TITLE OF THE PROJECT WORK

“ANTIBIOTICS”

Name : SHAIK KHAJA MOINUDDIN

3RD B.Sc M.P.C

Reg.No : 4172056
Year : 2019-2020
 CERTIFICATE
OSMANIA UG COLLEGE KURNOOL
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

Title Of The Project Work : “ ANTIBIOTICS ”

Reg.No : 4172056

Certified that this Project work in “ANTIBIOTICS ” is attended

by the candidate Mr SHAIK KHAJA MOINUDDIN B.Sc Chemistry
6th – Semester, 2019-2020. This Project Work is Submitted for
the Partial Fulfillment of the Award of Degree of BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE IN CHEMISTRY.

Signature of the Lecturer

Osmania College (A) Kurnool.

Signature of the Examiner:

What to know about antibiotics

Antibiotics, also known as antibacterials, are medications that destroy or slow

down the growth of bacteria.

They include a range of powerful drugs and are used to treat diseases caused by
bacteria.

Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as cold, flu, and most coughs.

Fast facts on antibiotics

 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928.

 Antibiotics cannot fight viral infections.

 Fleming predicted the rise of antibiotic resistance.

 Antibiotics either kill or slow the growth of bacteria.

 Side effects can include diarrhea, an upset stomach, and nausea.

What are antibiotics?

Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight certain infections and can save lives
when used properly. They either stop bacteria from reproducing or destroy them.

Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the immune system can
typically kill them. White blood cells (WBCs) attack harmful bacteria and, even if
symptoms do occur, the immune system can usually cope and fight off the
infection.
Sometimes, however, the number of harmful bacteria is excessive, and the
immune system cannot fight them all. Antibiotics are useful in this scenario.

The first antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin-based antibiotics, such as ampicillin,

amoxicillin, and penicillin G, are still available to treat a variety of infections and
have been around for a long time.

Types of Antibiotics Natural And Synthetic

Natural Antibiotics :-
The scientific jury is still out concerning natural antibiotics. While people have
used remedies like these for hundreds of years, most treatments have not been
thoroughly tested.
However, some show promising results under medical review, and further studies
are underway.
With an ongoing increase in drug-resistant bacteria, scientists are looking to
nature when developing new medications.
Here, we examine the science behind seven natural antibiotics.

1. Garli

Cultures across the world have long recognized garlic for its preventive and
curative powers.
Research has found that garlic can be an effective treatment against many forms
of bacteria, including Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Garlic has even
been considered for use against multi-drug resistant tuberculosis.
2. Honey
Since the time of Aristotle, honey has been used as an ointment that helps
wounds to heal and prevents or draws out infection.
Healthcare professionals today have found it helpful in treating chronic wounds,
burns, ulcers, bedsores, and skin grafts. For example, results of a study from
2016 demonstrate that honey dressings can help to heal wounds.
The antibacterial effects of honey are usually attributed to its hydrogen peroxide
content. However, manuka honey fights off bacteria, though it has a lower
hydrogen peroxide content.

A 2011 study reported that the best-known type of honey inhibits

approximately 60 kinds of bacteria. It also suggests that honey successfully treats
wounds infected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

Antibacterial properties aside, honey may help wounds to heal by providing a

protective coating that fosters a moist environment.

3. Ginger
The scientific community also recognizes ginger as a natural antibiotic. Several
studies, including one published in 2017, have demonstrated ginger's ability to
fight many strains of bacteria.
Researchers are also exploring ginger's power to combat seasickness and nausea
and to lower blood sugar levels.

4. Echinacea
Native American and other traditional healers have used echinacea for hundreds
of years to treat infections and wounds. Researchers are beginning to understand
why.
A study published in the Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology reports that
extract of Echinacea purpurea can kill many different kinds of bacteria,
including Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes).
S. pyogenes is responsible for strep throat, toxic shock syndrome, and the "flesh-
eating disease" known as necrotizing fasciitis.
Echinacea may also fight inflammation associated with bacterial infection. It is
available to purchase in health stores or online.

5. Goldenseal
Goldenseal is usually consumed in tea or capsules to treat respiratory and
digestive problems. However, it may also combat bacterial diarrhea and urinary
tract infections.
In addition, results of a recent study support the use of goldenseal to treat skin
infections. In a lab, goldenseal extracts were used to prevent MRSA from
damaging tissue.

A person taking prescription medications should check with a doctor before

taking goldenseal, as this supplement can cause interference.
Goldenseal also contains berberine, an important component of natural
antibiotics. This alkaloid is not safe for infants, or women who are pregnant or
breastfeeding.
Goldenseal capsules are available to purchase in health stores or online.

6. Clove
Clove has traditionally been used in dental procedures. Research is now finding
that clove water extract may be effective against many different kinds of bacteria,
including E. coli.
7. Oregano
Some believe that oregano boosts the immune system and acts as an antioxidant.
It may have anti-inflammatory properties.
While researchers have yet to verify these claims, some studies show that
oregano is among the more effective natural antibiotics, particularly when it is
made it into an oil.

Synthetic Antibiotics:-
Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few
types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics.

 Penicillins such as penicillin and amoxicillin

 Cephalosporins such as cephalexin (Keflex)

 Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin),

and azithromycin (Zithromax)

 Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofolxacin (Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin),

and ofloxacin (Floxin)
  Sulphonamide’s such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim)
and trimethoprim (Proloprim)

 Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin)

and doxycycline (Vibramycin)

 Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex)

Most antibiotics have two names, the trade or brand name, created by the drug
company that manufactures the drug, and a generic name, based on the
antibiotic's chemical structure or chemical class. Trade names such as Keflex and
Zithromax are capitalized. Generics such as cephalexin and azithromycin are not
capitalized.

Each antibiotic is effective only for certain types of infections, and your doctor is
best able to compare your needs with the available medicines. Also, a person may
have allergies that eliminate a class of antibiotic from consideration, such as a
penicillin allergy preventing your doctor from prescribing amoxicillin.
In most cases of antibiotic use, a doctor must choose an antibiotic based on the
most likely cause of the infection. For example, if you have an earache, the doctor
knows what kinds of bacteria cause most ear infections. He or she will choose the
antibiotic that best combats those kinds of bacteria. In another example, a few
bacteria cause most pneumonias in previously healthy people. If you are
diagnosed with pneumonia, the doctor will choose an antibiotic that will kill these
bacteria.

Other factors may be considered when choosing an antibiotic. Medication cost,

dosing schedule, and common side effects are often taken into account. Patterns
of infection in your community may be considered also.

In some cases, laboratory tests may be used to help a doctor make an antibiotic
choice. Special strains of the bacteria such as Gram stains, can be used to identify
bacteria under the microscope and may help narrow down which species of
bacteria is causing infection.

Certain bacterial species will take a stain, and others will not. Cultures may also
be obtained. In this technique, a bacterial sample from your infection is allowed
to grow in a laboratory. The way bacteria grow or what they look like when they
grow can help to identify the bacterial species. Cultures may also be tested to
determine antibiotic sensitivities. A sensitivity list is the roster of antibiotics that
kill a particular bacterial type. This list can be used to double check that you are
taking the right antibiotic.

Only your doctor can choose the best class and the best antibiotic from that class
for your individual needs.
How do antibiotics work?

There are different types of antibiotic, which work in one of two ways:

 A bactericidal antibiotic, such as penicillin, kills the bacteria. These drugs

usually interfere with either the formation of the bacterial cell wall or its
cell contents.

 A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying.

Uses :-
A doctor prescribes antibiotics for the treatment of a bacterial infection. It is not
effective against viruses.
Know whether an infection is bacterial or viral helps to effectively treat it.

Viruses cause most upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs), such as the
common cold and flu. Antibiotics do not work against these viruses.

If people overuse antibiotics or use them incorrectly, the bacteria might become
resistant. This means that the antibiotic becomes less effective against that type
of bacterium, as the bacterium has been able to improve its defenses.

A doctor can prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic to treat a wide range of

infections. A narrow-spectrum antibiotic is only effective against a few types of
bacteria.

Some antibiotics attack aerobic bacteria, while others work against anaerobic
bacteria. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen and anaerobic bacteria do not.
In some cases, a healthcare professional may provide antibiotics to prevent rather
than treat an infection, as might be the case before surgery. This is the
'prophylactic' use of antibiotics. People commonly use these antibiotics before
bowel and orthopedic surgery.

Side effects
Antibiotics commonly cause the following side effects:

 Diarrhea

 Nausea

 Vomiting

 Rash

 Upset stomach

 With certain antibiotics or prolonged use, fungal infections of the mouth,

digestive tract, and vagina
Less common side effects of antibiotics include:

 Formation of kidney stones, when taking sulphonamides

 Abnormal blood clotting, when taking some Cephalosporins)

 Sensitivity to sunlight, when taking Tetracyclines

 Blood disorders, when taking trimethoprim

 Deafness, when taking erythromycin and the aminoglycosides

Some people, especially older adults, may experience bowel inflammation, which
can lead to severe, bloody diarrhea.

In less common instances, penicillins, cephalosporin’s, and erythromycin can also

cause inflamed bowels

Allergy

Some people may develop an allergic reaction to antibiotics, especially penicillins.

Side effects might include a rash, swelling of the tongue and face, and difficulty
breathing.

Allergic reactions to antibiotics might be immediate or delayed hypersensitivity

reactions.
Anyone who has an allergic reaction to an antibiotic must tell their doctor or
pharmacist. Reactions to antibiotics can be serious and sometimes fatal. They are
called anaphylactic reactions.

People with reduced liver or kidney function should be cautious when using
antibiotics. This may affect the types of antibiotics they can use or the dose they
receive.

Likewise, women who are pregnant or breast-feeding should speak with a doctor
about the best antibiotics to take.

Interactions

Individuals taking an antibiotic should not take other medicines or herbal

remedies without speaking with a doctor first. Certain OTC medicines might also
interact with antibiotics.

Some doctors suggest that antibiotics can reduce the effectiveness of oral
contraceptives. However, research does not generally support this.

Nonetheless, people who experience diarrhea and vomiting or are not taking their
oral contraceptive during illness because of an upset stomach might find that its
effectiveness reduces.

In these circumstances, take additional contraceptive precautions.

How to use

People usually take antibiotics by mouth. However, doctors can administer them
by injection or apply them directly to the part of the body with infection.

Most antibiotics start combating infection within a few hours. Complete the
whole course of medication to prevent the return of the infection.

Stopping the medication before the course has finished increases the risk that the
bacteria will become resistant to future treatments. The ones that survive will
have had some exposure to the antibiotic and may consequently develop
resistance to it.

An individual needs to complete the course of antibiotic treatment even after

they see an improvement in symptoms.
Do not take some antibiotics with certain foods and drinks. Take others on an
empty stomach, about an hour before meals, or 2 hours after. Follow the
instructions correctly for the medication to be effective. People taking
metronidazole should not drink alcohol.

Avoid dairy products when taking tetracyclines, as these might disrupt the
absorption of the medication.

What Happens When Antibiotics Are Overused?

Taking antibiotics for colds and other viral illnesses doesn't work — and it can
create bacteria that are harder to kill.

Taking antibiotics too often or for the wrong reasons can change bacteria so much
that antibiotics don't work against them. This is called bacterial
resistance or antibiotic resistance. Some bacteria are now resistant to even the
most powerful antibiotics available.

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) calls it "one of the world's most pressing public health
problems." It's especially a concern in low-income and developing countries.
That's because:

 Health care providers there often lack quick, helpful diagnostic tools that
can identify which illnesses are caused by bacteria and which are not.

 Many of the areas only recently got widespread access to antibiotics.

 Lack of clean water, poor sanitation, and limited vaccine programs

contribute to the infections and illnesses that antibiotics are prescribed for.
Resistance

Some medical professionals have concerns that people are overusing antibiotics.
They also believe that this overuse contributes toward the growing number of
bacterial infections that are becoming resistant to antibacterial medications.
According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), outpatient antibiotic overuse
is a particular problem. Antibiotic use appears to be higher in some regions, such
as the Southeast.

Use of carbapenems, a major class of last-line antibiotics, increased significantly

from 2007 to 2010.

Alexander Fleming, speaking in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech in 1945, said:
"Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself
and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug, make them
resistant."

As the man who discovered the first antibiotic almost 70 years ago predicted,
drug resistance is starting to become commonplace.
Recent Commercial Antibiotics in the Society

 Amoxicillin
 Doxycyclin
 Cehalexin
 Cirofloxacin
 Clindamycin
 Metronidazole
 Azithromycin
 Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethorim
 Amoxicillin and Clavulanate
 Levofloaxacin