Appendix A

A.1 Hilbert spaces

Definition A.1.1. Let H be an inner product space over C. Define kxk2 = hx, xi
for all x ∈ H. Using this, we define

d(x, y) = kx − yk, ∀ x, y ∈ H.

Then H will be a metric space with metric d. If every Cauchy sequence in H converges
to an element in H then H is called a Hilbert space. In other words, H is complete
under the metric d induced by the inner product h·, ·i.
Definition A.1.2. Let {uα : α ∈ A} be a set of vectors in a Hilbert space H. This
set is said to be orthonormal if huα , uβ i = 0 for all α 6= β, α, β ∈ A and kuα k = 1 for
each α ∈ A.
Theorem A.1.3. Let {uα : α ∈ A} be an orthonormal set in a Hilbert space. Then
the following conditions are equivalent.
(a) {uα } is a maximal orthonormal set in H.
(b) The set of all finite linear combination of member of {uα } is dense in H.
|hx, uα i|2 = kxk2 ∀x ∈ H.
P
(c)
α∈A
P
(d) hx, uα ihy, uα i = hx, yi x, y ∈ H.
α∈A

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Definition A.1.4. A set of vectors {uα : α ∈ A} in a Hilbert space H is said to be
an orthonormal basis if {uα : α ∈ A} is an orthonormal set and satisfies one of the
equivalent condition of above theorem.

A.2 Banach spaces

Definition A.2.1. Let X be a vector space over C. Then X is called a normed linear
space if to each x ∈ X, there is associated a nonnegative real number kxk called the
norm of x, such that
(i) kxk = 0 if and only if x = 0.
(ii) kαxk = |α|kxk ∀ α ∈ C, x ∈ X.
(iii) kx + yk ≤ kxk + kyk ∀ x, y ∈ X.
A normed linear space X will be a metric space under the metric d given by

d(x, y) = kx − yk ∀ x, y ∈ X.

Definition A.2.2. If a normed linear space X is complete in the metric defined by

the norm, then X is called Banach space.
Theorem A.2.3. Every Hilbert space is a Banach space.

Let T be a linear transformation from a normed linear space X into a normed

linear space Y . Then the norm of T is defined by

kT k = sup{kT k : x ∈ X, kxk ≤ 1}.

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Remark A.2.4. For a linear transformation T , boundedness and continuity are
equivalent.
Theorem A.2.5. Uniform boundedness principle. Let X be a Banach space
and Y be a normed linear space. Let {Tα : α ∈ A} denote a collection of bounded
linear transformation of X into Y. Then either there is a ball B in Y with radius 1
and center at 0 such that Tα maps the unit ball of X into B or there exists x ∈ X
such that no ball in Y contains Tα x for all x.
Theorem A.2.6. Open mapping theorem Let U and V be open unit balls of the
Banachs space X and Y, respectively. Let T be a bounded linear transformation of X
into Y. Then there exists a δ > 0 such that {δy : y ∈ U } ⊂ T (U ).}
Theorem A.2.7. Let X and Y be Banach spaces. Let T be a bounded linear trans-
formation of X onto Y, which also one-to-one. Then there exists a δ > 0 such that
kT xk ≥ δkxk ∀x ∈ X. In other words, T −1 is a bounded linear transformation of Y
onto X.
Theorem A.2.8. Closed graph theorem. Let X and Y be Banach spaces. Let T
be a linear mapping of X into Y with the following properties. If {xn } converges to
x in X and {T xn } converges y in Y, then y = Tx. If such property holds, then T is
continuous.
Theorem A.2.9. Hahn-Banach theorem. If M is a subspace of a normed linear
space X and if f is a bounded linear functional on N, then f can be extended to a
bounded linear functional F on X such that kF k = kf k.

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 Let X be a normed linear space. Let X ∗ denote the collection of all bounded
linear functional on X. The elements of X ∗ can be denoted as x∗ and x∗ (x) can be
denoted by hx, x∗ i, called the duality relation. The set X ∗ is also a vector space.
Theorem A.2.10. Suppose B is a closed unit ball of a normed linear space X. Define

kx∗ k = sup{|hx, x∗ i| : x ∈ B}

for every x∗ ∈ X ∗ . Then X ∗ turns out to be Banach space under this norm. Let B ∗
be the closed unit ball of X ∗ for every x ∈ X,

kxk = sup{|hx, x∗ i| : x∗ ∈ B ∗ }.

Consequently, x∗ 7−→ hx, x∗ i is a bounded linear functional on X ∗ , of norm kxk.

Theorem A.2.11. Let X and Y be normed linear spaces, let T be a bounded linear
transformation of X into Y. Then

kT k = sup{|hT x, y ∗ i : kxk ≤ 1, ky ∗ k ≤ 1.

Theorem A.2.12. Suppose X and Y are normed linear spaces. To each bounded
linear transformation T of X into Y, there exists unique T ∗ , which will be bounded
linear transformation of Y ∗ into X ∗ that satisfies the duality relation

hT x, y ∗ i = hx, T ∗ y ∗ i

for all x ∈ X y ∗ ∈ Y ∗ . Further, T ∗ satisfies kT ∗ k = kT k.

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Definition A.2.13. Let M be a subspace of a Banach space X. The annihilator of
M is defined to be the set of all x ∈ X such that hx, x∗ i = 0 for every x ∈ M .

A.3 Banach algebras

Definition A.3.1. Let A be a vector space over C. A is called an algebra if A is a
ring and α(xy) = (αx)y = x(αy) for every x, y ∈ A and α ∈ C. If, in addition, A is a
Banach space with respect to a norm that satisfies kxyk ≤ kxkkyk ∀x, y ∈ A then
A is called a Banach algebra. If A has multiplicative identity e with kek = 1, A is
called a Banach algebra with identity. If the multiplication operation is commutative,
A is called a commutative Banach algebra.
Example A.3.2. (i) C[0, 1], the space of all complex valued continuous functions on
[0, 1] with supremum norm is a commutative Banach algebra with identity.
(ii) Let H be a Hilbert space. Let B(H) denote the collection of all bounded linear
operators on H. Then B(H) is a non commutative Banach algebra with identity under
the operator norm.

A.4 Topological vector spaces

Definition A.4.1. Let X be a vector space. If τ is a topology on X such that
every singleton set in X is closed and the vector space operations are continuous with
respect to τ , then X is called a topological vector space. In other words, the map
ϕ : X × X → X (x, y) → x + y and ψ : F × X → X (α, x) → αx are continuous.

The topological space X is said to be locally convex if there is a local base B

whose members are convex.

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Definition A.4.2. Let p be a real valued functions on X then p is called a semi norm
on X if it satisfies the following:
(i) p(x + y) ≤ p(x) + p(y)
(ii) p(αx) = |α|p(x) for every x, y ∈ X, α ∈ C. A family P of semi norms on X is
said to be separating if to each x 6= 0 corresponds at least one p ∈ P with p(x) 6= 0.
Theorem A.4.3. Suppose P is a separating family of semi norms on a vector space
X. Associate to each p ∈ P and to each positive integer n the set

 
1
V (p, n) = x : p(x) < .
n

Let B be the collection of all finite intersection of the sets V (p, n). Then B is a local
base for a topology τ on X, which turns X into a locally convex space.
Theorem A.4.4. Suppose P is separating family of semi norms on X. Let calQ be
the smallest family of semi norms on X that contains P and satisfies the following:
If p1 , p2 ∈ Q, p = max(p1 , p2 ), then p ∈ Q. Let Λ be a linear functional on X. Then
Λ is continuous if and only if there exists p ∈ Q such that |Λx| ≤ M p(x) for all
x ∈ X and some constant M < ∞.

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