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    Vulcanology PDF

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    Hilda Valeria Acosta

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    VOLCANOLOGY SECOND EDITION a Jacques-Marie Bardintzeff Alexander McBirney University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon Toa aed Paes Sansa Bares Pb ana oi hae Over Eaeranan fe Sade Aor icccen te Me inc eet Cena 81998 Bund et Be weeks Agios ep imal py yh et ee fom hepa owner, iyo Congo Cnt Pet ‘Mota ‘ical cer Se Bite ad Akai MB whine by eee {esis Bag and Camps: one Wa I on st 5 98 cade ban ne fide heh FOREWORD a aes2 HCULTAD OE NGENERILNAM ad Aga 0 SITT88" Ge irs Originally published in wo Frnh editions under the name ofthese suuhor,Facques Mare Bardinzetf (Voeanolge, Masson, Pris, 1991 BBunod, Pars, 1998) the present English edition has bee extensively updated and revised for an American atadiene, Geologie examples Jn North America and Hawai have been subwttd for examples fom Europe and the French overseas teritores that ae less tari to American sealers Many ofthe new luirations were taken from the move advancedevel tex of Willams aad MeBiney oleate, published by Freeman in 1979 and salable from he pubes of he preset edit, Jones and Bart. We are indaia a Cathy Cashman (University of Oregon), Wendell Dulfeld (US, Geologeal Survey), Tuas Dasch (NNSA), aod Derek ‘Bosik for their help) reviews of the preliminary mantrpt al 0 the many individuals who have sated thelr knowlege an exper tence wth ws: While we have tied o credit the source fer dare tions, we have aot been able to do this for ertain poses ord gram obtained many years ago. “This work hasbeen pulllsbed with the help ofthe French Ministre dey Cultore Contre National du Live Although this texts designe forthe undergraduate student in Ge- ‘logy shouldbe comprehensible to any educated pets wth ani {oret inthe natal scence, Jacques Marie Barina “Aenander Atiney ABOUT THE AUTHORS a 1) as boo teaching atthe Orsay ain his doctorate tthe dive syle and haz Jacques-Marie Bardintzel (0 ‘rch of the University of Pari ince in 98S He haw ste the ery fs of volcanocs ia de West Indes, Central Amerie, Indonesia any ater pars ofthe world, Hei the ator of several hooks pub Alexander MeBiimey (et isan emerits profesor atthe University ‘Oregon, During fs long cree he has worked la Central Amerie, i for many’ seas chs Fed out petrogic studies oft land. He ha wnten several books on volcanoes and neous CONTENTS rn ‘The Origins of Magmas 1 Storage snd Dillerentiation of Magmas 21 The Volatile Components 39 Structural Controls and Triggering of Enuptions 49 Lavas 61 Domes $5 Pyroclaste-Fall Tephra 97 Pyroclastic Flows and Lahars 123 Volcanism under Water and Ice 143 Cones, Crates, and Calderas 167 Voleanoes in a Gendynamic Context 187 Eqraterrestval Volcanism 201 Hydrothermal Phenomena a Enetgy 213 Volcanoes and the Human Environment 225 253 268 14 Geothermal INTRODUCTION a ‘The Challenge of Volcanology How cam one be indifferent to vleanoes? Their beauty ad ave inspiring menace have always been a source of fascination and wonder, ‘he carest humans ling ia the Rit ley of Est Alea mast hase teen js as impressed by eruptions of Me Kenya and Kilmer 2 ‘ur European ancestors were by Eta o Vesvis, cra8we ae tay boy Kilauea on A St Helens: Throughout history, people ving inthe shadow of vecanoes have given them a central place in kpende and lnyths. For the Grecks and Romans, volcanoes were the abode of Hephaisos (or Vlean, the gn offend teal In Hawa they ae the domain of the goddess Pele nd forthe Aztecs the gu of Hiashoeteot ven today vo mili Japanese pigs cain white robes, elim the slopes on Fujian ey yaad indonesia of fering are made Brahma in the erterof the voleao Bromo In hoe thatthe falthfl wi be sated fom an erpton during the com Ing yeas ‘Tor couturis, vleanoes remained one of the least underto! af natural phenomens. Most philosopher of the ancient world sty ted voltanism to angry gos and "subterranean fre" Becaise they ‘wore helen such swe, volcanoes were rarely viewed abjeciey TRE naturalist Pliny the Younget left remarsabl acurate accu ofthe eruption of Veni in AD 79 in which his ule last hi ie but es ‘was exceptional. Most counts of veanous were based more on st persion and specfaion hin om accurate observations. wst et lun the mid ath century chat naturalists bepan to appreciate the ‘ue nature of Yea and what sve ow think of se deen oe ‘nology emerge “Asso olen happens n scence, progress was theresa of ey d= bute Abraham Gotlob Wemer (1749-1817) propoved a widely xpi theory tat all cystine rocks, nchnding basalt and granite, ‘see precited from ap ancient "Univeral Ocean,” Volcanoes, is tl: This den went largely unquestioned until handfl of observant viduals working mainly tn cents Pane and Scand recognize’ the high-iemperavare engin of igneous roeks and opened the way Foc modern veleani pology. bn 196, Nicolae Demarest raced ow ff columnar basalt toi orginIn'avolante eres nes Clermont Ferran ond in so doing demonstrated tha, contrary #0 idly ld brie, basalts are products of volcan enpons. Noting that some of the basal bad sen though grat, he realied at volcanoes could ot be cause By huring cel body which 2s Wemer maintained Were found only at much salle evel han rani “une Hutton, an Ediaburgh physician, came to simlar conch sons. By showing that certain bodies of salt nd granite Bad ded and ternal alcred sedimentary beds, he undernied thea ‘spt doce that granes wer ary precipitates fom the ea and Jed to the recognition of a particularly powerful oe explosive selcanim in shaping the earth and the envtonment in wbich we ie Moat obvious of ours, nthe fa tl (takes on uta I AL {he sme time, wleariam hs beens important factor afectng the “arts mate and responsible fora wealth of base resourses, ‘Suing metals, constriction materials geothermal ene, and the Fert of sl Despite the impressive progres cent year, we a tla from reaching a adequate understanding of vocanim. We can describe "ble compostional ifeveess in magmas but ean only speculate on tents of magmas but cannot say why one volcano has an eruptive teaver dramatically diferent rom thst of eter only few HHlometrs aun, We can determine the age of ancien lavas but ca ot say when or why ne erupion wl occur ad in oo many cate ‘were able to grec the naire of aa eruption andthe nies ts Tel 1g have othe serounding rept. The challenge the poses cm be lutratel by abit review ofa ew rent eupaos The erpton of Mt Se Helens, Weshingon in he spring of 1980 vas the fist inportantvolearie event Nor America tn more thane year, Because it took place in a well populated repion tei Gl bcs one a eed sta 2 surge of voleanaopical researc, The eruption opened wil ‘mild sienm erupiions that seemed ta pote no dangee, While the US. Geololeal Survey closely montoed the wl the resents fof a nearby resort aca a Spt Lake were urged to leave sid at thortes atempred to eacae the hundreds of journalists and ex Sal cbnerversuho converged on the sore. Daring the flowing ‘week, the northern slope begat 0 swell a magma rose frm cps an inated the upper levels ofthe ei bulge on the forthern flank raed the surface a8 mich as 150 m abd evenly ocame unstable. At 8332 on the moming of May 18th an earth Stake of magoliude 5 triggered an avalanche of 23 kr of rock, wth Telesed powerful iatral explosion when he confining Pressure on the underving magma an hot ster was removed. A Perl blast overwhelmed Spit Lake and the surounding hill atening the forest ove an atea of 600 kn. A debris Bow cana. ingot rock. mi, ee and water swept down the moutatn and con Ainucd dow the Toole River carrying huge ques of sediment fran the Columbia River A 25am high eruption coum pread fash over muck of eastem Washington ahd parts of Oregon, Idaho, Montana. snd Wooming. The mmgnitade ofthe Blast and debris flow wos totaly Unexpected. Despite the arefsl mositring, scores ates were st chang that of David ohnson, a Yoeandlogst who was obsarving the volcano fom a rdge 12 km from she sm tnit The number of deaths would have een much greater ithe re lon were not so sparsely setled and i access to the threatened Set had not been Ite, “The lessons learned at Mt. St Helens helped vleanoogits appre slate the potential dangers posed bythe volcano Nevado del Rule In Columbia when t began to show signs of nest in 1984, The snow ‘sipped voleane which had long history of stil, wis oem re fered 3s £1 20n Dorrido—the slepiss Hon. Unie M.S Helens it was surrounded bya dense population with several tows and vi lages situated close tothe Hanke of the volcano, Geologie became ‘sneered that melting of ce atthe tunnit crater cond result in de stating mudfows, and decd this is exactly what took place On the 1th of November 1985, a mild erupion of ath ited ee ad som oar the suit an triggered a sties ot muons that swept do the ants. Four major torrents of maid and debs sere channeled into the step valley, carving everything in shel pat The town of Armero 60 hin east ofthe sumnut was overwhelmed along with a ‘mest I ente population f 22,000 persons The tenes of Maiquta tnd Chinchina were struck by other flows descending the western ope. Much controversy followed the eruption. The danger posed by the wlan was clely recognized: the town of Antero had een de ‘Sime by slay event In 1845. Although wlcaotolts bad de fined be hazards snd prepared mape delisting hacatdous zone, 90 selequate Warning sytem had Been installed and communication Fwd tmpically Inadequate. On other volcanoes where harards of this Kind have been recognized, devices axe installed on the pet Slopes to deter mudiows automatically and send sia to ator ties 9 that organaedevacaaton eam Be carried out promptly. Ht sac ‘system had been in place on Novado dl Re. the 90 minute tit "lapse between te into of the mio sad the ine struck the town of Armero would lve been sfcent fo evacuate the town And sod the los of 0 many vex ‘As these examples suggest, the gieatest tall of human lives has «come, not ron Tata lows or ash falls, but fom ash lows sd har, (he lavter ae often referred wos asions bt they are more prop ‘ery refered tos Tahar" the name wad in Indonesia where the oe Porticularly common.) And yet the variety of sole hued ‘ere and an seldom be anticipated. One of the mast was ext ples was an ersten thot ook more tha taousand ves nthe Wet ‘scan country of Cameroon in August of 186, ln this case 1.346 ie ‘ine died of sphyiaion, Lake Nyos occupies a wolanic crater which, ugh tha no hs torial record of atv, wes tadtonalyconedered to poseve ei powers The water wa satrated wih carbon dsode (CO) tha over any years ws emited frum vents onthe ike bottom. Besse the foto of CO, i alton increased with depih and pressure, wae ‘ery rata, Al that was reguied to rigger exsoltlon war 8 rele aiton of pressure, possibly by an enuplon or even by 2 change ofa Iowphere presse and an overt bringing saturated water to 3 “allower pth This seme 10 be what happen fn 1986, A sudden, Shorted eruption of gan threw the water to eight of several han. Aired meters and reese heavy lod, cubic klometer volume, ‘mss of 10t0 20% CO, Th thi case, ther was way of sniping the eruption: polit fad never son an event ofthe hind before, and for many sears is Cause was ol dette, Ses are now being conduct to prevent ferther eruptions by arial ringing the COyrich batons water to {he surface, where It can exsle under contlled condition. I hoped that monitoring ofthe lake can preven are disaster "Bren what anasto yan spc ont en ‘ned population is vacated may Be imposabe to prepare for all peasile eventual, The Philippine volcano Plat hud ben {it fr sera centures butts kno to be dangerous, When major eruption began in Api of 1991 ll reasonable precautions see taken to mitigate ts effects A quarier of «milion persons were ‘scated Neverthe, several hundred ines were los manly ae har. No one had anticipated the conBinaton af ees ending othe diater During the ary stages, at eat 7k of ah were deposited on the flanks ofthe volcano This tn lf posed no danger, ar staring on the th of ne. the spoon “Yanga reached the island of Ligon. nits centr paaed only Som fram the voleano onthe Sth of une “thers followed on the 180 snd Toth The torrential als saturated the ash and sot of voluminous lahars. The overwhelming scale of {he phenomena mad imposible to evacuate the entire theatensd olcanologis are undertandsbly vluctant to recommend wholesale evacuation of the populace around a theateninevaeano. “Tie dase measve involving consieroble cor snd durapion ‘of poops lives, Pat cxpticne hes shown tha Ifthe population ‘vacated. and no eruption crsics,vleanlogins are aise of Being nedlesly cautions. ts only natural that activity continaes sporadically for a prolonged period with no serous tpt, the populace wil eoneide tha the risk hasbeen eaggeoted, Ts wat shown most dramatically during the recent emptions of wleano Known the Sofie Hil onthe stall Caribbean ison of Montserat.Volnologiss were Keely aware ofthe danger posed by dome that began t grow on the upper slopes, Havas reat ‘were carly delineated and plans for evacuation were thorough ‘organized so hat wen an enaption seemed ta be pending. the pop tation vas moved to salty. Tas happen hrc mes std cach Hine the cist passed without an erupion Vleanolists could make frm predictions: they knew ony thatthe vleano was inte of un stand, judging from experience with sila vent the pct te ‘nized ihe danger of devastating ash ows coming from thefts ‘of the growing dome, Unortunasy, the repeated "lee sans i ‘ermined the confidence of the publ and mae ther icresingy reluctant t leave thelr homes when warnings were issued. As Sul hen another explosive phe cccuned om the 20h of June, 1987, about 20 persons who remained in the treated soe need lesaly low theres far: de most serious challenge to volcanoogits toda’ that of averting a major eatastzyphe when the Kalish vol Vesa ers Saain. Although the volcano has not ented sine 1044, i hae s ng Ista of lent eruptions, sch asthe ose that buried Pompel nd Herculaneum in ab 79 (Pi. 03) The magnitude of these eryptions| fends o be greater alter loa pers of epee; the lange the vaca Tos dormant, the more vilont he net erie ill to be 2X population of more than a milion persons nove ives within the zoe’ potential impact of such an ruption. I is estimated that ‘Would neue a week to evacuste te rato, hut wolcanoloiss doubt ‘whother they cam isu alert on such a short ine scales They eon finve Co stay the Yoleano ane earch for clues that may enable the fo prove » more precise Warn an thereby avoid. or at lest duce, the horsle traps that thtetens the matt mgion of Nap ‘Many other examples cull be ct waste the cles nesd for 1 better unerstnding a the origin and mochanisns of volanism find the manner in which t ean set hunsan ves. Atiough we have fn extensive knowledge of the physics ard chemist of volcanoes, Ich remains to be learn, particularly ia dhe nea of anit’ nd mitigating tele impact om humans In the chapters that fll {Se examine the otgins and nature of tlzshism by considering, fis, ‘why volcanoes are where they ae and vs multe magma genera fn the earths marie finds ts way tothe surface, We then tar othe Imanifestations of volcan i lle diverse forms ah, id fragmenta Rows Finally we examine the impact of volcanism on the environment which we live: While giving cu attention to volcanic hava, we Bine some of the Important benefits of vleanim, ptcalarly the feat energy resources tat bave only recy been expe Suggested Reading 2M, We, 1968 ay he nl a: New Yok: VOLCANOLOGY a The Origins of Magmas 14 Introduction ‘We ar living in period of unuslly intense volcanism. A recent compl catalog lis 1.5 vleanoes tat are known to have enpted Sn tho past 10.000 sear, ad abot 0 ofthese enup in any given Yan This ped of acti is by no means type of the past. Aihough there have bee fires, such a the Miocene epoch that were naked byeven stronger voleaniam, ther such as the Carborferas periods ‘were notably more quit Certain times sere dominated iy plone intrusions with te volcanism others the everee Although we have {go litle Infrmation to show this quantal there ile doubt that voleanism i tonely epee “The spatial dst of voleanoessequally uneven, Most oes noes are encentrated a the boundaries af tetonte pats, namely ‘lone ocean spreading ates, continental ifs, an sulci sones ‘few are found whore continental plates colide whos eubdaction, Ducthese are rare Almost ll eases that re ot cated ner ple boundaries are the prodcts of persistent thenmat anomalies, oF Jorspors. in the interiors of bol oceanic and continental pst Hival and Yellowstone ave perhaps the vet faraar examples. To understand why volcanoes sre dette inthis wy, we mut Bt ex Amine thr sources in the mantle and the proceses by which mage are generted 1.2 The Mantle Origin of Magmas 1 was Jong thought that dhe molt rock, oF magna, ct erupts ax lava or ash came froma permanent reservoir of molten materi nthe carts interior Although tue that tumperatures near the enter of the earth approsch SOM"C—a value (ar greater than that st which rocks ct atthe surlace (G00 to 1200°C), mst be remembsrd tt lg temperatures are gealy increased bythe eronmos presse ‘on the rock at sch depths, Recon of seam waves passing through {he earth itersc show shat by far the largest pats ofthe erth-—the “outrmostcusal rks, dhe underying mantle nd the ie core behave like solids (Fig 1-1). Only the outer cove between depths of 2.800 and S100 km sina state approaching that ofa gud. We know Uhisbecause rans scam waves are os treme hugh his zone, Bu this dense, ronch material making up the cove ts unlhe ‘ny normal magia ever sen atthe surface, The magmas erupted from voleances must he prudaced at some seh ia the mante oF lower cust by mehing of rocks that ate normaly soll “The ey factor in producing mages the earths Internal het Pat ofthis het Is nerve rom the orginal acerstion ofthe plane, ‘shereas another parti produced by decay of radioactive elements, ‘hllypotestam, thom ad uraniam, that are dstfbuted seal mounts throughout the crust and mantle. Beense rocks ate st poor conductors, this oad addition of adiogenit heat cannot be ie pated by conduction tothe surface as rpidly ait forme, aed the Temperature of the evth wold he iereasing with ke were the ma i 11 A seer esto thie eth For ary the hens fsa Tow hve bee ese ent able to tun over sles by convestion. Even dough the rocks te ominally soli a high samperatures ad press, the se pis {Sc enough i deter hy sce fo, ‘The tempoatute gradient f the crt’ terior (or geothenn) snot liner (Fig 1.2), Temperatures the eros increase with eh Temperature, °C. 500-1000 4500 10 +9] 20 ¢ E109) 50 8 = 3 € precambrian A 408, = seoencn Eso] e ° 50% qth so 2200 10 Fg. 12 Meng of mane pss The rep so whi pase [Plena the oon ad Pecan comer sil a sy ae free The atrageenpertae gc fr thecarh en wae atc tine to camer The tenpetie at wish ne seen ec (lathe es} ar abet clans oy coon nh Presence sala water (eed they cet the si {hm a des ete D0 150 cing tht Ping oul car “hein the prs of ol aun of wie Ale fom rec 178 ‘Leer Li PS 436 5a Tl an Keo 198% tts of shout 3 106° pee llometer but if this praien wore to remain ‘Constant almost al of te mantle would be far above ts lng te perature, and av already noted, thete Is no evidence fo large amounts Df liga a these depths Various lines of eonhvsicalevdenve ind (he that temporturesincreate at decliing rate unt the radi ‘bevomnes newly constant at about a tenth of degree pet Klometc, “The only smporant part of the mantic where the aeherm is thoight to approach temperatites at which malting hep in. thin bot extensive ayer nthe upper port ofthe mare ai a the base of the lithosphere The one ew at a aserage depth of 1000250 km vn ler the entinens but 70 km or so under the oceans an om a ee tens of lometers user zante ridges nd other regions of Intense Volcanism. Seismic waves are slighty retarded in this fow-eloiy “he indicating tt temperatures at thee depts ar least 500°, ‘At low pressures, manle rocks at this temperature would be largely ‘oon, fat bosuize presumes rake their melting tompratute, the proportion of mele inthe lowsenty zones nly about 8 perent 0. Thus, the lwseecity2one ad the authenosphore ined be Tour it sem to be favorable places for gonernting magmas, because {sin this region tht the traperture radon of the mantle cones to the meng carve. ‘Ansmber of observations support this interpretation. For example, sein record at the Hawatian Volcano Ohserstory indicate that the rages that precede certain eruptions begin at dep of about 60 km below Kilauea and ise steady over months or yoars unt Lava f= nals appears tthe nrface. Tis ouervation ae lon nerfed a6 (idence that he magmas are produced hr orslishlydecper levee Some maginas, owever, aust be foal at much greater dep or they bring ip fragments oF “nodules” consisting of minerals that ‘Sond stble only a depths of 400m or more pose aedecp asthe ‘Sove-mante boundary. On the other hand, other types of magn, pa {inlay slicsrich varieties, mn have mich shallower ons, eve 9 {he crt at dep fon 2010 30. Mach depen he compos ‘ono he soureorocKs andthe process esporsblefor mel 1.3 4 The Nature ofthe Earth's Mantle ‘The composition of the earth's inter can be deduced frm x number flings of evidence. The most seul ofthese isthe Jnformation of tained from metenstes These evotie rocks ae fragments of herbal levi our scar system dha broke ip frm the astro and slr fragments that occasionally Interest the ears orbit. They aa bed vided int two brand tsps: ron meteorites, which are probably analo- Teoncnscr inns —§ 0h src and stony mere, hich cps ayo State mineral sito those of tears cre a upper mane Son oe most common types of stony meteorites, the rome ate thought a corespnto the rol composton of th earthed ther ne plants before Formation of soundest By imple tnass balance, one caste atthe composition of the earths male by subactng om the average compeniion ofthese chon mee: ‘oftes proportions sma of te crest an core The composition sb. tine inthis wai clas otto ype of proc kno 3 hr tole, (See coir lation) I (ssid to be fenched case In Bekton tothe normal constituent mineate of erent (adie, Slinopyroxens, and atthopsronen), contains anol amounts af Spinel ogame and peop a. Such els ae found among he Zenoliths, or “nodules,” bro p invents of deep seated explosive ‘ruption, pariculty damon pipes Marcon, rocks of his eno Gon traromit eile waves a veloiies comparable to thse ea ured hough the marae rg amount of peridot are exposed inthe eroded cores of er tain mount ranges, sich he Alps and Stora Nova, whore hey have teen brought wo the surface y tout tang foes that tht par a the mane oer the crt Unlike the entice Thea lies, weer most ofthese ate “depleted” peidntes (or tart fie) consisting mont nay of elvan sale nun ofp Fnene. Ther avenge composition Is chemically ellen to the Fes that would be let a basalt component were removed fom fn eniched peridot. The proportions ve apprenmaty 1 part Basal and 3 puts deplted pertiot Cable 11). Thus a beac naga could be derived from sane! o garnet peridot, lating 8 fesidve consisting of ony vine and reduced snnoun of pyroxee Enriched and dpice mantle ean be thot ofa two ead members between which there fll ange of nermedate compositions perang onthe history ofthe rocks and he extent to which the have Fest loweneing somiponent “sperimentaliss ave ered this hypothesis by determining the mineral assemblages tat an eiched peridot wot have under ‘name contons and hos these mineral wuld to fp lc Tui. They nd that sith Ineressng presi, the stemblage goes Uhrough the following enstons: + Up toa pressure of about 10 Kbars (roughly equivalent 8 ‘depth of 30k), costes of elves ens, linopyrenene, and plagioclase 1 Wika Tuner inrease of pressure 0 20 0 30 Roar (a depth of 6010 100 km), the composition lsd upon, aaminous ge eprestninive Chemical Comparten a CA Nos of an esos Choc Nee Ponte nd Panay” ant 2 Ero ot mae lead Pat pte emt ak rem, 3 em ain ete ren ps a 1 fees tnt fst mcrae MOR yroxenes and spinel. I fc, plagioclase with ts wend Imembers,albite and ancthite, combines with aivne to orm ‘0 of te components of pyroxene according 0 reactions such the folowing NaAlSLO, + Alg.i0, —+ NaXlSLO, + 2MeS0, aibte" " forsiente "jade ensathe CaALSi.0, + Ms.Si0, —» Cassio, + 2mgS:0, — @) anorthite’ fostetteThermak’s " enstte tmalecle + At pressures greater than 20 0 30 kbar (depts of mer dan 100 kan), the assemblage Is that ofa game! Ineo one, «sail clinpyronene ad prope garnet). The appearance of arti the result of chemical redone MzALO, + 4 MySi0, + Mg.ALSLO, + MaSIO, spinel" custate’ psrope frst m MESO, MgALSIO, — MA, SLO), + sumiowsensaite prtope im =2)MgSi0, fo — )ateALSiO, sdtrminous ens Reaction (3) forthe formation of pyre garnet at dhe expense of spinel takes place between 21 kart (at 1100-0) and 38 hoary (at 300°C; reaction (4) occurs between 24 Roars (at 1300°C) and 31 ars (a 1300°C), “These mineralogical relations hold oly for voatie fe conditions, which are probably not enrely appronrate forthe mantle, Smal {mounts of water forne and chlorine sew present in hydrous ‘al, such as splubole or phlogonitc mica, and carban donde can form carbonate minerals such sx dolomite: Thus, whet expeiien lalss stadied the same mineral assemblages an the, presence of lable component, they fond that small amouats of other minerals Bre stable within certain ranges of presse and trmperat, Arp bole canbe present up to pressures of about 30 kbar bevond which Fe plves ay to pyroxene, garnet and water Mica I stable Unougbont ‘vie range of pressures, prosided thatthe rock contains api fmounis of water and passim, Carton done combs ty cal ‘Siu and magnesium to form carbonates at pressures soe abot 20 1025 Khare The lower mantle, at depths seater than 70D km, differs i that cavine i replaced bya mineral with the same cheraial composition bur with the more compact crystalline stritureof eto This ves the lower mantle greater density that lends to prevent fom lng and mising with the upper zone “Altbough the composition ofthe man s much less complex than ‘hat ofthe crust st wou bean onerimpiieation tay eh nk form. The comecting upper mantle i thought ta have kt eae of Inthonhile and volatile elements that were extracted to prod the stator, and ocean Itonelos a desper mantle that hag et yet gen up lege amounts of thee components, sels discon nity marks the boundary between the two, ad akhough heat = {tanner fom the lower o eppor anil lvl exchange of cher ca components takes place ‘Several ines of evidence, such a varied mantle xenoliths an so- topic and traceslement ferences of baal, show that the scuees fftmagia ae far Hom homogeneous. Certain baat, for example, Seem tobe derived from a mane that wae relatively niche ins Init, aes. Rb, and C3), and the lighter rare-earth elements, teres others come fom sources that are relatively impaverihed those slomens Tee thought thot varlatons such ax these rfl the Aiferent iris of cerain pars ofthe earths interior Ite could Sc the male, tight ese slant marble cake with one tp of ‘material fmting sw within noses ‘Some of these heterogeneities may be inherited from the east, processes responsible for separation of the core, mani, and cr, Svhetens thers could be the result of continuing processes uch a the formation of oceanic ithosphere or sabdietion of crust into the ma Le- Formation of some of thee hetergencitin would require bila lof years. At the same ume, however, they would end io be erased by anil convection and, to. lescer degre, by difuson that woul take Comparable times Petrlogrts and seochomist have Yet f0 Teach 8 onserus as what proportion ofthese artatons are nerd rom ‘orginal inborogenstes tha stl survive today and how much is the ‘el of proceses that have altered what woe crginally more home eau mantle Most ages, however thal there vome end of comm Petition heswcen the slow processes responsible for formation el de Fructon of thaws heterognetes, "A complex modl as been devised to explain dhe varied isatopic companions of bass (Pig. 13) Te defines the following dierent ‘lmersbor components ofthe mantle + A partly depleted mantle that e the souroe of mid ocean ridge Intl (ORB) neommeorweus 9 01 06 =| te Prevalent } tates Fresh cope oq M13 Sn marcy in ei by i a Ip este nt evant ma’ he Mh compose HN) ‘stud yan ucla rao uray to nd. Ne sn met ‘mages fom these tw crmponent Miles bse (MORE ae de ‘ve ran me ose hat avs been et ts oo mo eter ning ‘ents (depen rom Zinder, A ad 188th Pan ‘+ Aneniched mando (EA) dat may be a remnant ofthe ely pimitive mantle 1 Asccond type fearched mantle (ENID that maybe the resule ‘of sulted sediment + Aina type HIM, characterized by a high io a) of 60 Isowopes, =U and Pb, the origin of which still mot sinderstood Yolcani oes with these features have been fund only on afew i lands, notably in Payesia Heol be the esol of fants xb dicted litesphre from whic corn motile components have bee toss The wide variety of baslts found in the oceans suggests that the rmantie emade up of al fu of these ta members, r 144 Mechanisms of Melting Unlike simple substances such ase, natural siieats do nt melt ta fixed temperature bat rather ora range Between the solide, where {he rst drop ofliguld i formed und the luda where he lst ry ‘al disappears. As natal sates pase through this omperatae tena ther phscal properties, sch ae density and viscosity change ‘rasialy When the mantle hepins 19 mel at solic, thin ln ‘of liga appears along grain boundaries andthe partly med sock sill haves ike a sole Atleast 2or He melt mst be present before ita be detected by selamle meanirements targe amounts of magma are not nora present nthe mand, some special condaion must be required to produce them, Mltng {mor come about dough a simple acumtdation of heat produced tivdocay of raionctv elements the ate at which heats podneed ‘ich to alow to account forthe rate at which tga ane pred Teouli however resul om one ge more of several mechanisms that raw an the immense reservoir of heat stored in the earth's mantle ig ta “Temperature, *e. Bes i ~ bu a som OE i eveotdue a 1 S ig. The congo shown tht pen pole soni be ‘Neca condte thermal pin nthe corp aan abe rin ‘coneing atennpere hn pote eper of (50 Tse to ro re prt ya thera dry eer the ey fe ‘hewn the ioaphre and athens. T se eet fre ae {Show ary conan Tr ml gram ergs ane es ‘(ering temperate i fa () weigh pres o ‘ling ofthe tere and (lower he ls case yen Tee ORaNSoe Mews 1 Forvoltile fee compositions the curve forthe solidus temperate ‘ofthe mantle (the femporatute st which pridottes begin toa i ‘teases ata neatly linear rte of about $C per Keser from about 1200°Cat thesurtace to 140010 1500°C in helonevslcy zane here approaches or intersects the get, At thse depth, ming cold bpecaused by one or more of three base naechanisns Hata in Pi 1-4 (0) anita of heat and increase of temperate st cusant pres sureand composition (b}a decease of presse at constant het ea tent and composition’ of) change of composition a corstant heat ‘oatert and composition. Wecan consdereach ofthese independently {a) an inf of heat Irom some deeper source enters horizon \whate the mantle js already close to the solids, cmperstnes could Fis until matting boss Alternatively rocks a depen to dope Teil of higher temperature, they wl gain eat Irom thelr suo Ings, In ether cae’ temperatures could ise until they reach, the slidus, where meling bepins. Thereafter, most of the added het ‘would be absorbed in weling, ad temperatures Would rise mu ‘more sll with exch oe ofadtonal heat woducing about 239% ‘elt. A mechanisn ofthis kind is pohably response for generation taf siceous magmas, such as he granite plans of mouseln ranges lke the Alps: Colson of continental plates thickens the ens, nde Ue roots of mountains are Hepressed to deep, hater evel thelr temperatures rive until matting bine 1) isstead of on inc of hese rocks ar aise oa eve of Tower pressure, possibly as 9 result of convective upwelling of the ante. rocks that were already close to their slides temperature ‘would ow be in a realm where they won be par Tiga. Een though no energy raed, crystals would gi to lb dewing on heat toed sth reks Ras a mantle rock 1 ka losers sds temperate abot °C. At he sane Line the aiabaie expansion from rel of pressure lowers the finparture of Peridot aout 105" per flometer I te spe het ofthe racks is sbout 13 joules deg, the amount of heat avalaefor melting woul therfore be (3 “05)x'13= 33 onles por pram, or enough ta mel nealy 1% of {rock with @ heat of fusion of 400 jovles por gr A sing tare ‘wth an average temperature of L340°C would berin to mele when i reaches s depth of 80 km and would be 28% laid st reached the surface. ‘The lrpe amounts of magma prose at ote aad ‘ecani spreading ridge could be generate easily y this pe of "de- Compress malig (OA this melting mechanism requires nethor an ine of hast noe ‘a change of pressure but rthor a adton of yone component such £510, tat lowers the melting temperature, This fhaingstion igh ‘sult fom an intoducton of volatiles ether tm ase st gest eps or fom breakdown of volatil-bearng mineral in the rock fell Athoagh the combined contents of H.O and CO. In bass ete profubly es than 1 weight percent, even these sll mounts could frvea lange tfet on meling Meiingtempratures of basalt ref fed ae much a 109°C hy only 0.1% water other soll components, Sewell aw allies, lave comparable llc. The mogmes erupted from volcanoes above subduction zones are ‘thought to be priced in this way. As a slab of oceanic Ithosphere {escent the maa, the enasial rocks ae dehy and het ‘elle components rise ico the veying maa tock, lower hel ‘cling temperature, ad induce melting. 15-4 Ascent of Magmas from Thelr Source ‘The manner in which magmas rise and eventually reach the surface ‘an only be inferred roma few tenuous lines of ndivct evidence A Though lows may ifr in thei fterpreations of the exact scans all ape that Ue primary factors ar the pica op {ries ofthe magmas chilly dent uscos, and heal content “The densities of primary baate mame are about 28 to 2.9, sub- stsnally Tes than tat of the mantle from ‘which they ate derived fabout 33). They may rie, eter by dlspersed pros Mow like water In an aguifer or sa distinc ulions mans maving through the plastic ‘mantle ruc athe way dlapirs of st domes ie then ak se iment: Because the mantle minerals that contribute the most to Intaticliguids are the densest components ofthe origi peridot, the refractory minerals at remain ater aril melting ae probably lighter than the ovgial mantle This sespcally ea whe ating takes pce at depth where the source rocks contain garnet This, both the igi and rfectory resid are buoyant with respec othe ‘original fre ante and ma ise togecer a4 ur. A hey 805 the met wl continue to e-equlrate unl the laud apd estate Fractions Snlly separate t some shallower depth During this say stag, slats probably remain in solution and have tle elec on the tafe of ascent unt the magma reaches shallow depts. ‘A higher levets where the rocks ofthe Iitospiere are more rgd and fracture under stess, magi can a longer rn y plat ls fensional regimes, such as ovennic speeding axes, iaional sees ‘ay open racuns,llwring magmas to continue their ascent. Elbe tere pockets of moguna mas migrate pare bys proces non 35 “oping in which pieces ofthe roof break aay and sink oe become assole: In ether case, the ability of magia to rise duough the Iidhosphere is severely rested, especially fn the crt, where the TWeOWENSEF MES 13 density sud temperature ofthe rocks may be much es than that of ‘hemagma, Melts thelr source the mantle ave a temperatures that would be well abot dei igus slvr presse, and ye ga ely thes he surface ina superbzated condition that at temperance above thee quid. Ac mapa rises, cool asa result of two eflecs Jst as ar cools risen and expands, magna cools adits a9 inset levels of lower pressure: tit is, its temperture declines ven If no Beat & lst The temperature, I fin depres Kevin) of the ‘magma vares with pres, f according tothe following eaion arta a Tp ete the cueicen of thermal expansion about 3» 10° dee) is density about 28g en), an Cy hat capacity (alone 03 cal {E'deg"}. Thetactor 4.44 Convers het to ts mochanteal equivalent ‘Thus for mane cemperatres and densities, the lect of adabate coolag Would be as allows (4200 +273) 3 10 aLsaex03 001° bar! ‘orbetween 02 and 03 per blometer af rice. The slope ofthe malting {emporatute about 3° per lors, so asbatic colin has 9 tele thely minor effect. bre tpt the Ios of Heat t the conker rocks through which the magi ses TF the terperstre of the mel ‘xcoeds that of te suroundng, ners ofthe wall mocks mey beg to melt and the large amounts of heat absorb iu ths way guy ‘ing temperatures dover to de melting even the crust, thi fst say be so sea hat the magma wil gin to sly aa be to vise ‘sous to continue fe soent "A further limitation i the density eantrasebetwoen mag sad ‘oversing rocks the crustal ecks areas dene than the magma, he sravtational diving force is diminished and the height to which ‘magma can rises severely Hite. Ts s tt ay tha aga a hot rise through lighter rocks; as lang 38 he total presse on the Source exceeds the fdosttie presse ofthe col of magna the fagina can continue to rise. Nevertheless, the magne bens to lee Its buoyancy when it passes fom the dense mane Into gtr rocks fof the crust and when this happens, it may be jected ito Traces in the crost wher it haps to enol and crystallize the las con ‘inues. each ation of new musta supplies new stand stares lication, so magi may accumulate ina late, pesstntrese¥otr Shallow reseroirs ofthis kind are thought wo under arge volcanoes that remai ative form thousand of years The wohimes of some ‘of se "magia chambers" are probably tens or even hundreds be hilneters. ‘When masa resides in such 9 chamber for centres, i an ae ergo imporiant compositional changes efore finaly resuming It ‘ours toward the surface, For example, as crystllation adaoe, the density ofthe remsining guid may decline sn! volatile compo ‘ents ay appch saturation he reduced volume of quad A & ‘eau the magina may become buovant snd rene lesen Tn cereain types of legencsle mapmatc in which channel pro vide sy actos To the surface, is pase th maga may sed Teall fom the mantle without undergoing major compositional changes For example, volcanoes such asthe fel voleano Kala that commonly ert lage amount laf very union compos tion are thought to be fed by mama that has seareely pause i is sic directly rom its mart source This is exceponal. ower ost lavas have compositions unlike thew af primary mts ofthe mantle 1.6 4 Principal Types of Magmas Most magmas have compositions that are distinctive ofthe caconle setting n which they are fond. Andesite for example, are the cat scene rork of sbductionelated voleanoes. One sould be ery "taplcios if such a rock were reported from an ocean land, such bs Hawai. Silay granitic pions anlage roi fnimbites fe confined exclaselytocottinntal stings and have sever been found in the oceans Because magmas have chemical compuitions markedly diferent from that of any reasonable mane rocks they cannot be prods of tho total meting 0 her source rock they must be the est of i ferent degrees of parilmitng tthe very eles sage of melng certain volatile and easy fusible components, such a te skal ‘contribute dsproporonaely to the hguid. Elements, sich as 2x HEU, and Ba, are said to be neomparble seats they ae anes 0 tal excded rom most commen minerals and enter ready no the ‘ety ft pret of meting With more sdvanced meting he con. ‘ctraions ofthese element are died as larger amos ofthe tore reractory components contribs to an ieresing mount of Tite “The maximum sinourt of melting indicated by modern volcanic rocks is seldom mote thn 20 to 30. Cartan ain! avs, sich (he very magnesumedch Romar, are though wo have been prod es of at least 40% melkiag, but magmas of his kind were sommon ‘only daring Precambrian tne whem the earth thermal radia minh steeper and tectonic procestes mote setive The a Nery ae jn modern volcanoes Making ofthe crust, oF enetsis, proces ign 1h in ii, sumina, a alates, especially potassium. I thought to have been Fesponsible for the sltewrich vleanie and platonic magmas that ‘nal noe Be derived in such volumes rom sone of peo conn postion Meling of continental cust i conina to two pes of con ions ist, when dense matic magmas reach the Base of iter con tinental cris the tend to collect there arise the empertine of {he overlie nck uni they begin tama The oluminesraie ‘magmas cuted from Yellowstone ae thought to criginae in hs ay (see Chaplets 8 and 10), ar the silimanie-bearing ignites of Peru and chile have been artebuted to melting under sma cond tions in the roots ofthe Andes, Second, in egos of pate clison, pression of the continental crt to level of elevated tapers ‘nay cause melting. The Tertiary cordierite dactes and tourmaline "hye of Tuscany are preacts of the ellison ofthe Advite and Eurasian plates, ‘Amel hat comes diet rom its source without undergoing ay subseuuent change of composition, ether by erstalztion or cont ‘ination is relened to ae a primary migra: Rea le ee magmas Fach dhe strface in hel origi, analtered state. With stall, mounts of estalization, they are duchy depleted of certain ele- tents, such 8 Mg, Ni and Cr that enter eal tsstilsing mineral A the same time, they may be contaminated wth erst tera picked up a they rise tora the surface "Been en these elects are sctnted primary magmas have sub tle ut mporiantcifrences rom on tectonic sting to another The Sarfations reflect the nature of the source rocks and eons, sit temperature, pressure, and the concenteations of lates that pre Wail were ring tales pace. Experimental sties have show fo these factors can account for dhe main typex of peimary magne that ‘horactevize de principal tectonic stg in which vole outs 17 Magma Series Although names hane been coined for a vast numberof ineous rocks tho grt majority fll nto a small nimber of major gene 'spee These groupings were initially et up by petrloget who toned compositional features shared by de sits of rocks of» particu Io alt: Even though the lnens of certain volcan center may mat Be e uniorm, they form gradasional series that share eran mineralogic tr geochemical characteristics or our preset purposer, we shal ‘oneentratecnlyon the most cominon types ad gore the cones “Sbsissions set up foe more specialized porpares "With te exception of rare carbonates ase Chapter 5) all magmas are essentially molten slcates with lesser amount of Al Fe, MM Th Ga Na, K, Panda hot of trace clement Tnble 1.1). They ca Be lassied as ether ballin or alkaline, depending on thir propor tions of sca relative 1 other components Alkaline rock, as Ha ‘ame implies, contain more alkalies aswell ms magnesia sl ir but Fela le les. They cant cryalie > fedepatoid, st as repel (NaAIS:09, in place of plagioclase (NSAIS,0,) and ovine {MpSi0.) in pace of hypersthene(Mg.S.03) Those minorls need not be physically preset in the seta or mol ascembage, especialy 3 the rock cooled quickly and contain appreciable amount of gs, eal, however they wold he among the theoretical or nonnative ines making up an equiibriam amemblage “The compost lerences between allalise and subalhaline baslls may seem trivial bat these small diferences are maghified ‘amfuld atthe compositions of desiatve magmas woh, The ed Product of subattalloediferentistion inn quarerich sack, such ae Fhvlite or praie; that of alkaline magmas ts phonolie or syente ‘sith compositions mich richer in alates and poorer i lice (Fig TS) As inal natural clasiietion systems, some sada rocks Ot series of rocks ste the boundaries between sudvsions, Soe magmas that are only milly defen in ses ditlerenite toward nd products, suchas trachytes, that are intermediate between lites and phonoltes Inthe sense dat they may contain no Feldspathotd but they sh lack appreciable amounts of quart, ‘alkaline and subaltaline mspmas are fet in almost ll geological secings bt tend to he character of certain tectonic regimes, The feat voleanocs of Hawa and Reunion, for example, erupt alkaline ‘saa inter eter stages bat soon change to subaltaline during most oftheir periods of active gtowh: in thelr waning sages, thexe ‘okenoes produce small amounts of increasingly alkaline magioss, ‘his change tly us thatthe conditions governing the generation of ‘agines inthe matte are changing with tne ad enables us 0 in ferpret processes decp inthe cath Pent the volar, Each of tse two brad groupe har major sbivsions. Molitor ge avai of subalaline locks charatertzed by song ensement ‘ot iron i the early ane mide stages of dillerenciaton, but latter Stage, they become much sicker swica and may svave fo thy ‘x granite This sn contest 0 cle-aaline erie hat onto have morecles liner srtation between ther most primitive and thet Sa rhs, z o sects ee 34 naa) 34 » Na30* m0 7Hg0 1g 15 (Alas darn downed bern Hei ea ‘hie nd in (Te hie ed lo (C8) tie sveeaneny nig erg rept ‘Sense nth tit ont agro lo ‘oni rons ao mc tose hon en FO foo 09 Fe) The ages stan ce empl ata otters Surg ta yo re cat 3 ‘stn tion inte 0 wwe The eka he Mas Co jour {umes snues con af secutin of pnie eaesh “then rnsabaidngs ban cla te Pape? atc gs rh ‘ise pup pm Sn Se ne the pc one ee ah ac Cpo sete Sai ary Send Sedan 987, Co Se atone in the morning overwhelmed Hercilancut, and he ith about 6 hours ater descended on Pompe In the couse of the Thou ‘ruption, 4h (DRE) of tephra were ented, “ruptive columns podaced by these lage-scale explosive eruptions eaneator th lower prt oft satnephere (ot heights 100 17 bn ‘Those of Me Pec and Vesuvius, whith are eximated Yo have Hse 1 20't) 30 kn, were eacended by those of the enon of Pint, Plipines in 1991 (40 kan) and the prehistoric eruption of Taupo, New Zealand where the cons rose more than 30 kon, Whe th from these eruptive columns disersed nto the upper srateaphere, Wan aller the cae on a global sale sce Chapter 14). The ach eventually falls over much ofthe earth. Althowgh the fine, wey de Pered ash may ot normaly benoit preserved the pe ke Sheos, eiher as fine dust or soa weak cic layer nthe ie 15 4 Widespread Distribution of Ash The dstution of aichome ash depends largely on the strength and lection of winds at diferent situs scans hive winds, Imainly between about 5,000 and 18.000 m, trend inere ot les ceas-west the dstsbution of recent sh edoninonty evs oF Wes bf the eruptive sents, parculnyin the rps. ‘Tis wind effect has been observed in several Nistor erupions During the euptions of Krak in 1883, in ash rose to ele of ‘more thon SO kn: the ash all was sly spprett 2200 kon west of thevyoleann, and the total area covered hy easly recognize sh we 327,000 ke Much impalpable dist remain in the wppes ates here for seeral eas, causing illans sunsets throughout the worl ‘he dus clouds enced the globe in 13% days, nd at an aide of 301 SO kn. these vera velocity was 120 kan por ho ‘The spread of ash following the eruption of Me Se Hens on May 18,1990, 5 well documented fr i ws followed closely not eal 0 ‘he ground but sso by continual stellt atervaion In the st ball Ihr a vertal purse reached height of 27 an and then formed 2 steady column between 14 snd 19 km high, Within 10 migutes, 2 ‘mushtoom-shapee cen had formed, aa the revailing winds Pesan to camy ash hundreds of ilometers tthe east (Pig. 8) The ach formed» layer 4 cm thick st 300 km fromthe welt aoa was topped in smaller amounts a distances ‘ot more than 1, S00 Ka, Satelite photographs recoreed the spread of the ssh cloud acros he Hes of Washington, Maho, and pars of Oneson, Montana, soa Wyoming. In 10 hours i traveled abet 1000 km for an average speed F100 kam per ho Pinos STIL TERA an 16 Thickness, Fragmentation, and F Dispersion of Deposits ‘Suds of tephra deposits can be used to quay the inten of x= plosive eruptions. eva lone after they have accu. Thee tions fhickness, gran sve a aerlal extentrellet the simple nile that valent eruptions preduce eject of ner size nd debt chen ingreater thickness over wider regions An eample of the ure of these factors in evaluating the preistoric Pach fall of Mt Pele | iscused in an eave section (Mg. 79). Te diferent fopache linet ney NOAA sti nages vy tal our a) Te pe ec a ‘Son of 2 kin alan oral hn sea ria masien orm) Ae ‘ero inure the ach hl rnd prs ao, ic the ets of ‘he reaing winched 1000 eet ths at arp ely foo hi yer hou Suma Wj al 181 US Geo Sy Po Pe fats) ig, 19 The dsibnon of sami of be PL puedes af MPa Eich spine ot cats hy >with the mi oth sl rahe nd hen cetimeters Be tpt re es ee Th ‘cova ins pune ws at with at en a ‘eons sho he conn hh yo Barta a 198 Tete ec 33548) Although the erupron on the 18th of May produced 1.1 hin of ash, this was not he strongest explosive eruption in the history othe vl ‘sao. The straigrpe record of well-atod ash deposits ad ven by prio erupeons shoves that Mt, St Helens hasbeen intrmitendy 3c- {te Tar the past 4500 years and that the magnitudes of many earler “hiptions have exceed hat of 1980 me caxmen 7 ‘Fea thickness of deposi have an elliptical form that tsifes to ttso regimes inthe aenorphere above the ent: the southwest tradewinds ac elevations of es than 6 kn and ends fn the opposite

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