Higher National Diploma in English

First year, Second semester Examination – 2015

EN-1214 – Language structure usage & Linguistics I (Full Time & Part Time)
Marking scheme

Question 01

i. (10 Marks)
i. Infinitive
ii. Base – Uninflected form – Present simple (plural sentences)
iii. Third person singular ―-s form‖ = Present simple (Singular) sentences
iv. Past tense – ―-ed form‖ past simple sentences
v. Present participle - Tailing ―-ing form‖ – continuous tenses
vi. Past participle – ―-en form‖ = perfect tenses and passive constructions

 NOTE 01 – Q01 .i.

The four forms of verbs are the base form, the infinitive form, the past form, the present
participle, and the past participle.

B ASE FORM
The base form is simply the verb itself. Sometimes we refer to a verb by its base
form: call, toss, decontaminate. Sometimes we refer to it by its infinitive form: to call, to
toss, to decontaminate.

Examples:

admit / debunk / escape / swim / think / be

I NFI NI TI VE FOR M
The infinitive form is identical to the base form, though in actual usage, it frequently
appears with the word to at the beginning.

Examples:

(to) admit / (to) debunk / (to) escape / (to) swim / (to) think / (to) be

PA ST FORM
In regular verbs, the past form ends in -ed. Unfortunately, there are a great many
irregular verbs in English and the rules for forming their past forms are varied. Many of
these verbs are common, however, and already come naturally to us. If you are unsure of
a verbs past form, look it up in a dictionary.

Examples:

admitted / debunked / escaped / swam (irregular) / thought (irregular)

Was/were (irregular)
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PR E SE NT PAR TI CI PLE
The present participle is always formed by adding -ing to the end of the base form.
Sometimes this requires eliminating a vowel or doubling a consonant.

Admitting / debunking / escaping / swimming / thinking / being

PA ST PAR TI CI PLE
In regular verbs, the past participle is the same as the past form. Again, however, there
are many irregular verbs and these often take different forms as past participles. There‘s
nothing to do but learn the various forms of irregular past participles. Again, if you are
unsure, consult a dictionary or other reference work. If it helps, the past participle is the
form that goes with has or have.

(Have) admitted / (have) debunked / (have) escaped

(Have) swum (irregular) / (have) thought / (have) been (irregular)

 NOTE 02 – Q01.i.

In English, verbs (words that express an action or state of being) have five forms.

 Infinitive Form: to + basic verb

 Simple Present: basic verb or basic verb + "s" (3rd person singular); expresses action
that is happening in the present or a state that is presently occurring

 Simple Past: basic verb + "ed"; expresses action that happened in the past

 Present Participle: basic verb + "ing"; expresses action that is ongoing

 Past Participle: basic verb + "ed"; past participles can be used in several ways, but one
way is as an adjective to describe a noun

Examples of Verb Forms:

Below are some examples of the five verb forms for some additional regular verbs in English.

Simple Present Past

Infinitive Simple Present
Past Participle Participle
To pass Pass (passes) Passed Passing Passed
To expect Expect (expects) Expected Expecting Expected
To kick Kick (kicks) Kicked Kicking Kicked
To plant Plant (plants) Planted Planting Planted
To sail Sail (sails) Sailed Sailing Sailed
To walk Walk (walks) Walked Walking Walked
To jump Jump (jumps) Jumped Jumping Jumped
To seem Seem (seems) Seemed Seeming Seemed
To rip Rip (rips) Ripped Ripping Ripped
To phone Phone (phones) Phoned Phoning Phoned
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 To fold Fold (folds) Folded Folding Folded

ii. (10 Marks)

Sentences Tense Aspect Mood Voice

Sumana has been working here for Present Perfect Indicative Active
last three years Progressive
The letter was written by him Past Simple Indicative Passive
They visited us last week Past Simple Indicative Active
Please sit down Present Simple Imperative Active
Has she got the appointment? Present Perfect Interrogative Active
(Total 20 Marks)
Question 02

i. 5 uses with example sentences are expected –

 When the agent of the action is unknown

 When agent is unimportant
 When the agent of the action is obvious from the content
 In announcements etc.

(10 Marks)

 NOTE Q02. i.

1. The actor is unknown:

 The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age.
[We don’t know who made them.]
 The package was sent to me last week. (We do not know who sent the
package.)
 The company was founded in 1992.
 Many acts of service were performed without our knowledge.

2. The actor is irrelevant:

 An experimental solar power plant will be built in the Australian
desert. [We are not interested in who is building it.]
 The roads were cleared early this morning.
 The mess was cleaned up before we arrived.
 In the business world, important decisions are made every day.
 The tickets were sold out last month.

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 3. You want to be vague about who is responsible:
 Mistakes were made. [Common in bureaucratic writing!]
 Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.

4. You are talking about a general truth:

 Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever, whenever.]
5. You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on. For example, it may be your main
topic:
 Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of
Toronto. It is still the only treatment available for diabetes.
 The message was delivered by John this afternoon.
 The decision was made by the directors to sell the building.
 Property in this town has been bought and sold by various investors
over the years.
 Several years ago the company was sold to our competitors by a man
from the East.

6. You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally relies on passive voice. Passive
voice is often preferred in lab reports and scientific research papers, most notably in the
Materials and Methods section:

 The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution

was then titrated with hydrochloric acid.
 These results indicate a number of things. or Further analysis
showed/suggested/yielded…

ii.

a). We will hold n exhibition at our school next month

b). Somebody(or any relevant subject) cleans the room every day
c). The examination has been postponed until next month.
d). Was he met last Sunday?
e). A new hospital is being built in the city by them.
f). The police will search the house.
g). This work can be finished by tomorrow.
h). We were sent the message two days after the incident or the message was sent to us two
days after the incident.
i). the situation is serious. Something must be done.
j). they (or any relevant subject) took the injured person to the hospital.
(1 x 10 = 10 Marks)

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Question 03.

(a) . Adverbials of Manner – With patience and experience, well, by keeping fish,
(b) Adverbials of time – today, at leisure, within two weeks, in times of distress, at present
(c) Adverbials of place – at home, in it, in the sand, of the under-world, between them
(d) Adjectives used attributively – more pleasurable, fresh, happy, elaborate, small, ancient,
golden, indoor, definite, vast, rare, costly, varied, mutual
(e) Adjectives used predicatively – possible, painful, disheartened, interested, useful
(f) Adjectives used as the head of a noun phrase – the unemployed, the favorites.
(g) Comparative adjectives – more profitable, more pleasurable
(h) Comparative adverbs – better, more freely, more happily
(i) Superlative adjectives – pleasantest, most fascinating, most costly
(j) Postpositive adjectives – available, interested.
(20 Marks )

Question 04 i.

Written Language Spoken Language

Writing is permanent and written texts
cannot usually be changed once they have
been printed / written out
A written text can communicate across time
and space as long as the particular language
and writing system is still understood
Written language is more complex and
intricate than speech with longer sentences
and many subordinate clauses. The
punctuation and payout of written texts also
have no spoken equivalent.
Writers do not receive immediate feedback
from their readers. Therefore, they cannot
rely on context to clarify things, so there is
more need to explain things clearly and
unambiguously than in speech.
Writers can make use of punctuation,
headings, layout, colors, and other graphical
effects in their written texts, such things are
not available in speech.
Written material can be read repeatedly and
closely analyzed and notes can be made on
the writing surface.
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Speakers can correct themselves and change
their utterances as they go along
Speech is used for immediate interactions.
Spoken language is full of repetitions,
incomplete sentences, corrections and
interruptions.
Speech is a dynamic interaction between
two or more people. Context and shared
knowledge play a major role, so it is
possible to leave much unsaid or indirectly
implied.
Speech can use timing, tone, volume and
timbre to add emotional context.
Only recorded speech can be used in this
way.
(10 Marks)
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ii. a. Dialect

A dialect is a distinctive variety of a language, usually associated with social or geographical

distinctions which characterized by differences in pronunciation (accent), vocabulary and
grammar with regards to other varieties of the same language.

NOTE – Q04.ii.a.

For full answer Refer the answer on 2017 – Linguistics Marking scheme – QUESTION 06.i
(c)

b. Register

Registers are varieties of language associated with people‘s occupation. Registers are the
languages that are used in the pursuance of one‘s job. i.e. usually sharing the same occupation
(Ex-doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (Ex- stamp collectors, baseball fans). A particular
register is often distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive
words, by using words or phrases in a particular way. (Ex- In Tennis: deuce, love, timelines)
and sometimes by special grammatical constructions. (Ex – legal language)

 NOTE – Register

The three most common language registers in writing are:

 Formal
 Informal
 Neutral

 The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss or a
stranger.

 The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is conversational and appropriate
when writing to friends and people you know very well.

 The neutral register is non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most appropriate for
technical writings.

Formal writing includes:

Business Letters Letters of complaint Some essays

Reports Official speeches Announcements
Professional emails

Informal writing includes:

Personal e-mails Phone texts Short notes Friendly letters

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Most blogs Diaries and journals

Writing in the natural language register includes:

Reviews Articles some letters some essays Technical writing

C. Idiolect

Idiolect is the particular speech and language pattern of an individual speaker. Idiolect is the
language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within
the overall system of a particular language. In its widest sense, someone‘s idiolect includes
their way of communicating. For example, their choice of utterances and the way they
interpret the utterances made by others. In a narrow sense, an idiolect may include those
features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others such as
voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm.

d. Style

Formal language is used in situations that are serious or involve people we don‘t know well.
Informal language is more commonly used in situations that are more relaxed and involve
people we know well.

Formal language is more common when we write. Informal language is more common when
we speak. However there are times where writing can be very informal, for example when
writing postcards or letters to friends, E-mails or text messages, there are also examples
where spoken English can be very formal, For example, in a speech or a lecture, most uses of
English are neutral, i.e. they are neither formal nor informal.

Formal Language an Informal language are associated with particular choices of grammar
and vocabulary.

(5 x 2 = 10 Marks)
(20 Marks)

Question 05

i). 1 There are subtle differences between British and American grammar that they have
developed over the centuries, For example,

American English British English

Trunk Boot
Hood Bonnet
Sidewalk Pavement
Gasoline Petrol
Parking lot Car park

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2. In British English, group nouns like team and squad can be singular or plural; in
American English they are singular. Names of bands or teams are always plural in British
English, singular in American English.

i.. BrE- Metallica are playing in London tonight

AmE – Metallica is playing in Boston tonight
ii. BrE- Our team are here to help
AmE- Our team is here to help.
3. In American English, gotten is the past participle of the verb to get, This is one of the
more distinctive elements of American English as get is such a common verb.

 BrE – He‘s finally got over her.

 AmE – He‘s finally gotten over her.

Pronunciation and dialects.

A couple of things make American pronunciation distinct from British, notably that most
varieties of American English are ―rhotic‖, meaning that the ‘r’ sound Is nearly always
pronounce anywhere in the world, which it isn‘t in most British dialects. So the word butter,
for example, ends with an ‘r’ sound in most US varieties, with an ‗uh’ sound in most British
varieties. (Although not in Scotland, Ireland or the south west of England).

Spelling
There are number of differences between British and American spelling. In America, for
example, it is rare for a word end with ‗-re‘, whereas this is common in Britain. Some
examples include Center (centre) and Meter (metre. American English also frops the ‗u‘ in
British words like Colour (color) and Flavour (flavor) an and ‗l‘ in traveller (traveler) and
reveller (reveler).
Some irregular verbs endings are also commonly used in British English but not in American
English, for example burnt (burned in AmE), learnt (learned), smelt (smelled), although you
would be unlikely to notice the difference in conversation.
(10 Marks)

ii.. a). Falling intonation

b). Falling intonation
c). Falling-rising intonation
d). Rising intonation
e) Rising-falling intonation. (5 Marks)

iii.. a). They are washing dishes

b) Where is her office?
c) I am fine

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 d) Samitha doesn’t like cartoons
e) The teacher explained the lesson very clearly.
(5 Marks)
(Total 20 Marks)

Question 06
i.. Explain 3 with examples (6 Marks)
Assimilation
Weak forms
Elision
Linking
Intrusion

 NOTE – Q06.i.

ASSIMILATION

Assimilation means two sounds blend together, forming a new sound altogether. This often
happens with /t/ and /j/ which make /ʧ/ and with /d/ and /j/ which make /ʤ /.

For example:

 Don‘t you — donʧu

 Won‘t you — wonʧu
 Meet you — meeʧu
 Did you — diʤu
 Would you — wuʤu

WEAK FORMS

Weak forms (reductions) - There are a large number of words in English which can have a
"full" form and a "weak" form. This is because English is a stressed timed language, and in
trying to make the intervals between stressed syllables equal, to give the phrase rhythm, we
tend to swallow non-essential words. Thus, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries
and articles are often lost, causing comprehension problems for students, particularly for
those whose language is syllable timed. Some examples of words which have weak forms
are;

 And
 fish and chips (fish´n chips)
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  A chair and a table (a chair ´n a table)
 Can

 She can speak Spanish better than I can (The first "can" is the weak form,
the second the full form.)

 Of

 A pint of beer
 That´s the last of the wine!

ELISION

Elision means when a sound disappears. Basically, a sound is eaten by other stronger or
similar sounds next to it. This often happens with a /t/ or /d/ sound.

For example:

 Next door –> Nexdoor

 Dad take –> Datake
 Most common –> Moscommon

CATENATION OR LINKING

Catenation, or Linking is probably what most people think of first when they think of
connected speech. Linking happens when the end of one word blends into another. When the
last sound of a word is a consonant and the first sound of the next word is a vowel, you get
linking.

For example:

 I want this orange –> thisorange

 I want that orange –> thadorange
 This afternoon –> thisafternoon
 Is he busy? –> Isi busy?
 Cats or dogs? –> Catserdogs?

INTRUSION

Intrustion means an additional sound ―intrudes‖ or inserts itself between others. It is often is a
/j/ or /w/ or /r/ sound between two other vowel sounds.

For example:

 He asked –> Heyasked

 She answered –? Sheyanswered
 Do it –> Dewit
 Go out –> Gowout
 Shoe on –> Shoewon
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ii.

a.. Interesting – Elision

b.. Windmill – Elision

c.. My town – Linking

d. Law and order – Intrusion (4 Marks)

iii. (10 Marks)

Word Full Form Reduced Form

The /ðiː/ /ðɪ/ or /ðə/
Some /sʌm/ /səm/
Him /Him/ /Im/
Could /kʊd/ /kəd/
From /frɔm/ /frəm/

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