I MATRIX ALGEBRA

INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES
R f
Reference : Croft
C ft & Davison,
D i Ch
Chapter
t 1212, Bl
Blocks
k 11,2
2

A matrix
t i is
i a rectangular
t l array or bl
block
k off numbers
b usually
ll
enclosed in brackets.

A m x n matrix has m rows and n columns.

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 If the matrix A has m rows and n columns we can write:

 a11 a12  a1n 

a a22  a2n 
A  21

     
a  amn 
 m1 am2

where aij represents the number or element in the ith row and
jth column.

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 Special Matrices
A square matrix has the same number of rows as columns.

The main diagonal of a square matrix is the diagonal

running from ‘top
top left’
left to ‘bottom
bottom right
right’.

An identity matrix,
matrix denoted by I,
I is a square matrix with
ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
 1 0 0
 
I   0 1 0
 0 0 1
 
The transpose of A is obtained by writing rows as columns
and
d columns
l as rows, andd iis d t d AT.
denoted
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 Equality of Matrices
If A = (aij) and B = (bij), A = B if and only if aij= bij.

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Matrices of the same size may be added to and subtracted
from one another. To do this, the corresponding elements
are added or subtracted
subtracted.

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 3 5  7 6
 2 1 4 2 1, C3 9
e.g. 1 If A , B 
    
 3 0 2 4 2  1 5

find A + B, B + C and B - C.

A + B is not defined as A and B are not the same size.

3 5  7 6 10 11
B + C = 2 1  3 9  5 8
     
4 2  1 5  5 7

B–C=

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 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Number
Any matrix can be multiplied by a number. To do this, each
element of the matrix is multiplied by that number.
 7 13 5 
 
e.g.2 If A   9 8 2  , find 2A, -A.
 4 11 8 
 
 2 * 7 2 * 13 2 * 5  14 26 10 
   
2A =  2 * 9 2 * 8 2 * 2   18 16 4 
 2 * 4 2 * 11 2 * 8   8 22 16 
   

-A =

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=
Multiplication of Matrices
If A is a m x n matrix and B is a p x q matrix. For the product
AB to exist we must have n = p, i.e.

BC
A  
mn pq mq

n p

Note that matrix

matri multiplication
m ltiplication is :
i. not commutative (i.e. AB  BA).
ii associative
ii. i ti [i[i.e. ABC = (AB)C = A(BC)]
A(BC)].
iii. If C = AB, the element cij is found from row i of A and
column
l j off B,
B as follows:
f ll
n
cijj   a ik bkjj
k 1

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 4 7 6 1 2 37 33
AB  8 2 6  3 1  26 36
    
4 5 5 2 3 29 28
3
i.e. c21  a2k bk1  8 *1  2 * 3  6 * 2  26
k 1

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 3 5 
 2 1 4 2 1 , find AB.
e g 3 If A  
e.g.  & B  AB
3 0 2  
4 2 

AB=

Note that when a square matrix is post- or pre-multiplied

by an identity matrix of the appropriate size the matrix is
unchanged, i.e.
AI = IA = A
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 DETERMINANTS, INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 12, Blocks 3,4

Determinant
D t i t
All square matrices, A, possess a determinant denoted by :
d t(A) |A|.
det(A), |A|

Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix

a b  a b
If A    , then det(A) = |A| = = ad - bc
c d  c d

A matrix which has a zero determinant is called singular.

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Minors and Cofactors of a 3 x 3 Matrix
Let aij be an element of a matrix A
A.

The minor of aij is the determinant formed by crossing out the ith
row and jth column of det(A).

The cofactor of aij = (-1)i+j x (minor of aij)

Note that the term (-1)i+j is called the place sign of the element
on the ith row and jth column.
column The following may help you to

  
memorize this.
 
  
  
 
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Determinant of a 3 x 3 Matrix
 a11 a12 a13 
 
Consider a general 3 x 3 matrix, A =  a21 a22 a23 
a a33 
 31 a32

det(A)
d t(A) can be
b calculated
l l t db by expanding
di along
l any row or
column. For example, expanding along the first row:

|A| = a11*(its cofactor) + a12*(its cofactor) + a13*(its cofactor)

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 2 1 3 1 4 17
e g 1 Find the value of 1  1
e.g.1 1 and 11 24 5
1 4 2 6 31 15
2 1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1  2*  1*   3*
4 2 1 2 1 4
1 4 2
 2 * ( 2)  1 * 3  3 * 5  14

1 4 17
11 24 5 
6 31 15

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 Alt
Alternatively,
ti l b by Rule
R l off Sarrus
S

Repeat the 1st and 2nd col

column
mn to right hand side of 3rd
column to form a 3 x 5 matrix.

det(A) = Add the product of SOLID diagonals from left top to

right bottom and subtract the products of DASH diagonals
from left bottom to right top.

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 Hence
2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4
 2 * ( 1) * ( 2)  1 * 1 * 1  3 * 1 * 4
3 * ( 1) * 1  2 * 1 * 4  1 * 1 * ( 2)
 14

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 Properties of Determinants
i. If every element of a given row (or column) of the square
matrix is multiplied by the same factor, the value of the
determinant is multiplied by that factor
ii If |B| is obtained by interchanged any 2 rows (or columns) of
ii.
|A|, then |B| = -|A|.
iii. Adding or subtracting a multiple of one row (or column) to
another row (or column) leaves the determinant
unchanged.
iv. If A a
and
dBaare
e 2 squa
square
e matrices
a ces a and
d that
a AB e exists,
s s, then
e
det(AB) = det(A)det(B).
v. If 2 rows or 2 columns of a square
q matrix are equal,
q , the
determinant of the matrix is zero.
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 Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse matrix of a square matrix A, usually denoted by A-1,
has the property :
AA-1 = A-1A = I

|A| = 0, A does not have an inverse.

Note that if
|A|  0, A has an inverse

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 Finding the Inverse of a Matrix
The followings are steps to find the inverse of a matrix A when
|A|  0,
i. Find the transpose of A, denoted AT.
ii Replace each element of AT by its cofactor
ii. cofactor. The resulting
matrix is called the adjoint of A, denoted adj(A).
iii
iii. 1adj
dj ( A)
A 
A

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 2 1 3  3 1 0 
   
e g 2 Find the inverse of A   1  1 1  & B   5 2  1 
e.g.
1 4  2  1 6  3
   
det(A) =14
T
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
  
 4 2 1 2 1 4 
 2 14 4 
 1 3 
2 3 2 1  
adj ( A)       3 7 1 
 4 2 1 2 1 4  5  7  3
 1 3 2 3 2 1   
  
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
  2 14 4 
1 
A   3 7 1 
1

14  
 5  7  3 
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TYPES OF SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

When a system of linear equations is solved, there are 3

possible outcomes:
i. a unique solution
ii. an infinite number of solutions
iii. no solution

 2 x  3 y  3  2 3 3   x  3
i.    
  (unique
q solution)
0 x  y  1  0 1  1  y  1

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 
ii.  2 x  3 y  3   2 3 3   (infinite number of solutions)

4 x  6 y  6  0 0 0 

iii.  2 x  3 y  3   2 3 3   (no solution)

  0 0  1
0 x  0 y   1  

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CRAMER’S RULE
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 13, Blocks 1, 2

Cramer’s rule is a method that uses determinants to solve a

system
t off linear
li equations.
ti

i. Two equations
q in 2 unknowns
 a1 x  b1 y  k1

If a2 x  b2 y  k 2
k1 b1 a1 k1
k 2 b2 a2 k 2 a1 b1
then x  a b , y  a b , provided d d that
h
a2 b2
0
1 1 1 1

a2 b2 a2 b2
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 ii. 3 equations in 3 unknowns

 a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1 a1 b1 c1

If a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2 where a2 b2 c2  0
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3 a3 b3 c3

then
k1 b1 c1 a1 k1 c1 a1 b1 k1
k2 b2 c2 a2 k 2 c2 a2 b2 k2
k3 b3 c3 a3 k3 c3 a3 b3 k3
x , y , z
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

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 e.g.1
g Using
g Cramer’s rule,, solve for x,, yy.
 2x  5 y  3

7 x  2 y  9

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 e.g.2 Using Cramer’s rule, solve for x, y and z.
 5 x  3 y  4 z  35

 2 x  5 y  3 z  12
 3 x  2 y  2 z  10


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 INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

Writing System of Equations in Matrix Form

 a1 x  b1 y  k1
Note that 
a2 x  b2 y  k 2

 a1 b1  x   k1 
can be written as      
 a2 b 2  y   k 2 

This is called the matrix form of the simultaneous equations.

q

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  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1

Similarly, a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3

 a1 b1 c1  x   k1 
    
can also be written as  a2 b2 c2  y    k 2 
a c3  z   k3 
 3 b3

i
i.e. th generall matrix
the t i fform off a system
t off equations:
ti

AX = B

where A, X and B are matrices.

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 Solving Equations Using the Inverse Matrix Method

Consider the matrix form: AX = B

A-1AX = A-1 B

I X = A-1 B

X = A-1 B

i.e. X can be found if A-1 exists.

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 e.g.3 Redo example 1 and example 2 using the inverse
matrix method.

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GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 13, Block 3

Introduction
Gaussian Elimination is a systematic way of simplifying a
system of equations.
A matrix,, called an augmented
g matrix,, which captures
p all the
properties of the equations, is used.
A sequence of elementary row operations on this matrix
eventually brings it into a form known as echelon form (to be
discussed in Page 32)
32).
From this, the solution to the original equations is easily found.

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 Augmented Matrix

Consider the system of equations,

 a1 x  b1 y  k1

a2 x  b2 y  k 2

it can be represented
p by
y an augmented
g matrix:

 a1 b1 k1 
 
a b k2 
 2
 2

coefficients constants
this vertical line can be
omitted as in your textbook

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 Similarly, the following system of equations:

 a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1

a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3

can also be written as an augmented matrix:

 a1 b1 c1 k1 
 
 a2 b2 c2 k 2 
a c3 k3 
 3 b3

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e.g.1 Write down the augmented matrices for the followings
 3x  9 y  7
a. 
7 x  12 y  23

 9 x  7 y  65 z  15

b.  5 x  12 y  2 z  64
 4 x  22 y  3 z  7


 17 x  3 y 6
c.  4 x  8 y  3 z  12
  3 y  5z  7


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 e.g.2 Solve the system with the augmented matrix:

a.  1  7 15 
0 1  2
 

 1  2 1 5
 
b.  0 1 3 1
0 0 
 1 1 

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Row-Echelon Form of an Augmented Matrix
For a matrix to be in row-echelon form:
i Any rows that consist entirely of zeros are the last rows of
i.
the matrix.
ii. For a row that is not all zeros, the first non-zero element is a
one, called a leading 1.
iii. While moving down the rows of the matrix, the leading 1s
move progressively to the right
right.

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 e.g.1 Determine which of the following matrices are in row-
echelon form.

 1 2 5 78  1 4 1 5 
   
a.  0 1 8 14  b.  0 0 1 2 
 0 0 1 22   0 1 1 27 
   

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 Elementary Row Operations

The elementary operations that change a system but leave

the solution unaltered are:

i. Interchange the order of the equations.

ii. Multiply or divide an equation by a non-zero

non zero constant.

iii. Add, or subtract, a multiple of one equation to, or from,

another
th equation.
ti

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 N t that
Note th t a row off an augmented
t d matrix
t i corresponds
d to
t an
equation of the system of equations.

When the above elementary operations are applied to the

rows of such a matrix
matrix, they do not change the solution of the
system.

They are called elementary row operations.

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 Gaussian Elimination to Solve a System of Equations
i. write down the augmented matrix.
ii. apply elementary row operations to get row-echelon form.
iii solve the system
iii. system.

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  2x  y  2z  8
e g 2 Use Gaussian Elimination to solve  x  3 y  3 z  4
e.g.2
 4x  2 y  z  1


2 1 2 8 
 
The augmented matrix is 1  3 3  4
 4 2 1 1 
 
1  3 3  4
  Interchange row 1 and row 2
2 1 2 8 
 4 2 1 1 
 
 1  3 3  4  row 2 – 2*row 1
 
 0 7  4 16  row 3 – 4*row 1
 0 14  13 17 
 

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 1  3 3  4 
  row 3 – 2*row
2* 2
 0 7  4 16 
 0 0  5  15 
 

1  3 3 4 
  row 2 / 7
0 1  7
4 16
7
0 0  row 3 / -5
 1 3 
Hence z 3
4 16
y z  or y  4
7 7
x  3 y  3z  4 or x  1

l ti iis x z   1 4 3
T T
Th solution
The y
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  4 x  3 y  5
e g 3 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 
e.g.3
 3 x  2 y  3

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  2 x  4 y  z  12

e.g.4 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 2 z  3 x  5 y  8
 x  3y  2z  2


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 Gaussian Elimination to find the Inverse of a Matrix
i. write down in a form of [ A I ] .
ii apply a sequence of elementary row operations to
ii.
reduce A to I.
iii Performing
iii. P f i this
thi same sequence off elementary
l t row
operations on I, we obtain A-1.

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  1  2 2
 
S
Suppose A   2  3 6
1 1 7
 
 1  2 2 1 0 0  1  2 2 1 0 0
   
 2  3 6 0 1 0   0 1 2  2 1 0
 1 1 7 0 0 1  0 3 5  1 0 1
   
 1  2 2 1 0 0   1  2 0 11  6 2 
   
 0 1 2  2 1 0   0 1 0 8  5 2 
 0 0 1  5 3  1  0 0 1  5 3  1
   
 1 0 0 27  16 6   27  16 6 
   
 0 1 0 8  5 2  Hence A   8
1
5 2 
0 0 1  5 3    5 3  
 1   1 
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EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Reference: Croft & Davison Chapter 13 Block 4

Consider the system

 a b  x   0  or simply, AX  0
     
 c d  y   0 

If A  0 the system has non-trivial solutions.

If A  0 the system has only the trivial solution
solution.

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 Characteristic Equation and Eigenvalues

Consider the system

y

 a b  x   x AX  X
       or
 c d  y   y

We seek values of  so that the system has non-trivial

solutions.
The system can be written as  A  I X  0
The system has non-trivial solutions if A  I  0

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 A  I  0 , a polynomial equation in  , is called the
characteristic equation.

The values of  which cause the system AX  X to have

non trivial solutions are called eigenvalues.
non-trivial eigenvalues

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 If A is an n  n matrix and X is a vector ((n  1 matrix)) then
there is usually no geometric relationship between the vector
X and the vector AX ((figure
g below).
)

AX

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 But if X is an eigenvector of A then
AX =  X
i
i.e. AX is
i a scalar
l multiple
lti l off X.

AX

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 Such vectors arise in the studyy of free vibrations, electrical
systems , chemical reactions and mechanical stress, etc.

m1 m2

x1 x2

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Eigenvectors
g
Suppose that  , an eigenvalue, satisfies the system

AX  X .

For each eigenvalue there is a non-trival solution (unique up to

a non-zero scalar multiple) of the system
system. This solution is called
an eigenvector.

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e.g.1 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
5 4
A   
1 2
5 4
det ((A-I)) =  2  7  6  0
1 2
Hence   6 or   1

5  6 4   1 4 
When   6 , ( A  I )      
 1 2  6  1  4
i.e. x  4 y  0 or x  4 y . In general, x  4t
4t , y  t
 x   4
The eigenvector is    t  
 y 1
Matrix Algebra Page 53
  1 ,  5 1 4   4 4
When ( A  I )      
 1 2  1  1 1 
i.e. x  y  0 or x   y . In general, x  t , y   t

 x  1 
The eigenvector
g is    t  
 y    1

Matrix Algebra Page 54

e.g.5 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

 3 1
A 
 1 5

e.g.6 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

1 2 0 
 
A   1 1 1 
 3 2  2
 

Matrix Algebra Page 55

 APPLICATION
Stiff
Stiffness method
th d is
i commonlyl usedd tto analyse
l a structure
t t as
matrix analysis can be used to solve the problem.

For a typical beam element, the relationship between the

member end moments and member end rotations is given by
 i, q i  j, qj

i j

4 EI 2 EI
qi  i   j  4 EI 2 EI 
L L
  qi   L L    i   2 EI  2 1    i   k    
q    2 EI 4 EI   j  1 2  
2 EI 4 EI  j   L   j 
qj  i   j  L L 
L L

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  i 
where [ ]    - displacement matrix
 j 
 kii kij 
[k]]    - stiffness matrix
k
 ji k jj 

 qi 
[q]]    - force
f matrix
ti
q j 

By assembly the stiffness of the whole structure, it will

become a veryy Structure Stiffness Matrix.
By imposing appropriate boundary conditions and end
moments the displacement of the whole structure can be
moments,
solved, i.e.
[ ]  [ K ] [Q]
1

Matrix Algebra Page 57