CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT 3

1.INTRODUCTION 4

2.IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTEXTILES 5

3.DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS 6

4.GEOTEXTILES 7

4.1 SELECTION OF FIBER FOR GEOTEXTILES 8

5.TYPES OF GEOTEXTILES 9

6.FUNCTIONS OF GEOTEXTILES 10

6.1 SEPARATION FUNCTION 12

6.2 REINFORCEMENT FUNCTION 13

6.3 FILTRATION FUNCTION 14

6.4 DRAINAGE FUNCTION 15

6.5 INFILTRATION BARRIER FUNCTION 15

6.6 PROTECTION FUNCTION 15

7. APPLICATIONS OF GEOTEXTILES 15-16

8.1GEOTEXTILES AND THE ENVIORNMENT 17

9.1 FUTURE OF GEOTEXTILES 18

9.2 CONCLUSION 18

10.REFERENCES 19
 ABSTRACT

Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain. They are generally polymeric
products used to solve civil engineering problems. This includes eight main product
categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam,
geocells and geocomposites. Geotextiles are permeable or porous fabrics, made from
synthetic material, that are used with geotechnical material as an integral part of man made
product, structure or system. Geotextiles are permeable sheets of synthetic fibres. The
properties of geotextiles are important to their use in various applications like canal lining,
for road works,for railways works, for erosion control, for bearing capacity improvement,
reducing settlement of soil, soil reinforcement etc. Geotextiles are well establish construction
material for geotechnical and environmental purpose all over world. Geotextiles, a newly
emerging field in the civil engineering and other fields, offer great potential in varied areas of
applications globally. Geotextiles play a significant part in modern pavement design and
maintenance techniques. The growth in their use worldwide for transportation applications in
particular, has been nothing short of phenomenal. Geotextiles are ideal materials for
infrastructural works such as roads, harbors and many others. They have a bright future,
thanks to their multifunctional characteristics.

2
 INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic product manufactured from polymeric material used with soil, rock, earth or
other geotechnical related material as an integral part of civil engineering project.
Geosynthetics can be defined as planar products manufactured from polymeric material,
which are used with soil, rock, or other geotechnical engineering-related material as an
integral part of a man-madeproject, structure, or system (ASTM, 1995). Geosynthetics are
widely used in many geotechnical and environmental applications related to groundwater
quality and control. This is the case, for example, of base and cover liner systems for modern
landfills, which are designed making extensive use of geosynthetics. The main purpose of
geosynthetic liner systems is to minimize potential groundwater contamination. Moreover,
the use of geosynthetics is rapidly increasing in applications related directly to groundwater
control. This is the case of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) vertical barrier systems, which
are used instead of traditional soil-bentonite cutoff walls in projects involving groundwater
remediationand control. The geosynthetics market is strong and rapidly increasing because of
the continued use of geosyntheticsin well-established applications and, particularly, because
of the increasing number of new applications which make use of these products. The strength
of the geosynthetics market can be appreciated by evaluating the growth in the estimated
amount of geosynthetics in North America over the years. While the total amount of
geosynthetics produced in North America was slightly more than 83 million m2 in 1980, the
production of geosynthetics exceeded 500 million Geotextiles were one of the first textile
products in human history. Excavations of ancient Egyptian sites show theuse of mats made
of grass and linen. Geotextiles wereused in roadway construction in the days of the
Pharaohsto stabilise roadways and their edges. These earlygeotextiles were made of natural
fibres, fabrics orvegetation mixed with soil to improve road quality,particularly when roads
were made on unstable soil. Onlyrecently have geotextiles been used and evaluated
formodern road construction. Geotextiles today are highlydeveloped products that must
comply with numerous standards. To produce tailor-made industrial fabrics,appropriate
machinery is needed.Geotextiles have been used very successfully inroad construction for
over 30 years. Their primaryfunction is to separate the sub base from the sub graderesulting
in stronger road construction. The geotextileperform this function by providing a dense mass
of fibresat the interface of the two layers.Geotextiles have proven to be among the
mostversatile and cost-effective ground modification materials.Their use has expanded
rapidly They form the major component of the field geomembranes and geocomposites. The
ASTM (1994)defines geotextiles as permeable textile materials used incontact with soil, rock,
earth or any other geotechnical. related material as an integral part of civil engineering
project, structure, or system.

3
 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTEXTILES
The characteristics of geotextiles are broadly classified as:

1. Physical properties:

a) specific gravity

b) weight

c) thickness

.2. Mechanical properties:

a) tenacity

b) tensile strength

c) bursting strength

d) Drapability

e) compatibility

3. Hydraulic properties:

a) porosity

b) permeability

c) permittivity

d) transitivity

4. Degradation properties:

a) biodegradation

b) hydrolytic degradation

c) photo degradation

d) chemical degradation

5. Endurance properties:

a) elongation

b) abrasion resistance

4
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are manufactured in a factory-controlled environment. They are packaged in
sheets, placed in a roll or carton, and finally transported to the site. At the project site the
geosynthetic sheets are unrolled on the prepared subgrade surface, overlapped to each other
to form a continuous geosynthetic blanket, and often physically joined to each other. The
individual types of products within the geosynthetics. The geosynthetic types are as follows:

• Geotextiles

• Geomembranes

• Geogrids

• Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)

• Geocomposite sheet drains

• Geocomposite strip (wick) drains

• Geocells

• Erosion control products

• HDPE vertical barrier

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 GEOTEXTILE
Geotextiles were one of the first textile products in human history. Excavations of ancient
Egyptian sites show the use of mats made of grass and linen. Geotextiles were used in
roadway construction in the days of the Pharaohsto stabilise roadways and their edges. These
earlygeotextiles were made of natural fibres, fabrics or vegetation mixed with soil to improve
road quality,particularly when roads were made on unstable soil. Only recently have
geotextiles been used and evaluated form Modern road construction. Geotextiles today are
highly developed products that must comply with numerous standards. To produce tailor-
made industrial fabrics,appropriate machinery is needed.

SELECTION OF FIBER FOR GEOTEXTILES

Different fibres from both natural as well as synthetic category can be used as geotextiles for
various applications. Natural fibres: Natural fibers in the form of paper strips, jute nets, wood
shavings or wool mulch are being used as geotextiles. In certain soil reinforcement
applications, geotextiles have to serve for more than 100 years. But bio-degradable natural
geotextiles are deliberately manufactured to have relatively short period of life. They are
generally used for prevention of soil erosion until vegetation can become properly established
on the ground surface. The commonly used natural fibres are –

 Ramie: These are subtropical bast fibres, which are obtained from their plants 5 to 6
times a year. The fibres have silky luster and have white appear uneven in the
unbleached condition. They constitute of pure cellulose and possess highest tenacity
among allplant fibres.
 Jute: This is a versatile vegetable fibre which is biodegradable and has the ability to
mix with the soiland serve as a nutrient for vegetation. Their quick biodegradability
becomes weakness for their use as a geotextile. However, their life span can be
extended even up to 20 years through different treatments and blendings. Thus, it is
possible to manufacture designed biodegradable jute geotextile, having specific
tenacity, porosity, permeability, transmissibility according to need and location
specificity. Soil, soil composition, water, waterquality, water flow, landscape etc.
physical situation determines the application and choice of what kind of jute
geotextiles should be used.

6
 In contrast to synthetic geotextiles, though jute geotextiles are less durable but they
also have some advantages in certain area to be used particularly in agro-
mulchingand similar area to where quick consolidation are to take place. For erosion
control and rural road considerations, soil protection from natural and seasonal
degradation caused by rain, water, monsoon,wind and cold weather are very
important parameters. Jute geotextiles, as separator, reinforcing and drainage
activities, along with topsoil erosion inshoulder and cracking are used quite
satisfactorily.Further more, after degradation of jute geotextiles,lignomass is formed,
which increases the soil organic content, fertility, texture and also enhance vegetative
growth with further consolidation and stability of soil. Synthetic Fibres: The four
main synthetic polymers mostwidely used as the raw material for geotextiles are –
polyester, polyamide, polyethylene and polypropylene.
 The oldest of these is polyethylene which was discovered in 1931 by ICI. Another
group of polymers with a long production history is the polyamide family, the first of
which was discovered in 1935. The next oldest of the four main polymer families
relevant to geotextile manufactureis polyester, which was announced in 1941. The
most recent polymer family relevant to geotextiles to bedeveloped was
polypropylene, which was discovered in1954.
 Polyamides (PA): There are two most important typesof polyamides, namely Nylon 6
and Nylon 6,6 butthey are used very little in geotextiles. The first one analiphatic
polyamide obtained by the polymerization ofpetroleum derivative ε-caprolactam. The
second type is also an aliphatic polyamide obtained by thepolymerization of a salt of
adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. These are manufactured in the form of
threads which are cut into granules. Theyhave more strength but less moduli than
polypropyleneand polyester They are also readily prone tohydrolysis.
 Polyesters (PET): Polyester is synthesised by polymerizing ethylene glycol with
dimethyleterephthalate or with terephthalic acid. The fibre has high strength
modulus, creep resistance and generalchemical inertness due too which it is more
suitable for geotextiles. It is attacked by polar solvent likebenzyl alcohol, phenol, and
meta-cresol. At pH rangeof 7 to 10, its life span is about 50 years. It possesseshigh
resistance to ultraviolet radiations. However, theinstallation should be undertaken
with care to avoid unnecessary exposure to light.

7
 Polyethylene (PE): Polyethylene can be produced in a highly crystalline form, which
is an extremely important characteristic in fiber forming polymer Three main groups
of polyethylene are – Low density polyethylene (LDPE, density 9.2-9.3 g/cc), Linear
low density polyethylene (LLDPE, density 9.20-9.45 g/cc)and High density
polyethylene (HDPE, density 9.40-9.6 g/cc).
 Polypropylene (PP): Polypropylene is a crystalline thermoplastic produced by
polymerizing propylenemonomers in the presence of stereo-specific Zeigler-Natta
catalytic system. Homo-polymers and copolymersare two types of polypropylene.
Homopolymers are used for fibre and yarn application where as co-polymers are used
for varied industrial applications. Propylene is mainly available in granular form.
Both polyethylene and polypropylene fibres are creep prone due to their low glass
transition temperature.These polymers are purely hydrocarbons and arechemically
inert. They swell by organic solvent and have excellent resistance to diesel and
lubricating oils.Soil burial studies have shown that except for lowmolecular weight
component present, neither HDPEnor polyethylene is attacked by micro-organisms.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Polyvinyl chloride ismainly used in geo membranes and
as a thermo plastic coating materials. The basic raw materials utilized forproduction
of PVC is vinyl chloride. PVC is available in free- flowing powder form.
 Ethylene copolymer Bitumen (ECB): Ethylenecopolymer bitumen membrane has
been used in civil engineering works as sealing materials. For ECBNational
Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology production, the raw
materials used are ethylene and butyl acrylate (together forming 50-60%) and special
bitumen (40-50%).
 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE): Sealing membranes based on chlorinated poly
ethylene are generally manufactured from CPE mixed with PVC or sometimes PE.
The properties of CPE depend on quality of PE and degree of chlorination.

8
 TYPES OF GEOTEXTILES
Geotextiles are a permeable synthetic material made of textile materials. They are usually
made from polymers such as polyester or polypropylene. The geotextiles are further prepared
in three different categories – woven fabrics, non-woven fabrics and knitted fabrics

Woven fabrics: Large numbers of geosynthetics are of woven type, which can be sub-divided
into several categories based upon their method of manufacture.These were the first to be
developed from the synthetic fibers. As their name implies, they are manufactured by
adopting techniques which are similar to weaving usual clothing textiles. This type has the
characteristic appearance of two sets of parallel threads or yarns .the yarn running along
thelength is called warp and the one perpendicular is called weft.The majority of low to
medium strength woven geosynthetics are manufactured from polypropylene which can be in
the form of extruded tape, silt film, monofilament or multifilament. Often a combination of
yarn types is used in the warp and weft directionsto optimize the performance/cost. Higher
permeability is obtained with monofilament and multifilament than with flat construction
only.Woven Geotextile Fig 2. Non-woven Geotextile

• Non-woven: Non woven geo-synthetics can be manufactured from either short staple fibre
or continuous filament yarn. The fibers can be bonded together by adopting thermal,
chemical or mechanical techniques or a combination of techniques. The typeof fibre (staple
or continuous) used has very little effect on the properties of the non – woven geosynthetics.
Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured through a process of mechanical interlocking or
chemical or thermal bonding of fibres/filaments.Thermally bonded non-wovens contain wide
range ofopening sizes and a typical thickness of about 0.5-1mm while chemically bonded
non-wovens are comparatively thick usually in the order of 3 mm. Onthe other hand
mechanically bonded non-wovenshave a typical thickness in the range of 2-5 mm andalso
tend to be comparatively heavy because a large quantity of polymer filament is required to
provide sufficient number of entangled filament cross wires for adequate bonding.

• Knitted fabrics: Knitted geosynthetics are manufactured using another process which is
adopted from the clothing textiles industry, namely that of knitting. In this process
interlocking a series of loops of yarn together is made. An example of a knitted fabric is
illustrated in figure. Only a very few knittedtypes are produced. All of the knitted
geosyntheticsare formed by using the knitting technique in conjunction with some other
method of geosynthetics manufacture, such as weaving. Knitted Geotextile Apart from these
three main types of geotextiles, other geosynthetics used are geonets, geogrids, geo-cells,
geomembranes, geo composites, etc. each having its own distinct features and used for
special applications.

9
 FUNCTIONS OF GEOTEXTILES
Geosynthetics have numerous material properties. Many of the reported properties are
important in the manufacture and quality control of geosynthetics; however, many others are
also important in design. The material properties related to the manufacture and quality
control of geosynthetics are generally referred to as index properties and those related to the
design as design or performance properties. Considering their different properties, the several
geosynthetic products can perform different functions and, consequently, they should be
designed to satisfy minimum criteria to adequately perform these functions. The different
functions performed by geosynthetics are discussed in Section 27.2. The geosynthetic
functions are as follows:

• Separation

• Reinforcement

• Filtration

• Drainage

• Infiltration barrier

• Protection (or stress relief)

As with other engineering materials, there are several design approaches that could be used
during the selection process of geosynthetic products. The most common geosynthetic design
methods are by experience, by specification, or by function (Koerner, 1994). Design-by-
experience is generally based on the use of the manufacturer’s literature and of the designer’s
experience and familiarity with geosynthetic products. Design-by-specification is practiced,
for example, by government agencies (e.g., state departments of transportation) for routine
applications. It often consists in selecting geosynthetic products for common application
areas, taking as a basis minimum or maximum-specified property values.

1. Evaluate the criticality and severity of the application

2. Determine the function(s) of the geosynthetic

3. Calculate, estimate, or otherwise determine the required property value for the function(s)

4. Test or otherwise obtain the allowable property of the candidate geosynthetic material

6. Determine if the resulting factor of safety is significantly high for the site-specific situation
under consideration

7. Prepare specifications and construction documents

8. Observe construction and post-construction performance.

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6.1 SEPARATION FUNCTION

Separation is the introduction of a flexible, porous geosynthetic product between dissimilar

materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain intact or be
improved. For example, a major cause of failure of roadways constructed over soft
foundations is contamination of the aggregate base courses with the underlying soft subgrade
soils (Figure 27.1A). Contamination occurs due to: (1)penetration of the aggregate into the
weak subgrade due to localized bearing capacity failure under stresses induced by wheel
loads, and (2) inclusion of fine-grained soils into the aggregate because of pumping or
subgrade weakening due to excess pore water pressures. Subgrade contamination results in
inadequate structural support, which often leads to premature failure of the system. A
geotextile can be placed between the aggregate and the subgrade to act as a separator and
prevent the subgrade and aggregate base course from mixing (Figure 27.1B). Among the
different geosynthetics, geotextiles have been the products generally used in the function of
separation. Examples of separation applications are the use of geotextiles between subgrade
and stone base in roads and airfields, and between geomembranes and drainage layers in
landfills. In addition to these applications, in which separation is the primary function of the
geotextile, it could be said that most geosynthetics generally include separation as a
secondary function. Geosynthetics used as erosion control systems can also be considered as
performing a separation function. In this case, the geosynthetic separates the ground surface
from the prevailing atmospheric conditions (i.e., wind, rain, snow, etc.). Specialty
geocomposites have been developed for the specific purpose of erosion control. The general
goal of these products is to protect soil slopes from both sheet and gully erosion, either
permanently or until vegetation is established. General references on the design of
geosynthetics for separation applications can be found in Christopher and Holtz (1985) and in
Koerner(1994).

Separation function of a geotextile placed between road aggregate and soft subgrade.

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6.2 REINFORCEMENT FUNCTION
Geosynthetic inclusions within a soil mass can provide a reinforcement function by
developing tensile forces which contribute to the stability of the geosynthetic–soil composite
(a reinforced soil structure). Design and construction of stable slopes and retaining structures
within space constraints are aspects of major economical significance in geotechnical
engineering projects. For example, when geometry requirements dictate changes of elevation
in a highway project, the engineer faces a variety of distinct alternatives for designing the
required earth structures. Traditional solutions have been either a concrete retaining wall or a
conventional, relatively flat, unreinforced slope (Figure 27.2). Although simple to design,
concrete wall alternatives have generally led to elevated construction and material costs. On
the other hand, the construction of unreinforced embankments with flat slope angles dictated
by stability considerations is an alternative often precluded in projects where design is
controlled by space constraints.

FIGURE

Geosynthetics are particularly suitable for soil reinforcement. Geosynthetic products typically
used as reinforcement elements are nonwoven geotextiles, woven geotextiles, geogrids, and
geocells. Reinforced soil vertical walls generally provide vertical grade separations at a lower
cost than traditional concrete walls. Reinforced wall systems involve the use of shotcrete
facing protection or of facing elements such as precast or cast-in-place concrete panels.
Alternatively, steepened reinforced slopes may eliminate the use of facing elements, thus
saving material costs and construction time in relation to vertical reinforced walls. As
indicated in Figure 27.2, a reinforced soil system generally provides an optimized
alternativefor the design of earth-retaining structures.The effect of geosynthetic
reinforcements on the stability of sand slopes is
12
illustrated in,which shows a reduced scale geotextile-reinforced slope model built using dry
sand as backfill material.

6.3 FILTREATION FUNCTION

The filtration function involves movement of liquid through the geosynthetic and, at the same
time, retention of soil on its upstream side. As indicated in Table 27.2, geotextiles are the
geosynthetic product generally used in filtration. Both adequate hydraulic conductivity
(provided by a geotextile with a relatively open structure) and adequate soil retention
(provided by a geotextile with a relatively tight structure) should be offered by the selected
product. In addition, considerations should be made regarding the long-term soil-to-geotextile
flow compatibility such that the flow through the geotextile will notreduce excessively by
clogging during the lifetime of the system. The geosynthetic-to-soil system should then
achieve an equilibrium that allows for adequate liquid flow with limited soil loss across the
plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the application under
consideration. Filtration concepts are well established in the design of soil filters, and similar
concepts can beused in the design of geotextile filters. As the flow of liquid through the
geotextile increases, the geotextile voids should be larger. However, large geotextile voids
can lead to an unacceptable situation called soil piping, in which the soil particles are
continuously carried through the geotextile, leaving large soil voids behind. The liquid
velocity then increases, which accelerates the process and may lead to the collapse of the soil
structure. This process can be prevented by selecting a geotextile with voids small enough to
retain the soil on the upstream side of the fabric. It is the coarser soil fraction that must be
initially retained. The coarser-sized particles eventually filter the finer-sized particles and
build up a stable upstream soil structure (Figure 27.5). Several approaches have been
developed for soil retention design using geotextiles; most of them compare the soil particle
size characteristics to the 95% opening size of the geotextile (defined as O95 of the
geotextile). The test method used in the United States to determine the geotextile opening
size is called the apparent opening size (AOS) test.

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6.4 DRAINAGE FUNCTION
Geosynthetics provide a drainage function by transmitting liquid within the plane of their
structure. the geosynthetics generally used for drainage purposes are geotextiles and
geocomposites.The drainage function of geosynthetics allows for adequate liquid flow with
limited soil loss within the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration .Thick, needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles have
considerable void space in their structure and canconvey large amounts of liquid.
Geocomposite drains can transmit one to two orders of magnitude more liquid than
geotextiles. Proper design should dictate what type of geosynthetic drainage material is
necessary. Except for the consideration of flow direction, the soil retention and the long-term
compatibility considerations regarding the drainage function of geosynthetics are the same as
those discussed in Section 27.2.4 regarding the filtration function of geosynthetics. Since the
geosynthetic thickness decreases with increasing normal stress, the in-plane drainage of a
geosynthetic is generally quantified by its transmissivity, which is defined as:

θ = kp · t

where θ is the transmissivity, kp is the in-plane hydraulic conductivity, and t is the

geosynthetic thicknessat a specified normal pressure.

The geotextile, either when used as a drain itself or when placed onto a core to form
geocomposite must fulfill the filtration function. The compatibility of the soil with the
geotextile filter must be ensured over the lifetime of the system being built. General
references on design methods for the use of geosynthetics for drainage applications can be
found in Holtz et al. (1997) and in Koerner (1994).

6.5 INFILTRATION BARRIER FUNCTION

The infiltration barrier function can be performed by geosynthetic products that have
hydraulic conductivity low enough to provide containment to liquid or vapor. As shown in
Table 27.2, the infiltration barrier function may be provided by several types of
geosynthetics, namely, geomembranes and geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs). Other
geosynthetic products also used as infiltration barriers include membrane- encapsulated soil
layers (MESLs) used with paved or unpaved road construction, asphalt-saturated geotextiles
used in the prevention of bituminous pavement crack reflection problems, and geofoam used
for insulation against moisture and/or temperature. Geosynthetic barriers are commonly used
as liners for surface impoundments storing hazardous and nonhazardous liquids, as covers
above the liquid surface of storage reservoirs, and as liners for canals used to convey water or
chemicals. Geosynthetic barriers are also used as secondary containment for underground
storage tanks and in applications related to dams and tunnels. Of particular relevance for
groundwater applications is the use of geosynthetic barriers for seepage control (HDPE
vertical barrier systems). A common application of geosynthetics as infiltration barriers is for
base and cover liner systems of landfills. In landfill applications, infiltration barriers are
14
typically used instead of or in addition to low-hydraulic conductivity soils. Base liners are
placed below the waste to prevent liquids from the landfill (leachate) from contaminating the
underlying ground and the groundwater. Geosynthetic cover liner systems are placed above
the final waste configuration to keep precipitation water from entering the waste and generate
leachate. If a building or other structure is constructed on a landfill, a geosynthetic barrier
may be placed under the building foundation to provide a barrier for vapors such as landfill
gas. The use of geosynthetics in infiltration barriers is further described in Koerner (1994

6.6 PROTECTION FUNCTION

Geosynthetics (mainly geotextiles) can be used to protect other geosynthetics (mainly
geomembranes) against damage. A common example is the use of geotextiles to provide
protection against puncture of geomembranes in waste and liquid containment systems.
Adequate mechanical protection must be provided to resist both short-term equipment loads
and long-term loads imparted by the waste. Experience has shown that geotextiles can play
an important role in the successful installation and longerterm performance of geomembranes
by acting as a cushion to prevent puncture damage of the geomembrane. In the case of
landfill base liners, geotextiles can be placed (1) below the geomembrane to resist puncture
and wear due to abrasion caused by sharp-edged rocks in the subgrade, and (2) above the
geomembrane to resist puncture caused either by the drainage aggregate or direct contact
with waste materials. Likewise, in the case of landfill cover liners, geotextiles can be placed
below the geomembrane to reduce risk of damage by sharp objects in the landfill and above
the geomembrane to prevent damage during placement of drainage aggregate or cover soil.
Key characteristics for the geotextile cushions are polymer type, mass density, method of
manufacture, and construction survivability. The selection process of a geotextile that fulfills
a protective function of a geomembrane involves the following three steps: (1) selection of
polymer type and method of manufacture; (2) evaluation of the geotextile’s capacity to
provide puncture protection for the geomembrane; and (3) evaluation of construction
survivability. Detailed procedures and methods for conducting these evaluations are
described by Holtz et al. (1997), Koerner et al. (1996), Narejo et al. (1996), and Wilson-
Fahmy et al. (1996).

15
 APPLICATIONS OF GEOTEXTILES

Civil engineering works where geotextiles are employed can be classified into the following
categories –

Road Works: The basic principles of incorporating geotextiles into a soil mass are the same
as those utilized in the design of reinforced concrete by incorporating steel bars. The fabrics
are used to provide tensile strength in the earth mass in locations where shear stress would be
generated. Moreover, to allow rapid dewatering of the roadbed, the geotextiles need to
preserve its permeability without losing its separating functions. Its filtration characteristics
must not be significantly altered by the mechanical loading.

Railway Works: The development of the railway networks is being greatly boosted by the
present state of economy because of their profitability in view of increasing cost of energy
and their reliability as a result of the punctuality of trains even in the adverse weather
conditions. The woven fabrics or non-wovens are used to separate the soil from the sub-soil
without impeding the ground water circulation where ground is unstable. Enveloping
individual layers with fabric prevents the material wandering off sideways due to shocks and
vibrations from running trains.

6.3 River Canals and Coastal Works: Geotextiles protect river banks from erosion due to
currents or lapping. When used in conjunction with natural or artificial enrockments, they act
as a filter. For erosion prevention, geotextile used can be either woven or nonwoven. The
woven fabrics are recommended in soils of larger particle size as they usually have larger
pore size. Nonwovens are used where soils such as clay silt are formed. Where hydrostatic
uplift is expected, these fabrics must be of sufficiently high permeability.

6.4 Drainage: In civil engineering, the need for drainage has long been recognized and has
created the need for filters to prevent in-situ soil from being washed into the drainage system.
Such wash in soil causes clogging of the drains and potential surface instability of land
adjacent to the drains. The use of geotextiles to filter the soil and a more or less single size
granular material to transport water is increasingly seen as a technically and commercially
viable alternative to the conventional systems. Geotextiles perform the filter mechanism for
drainages in earth dams, in roads and highways, in reservoirs, behind retaining walls, deep
drainage trenches and agriculture.

6.5 Sports field construction: Geotextiles are widely used in the construction of Caselon
playing fields and Astro turf. Caselon playing fields are synthetic grass surfaces constructed
of light resistance polypropylene material with porous or nonporous carboxylated latex
backing pile as high as 2.0 to 2.5 cm. Astro Turf is a synthetic turf sport surface made of
nylon 6,6 pile fibre knitted into a backing of polyester yarn which provides high strength and
dimensional stability. The nylon ribbon used for this is of 55 Tex. It is claimed that t surface

16
can be used for 10.hr/day for about 10 years or more. Modern Astro Turfcontains
polypropylene as the base material.

6.6 Agriculture; It is used for mud control. For the improvement of muddy paths and trails
those used by cattleor light traffic, nonwoven fabrics are used and are folded by overlapping
to include the pipe or a mass of grit.

GEOTEXTILES AND THE ENVIORNMENT

Environment and ecological sustainability become one of the prime issues in the modern
developmental strategy. Without positive ecological sustainability the technology/product
becomes obsolete. Utilization of geotextile in civil engineering is not a new technology. But
their modern uses have started with the advancement of synthetic and polymeric products and
their ever increasing application in different forms and areas of civil engineering was initiated
only a few decades ago. Again uses of natural fibrous materials in the field of bioengineering,
erosion control and agro-mulching are also recent practices. In geotechnical uses like fibre
drain, separator, filter and reinforcing materials are mostly synthetic and non biodegradable
with longer span of life. Woven, nonwoven, composite geosynthetics are used in the
construction of roads-highways, railways, water-bodies, river banks erosion controls and
other areas. On the other hand in soil bioengineering, permanent and self propagating
vegetation is required with environmentally desirable and aesthetically pleasing appeal
besides being economical and self sustainable. The roots bind the soil and counteract surface
erosion for which natural geotextiles are more acceptable due to their better performance.
Synthetic geotextiles are made of polymers and plastics. Hydro-carbon, petrochemicals,
fossils are the basic raw materials for their production. Thus, all green house gases and
effects are some how related with their manufacturing. Moreover, non-destructible nature of
these synthetic geotextiles has direct effect on soil, water air and other biotic and a biotic
system. These geotextiles may often come in contact with life cycles of animals, fishes,
insects, and pests along with various microorganisms and create imbalance in the ecosystem.
Thus, synthetic geotextiles may have direct negative impact on climate and ecology as a
whole for which extensive research is essential in this area.

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 FUTURE OF GEOTEXTILES
When looking to future generations of geotextiles, an examination of the role of
nanotechnology in the functional enhancement of geotextiles is in order. By reducing fiber
diameter down to the nanoscale, an enormous increase in specific surface area to the level of
1000 m2/g is possible. This reduction in dimension and increase in surface area greatly
affects the chemical/biological reactivity and electroactivity of polymeric fibers. Because of
the extreme fineness of the fibers, there is an overall impact on the geometric and thus the
performance properties of the fabric. There is an explosive growth in worldwide research
efforts recognizing the potential nanoeffect that will be created when fibers are reduced to
nanoscale.

CONCLUSION
Textiles are not only clothing the human body but also our mother land in order to protect
her. Extensive awareness should be created among the people about the application of
geotextiles. Geotextiles are effective tools in the hands of the civil engineer that have proved
to solve a myriad of geotechnical problems. To explore the potential of geotextile more
researches are needed in this field.

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 REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1994), Annual Books of ASTM Standards, American Society Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Volume 4.08 (1), Soil and Rock, Volume 4. No. (8),
Soil and Rock, Geosynthetics, Volume 7, No. 1,Textiles.

2. Abdullah, A. B. M., A Hand book of Geotextiles Particularly natural goetextiles from jute
and other vegetable fibers, FAO-2000

3. Gregory, R. N., Barry, C. R., Geotextiles in Transportation Applications, Featured Short

Course, 1998.

4. Rankilor, P. R., Membranes in Ground Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, New York,

1981.

5. Koerner, R. M., Designing with Geosynthetics, Third edition, Prentice Hall, 1993.

6. Ayres, D. J., “The Treatment of Unstable Slopes and Railway Track formation”, The
Journal of the Society of Engineers, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct./Dec), 1961.

7. Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. B., “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice”, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1967.

8. Ko, F.K., “Nanofiber Technology: Bridging the Gap between Nano and Macro World”, in
NATO ASI on Nanoengineeered Nanofibrous Materials, Anatalia, Turkey, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 2003.

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