.6488 0.0042 -2.2170 0.0128 0.0039
-0.0017 0.0007 1.7879 -0.0009 -3.7450 0.0024 0.0224
0.3554 -0.0135 -2.7945 0.0075 2.7177 -0.0011 -0.0416
-0.0092 -0.0000 4.4472 -0.0015 -2.0910 0.0006 -0.0174
-0.0429 0.0007 0.9550 0.0084 -1.2559 -0.0031 0.0371
190
-0.0573 0.0033 -1.0972 -0.0051 1.1322 -0.0027 0.0263

-0.0277 0.0027 4.9731 -0.0095 -1.8198 -0.0112 -0.0072
-0.1665 0.0090 2.6891 -0.0042 -0.2101 0.0009 0.0094
-0.3113 0.0134 5.9266 0.0005 -2.7354 0.0067 0.0385
Layer weights =
Columns 1 through 7
0.1352 -0.0150 -0.0824 -0.0404 -0.1946 0.0820 -0.1416
0.0049 0.0111 0.0003 -0.0070 0.0041 0.0053 -0.0023
0.2885 -1.0062 -0.2011 0.5596 -1.2962 -0.1673 -0.4434
-0.0001 0.0007 0.0002 -0.0003 0.0010 0.0001 0.0004
Columns 8 through 9
0.1057 -0.1087
0.0011 -0.0015
0.4230 -0.2619
-0.0002 0.0000
biases_of_hidden_neurons =
-8.2140 -1.5784 -13.8745 0.7907 -0.6189 9.9197 -1.6275 8.3500 11.6280
bias_of_output_neuron =
0.0898 0.0156 -0.3585 0.0014
191
APPENDEX –I
MODELING RESULTS OF HIGH SREGTH AND ABRASIVE WEAR RESISTANCE OF CAST
ALUMINUM COMPOSITES IN AS CASTING CONDITIONS
Table I.1 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites.
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.9Si 126.1 157.9 140.4 121.9
1Si 125.3 159.6 142.9 128.2
2Si 128.2 158.8 180.9 144.6
3Si 130.9 143.1 222.5 182.9
4Si 109.0 124.9 206.3 239.1
5Si 064.8 087.7 146.0 266.6
Table I.2 Effect of Si on elongation of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.9Si 13.8 13.1 12.3 12.1
1Si 13.9 13.1 12.3 12.0
2Si 14.7 14.1 12.7 12.0
3Si 14.9 14.6 13.4 12.3
4Si 14.6 14.6 14.0 12.9
5Si 13.9 14.0 14.0 13.2
Table I.3 Effect of Si on hardness of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.9Si 61 144.9 112.4 62.6
1Si 59.2 149.6 119.6 90.5
2Si 64.0 150.0 221.6 144.5
3Si 57.2 107.3 329.9 251.8
4Si 32.3 40.9 289.6 399.7
5Si 19.92 97.5 123.2 469.1
Table I.4 Effect of Si on abrasive wear of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.9Si 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
1Si 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
2Si 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9
3Si 1.3 1.3 0.9 0.8
4Si 1.4 1.4 1.1 0.8
5Si 1.5 1.4 1.3 0.8
192
Table I.5 Effect of Fe on tensile strength of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Fe 220.2 219.5 184.2 172.7
1 Fe 117.2 149.6 135.6 124.3
2 Fe 032.9 072.8 117.2 113.0
3 Fe 030.3 018.7 084.8 097.1
Table I.6 Effect of Fe on elongation of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Fe 15.2 14.9 14.8 15.0
1 Fe 13.7 13.0 12.3 12.0
2 Fe 13.6 13.1 12.5 12.4
3 Fe 11.9 11.8 11.5 11.8
Table I.7 Effect of Fe on hardness of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Fe 127.2 107.0 025.1 101.2
1 Fe 037.6 122.6 098.8 079.9
2 Fe 168.3 075.2 0276 015.8
3 Fe 207.0 200.2 149 015.5
Table I.8 Effect of Fe on abrasive wear of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Fe 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9
1 Fe 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
2 Fe 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.9
3 Fe 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.0
Table I.9 Effect of Cu on tensile strength of cast composites
Cu 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 126.9 155.9 138.0 126.4
1 Cu 194.0 184.8 143.4 126.7
2 Cu 230.0 202.7 150.0 127.7
3 Cu 248.3 217.5 158.0 129.4
4 Cu 259.7 230.7 167.4 132.0
5 Cu 266.9 241.8 177.8 135.3
6 Cu 270.2 249.9 188.5 139.3
7 Cu 269.4 254.3 198.5 143.9
8 Cu 264.7 254.6 206.7 148.8
193
Table I.10 Effect of Cu on elongation of cast composites
Cu 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 13.7 13.0 12.3 12.0
1 Cu 13.6 12.9 12.1 11.8
2 Cu 13.5 13.0 12.1 11.6
3 Cu 13.5 13.0 12.0 11.4
4 Cu 13.4 12.9 11.9 11.2
5 Cu 13.2 12.8 11.9 11.1
6 Cu 12.8 12.6 11.7 10.9
7 Cu 12.3 12.2 11.5 10.7
8 Cu 11.7 11.7 11.2 10.4
Table I.11 Effect of Cu on hardness of cast composites
Cu 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 063.0 139.6 105.7 083.5
1 Cu 240.3 224.9 136.8 107.8
2 Cu 342.4 282.8 169.1 130.2
3 Cu 403.5 334.6 204.4 152.3
4 Cu 451.4 385.2 244.1 175.6
5 Cu 494.6 435.3 288.8 201.7
6 Cu 535.6 484.6 338.8 232.2
7 Cu 576.0 533.2 393.6 268.6
8 Cu 616.7 581.3 452.5 312.2
Table I.12 Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of cast composites
Cu 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
1 Cu 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9
2 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
3 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
4 Cu 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
5 Cu 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
6 Cu 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
7 Cu 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
8 Cu 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
194
Table I.13 Effect of Mg on tensile strength of cast composites
Mg 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 081.9 060.0 112.0 125.4
.5 Mg 078.3 066.5 131.7 125.3
1 Mg 077.8 087.0 139.0 125.2
1.5 Mg 085.8 118.9 140.0 125.3
2 Mg 108.0 146.3 138.9 125.8
3 Mg 139.8 159.5 137.5 128.6
3.5 Mg 175.2 160.5 136.5 131.1
4 Mg 143.9 157.8 137.3 134.4
5 Mg 170.2 154.2 142.0 143.4
Table I.14 Effect of Mg on elongation of cast composites
Mg 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 14.9 14.5 13.3 12.8
.5 Mg 14.8 14.3 13.1 12.7
1 Mg 14.6 14.0 12.9 12.5
1.5 Mg 14.4 13.6 12.7 12.4
2 Mg 14.0 13.2 12.4 12.1
3 Mg 13.5 12.8 12.1 11.5
3.5 Mg 12.5 11.9 11.4 11.1
4 Mg 10.7 11.4 10.9 10.6
5 Mg 10.5 10.1 9.6 9.4
Table I.15 Effect of Mg on hardness of cast composites
Mg 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 088.2 137.8 076 024.8
.5 Mg 093.7 118.6 044.6 030.2
1 Mg 088.9 062.3 069.9 038.6
1.5 Mg 060.2 025.3 083.5 051.4
2 Mg 070 105.9 096.2 069.6
3 Mg 101.9 156.5 113.2 125.9
3.5 Mg 239.9 213.0 169.2 165.4
4 Mg 268.6 243.5 210.5 213.1
5 Mg 358.6 332.0 320.1 330.8
195
Table I.16 Effect of Mg on abrasive wear of cast composites
Mg 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 1.4 1.4 1.1 0.9
.5 Mg 1.4 1.3 1.0 0.9
1 Mg 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.9
1.5 Mg 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9
2 Mg 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
3 Mg 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9
3.5 Mg 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
4 Mg 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
5 Mg 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Table I.17 Effect of Zn on tensile strength of cast composites
Zn 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 50.9 18.0 010.1 094.1
1 Zn 50.1 21.7 071.0 123.6
2 Zn 58.1 67.2 131.7 126.3
3 Zn 126.9 155.9 138.0 126.4
4 Zn 191.5 170.5 135.8 125.2
5 Zn 187.8 160.9 128.6 120.6
6 Zn 165.6 140.2 112.0 108.0
7 Zn 144.3 117.2 087.4 084.0
8 Zn 141.3 112.9 075.9 062.7
Table I.18 Effect of Zn on elongation of cast composites
Zn 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 13.4 13.9 14.5 15.0
1 Zn 13.0 13.4 14.3 14.7
2 Zn 12.6 12.8 13.8 14.4
3 Zn 12.0 12.3 13.0 13.7
4 Zn 11.1 11.5 12.2 12.7
5 Zn 9.8 10.2 10.9 11.4
6 Zn 7.7 8.0 8.7 9.2
7 Zn 4.5 4.9 6.0 6.8
8Zn 0.9 2.1 4.1 5.3
196
Table I.19 Effect of Zn on hardness of cast composites
Zn 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 194.0 275.1 349.2 106.8
1 Zn 180.7 249.3 130.6 033.0
3 Zn 063.0 139.6 105.7 083.5
4 Zn 276.8 234.4 165.2 152.8
5 Zn 368.3 313.0 252.1 250.3
6 Zn 488.5 438.6 387.2 392.0
7 Zn 666.5 627.9 590.1 598.2
8Zn 857.6 844.8 845.0 866.4
Table I.20 Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of cast composites
Zn 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1
1 Zn 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.0
3 Zn 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.9
4 Zn 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
5 Zn 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
6 Zn 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
7 Zn 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7
8Zn 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6
9Zn 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4
Modeling results for high strength and abrasive wear of cast aluminum composite
after heat treatment
Table I.21 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

1 Si 193.3 178.5 147.1 152.2
2 Si 248.7 212.8 148.3 98.8
3 Si 321.3 281.6 176.5 76.3
4 Si 377.0 348.2 242.0 93.8
5 Si 414.9 393.3 307.9 153.6
6 Si 443.2 424.3 351.6 217.7
7 Si 466.5 448.4 380.1 259.7
8 Si 486.2 468.3 401.5 285.5
197
Table I.22 Effect of Si on elongation of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

1 Si 18.0 17.4 15.9 13.6
2 Si 18.4 17.6 15.7 13.4
3 Si 19.1 18.3 15.8 13.1
4 Si 19.6 18.9 16.4 13.1
5 Si 19.8 19.2 17.0 13.6
6 Si 20.0 19.4 17.4 14.2
7 Si 20.0 19.4 17.5 14.5
8 Si 20.1 19.5 17.6 14.6
Table I. 23 Effect of Si on hardness of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

1 Si 152.6 128.8 73.7 76.1
2 Si 284.5 199.9 65.2 39.0
3 Si 480.4 375.5 122.1 106.3
4 Si 649.3 565.3 291.7 074.1
5 Si 779.1 711.8 481.3 83.4
6 Si 885.3 825.5 625.0 268.4
7 Si 976.5 920.3 732.3 406.0
8 Si 1056.1 1002.3 819.9 504.3
Table I.24 Effect of Si on abrasive wear of cast composites
Si 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

1 Si 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2 Si 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0
3 Si 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0
4 Si 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
5 Si 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9
6 Si 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8
7 Si 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.8
8 Si 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7
Table I.25 Effect of Fe on tensile strength of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.1 Fe 177.9 145.3 108.8 167.7
.2 Fe 184.9 150.5 115.2 171.1
.3 Fe 182.8 155.6 121.5 173.5
.4 Fe 184.9 160.4 127.5 174.8
198
.5 Fe 186.5 164.9 133.1 175.0

.6 Fe 187.6 168.8 138.1 174.0
.7 Fe 188.1 172.0 142.3 171.9
.8 Fe 187.9 174.3 145.5 168.5
185.5 176.2 148.5 158.0
Table I.26 Effect of Fe on elongation of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.1 Fe 17.1 15.9 13.8 11.3
.2 Fe 18.0 16.3 14.2 11.7
.3 Fe 17.7 16.7 14.6 12.0
.4 Fe 18.0 17.0 14.9 12.4
.5 Fe 18.2 17.2 15.3 12.7
.6 Fe 18.3 17.4 15.6 13.0
.7 Fe 18.3 17.5 15.8 13.3
.8 Fe 18.2 17.5 15.9 13.5
17.7 17.2 15.9 13.6
Table I.27 Effect of Fe on hardness of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.1 Fe 022.1 066.2 083.8 107.4
.2 Fe 009.2 058.3 071.7 110.4
.3 Fe 017.5 047.9 058.7 110.6
.4 Fe 009.2 033.9 044.4 108.6
.5 Fe 004.7 015.4 028.4 104.9
.6 Fe 025.6 008.7 009.6 100.5
.7 Fe 054.8 039.7 012.9 096.8
.8 Fe 092.9 078.4 040.5 095.1
194.4 179.5 114.6 105.0
Table I.28 Effect of Fe on abrasive wear of cast composites
Fe 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

.1 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
.2 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
.3 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
.4 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
.5 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
.6 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
199
.7 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8

.8 Fe 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
Table I.29 Effect of Cu on tensile strength of cast composites
Cu 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 187.0 175.7 147.6 163.9
0.5 Cu 173.7 159.6 131.6 168.8
1 Cu 160.7 143.6 119.8 165.1
2 Cu 136.3 113.6 118.2 134.8
3 Cu 115.3 91.3 131.9 091.1
4 Cu 100.9 91.1 119.7 45.3
5 Cu 103.6 122.9 87.7 0017
6 Cu 137.7 147.9 52.0 038.0
7 Cu 175.0 144.7 18.8 073.1
8 Cu 181.1 128.9 10.2 034
Table I.30 Effect of Cu on elongation of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 18.0 17.4 16.0 13.6
0.5 Cu 17.1 16.5 15.0 12.7
1 Cu 16.1 15.5 14.0 11.7
2 Cu 14.3 13.6 11.9 9.8
3 Cu 12.7 11.8 9.6 7.8
4 Cu 11.1 10.0 7.5 5.8
5 Cu 9.7 8.2 5.6 3.8
6 Cu 8.4 6.7 3.9 2.1
7 Cu 7.2 5.5 2.4 0.5
8 Cu 6.3 4.5 1.1 0.9
Table I.31 Effect of Cu on hardness of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 139.8 125.2 074.1 097.3
0.5 Cu 165.8 141.1 080.1 141.8
1 Cu 193.2 158.9 098.9 169.0
2 Cu 250.4 200.2 196.3 178.0
3 Cu 308.2 256.2 333.5 164.0
4 Cu 369.6 356.1 404.4 149.7
5 Cu 456.8 520.1 418.8 140.2
200
6 Cu 603.2 651.0 412.5 135.0

7 Cu 739.7 695.8 398.1 132.3
8 Cu 783.5 692.8 378.9 130.4
Table I.32 Effect of Cu on abrasive wear of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
0.5 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
1 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7
2 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
3 Cu 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.8

4 Cu 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8
5 Cu 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.9
6 Cu 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.9
7 Cu 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0
8 Cu 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0
Table I.33 Effect of Mg on tensile strength of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 158.5 141.7 136.9 153.5
0.5 Mg 163.5 150.5 150.8 168.4
1 Mg 170.4 160.9 163.6 183.2
15 Mg 178.6 171.3 171.7 194.4
2 Mg 185.7 177.7 165.8 185.9
25 Mg 185.1 169.5 126.8 145.0
3 Mg 160.2 125.5 056.4 107.9
35 Mg 092.4 044.9 014.3 096.3
Table I.34 Effect of Mg on elongation of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 19.6 19.4 19.1 18.7
0.5 Mg 19.4 19.2 18.8 18.2
1 Mg 19.2 18.9 18.3 17.5
15 Mg 18.8 18.5 17.7 16.5
2 Mg 18.3 17.9 16.8 14.9
25 Mg 17.7 17.0 15.3 12.7
3 Mg 16.6 15.6 13.2 10.8
35 Mg 14.8 13.6 11.4 9.8
201
Table I.35 Effect of Mg on hardness of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 017.8 067.4 079.7 22.5
0.5 Mg 001.3 034.1 022.1 45.2
1 Mg 033.0 012.0 040.8 116.7
15 Mg 075.1 65.5 096.0 174.1
2 Mg 119.7 112.9 110.9 161.1
25 Mg 145.3 118.7 022.1 41.8
3 Mg 097.9 013.9 171.0 61.2
35 Mg 83.2 206.3 287.3 78.7
Table I.36 Effect of Mg on abrasive wear of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Mg 1.1 1.1 01.1 01.0
0.5 Mg 1.1 1.1 01.0 0.9
1 Mg 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9
15 Mg 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8
2 Mg 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
25 Mg 0.9 0.9 01.0 0.9
3 Mg 0.9 1.0 01.1 0.9
35 Mg 1.1 1.2 01.2 0.9
Table I.37 Effect of Zn on tensile strength of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 251.6 237.5 210.7 157.3
0.5 Zn 243.2 229.0 201.2 145.4
1 Zn 235.0 220.5 190.9 133.0
2 Zn 217.6 202.7 168.9 116.4
3 Zn 187.0 175.7 147.6 163.9
4 Zn 139.6 132.3 155.5 194.9
5 Zn 094.3 100.5 196.1 163.5
6 Zn 091.6 146.0 160.6 110.1
7 Zn 153.9 156.4 110.7 50.2
8 Zn 151.7 128.1 66.1 3.9
202
Table I.38 Effect of Zn on hardness of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 097.0 124.8 178.1 304.4
0.5 Zn 076.7 099.0 148.6 279.5
1 Zn 049.4 068.1 117.1 254.0
2 Zn 036.2 018.6 039.1 171.7
3 Zn 139.8 125.2 074.1 097.3
4 Zn 192.9 182.3 253.6 337.2
5 Zn 184.9 194.3 433.0 352.8
6 Zn 204.8 327.2 344.3 211.2
7 Zn 351.2 335.7 177.8 052.
8 Zn 317.7 228.7 007.6 22.38
Table I.39 Effect of Zn on elongation of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 22.6 22.2 21.4 19.9
0.5 Zn 22.0 21.5 20.5 18.9
1 Zn 21.4 20.8 19.7 18.0
2 Zn 20.0 19.3 17.9 16.0
3 Zn 18.0 17.4 16.0 13.6
4 Zn 15.4 15.1 13.9 11.5
5 Zn 13.3 13.1 11.8 10.2
6 Zn 11.9 11.4 10.5 9.3
7 Zn 10.8 10.4 9.7 8.6
8 Zn 10.2 10.0 9.2 8.2
Table I.40 Effect of Zn on abrasive wear of cast composites
2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

0 Zn 1.0 01.0 1.0 1.1
0.5 Zn 1.0 01.0 1.0 1.1
1 Zn 1.0 01.0 1.0 1.1
2 Zn 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1
3 Zn 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
4 Zn 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.6
5 Zn 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.7
6 Zn 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.8
7 Zn 0.7 0.6 0.7 .9
8 Zn 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1
203
Table I.41 Effect of density on tensile strength as heat treated cast composites
Density 2.5%Al2O3 5% Al2O3 10 % Al2O3 15% Al2O3

2 161.1 142.9 114.8 143.2
2.1 169.3 153.2 125.7 151.0
2.3 176.4 162.2 134.9 157.2
2.4 182.2 169.6 142.2 161.5
2.5 187.0 175.7 147.6 163.9
2.6 190.9 180.6 151.0 164.4
2.6 194.0 184.3 152.9 163.2
2.7 196.7 187.3 153.3 160.6
2.8 199.0 189.6 152.7 157.1
2.9 201.1 191.5 151.4 153.1
Table I.42 Effect of density on elongation as heat treated cast composites

2 16.2 15.7 14.6 12.8
2.1 16.6 16.1 14.9 13.1
2.3 17.1 16.6 15.3 13.2
2.4 17.5 17.0 15.6 13.4
2.5 18.0 17.4 16.0 13.6
2.6 18.4 17.9 16.3 13.8
2.6 18.9 18.4 16.7 14.0
2.7 19.5 18.9 17.0 14.2
2.8 20.1 19.4 17.4 14.4
2.9 20.7 20.0 17.9 14.7
Table I.43 Effect of density on hardness as heat treated cast composites

2 107.3 66.7 55 24.7
2.1 122.6 88.5 22.5 51.0
2.3 133.8 106.2 45.9 72.6
2.4 139.8 118.8 63.5 88.3
2.5 139.8 125.2 74.1 97.3
2.6 133.3 124.6 77.0 99.0
2.7 120.0 116.8 71.6 92.9
2.8 100.2 101.5 57.7 79.1
2.9 74.3 79.3 35.5 57.7
204
Table I.44 Effect of density on abrasive wear as heat treated cast composites
Density 2.5%Al2O3
B B B B 5% Al2O3
B B B B 10 % Al2O3
B B B B 15% Al2O3
B B B B
2 1 1 1 0.9
2.1 1 0.9 1 0.9
2.3 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.4 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.5 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.7 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
2.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

786S PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

786S PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODELING OF HIGH STRENGTH AND WEAR RESISTANCE ALUMINUM

ALLOY BASED CASTING COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Jokhio Muhammad Hayat

In fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mehran University of Engineering & Technology

ALLOY BASED CASTING COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Jokhio Muhammad Hayat

In fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mehran University of Engineering & Technology

accepted by the Dean Faculty of Engineering, in fulfillment of the requirement of the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Manufacturing Engineering.

__________ _____________ _______________ _______________

I am grateful to Almighty Allah who gave me courage and enthusiasm to complete

competent authority of Mehran University and Directorate of Post Graduate Studies,

in conducting experimental work on alloy developments and characterizations using

I must thank to Mr. Sámi Memon Manager Central Testing laboratories of

Title page (i)

Certificate page (ii)

Table of contents (iv)

List of Tables (x)

List of Figures (xiii)

1.1 Theoretical Background 1

1.2 Scope of the Study 4

1.3 Objectives of the Study 7

1.4 Structure of the Thesis 8

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.2 Aluminium Métal Matrix Composites (AMMCS) 10

2.2.1 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites 15

2.3 Properties of Stir Casting of Aluminum Composites 19

2.4 Factors Affecting the Strength and Abrasive Wear 37

2.4.1 Effect of Matrix Composition 37

2.5.2.1 Background of Artificial Neural Network 55

2.6 Neural Network in Materials Science and Engineering 63

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND MODELING

3.2 Design and Fabrication of Experimental Rig 65

3.3 Alloys Development Strategy 66

3.3.1 Development and Casting of Composites Samples 68

3.4 Samples Preparation 69

3.5 Precipitation Treatment Processes 70

3.7 Chemical Analysis 71

3.8 Hardness Tests 72

3.9 Abrasive Wear Tests 73

3.10 Measurement of Density and Porosity 74

3.12 Modeling Methodology 75

3.12.1 Architecture of the Model 76

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 80

4.2 Chemical Composition 80

4.3 Tensile Strength and Ductility (Elongation) 89

4.3.1 Comparison of the Strength and Ductility (Elongation) 97

4.5 Abrasive wear Resistance 101

4.6 Density and Porosity 105

4.7 Microstructure 111

4.8.1 Validation 123

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE 141

APPENDIX FOR TABLES AND FIGURES 156

Table 3.1 Theoretically selected alloy compositions in gm for development of alloys 67

Table I.1 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites 191

Table I.21 Effect of Si on tensile strength of cast composites 196

Modeling results (Figures) of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of

Fig: 4.105 Modeling effect of Cu on strength 130

Modeling results (Figures) of high strength and abrasive wear resistance of

____ _ _ _______