‘Taxol, a urug used in the lealrnen or eancer, stabllzes whieh arte folowing stuctures in @ cancer cell? CA Necleol OB Chromatin © Microubules ©. Microflaments CE Intermediate flamerts Explanation ‘Taxcl is a drug derived from the berk of yewtrees, widely used as an anticancer drug. Microtubules add and remove tubulin subunits during the mavernent of chromosomes. Taxol binds tichtl to ‘microtubules, thus actng asa stabilizer. Taxol also causes fee tubulin to assemble into rricratubules Nucleoli numgers usually increase in cancer cells but taxcl does not react wth these structures. Chromatin snot afected bytaval. Microflaments play key roles incall divisicn (cytokinesis) but do not move chromasomas and they are nct afected by taxol. Intermediate flamerts, the third camaanent ofthe evlaekeleton, are nat influenced bytaxol and seam to have no role in chromesome mavement.Internet Explorer Identfy the arganalle(s) atthe asterisks in the connective tissue cell depicted in the accampaming micrograph. B © AMicrotubules © B.0igi complex. © Collagen tins © Rough endoplasmic reticulum © E.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Explanation Thisis a plasme cell with an extensive array of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are bound to the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum, ghing ita rough appearance anc bascphille staining properties, Rough endaplasmic reticulum is prominentin cells specialized for protein secration. Functions include segregation of pratein for exportor intracellular use, clycosylation of proteins, and muttichain protein assernbly. The Golgi complexis visible as a clesrer, paranuclear, membranous area. The ligitet appearance results from a lack of essaciated ribosomes. The complex consists of stacks of membranes, vesicles, endvacuoles. Micratuoules are linear stuctures that are eraller than rough endoalasmic. reticulurn, Collagen fitrls are assemaled in the extracellular matrix Smoath endoplasmic reticulurn doos not possoss tibosomes,‘Wien sarcoplasmic inclusion serves as an energy depot? CA. Asin CB Myosin Yo Bo Gtycayen ©D. Ribosomes CE Mitochondria Explanation Glyeagen is cansidered an inclusion because it is a transiton, "ranliving’ component ofthe rruscle cytoplasm (sarcoplasin). Skeletal muscle rapidly metabolizes glucose from alycogen during exersise, Glycogen is also found in clusters in henatseytes. Actin and myosin are the proteins of the thin and thick llaments, rospociively. Ribosomes are involved in protein eynthosis; thoy arannot humerous in muscle cells. Nilochonefla produce enerey thatis easily accessible by the cel, therefore, they ate not considered energy depcts. in addition, they are organelles, notinclusions.Whalis the source or protnymocytes? CA Liver a Spleen oe, Thymus © p, Bone marrow Ce Limahnodes Explanation The adult bone marrow contains plurinotential stem cells thal diferentate along erythroid, myeloid, and lymphoid pathways. The lymphoid pathway is responsibie for producing B cells and prothymocytes. n the diagram below, several intermediate differential stagas have been omitted Pluripotont stem coll Erythroid Myeloid progentor Lymphoid progenitorThe adulthone marrow contains aluripotential stem cells that cfferentiate along erythroid, myelotd, and hmphold pathways. The Iyrrphoid pathways responsible for producing B cells and prothymacytes. n the diagram below, several intermediate dfferentiaton stages have been omitted Pluripetent stem coll Eythroid Myeloid progenitor Lymphoid progenitor Progenitor Megakaryocyte Granulocyte-monocyte progenitor J Prothymocyte\ ? Erythrocyte —Thrombocyle —-Basophil_ Eosinophil ‘Neutrophil Monocyte Bell Teall NKcall The liver and spleen exhibit hematopoietic activiy in the fetus until aboutthe fourth or ith manth of gestation. In adults, the liver and splzen resume this function in a process known as extramedullary hematopoiesis Ifthe martow Is incapable of meeting the demand ‘orhematopoietic elements. The thymus is a primary mphoid organ that is important in lmphopoiesis.‘Whatis the primary site of B-cell maturation? CA Spleen ©B Lymph nodes © ¢ Bone marrow OD Thymus Ce Tonsis Explanation The bone marrow is the majar site of 8 cell maturation. In he adultloone marrow, the lymphoid stem cell proceeds through several stages of maturation as identifi by the expression (or lack of expression) cf certain markers. The hmphcid stem cell diferentiates into the pra-B cell Che earliest B coll progenitor, which bocomes the pro-B coll (dofined s¢ 9 call that daos notyot oxpross licht chains of antisouy, buthas heary chains in the cyioplasm), Cell mitesis stops, proliferation resumes in response to stimulation by antigen, and reerrangements of light chain (ranable) and J Goining) gene segments occurs. The pre-B cell dfferentiates into the early B cell Surface immunoglobulin M Cal, with or withcutimmunoalobulin D (luD), is expressed; allimmunoalebuiin gene segment rearargements cease andthe call hecornas a mature B nphacyte. The hone rmattow is equivalentto the bursa of Fabricius in birds, the first animal species in which a specif Site of 8 cell maturstion was discovered. Therefore, the hone marrow Is sometimes referred to asExplanation ‘The bone martow Is the majar site ofB cell maturation. In he adultjsone martow, the lymproie stem cell proceeds through several stages of maturation as identifi by the expression (or lack of expression) of certain markers. The hmphold stem cell diferentiates into the pra-B cell Che earliest B cell progentor, which becomes the pre-B cell (Jefined as a cell tnatdaes not yet express light chains of antisouy, buthas hoary chains in the eyioplasm). Coll mitosis stops, proliferation resumes in response to stimulation by antigen, and teettengernenis of ight chain (ariable) and J Goining) gene segments occurs. The pre-B cell dtferentiates into the early B cell Surtace immunoglobulin Mt (Igl), with or withoutimmunoglobulin D (\yD), is expressed, alli mmunoglabuin, gene segment rearrangements cease and the cell becomes a mature B mphacyte. The bone rrartaw is equivalentta the bursa of Fabricius in birds, the first animal spacias in which a saecific site of B cell maturation was discovered. Therefore, the hone marraw is sometimes referred to as ursa-2quivslent’ tssue. The spleen filers blood and removes dying and dead erythrocytes nom the circulation. The lymph ncdes, which consist of lymphocytes and macrophages associated with reticulin fibers, fiterforeion materials. The thymus is the site of T lymphocyte maturation. The tonsils, nodular aggregates af lmahocyies and macrophages directly undemeath the epitheliurn that ines the nasopharyne and sot palate, may participate as a secondary B cell maturation site.Match each ofthe following functions or descriptions wth the appropriate organellesinclusicn. Athelmer’s disease neurafibillaytangles CA. Microflaments ©B,_ Intermediate filaments Cc. Microtubules @ D. Micratubule-associated proteins CE, Petoxsomes CF, Rough endoplasmic retculura Explanation Co. CH. C1 Ou cK eL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi comolec Mitochondia Ribosomes Primary ysosomes ‘iyeogen Neuronal loss and disorganization oflayars ofthe cerebral cortex are microscopic festuras of Azhelmer’s disease. The neurafibilary angles ofthe effested neurons censistoftangled masses ofpatred helical laments (FHFs). These PHFs consist ofthe merotubule-assoctated protein, tau, The tau protein becames highly phasoharylated in Azheimer’s disease and the following entanglement leads to disruption of the microtubule netwerk and thus impairment of axonal transport, leading to neuron death The tangles stain well with siiver stains. The other major abnormality in patients with Alzheimer's diozase is the extacellular deposit ef kete-amylaid, known as senile plaques.Match each ofthe following functions or descriptions wth the appropriate organellesinclusicn. Cell-surface receptor movement @ 4. Microflaments ©B,_ Intermediate filaments Cc. Microtubules CD. Micratubule-assaciated proteins CE, Petoxsomes CF, Rough endoplasmic retculura Explanation Co. CH. C1 Ou cK eL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi comolec Mitochondia Ribosomes Primary ysosomes ‘iyeogen Neuronal loss and disorganization oflayars ofthe cerebral cortex are microscopic festuras of Azhelmer’s disease. The neurafibilary angles ofthe effested neurons censistoftangled masses ofpatred helical laments (FHFs). These PHFs consist ofthe merotubule-assoctated protein, tau, The tau protein becames highly phasoharylated in Azheimer’s disease and the following entanglement leads to disruption of the microtubule netwerk and thus impairment of axonal transport, leading to neuron death The tangles stain well with siiver stains. The other major abnormality in patients with Alzheimer's diozase is the extacellular deposit ef kete-amylaid, known as senile plaques.Match each ofthe following functions or descriptions wth the appropriate organellesinclusicn. Breakdown ofhydrogen peroxide CA. Microflaments ©B,_ Intermediate filaments Cc. Microtubules CD. Micratubule-assaciated proteins @E_ Petoxsomes CF, Rough endoplasmic retculura Explanation Co. CH. C1 Ou cK eL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi comolec Mitochondia Ribosomes Primary ysosomes ‘iyeogen Neuronal loss and disorganization oflayars ofthe cerebral cortex are microscopic festuras of Azhelmer’s disease. The neurafibilary angles ofthe effested neurons censistoftangled masses ofpatred helical laments (FHFs). These PHFs consist ofthe merotubule-assoctated protein, tau, The tau protein becames highly phasoharylated in Azheimer’s disease and the following entanglement leads to disruption of the microtubule netwerk and thus impairment of axonal transport, leading to neuron death The tangles stain well with siiver stains. The other major abnormality in patients with Alzheimer's diozase is the extacellular deposit ef kete-amylaid, known as senile plaques.Match each ofthe following functions or descriptions wth the appropriate organellesinclusicn. Detoxification of cruys, carcinogens, pesticides CA. Microflaments ©B,_ Intermediate filaments Cc. Microtubules CD. Micratubule-assaciated proteins CE, Petoxsomes CF, Rough endoplasmic retculura Explanation v eo. CH. C1 Ou cK eL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi comolec Mitochondia Ribosomes Primary ysosomes ‘iyeogen Neuronal loss and disorganization oflayars ofthe cerebral cortex are microscopic festuras of Azhelmer’s disease. The neurafibilary angles ofthe effested neurons censistoftangled masses ofpatred helical laments (FHFs). These PHFs consist ofthe merotubule-assoctated protein, tau, The tau protein becames highly phasoharylated in Azheimer’s disease and the following entanglement leads to disruption of the microtubule netwerk and thus impairment of axonal transport, leading to neuron death The tangles stain well with siiver stains. The other major abnormality in patients with Alzheimer's diozase is the extacellular deposit ef kete-amylaid, known as senile plaques.Match each ofthe following functions or descriptions wth the appropriate organellesinclusicn. Most prominent organelle ofthe proximal convoluted tubule CA. Microflaments ©B,_ Intermediate filaments Cc. Microtubules CD. Micratubule-assaciated proteins CE, Petoxsomes CF, Rough endoplasmic retculura Explanation Co. CH. e Ou cK eL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi comolec Mitochondia Ribosomes Primary ysosomes ‘iyeogen Neuronal loss and disorganization oflayars ofthe cerebral cortex are microscopic festuras of Azhelmer’s disease. The neurafibilary angles ofthe effested neurons censistoftangled masses ofpatred helical laments (FHFs). These PHFs consist ofthe merotubule-assoctated protein, tau, The tau protein becames highly phasoharylated in Azheimer’s disease and the following entanglement leads to disruption of the microtubule netwerk and thus impairment of axonal transport, leading to neuron death The tangles stain well with siiver stains. The other major abnormality in patients with Alzheimer's diozase is the extacellular deposit ef kete-amylaid, known as senile plaques.Internet Explorer Identfy te structures atthe arrows in the figure that play a role n vesicle translosaton B @ AMicrotubules © p.Stress fibers © CMicroflaments © DMyosin flaments © Ellnterrmediate flaments Explanation Microtubules are hellow tubes farmed ofthe dimer tubulin. They can polymetize ard depalymerize Tapldly, and have many cellulartunctions, such as chromosome movement, vesicle translocatan (especially in axons), ciliary and flagellar movernent, oryanelle movement, and cell stuctural changes, Stress fers are aggregstes of microfilaments, which function to rnairtain the structural intearity of the cell Theyare usuelly orlented parallel to the long axis orthe cell Mictoflamants are actin flaments capable of pokmerizing and depolymerizing, just like ‘microtubules Theyare small and are more readiy seen in their aggregated (bundle) form. Intermediate flamonte ara intermediate in size batwoon rricrafilamonis and microtubules and areInternet Explorer Explanation Microtubules are hollovr tubes farmed ofthe dimer tubulin. They can polymerize and depalymerize Tepidly, and have many cellular functions, such as chromosome movement, vesicle translocatan (especially in axons), ciliary and flagellar movernent, oryanelle movement, and cell stuctural changes, Stress fbers are aggregetes of microfilaments, which function to maintain the structural intearity of the cellTheyare usuelly orlented parallel to the long ays of the cel Mictoflamants are actin flaments capable of rohynerizing and depolymerizing, lust like ‘microtubules They are sinall and are mare readiy seen in thair agyrexzatad (bundle) form. Internediste flaments are internediste in size between rricrafilaments and microtubules and are rope-tike, weaving tirougnoul the eytoplasmn, They are not hollow.Internet Explorer Explanation Microtubules are hollovr tubes farmed ofthe dimer tubulin. They can polymerize and depalymerize Tepidly, and have many cellular functions, such as chromosome movement, vesicle translocatan (especially in axons), ciliary and flagellar movernent, oryanelle movement, and cell stuctural changes, Stress fbers are aggregetes of microfilaments, which function to maintain the structural intearity of the cellTheyare usuelly orlented parallel to the long ays of the cel Mictoflamants are actin flaments capable of rohynerizing and depolymerizing, lust like ‘microtubules They are sinall and are mare readiy seen in thair agyrexzatad (bundle) form. Internediste flaments are internediste in size between rricrafilaments and microtubules and are rope-tike, weaving tirougnoul the eytoplasmn, They are not hollow.Internet Explorer Identfy the structure denoted by the arrow inthe figure shown, B CAGhrogen vo FB Centriole © Basal body © DMitechondrion © Ciliary axoneme Explanation Conitioles are cylindric stuctures composed of a"pinwhee!" of rine triplets of microtubules that are 0 close together that hey snare 2 wall. Centroles usually are found in palrs, oriented at right angles to one another. These structures and the immediate cytoglasrnic area are organizing centers for the microtubules of he mitotic spindle, To the right ofthe centiale are the dense granules af alyeogen. Bacal aadies are atthe hace af cilia. Whereas centioles are usually a deeper cytoplasmic stiuciure and rarely approach the cell surface, basal bodies are concentrated at the apical cell border, one per cium. Amitachandrian is een at left The shelves oferistaa are evidert, in addition to C3"? granules, ‘which are storage cites for calcium. The cillary axconemo ie tho microtubule core ofthe cium. thas.Internet Explorer ‘The component ofthe extracellular mar that Is tespansible for tacking adhesion af embryonic cells ard Is lost fom By the cell surface of cancer cells is OA laminin CB integrin Co alyecoraly 6 @D__ Mibronectin CE hyaluronic acie Explanation Fibronectin isa glycoprotein secreted byfibroblasts and some esithelial cells. Fibronectin kinds ta collagen and glycosaminoglycans and, thus, has imaortant roles in cell adhesion and migration, Fibronectin ic linkod to the surface of calls by 9 tranemembrane protoin. In cancor, this connection is severed, and fronectin is lost fom the cell surface, leading to loss of adhesive properties, Laminin is a glycoprotein of he basal lamina and can tind collagen, proteoglycan, and aleoseminoglycan.Inteorinis a transmemrane receptor protein that links fibronectin tothe cell allowing for intemal (callulatt conttal of fsronectin arrangement. Tha glycacahyis the carbohydrate coating ofthe cell merabrane, which is found an microvilli, Hyaluronic acid is @ nonsulfated ayeoserinoglycan that is found In the extracellular matrix. It bines tp callagen va Inking proteins,Co aheoraly a ¥®D_ fibronectin CE hyaluronic acta Explanation Fibronectin isa glycoprotein so:rotad byfibroblacte and sorne oaithalial calls. Fibronoctin kinds ta collagen and glcosaminogycans and, tus, has important roles in cell adhesion and migration Fibronectin is linked to the surface of cells by a transmembrane prctein. In cancer, this connection is severed, and flronectin is lost fom the cell surface, leading to loss of adhesive properties, Larninin ie @ glycopratain of ihe basal lamina and can kind ecllagen, proteoglycan, and ayeaseminaglycan, Integrinis a transmemarene receptor protein that inks flbronectin tothe cell allowing tor intemal (c2liulan contol ornnronectin atrangement, The glycocelyxis the carbonyarate coating ofthe cell membrane, which is found on microvili, Hyaluronic acid is a nonsuifated aleoseminoglycan that is found in the extracellular mati. It binds tp collagen va Inking proteins, serving to staailize the extracellular matroc and hydrate itfor buoyancy.Which of the folowing growth alterations is an exarnple of typerplasia rather than metaplasia? @ A Incroased gobiotcalls i tho mainstom bronchus of asmokar © B Squamous epthelium in the bladder of a patient with Schistosoma figematotiuum © ¢ Distal esophagus wth glandular epithelium intermixed with squamous epithelium OD. Goblet and Panets calls inthe glands ofthe gastric reucosa © Squamous enthelium in the mainstem bronchus of @ smoker Explanation Hyperplasia is an increase in cell number, whereas metaplasiais the replacement of one adult call ‘yoe by another adult cell ype. Hyperplasia accurs when there is increased trophic stimulation (e.3., hormones, arowth factors), increasecifunctianal demand, or persistent cell injury. Only bile and ciable cells undergo hyperplac’a; labile calls have siorn cells that frequortly divide, and stable cals have resting cells thatare stimulated to enter te cell cycle, The presence ofincreased goblet cells, inthe mainstem bronchus of a smoker is an example of hyperplasia, because gabletcells are normalty present inthis area. However, heir presence in the terminal bronchiole or gastiic mucosa, ‘where they are not normally ound, is an examole of metaplasia Squamous epithelium in the bladder ofa patient with Schistosoma haematobiurnis on example of metaplasia, because ihe epthelium of ancrmal bladder Is transitional. Iritation rom the eggs ofInternet Explorer BIE UrTMPETPTESTE, v normalty present inthis area. However, heir presence in the terminal bronchiole or gastric mucosa, where they are nat nornally fund, is an example of metaplasia Squamous epithelium in the bladder ofa patient with Schistosoma haermatoburn's an example of metaplasia, because the epthelium of a ncrmal bladder is transitional. ritation from the eggs of the schistosomes induces squamous metaplasia and the pctentia for dysplasia and squamous carcinoma, Adistal esophagus with glandular epithelium intermixed with squamous epithelium is an example of Barrett esoshagus. Chronic acid injurytothe distal esophagus trom gastroesophageal reflux simulates the formation of mucous-secreting glandular epithelium, which is a ype of glancular metaplasia and predisposes the patiantto adenocarcinoma, Cobiet and Paneth celis inthe glands ofthe gastiic mucosa is called intestinal metaplasia and is, commonly seen in chronic atrophic gastitis ofthe body and tuncus (ype a) or pylorus and antiurn ype 8). Itis ¢ precursor lesion of adenocarcinoma of the stomach. Squamous epithelium in the mainstem bronchus afa emoker is scuamnous metaplasia, because normal epithelium is pseudestratiiec, elated, and columnar. The squamous epithelium is a reaciion to Injury induced by cigarette smoke. k predisposes te palent to squamous dysplasia and carcinoma,‘Which of the folowing growth allerations is an example of hypertraphy rather than hyperplasia? @ A. Thickonod bladder wallin a pationtwith urethral okstuction CB Increased reticulocyte count in apatient with a hematite anerria © ¢_ Breasttissue in awornan with a prolactinama ©D._Blopey ofthe endometrium taken a fev days before ovulation OE Prostate enlargement in an elderly man with dificult initating his urinary stream Explanation Hypertrophy is a reversible increase in call size, whereas hyperplasia is @ reversible Increase in cell urnber. Hypertrophy caused by an increased functional demand, increased trophic signals (e.g, hormones, growth factors), or both, Athickened blader wall in antient with urathral abstruction is an oxamplo of hypertrophy that's caused by an incroaso in functonal demand imposed by tho increased afterload. Increased reteulocye countin a patient with ahemolytic anemia, breast tissue in a warnanwith @ prolactinoma, biopsy cf the endometrium teken a few days before ovualtion, and prostate enlagementin an eldarlyrnan with difficulty initiating his urinary stream are all exernples of hyperplasia.Which one of te following enzymes can seal “nicks” In DNA? OA DNApolmorasal @B DNAligese Oc Helicase ©. DNApolymerase Ill Ce Endonuclease Explanation Anick is a breakin the backbone ofa DNA strand No nuclaotdes ere missing, and a §" phosphate group anda 3‘ hydroxy group are present on the neighboring nucleotides at he site ofthe rick ONA ligase seals the nick ky covalertlyioining the phosphate and hydroxyl groups to for a phosphodiostor linkage. This onze is usad during DNA roplication t join togathor the fragmonts ofDNA synthesized on the legging strand. lis also used during DNA repair and atver processes invo¥ing the sealing of nicks. DNA polymerase | is used by bacteria for DNA renal and for the removal of RNA primers during DNA replication, DNA polymerase Il synthesizes the tulk ofthe DNA during replication. Helicase is an enzime used to separate the two stran¢s of the parental DNA double helix curing DNA replication. An endonuclease is an enzyme that can cutthe backhene in the middle of a DNA standDuring the process of protein syntheses, which one of the flowing actons occurs? OA. Tha initiator transfor RNA GRMA) enters tho "A ito" an tha riaocame ©.B Both prokaryotic and eukaryote pohpestide chains are initiated wth tormylmethionine (met) © ¢ _ UAG serves as the crain intition codon © D._ The pepiidyl transferase activity is located in both the elongation end ternination steps OE The 288 ribosomal RNA (RNA) is tansisted to form the proteins of the large ribosomal subunit Explanation Protein synthesis is a complicated pracess during which the aosome raves along the messenger RNA (mRNA), synthesizing a protein with an arnino acid sequence thet is speciied by the message In response to the chain initiation endan UAG, the infiatar transfer RNA GPNA) enters tha P ito on the ribasorna. In prokaryotes, this frct RNA carrios fornyimothionine (fmol), whoreas methionine is used in eukaryotes. Peptdy! transferase is a tibosome-associaled erzyme thet links amino acids together during the elongation stage oftranslation. The same enzymatic actiiy also is used during termination to cleave the completed polypeptide fram the RNA to which itis covalently linked. The 286 (RMA is & structural component ofthe ribosome and is not tansletedMesothellurn ang endothelium contain which one af tie folowing intermediate Marnent pes? OA Desmin OB Keratin Oc Acinin @D. Vimentin Ce Desmoplakin Explanation Desmin is the intermediate flament of muscle, and itis used as a marker for rrabdomyosarcoma tumors. Keratin is the intermediate filament of epithelium, and itis used es 3 marker for carcinoma tumors Actinin is an actir-associsted protein, present along bundles of mictofiaments. itis concidorad a bundling protein. Desmoplakin is tho protein foune intho donee plaques of desmosomes.‘When comgaring gycosphingol/pids snd prosghosphingolipids, he only ference ts that glycosphingolipids, but rot phosshosphingolipids, have which one of the following characteristics? OA. They are found in membranes of nervous tissues CB Thay contain ceramide @ ¢ Thay ontain sugar moieties Ob. They contain rtyacia CE Thay cause mental ratardstion and ather symptoms when they accumulate Explanation ‘The glysosphingolipids and the phosshosphingolipids are basically very similar. Both require ceramide as the basic building block. Phosphasphingolipids are synthesized by adding phosphocholinote corarride, which forme ephingomyalin, Greasphingolipide ade a variaty of sugars to the ceramide, Therefore, phosphosphingolipids are classified as phospholipids, and aycosphingolipids are classified as glycolipids. Despite the factthey fall nto diferent categories when defined chemically, they have similar structures, distibution, and clinical manifestations. Both ‘groups are found in high concentration in the membranes of he nervous system, and beth groups cause aberrations when they accumulate. The generic farm for thase diseases are the sphingolipideses. Specific lysosomal enzyme deaciencies that cause the accumulation of jaycollpids include Tay Sachs disease, Gaucher disease, and Faby disease. Nlemann-PickCE Thay cause mental ratardetion and ather eymplomns when they accumulate Explanation ‘The glysosphingolipids and the phosshosphingolipids are basically very similar. Both require ceramide as the basic building black. Phasphasphingolipids are synthesized by adding phosphocholinete cerarride, which forme sphingomyelin, Creasphingolipids ade a variety of sugars to the ceramide, Therefore, phosphosphingclipids are classined as phospholipids, and alycosphingolipids are classified as glycolipids. Despite the factthey fal into different categories ‘when defined chemically, they have similar structures, distibution, and clinical manifestations, Both ‘oroups are found in high concentration in the membranes of the nervous system, and both grouns auc aberrations whon thoy accumulate. Tho gonoric farm for thase dicoaces are tho sphingolipideses. Specif ysusomal enzyme deiciencies thal cause the accumulation of jayeolipids include Tay Sechs disease, Gaucher disease, and Fahy disease. Niemann-Pick disease is caused by an accumulation cf sphingomyelin, which is a phasphalipid, whereas Farber disease is caused by an accumulation cf ceramideFenestraled capllaries are fyalcally ound inwhich ofthe folowing structures or systems orthe body? Ca Lung OB Ler Oc Muscle >. Endocrine glands CE Central nervous system Explanation Fenestrated capillaries are characterized by the presence of fenesttae thet provide channels across capilary walls. Pinccytotic vesicles may also he present. Endocrine glands produce hormone that ‘quickly accesses the blond stream via these fenestrated canillaies. Lung contains continuous capillaries joined by tight junctions. Lirer contains discontinucus capilares, wth gaps between endothelial cells. These capillaries are alco called sinusoidal capilares, or sinusoids. Muscle and the central nervous system contain continuous capillaries,A high cytoplasmic staining intensiy fer alkaline phosphatase in a peripheral blood smear Indicates the presence of OA. basophils OB monccytas © ¢ neutrophils ©. eosinophils CE promyelocytes Explanation Akaline phosphatase is the marker enzyme for the mature neutrophil Alkaline phosphatase is a lysosomal ereyme that appears in specific granules (lysosomes). Specific granules are more abundant han azurophilic granules in neutiaphils. The specific granules of basophils contain eosinophilic chemotactic factor, heparin, histamine, and peraddase. Monocytes contain some azuraphilic granules that cantain digestive enzymes, butno alkaline phosphatase. The granules of eosinophils cortain several eneymes, including acid phosphatase, arvisulfatase, cahensin, rhospholinase, and RNAase; butno alkaline phosphatase, ‘The promyelocyta is an early call in the differentiation pathway of granulocytes. is characterized by basophilic eyloplasm and larue azurophilic granules. These granules contain hsosomal enzymes and mystoperoxtdase, thus myeloperoxidase Is the marker enzyme ofthe immature neuronExplanation Akaline phosphatase is the marker enzyme for the mature neutrophil Alkaline phosphatase is a lysosomal ereyme that appears in specific granules (lysosomes). Specific granules are more abundant than azurophilic granules in neutiophils. ‘The specific granules of tasophils contain eosinophilic chemotactic fectr, heparin, ristamine, and peroxidase. Monocytes contain some azuraphilic granules that cantain digestive enzymes, butno alkaline phosphatase. The granules of eosinophils cortain several eneymes, including acid phosphatase, aryisulfatase, cahensin, rhaspholinase, and RNAase; butno alkaline phosphatase ‘Tho promyolocyta ie an early coll in tho differentiation pathway of granulocytes. is charactorized by basophilic cyloplasm and large azurophilic granules. These granules contain hsosomal enzymes and myeloperoxidase, thus myeloperoxidase is the marker enzyme ofthe immature neutrophil Promyelacytes give rise tothe three known granulocytes,Which of the folowing sets of elements persistthrough the respliatory oronchioles? OA. Glands anccitia OB Goblet cells and cis © ¢ Smooth muscle and cilia ©. Smooth muscle and cartlege CE Elastic fisers and goblet cells Explanation Resoiratory bronchioles are similar to terminal bronchioles except thal alveol interrupt the walls of respiratory bronchioles. Smooth muscle is present keneath the epithelium and cilia are present on simple cuboidal cells. Glands and cartilage are present in bronchi, but absent in bronchioles. Goblet col's rersict through the ocrlicr brorchioles kut dicappoar in the respiratory bronchioles. Cilla remain, allowing mucus to be swept clear of he respiratory portion. Elastic fibers extend through the bronchioles and also encircle the openings ofthe alyecli. This allows ‘or expansion during inspirationWhich of the folowing sets of elements persistthrough the respliatory oronchioles? OA. Glands anccitia OB Goblet cells and cis © ¢ Smooth muscle and cilia ©. Smooth muscle and cartlege CE Elastic fisers and goblet cells Explanation Resoiratory bronchioles are similar to terminal bronchioles except thal alveol interrupt the walls of respiratory bronchioles. Smooth muscle is present keneath the epithelium and cilia are present on simple cuboidal cells. Glands and cartilage are present in bronchi, but absent in bronchioles. Goblet col's rersict through the ocrlicr brorchioles kut dicappoar in the respiratory bronchioles. Cilla remain, allowing mucus to be swept clear of he respiratory portion. Elastic fibers extend through the bronchioles and also encircle the openings ofthe alyecli. This allows ‘or expansion during inspiration‘The tad of Howell-Jolly bodies, target cells, and reticulocylosis Is most compatiole wih which clinical fading? @ A Splonociomy ©B Thrombotic thrambosytopenic purpura (TTP) © ¢ Disseminated intravascular coagulation (IC) OD. Biekde cell tait OE Autoimmune hemahtic anemia Explanation The finding of Howell-Joll bodies, target cells, and raticulocytosis is most compatible with splenectomy. The spleen has many functions, including the rermavel of defective and aged blood cells, hematonoies's (in tmes of severe stress when the marraw is unable fo meet the needs of he organiem), iron conservation, blood call storage, and host dovonse inthe form of hurroral immunity. ‘Therefore, splenectomy can resultin a number ofhematolagic abnormalities. Following splenectomy, Howell-Jolly nodies (leftover nuclear remnants) are nat rernaved trom the cytoplasm oferthracytes, resulting in increased numbers of nucleated erythrocytes and enthracytes, containing Howell-Joll bodies. The spleen plays an important role in the maturation of reticulocytes Into arythroeyles therefore, splenectomy can result in a retculocytosis. Target cals are erythrocytes with too much membrane; normally the spleen would remove the excess membrane. ‘Tarombocytasis also occurs because normally, the spleen 1s a teservair ‘or one-third orineofenthractes, resulting in increased numbers of nucleated erytirocytes and enthracytes, containing Howell-Jolly bodies. The spleen plays an important role in the maturation of raticulacytas Into erythrocytes therefore, splenectomy can result in a retculocytosis. Target cells are erythrozytes ‘with too much membrane, normally, the spleen would rerrove the excess membrane. Tarombocytasis also occurs because normally, the spleen is a reservoir ‘or one-third ofthe platelets in the body. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTF) is assccisted with incteased numbers of reticulocytes (as a result of intravascular damage to enthrocytes), however, Howell-Jolly bbodioe and targat ealle aro not nornally soon in pationts with TTP. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is associated wih an increase in reticulocytes due to destuction of enthiocrtes by fibrin inthe microvasculature, but again, target cells anc Howell-Joly bodies are not normally present, Sickle celltratis nct associated with any hematologic cbnormalties. Autoimmune hemoltic anemias are assccicted with a pronounced reticulocytosis thatis often accompanied by nucleated enythrocytas because the markedly stressad bone marrow is barely able to keap pave with the extravascular removal of erythrocytes. However, target cells are not usually present‘Which ofthe folowing enzymes is present in the specif granules of neutrophils and serves as a marker for distinguishing a leukemald reaction from chronic myelogenous leukernia (CML)? COA. Mysloperoxidase CB Lysoyme @ ¢ Altaline phosphatase OD. Elastase CE Acid tydralase Explanation Leukocjte allaline phosphatass is presentin the speciic granules ofneutrephils. itis a marker cf neutophil matuity Staining of neutroahils in the periphersl blood for alkaline phosphatese is, Useful in distinguiching banign neutrophil ciserders (0.9, leukemoid reactions} fram chronic myelogenous leukernia (CML). One hundred neuitophils are graded on the intensity ofthe stain and the sum total of ther indidval scores is reported as the leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) store. Ih leukemoid reactons, which are characterized ay neutrophil courts that exceed 50,000, cells/ul, the LAP score is increased. However, in CML, « neoplastic proliferaton of aranulocites, the LAP score is low. Other chemicals presentin the specific granules are lactoferrin, acid hydrolases, ‘yae IV collagenase, loukeoye adhesion meleculec, and phasphalipace Ay. Chamicals in the nonspecine (azuraphile) granules incluce myeloperoxidase, Wsozyme, catlonic proteins, elastases,Step 1: ireyu Subscription - Christian's Internet Ex] [€] Microsoft PowerPoint - [Layout] = 10) x) CE Acdtydralace Explanation Leukocite allaline phosphatass is presentir the speciic granules ofneutrephils. itis a marker cf neutaphil mturity Staining of neutroahils in he peripheral blood for alkaline phosphatase is, Useful in distinguishing benign neutrophil cig rdere (e.., leukemoid reactions} fram chronic ol myelogenous leukemia (CML). One hundred jeutophils are graded on the intensity ofthe stain and the sum tctal of thet individual scores is reoc ted as the leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) store. Ih leukemoid reactons, which are chalacterized ay neutrophil courts that exceed 50,000, cellsiul the LAP score is increased, Howevar in CML, # neoplastic praliferaton of granulo, the LAP ccoro is low. Other chomicals prosentin ‘no specific granulos are lavtofortn, acid hydrolases, ‘yae IV collagenase, leukooy'e adhesion mele cules, and phasphalipase A,. Chemicals in the nonspecific (azuraphilic) granules include my:loperoxidase, Wsozyme, cationic proteins, elastases, and nonspectic collagenases,Select the statement that is felse in regard to the call indicated bythe atrow inthe following figure. © alltmmay degenerate at any time © Biltis found inthe ovarian cortes © cltis one ofthe largest cells in the body © Ditcontains the haploid number of chromosomes © Elis surrounded by a eatbonycrate (glycosaminaglyean) layer Explanation ‘The arrow points to an oocyte of a secondary cr antral follicle, also referred to as a growing follicle. Inmatosis I, chromatids separate, establishing the napioid (n) number of chromosomes. MeIosiS II isnot complete in the secondary oocyte untl after fertilization. This secondary oocyte or antral fllcle ig stil within he ovary. Tha completion of meiosis | coes not occur untl just prior to avutation, The antral follicle will anlarge and form a stigms on the side ofthe ovarian wall ‘The follicle may degenerate at any time. This process Is called follicular atresia (the rllcieis called an attic fllicle) The secondary coevte, which is one ofthe largast cells in fe body, may reach a size of 180um,Internet Explorer Explanation The arrow points to an oocyte of a secondary or antral follicle, also referred lo as a growing follicle. Inmaiosis I, chrorratids separate, establishing the haploid (1) number of chromosomes. Meiosis Il isnot complete in the secondary oocyte untl after fertilization. This secondary oocyte or antral fllcle is stll within he ovary. The completion of meicsis | does nat occur unt just prior to ovulation. The antral follicle will anlarge and form a stigms on the side ofthe ovarian wall ‘The rolicle may degenerate at anytime. This process Is called follicular atresta (the rllcie is called an attic fllicle) The secondary cocita, which is one ofthe largast cells in te bouy, may reach a size of 160m, ‘The oocyte Is surrounded by he zona pellucida, a carbohydrate-ch layer or basal lamina mace Up of glycosaminoalycans and glycoproteins,‘Whien kidney epiinellui tras the rast mitachondiia per eel? The CA collecting duct 8 urothelium cap cell © ¢ distal convoluted tubule © D__ proximal convoluted tubule OE thick ascending Henle loop Explanation The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) is the fst to receive the glomerular filtrate, and here absorption and excretion begins. Glucose, arrino acids, and sodium are absored by the calls, sing Nati ATPase pumps locsted in basal and lateral call ambranes. This requires eneigy;, thus, the abundance of ritochondria, The PCT also secretes ereatinina and foraign substances. ‘The collecting duct absores water trom the glomerular titrate, especialy if stmulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Mitochondria ere present butin smaller quantities than in the PCT. ‘The urcthelium cap cells bulge into the lurnen of the urinaty bladder, ureter, ane urethra, Thay contain abundant vesicles fer a source cf cell membrane in distension.The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) is the fst to receive the glomerular filtate, and here absorption and excretion begins. Glucose, amino acids, and sodium are absored by the calls, using NatYK*-ATPase pumps located in basal and lateral cell membranes. This requires eneray, thus, the abundance of mitochondria. The PCT also secretes creatinine and foreian substances, The collecting duct absores water from the glomerular titrate, especially if stmulaied by aniidiuretic hormone (ADH). Miiocnondra ere present butin smaller quantities than In the PCT. The urcthelium cap cells bulge into the lumen of he urivaty bladder, ureter, ane urethra, Thay contain abundant vesicles for a saurce cf cell membrane in distension ‘The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) reabsoros Na" and secretes K". Aldosterone stirrulstes this, function inthe DCT Athough mitochcndria fille basal portions of cells, they are notas abundant asin the PCT. ‘Tho thick accanding Henle leap ie similarlyta the DCT in ctructure ane function,Othe rollowing c2Il ypes, wrich would contain many mttochondta in the apical postion ofthe cell? CA Smooth muscle calle @ 8 Cillated epithelium cells Oc Steroid-secreting ces ©D._Lierparenshymal celle CE Skeletal muscie cells Explanation Mitochonatta typically exit in cell areas trat use eubstantial amounts of adenosine triahasphate (ATP). They are abundantin the apices cf ciliated cells because the beating action of cilia consumes ATP. Mitochondria are distributed evenly throughout the cytoplasm of smooth muscle calle, coraid-corrating cells, skeletal muscle coll, ang livar paranehymal calle rather than existing in apical concentrations,Match each characteristic listed below with the most aporopriate type of capilary. ‘Acundant in skeletal muscle @ a, Continuous Cp, Fenestrated © G. Discontinucus CD. Lymphatic Explanation Coniinuaus capillaries are present in skeletal rnuscle, ne lungs, and the bran. They farm @ continuous endothelial barrier tat restricts diflusion of meterials from the blood into the tissues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of espillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Iner, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rmartow, for example, mature envthracrtes move fom the hematcpoietis comaartmant nto the blood throws inter llulae dans inthe di cantinuou:walls of cepillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Inver, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rattow, for example, mature egyhracytes move for the harnatepoietic comaartmant nto the blood through intercellular gaps inthe discontinuous cepiliares. Cerebrospinal fuid (C3F}, a blead fitrate containing some ofthe proteins found inwhole blood, is produced in the choroid plexus. Fenestrated capillaries in the charcid plexus allow a select susset ofblaod proteins to enter CSF Coniinuous capillaries inthe brain form the blooc-brain barrier by restricting the Now af some substances in blood into the brain parenctirna,Match each characteristic listed below with the most aporopriate type of capilary. Predominant in areas producing blood fitrates such as urine Ca. Continuous @p, Fenestrated © G. Discontinucus CD. Lymphatic Explanation Coniinuaus capillaries are present in skeletal rnuscle, ne lungs, and the bran. They farm @ continuous endothelial barrier tat restricts diflusion of meterials from the blood into the tissues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of espillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Iner, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rmartow, for example, mature envthracrtes move fom the hematcpoietis comaartmant nto the blood throws inter llulae dans inthe di cantinuou:walls of cepillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Inver, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rattow, for example, mature egyhracytes move for the harnatepoietic comaartmant nto the blood through intercellular gaps inthe discontinuous cepiliares. Cerebrospinal fuid (C3F}, a blead fitrate containing some ofthe proteins found inwhole blood, is produced in the choroid plexus. Fenestrated capillaries in the charcid plexus allow a select susset ofblaod proteins to enter CSF Coniinuous capillaries inthe brain form the blooc-brain barrier by restricting the Now af some substances in blood into the brain parenctirna,Match each characteristic listed below with the most aporopriate type of capilary. Line bone marrow sinusoids Ca. Continuous Cp, Fenestrated @ &_ Discontinuous CD. Lymphatic Explanation Coniinuaus capillaries are present in skeletal rnuscle, ne lungs, and the bran. They farm @ continuous endothelial barrier tat restricts diflusion of meterials from the blood into the tissues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of espillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Iner, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rmartow, for example, mature envthracrtes move fom the hematcpoietis comaartmant nto the blood throws inter llulae dans inthe di cantinuou:‘antinuous endothelial barrier hat restricts diflusian af materals from the blood info fre issues Fenestiated capillaries are present in renal glornerull, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of capillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe liver, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps lame enough to allow passage cf celle evict aetwaon the ondathalial calls of diccortinuous capillaries. Inthe bona mattow, for example, mature enthracytes move ftom the hematopoietic corngariment ints the blood through intercellular gaps inthe discontinuous cepiliaries. Cerebrospinal fuid (C3F}, a blead fitrate containing some ofthe proteins found inwhole blood, is produced in the choroid plexus. Fenestrated capillaries in the choroid plexus allow a select susset ofbblood proteins to enter CSF. Coniinuaus capillaries inthe brain form the bloocbrain barrier by restricting the Now af some substances in blood into the brain parenctirna,Match each characteristic listed below with the most aporopriate type of capilary. Presentin the choroid plexus Ca. Continuous @p, Fenestrated © G. Discontinucus CD. Lymphatic Explanation Coniinuaus capillaries are present in skeletal rnuscle, ne lungs, and the bran. They farm @ continuous endothelial barrier tat restricts diflusion of meterials from the blood into the tissues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of espillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Iner, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rmartow, for example, mature envthracrtes move fom the hematcpoietis comaartmant nto the blood throws inter llulae dans inthe di cantinuou:Internet Explorer Explanation Caniinuaue capillaries ara procent in ckoletal muscle, the lunge, and the brain. Thoy farm @ continuous endothelial barrier hal restricts diftusion of meterials trem the blood into the issues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the ‘walls of cepillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe liver, bane marraw, and spleen. Gaps lange enough to allow passage of cells ewst oeWween the endothelial cells of discortinuous capiliaries. Inthe bone artow, for example, mature erythrocytes move from the hematcpoietis comaartmantints the blood through intercellular gaps in the discontinuous capillaries. Cerebrospinal fuid (C3F), a blcod fitrate containing some ofthe proteins found inwhole blood, is produced in the chorold plexus. Fenestrated capillaries inthe charcid plexus allow a select suaset ofblaod proteins to enter CSF. Convinuaus capillaries inthe brain form the blooc-hrain barrier by restricting the Now af some ‘cubstances in blood into the brain paranchima,Match each characteristic listed below with the most aporopriate type of capilary. Fermthe blood-brain kartior @ a, Continuous Cp, Fenestrated © G. Discontinucus CD. Lymphatic Explanation Coniinuaus capillaries are present in skeletal rnuscle, ne lungs, and the bran. They farm @ continuous endothelial barrier tat restricts diflusion of meterials from the blood into the tissues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the walls of espillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe Iner, bone marrow, and spleen. Gaps large enough to allow passage of cells est between the endothelial cells of discontinuous capillaries. Inthe bone rmartow, for example, mature envthracrtes move fom the hematcpoietis comaartmant nto the blood throws inter llulae dans inthe di cantinuou:Internet Explorer Explanation Caniinuaue capillaries ara procent in ckoletal muscle, the lunge, and the brain. Thoy farm @ continuous endothelial barrier hal restricts diftusion of meterials trem the blood into the issues, Fenestrated capillaries are present in renal glomeruli, The fenestrations are holes through the ‘walls of cepillary endothelial cells. Discontinuous capillaries are present inthe liver, bane marraw, and spleen. Gaps lange enough to allow passage of cells ewst oeWween the endothelial cells of discortinuous capiliaries. Inthe bone artow, for example, mature erythrocytes move from the hematcpoietis comaartmantints the blood through intercellular gaps in the discontinuous capillaries. Cerebrospinal fuid (C3F), a blcod fitrate containing some ofthe proteins found inwhole blood, is produced in the chorold plexus. Fenestrated capillaries inthe charcid plexus allow a select suaset ofblaod proteins to enter CSF. Convinuaus capillaries inthe brain form the blooc-hrain barrier by restricting the Now af some ‘cubstances in blood into the brain paranchima,Match each ofthe following stages of mitosis with the appropriats term: Discolution ofthe nuclear envelope Ca. Anaphase Bp, Eatly proshase © c. Lale prophase Cp. Telophase CE, Metaphase Explanation ‘The beginning of prophase is marked by the aopearance of chromasomnes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin the major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chromosomes along the equatarial (metaphace) plane. The nex! stage of col dvisian ie anaphace, and itic marked bythe separaion ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the mitotic spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromesomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides. Asthe cell divides, the tonlaam also divides bv @ arocass known as evtolénesis: these ne cantinue untiLtws“Taroughout praphase, the chromosames condense further, clssolution ofthe ruciear envelope ‘marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes sttached ta tubulin, the ‘major component of the mitotic spindle. Metaphase is marked by the alignment ofchromosormes: along the equatorial (metaphase) plane. The nex stage of cell dvision is anaphase, and itis marked bythe separation ofthe centromeres. By the addition of tubulin to the ritotc spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward apposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes ara clustored at opposite polos ofthe cell. During tho final stage, telophase, tho chromosomes uncoil, he nuclear erwelope reforms, and tre cell divides. As the cell divides, the cytoplasm also divides by a process kncwn as cytoknesis; these processes continue until two daughter cells are produced, During telophase, cell disicn is thoughtto accur by he constriction of aring of actin laments.Match each ofthe following stages of mitosis with the appropriats term: Separation of he centromeres @ a, Anaphase Bp, Eatly proshase CG. Late prophase Cp. Telophase CE, Metaphase Explanation ‘The beginning of prophase is marked by the aopearance of chromasomnes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin the major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chromosomes along the equatarial (metaphace) plane. The nex! stage of col dvisian ie anaphace, and itic marked bythe separaion ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the mitotic spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromesomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides. Asthe cell divides, the tonlaam also divides bv @ arocass known as evtolénesis: these ne cantinue untiLtwsCE, Metaphase Explanation ‘Tne beginning or prophase 1s marked hy the agpearance of chromasomes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope rmarks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin, the ‘major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chramosomes. along the equatarial (metaphase) plane. The nex stage of cel dvisian is anaphase, and itis marked bythe separation ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the ritolc spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles of the cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear enxelone reforms, and the cell dives. As the cell divides, the cytoplasm alco dividos by a process knewn ac cytokinesis; theso procosces continuo until two daughter cells ate produced, During telophase, cell division is thoughtto occur by the consticion of aring of actin laments.Match each ofthe following stages of mitosis with the appropriats term: First appesrance of chromosomes Ca. Anaphase @p, Eally proshase CG. Late prophase Cp. Telophase CE, Metaphase Explanation ‘The beginning of prophase is marked by the aopearance of chromasomnes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin the major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chromosomes along the equatarial (metaphace) plane. The nex! stage of col dvisian ie anaphace, and itic marked bythe separaion ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the mitotic spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromesomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides. Asthe cell divides, the tonlaam also divides bv @ arocass known as evtolénesis: these ne cantinue untiLtwsCE, Metaphase Explanation ‘Tne beginning or prophase 1s marked hy the agpearance of chromasomes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope rmarks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin, the ‘major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chramosomes. along the equatarial (metaphase) plane. The nex stage of cel dvisian is anaphase, and itis marked bythe separation ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the ritolc spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles of the cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear enxelone reforms, and the cell dives. As the cell divides, the cytoplasm alco dividos by a process knewn ac cytokinesis; theso procosces continuo until two daughter cells ate produced, During telophase, cell division is thoughtto occur by the consticion of aring of actin laments.Match each ofthe following stages of mitosis with the appropriats term: Alignment of chromosomes in the equaterial plane CA. anaphase C8, Early prophase Cc. Late prophase ©. Telophase @e Metaphase Explanation ‘The beginning of prophase is marked by the aopearance of chromasomnes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin the major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chromosomes along the equatarial (metaphace) plane. The nex! stage of col dvisian ie anaphace, and itic marked bythe separaion ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the mitotic spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromesomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides. Asthe cell divides, the ston alsa divides bya oracess knewn as evtokinesis: these nr cantinue untiLtws@E, Metaphase Explanation ‘Tne beginning or prophase 1s marked hy the agpearance of chromasomes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope rmarks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin, the ‘major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chramosomes. along the equatarial (metaphase) plane. The nex stage of cel dvisian is anaphase, and itis marked bythe separation ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the ritolc spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles of the cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear enxelone reforms, and the cell dives. As the cell divides, the cytoplasm alco dividos by a process knewn ac cytokinesis; theso procosces continuo until two daughter cells ate produced, During telophase, cell division is thoughtto occur by the consticion of aring of actin laments.Match each ofthe following stages of mitosis with the appropriats term: Occurrence ofeytakinesis Ca. Anaphase Bp, Eatly proshase CG. Late prophase @p. Telaphase CE, Metaphase Explanation ‘The beginning of prophase is marked by the aopearance of chromasomnes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope marks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin the major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chromosomes along the equatarial (metaphace) plane. The nex! stage of col dvisian ie anaphace, and itic marked bythe separaion ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the mitotic spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles ofthe cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromesomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides. Asthe cell divides, the tonlaam also divides bv @ arocass known as evtolénesis: these ne cantinue untiLtwsCE, Metaphase Explanation ‘Tne beginning or prophase 1s marked hy the agpearance of chromasomes within ihe nucleus, ‘Throughout prophase, the chromosomes condense further, clssolution of the nuclear envelope rmarks the end ofthis phase. During metaphase, the kinetochore becomes attached ta tubulin, the ‘major component cf the mitotic spindle, Metaphase is marked by the slignmant of chramosomes. along the equatarial (metaphase) plane. The nex stage of cel dvisian is anaphase, and itis marked bythe separation ofthe centromeres. 8y the addition of tubulin to the ritolc spindle, the chromesomes are drawn toward opposite poles of the cell Anaphase ends when the chromesomes are clustered at apposite poles ofthe cell. During the final stage, telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear enxelone reforms, and the cell dives. As the cell divides, the cytoplasm alco dividos by a process knewn ac cytokinesis; theso procosces continuo until two daughter cells ate produced, During telophase, cell division is thoughtto occur by the consticion of aring of actin laments.‘Whien sequence below Is he correct order uf enluerrral rnaturalian? CA. Stratum basalo, etratum spinocum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosur, statu comourn @ 8 Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulasum, stratum lucidum, statum comeum © ¢ Stratumsasale, stratum granulosum, stratum spinasum, straturn lucidum, statu comeurn © D. Stratumbasale, stratum lucidum, siraturn spinosum, stratum granulosum, statun comeurn CE Stratum basale, stratum lucidum, stratum aranulosum, stratum sainosum, statum comeum Explanation ‘The orcer of epidermal maturation is stratum basale, stratum spinesum, stratum granulasum, stratum lucidum, and stratum earneum. The stratum basale is the germinal layer of the epidermis. Cells migrate and ditferentiate from this layer at arate equal ta dasquamation cf keratin ‘tom the outo-most ayor. Tha stratum spinosum is cuporficisl to the stratum basale, and ite colls aro in tho process of growin and early keratin synthests. The stratum granulosum is characterized by the presence of intracellular granules, which contnbute to the keratinizetion process. The stratum lucicum is @ hormageneous layer between the stratun granulosum and the stratum corneum thatis present only in thick skin. The stratum corneum is the most superficial ayer af he epidermis andis, tainly composed of keratin‘Which of the following aruans is pictured in the micrograph? CA, Testic Ca, Epididymis Co, Vas deferens Op, Seminaivesicie Ce, Bulbourethial gland‘Which of the following aruans is pictured in the micrograph? CA, Testic 6 @ a, Epididymis Co, Vas deferens Op, Seminaivesicie Ce, Bulbourethial gland‘Which of the following organs is pictured in the micrograph? Ca, Testis 6 @a, Epididymis Co, Vas deferens Cp, Seminalvesicie Ce, Bulbourethral gland Explanation ‘The micrograph shows the epididymis. The epididymis is a highly convoluted tubular organ that conveys sperm and fluid ffom the testis to the ductus (as) deferens. Its luminal epithelium is a pseudestratited columnar eotthellurn wih numerous tall apical stereccilia, These cells secrete poorly characterized substances, which are added to the seminal fluid, and remove other poorly characterized substances from the fluids that drain florn the seminiferous tubules in the testis, Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, occurs in the fasiis as in the thymus‘The epitnelum ofthe organ pictured in the micrograph can best ke described as a, simple cuboidal ©, simple columnar Co, stratite columnar 6 @D, Pseudostratited columnarwen stereosila Ce. strattied scuamcusZi ‘The epitnelum ofthe organ pictured in the micrograph can best ke described as a. simple cuboidal Cg, simple columnar Co, strattied columnar \/ ©, peeudestratiied calumnarwith stereosiia Ce, statiies squancus Explanation ‘The micrograph shows the epididymis. The epididymis is a highly convoluted tubular organ that conveys sperm and fluid ffom the testis to the ductus (as) deferens. Its luminal epithelium is a pseudestratited columnar eotthellurn wih numerous tall apical stereccilia, These cells secrete poorly characterized substances, which are added to the seminal fluid, and remove other poorly characterized substances from the fluids that drain florn the seminiferous tubules in the testis, Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, occurs in the fasiis as in the thymus‘Which adjective below best describes the functan ofthe epithelium in the micrograph? 4, Gamotogonic Ca, Proliferative -@o, Seeretany and absorative ©, Inacwe Ce. Apopioti:Zi ‘Which adjective below best describes the functan ofthe epithelium in the micrograph? a, Gametonenic Cg, Prolitralive @o, Secretory and absorative ©, Inactive Ce, Apopioti: Explanation ‘The micrograph shows the epididymis. The epididymis is a highly convoluted tubular organ that conveys sperm and fluid ffom the testis to the ductus (as) deferens. Its luminal epithelium is a pseudestratited columnar eotthellurn wih numerous tall apical stereccilia, These cells secrete poorly characterized substances, which are added to the seminal fluid, and remove other poorly characterized substances from the fluids that drain florn the seminiferous tubules in the testis, Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, occurs in the fasiis as in the thymus‘Which of the folowing statements concemirg the maturation of T ceils is tue? OA Itecoure earliest in the thymic madulla © Itis indesendent af tymic epithelial cells © ¢__Itis independent of antigen OD. Neneofthe above Explanation Maturaton of. stem call o @ resting T cell occurs earliestin the cottex The medullary region is, ‘where the variable (\), diverse (0), and joining (J) regions af the T-cell receptor undergo rearrangement. The rraturaton process's independent of antigen and denendenton contact with thymic epitholial cals for purposes of proliferation and differentiation,‘The uterine cervical tissue shown in the photomictograph at rightfeatures of which one ofthe following infections? <6 @ A Papillomavirus © BHemes genitals © CGonomheal cemctis, © DCarcinoma in situ Explanation This cervical issue shows the squamous epitrelal changes seen wit human papillomavirus (HP~) Infection, an epidemic anectng primarily young women. The vial Infection causes crenetion ofnuclet and hypercorvalution, which is accompanied by perinuclear clearing of the cjtoplasrn. This change hes keen called condylamatous orkallocytic change and is caused oy HPY infection. Some subtypes of HPV predispose the cervical squamous epithelium to cysplasia, and, therefore, thase patients are cometimes treated with ablative curser,‘Wien ofthe folowing structures contains Hassall's corpuscles? Oa. Thyroid gland Cp Parathyroid gland Oc Pineal gland ®p Thymus CE Spleen Explanation Hassall’ thymis) corpuscles are found in the thymus. They are concentrically laminated structures ofunknown function that appear during fetal developrnent and increase in numberwith age. They are thought to be degenerated medullary epithelial calls and display varying degreas of keratinization or caleifizationERE er ene ‘An eldetly woman had a syncvial biopsy anc total knee replacementfor degenerative joint disease. Sectons of the B ‘synovium revealed the findings shewn in he photomicrograph, indicating a history of which one ofthe following conditions? CAColchicine therapy for gout © BRepeated fractures © CRheumatoid aithrtis, © DqTreuma and foreign body within te joint spaceERE er ene ‘An eldetly woman had a syncvial biopsy anc total knee replacementfor degenerative joint disease. Sectons of the B ‘synovium revealed the findings shewn in he photomicrograph, indicating a history of which one ofthe following conditions? CAColchicine therapy for gout © BRepeated fractures © C Rheumatoid arthrtis © DqTreuma and foreign body within te joint spaceExplanation Tho synovium pictured inthe photornicrograph shows the claseie features ofa rhournatold nadulo ina patentwith theumatvid arthritis, a disease that affects primarily women. Rheumatoid arthilis, initiely afects the smell joints ofthe hands and feet and then the larger jcints of the knees ana elbows The synovium becomes inftrated by ymshocyies and plasma cells with lympheid follicle formation. In some cases, central fbrinoid necrosis occurs with an intense ralisade of histiocytes and giant cells forrring around the nacratic mstarial, asin this case. Rheumatoid nodules occur in the skin and subcutis, paficularly on extensor surfaces, but may also eccur in unusual sites such as the lungs, heart, and spleen,Whien one of te following protein segrnents Is characterized by ls abilly i bind to phasphutyrasine-containing peptides? CA ce. eo ©o OE. A helb-loop-helix domain CF, Apleckstin matit Aleucine zipper ‘An Sre homology 2 (SH2) domain ‘An Sre homology 3 (SH3) domain basic region Explanation Motits ere functional structural elements that, when combined, form the core of a domain, which are the structural units of a polypertids, An Src hamclogy 2 (S42) domain has spproxmately 100) amino acids, two B-pleated cheots, and two c-halices. SH2 domains are alco known to bind specifically to phospholyrosine-containing peptides. Sre homology 3 (8H3) domains, hebeloop- helixdomains, and leucine zippers are also involved in protein-protein interactions, but they have different binding requirements. SH3 comains bind proline-rich sequences, whereas helocloo-hellx domains and leucine zippers are involved in forming dimers (usually cf transcription factors). Basic, regions of a protein ara often found ta bind DNA, Plecketin mati are knawn to bind phospholipids.Cholera tonin can afect cells by blocking he guanosine triphasphatase (OTPase) actvly of herr ©, proteins. On a cellular eve, which ane ofthe following wauld be nelaul in reducing the harmful fects of cholera toxin? a, Increasing he amount of intracellular ycic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) @ B__Inhibting the actly ofthe adenylate eylase in the coll © ¢._Inhibting the 6, proteins within the ctl Cb Adding tigand forthe 0, proteimtnked receptor CE Increasing the amount of protein kinase & (PKA) inthe cell Explanation 6G, (6 for stimulation) proteins function by activating adenylate cyclase to produce rore cyclic, adenosine ranonhosphate (cAMP). The G, prateins are able to actvate adenylate cyclase when bound to GTP. Thus, the guanosine tiphosphatase (GTPase) attvty of the G, proteins is a mechanism that allows the protein to"lurn iself oft" The cholera toxin that blocks the GTPase activty leads 10 @ constitutively active , protein, thererore, he levels of cAMP within the cell increase, and the cAMP acts as a second messenger. Thus, whereas increasing the amount of intracellular cAMP would make the sityaion worse, inhiaitian of adenviate cyslase would act to countoractthe effects of cholers toxin. Because protein kinase Ais activated by cAMP, increasing the concentration of PKA would notbe protective. cAMP can act directly on ceriain ion channels, “Thererore, even a reduction ofthe amount of PA may not eliminate the entects ore toxhn.6, (for simmulaton) proteins function by activating adenylate cyclase to produce rnore cyclic, adenosine ranophosphate (cAMP). The G, prateins are ade to actvate adenylate cyclase when bound to GTF. Thus, the guenasine tiphosphatase (GTPase) axtivty of the G_ proteins is a mechanism that allows the protein to"turn itself oft" The cholera toxin that blocks the GTPase activity leads io 2 constitutively active G, protein; therefore, the levels of cAMP within the call Increase, ano the cAMP atts as a second messenger. Thus, whereas increasing the amount ot intracellular cAMP would make the situation worse, inhiaitian of adenylate cyslase would act to courteractthe effects of cholere toxin, Because protein kinase Ais activated by cAMP, increasing the concentration of PKA would nothe protective. cAMP can act directly on ceriain ion channels Thetefore, even a reduction of the ammount of PXAmsy not eliminate the effects ofthe toxin ‘Adtional liganc forthe ©, proteimlinked receptor would increase the actiaton ofthe 0, proteins, 6G, proteins (\rorinnibrony) actto reduce the activiy or aderylate cyclase; therefore, inhibition ot these protzins would also make the situation worse, However, activation of 6, protains maybe hatiInternet Explorer ‘Whien one of he following statements avout Ine desensilization ufreceplors is accurate? Homelogous desensitization of nicatinie CA. receptors requires several minutes of repeated stimu Desensitization of actenergic receptors can ©, occur oni by reducing the exprecsion ofthe recopior gone Co Desensitization does not change the atinty of recepior ora ian, ony te actity Gp Reseptor desensitization canbe afeced by he phosphorylation state ofthe recestor Desensitization of are tpe ofrecoptor eannct ©, bemediated by the actions of another receptor pathway Explanation OF Desensitization occurs only or nicotinic recealors, nol adrenergic receplors Desensitization can occur ina number of ways including hamolegous pathways, in which only one type of receptor is involved, and heterologous pathways, inwhich one type ofrecertoris desensitized through the actvity of another ype of receptor. For rictinc recentors, desenstizetion reaytake lags than 1 second, whereas desansitization is elowerfar adrenergic receptare, However, adrenergic reseptors have mechanisms that act ta desensitize thera in ways otherthan regulation of transcription. These methods include phosphorylation of the receptor by cycilc adenosineDesensitization of ore toe ofreceptorcannct CE, be mediated by the actions of ansther receptor pathway Explanation Desensitization can occur ina nurmber of ways including homolagous pathways, in which only one ‘ype of receptor is invoived, and heterologous pathways, Inwnch one ype ofrecegtoris desensitized through the actvity of another iype of receptor. For rictinic receptors, desenstizetion rmaytake less than 1 second, whereas cesansitization is slower for adrenergic receptors, However, adrenergic receptors have mechanisms that act ta dasensitiz ther in ways atherthan regulation of transcription. These methods include phosphorylation of the receptor by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-denendent Hreses or Peaurenergle recaplor kinase. Nicotinic desensitization can also be affected by phosphorylation, beccuse addition of a shosphate croup may speed the desensitization process. Although desensitization may change the affnity ofthe recestor for ts ligand (either increase or decrease), this is usually notthe mechanism of doconcttizatin. tie the dacroace in racoptor function, notligand binding, that ie tha actual mothod ofdesenstization‘A length-tension diegram fora single sarcomere is ilustrated atright. Tension that develops Is maximal between paints Band Checause ne i : ‘ 5 8 We 5 i 2 ; a oa « 8 4 ¥—@ A, there is maximal overlap between the actin filaments and the cross-ridges of the myosin filaments ©, the actinfilamenthas pulled all tne way out to the end ofthe myosin filament ©, the Zdisks ofthe saicomere ioush ihe ends of the myosin flament ©°p, the myosin filament is atts minimal length © E, actin flaments are overlapaing for mavimal interaction with myosino 1 2 38 4 © A, there is maximal overlap between the actin filaments and the cross-bridges of the myosin filaments ©.B. ne actnlementnas pulled al tne way outto the end athe myosin lament ©. the Zdisks of the sarcomere touch the ends of the myosin flament ©D. the myosin filament is at its minimal lenath, CE. avin Slameats are overlapaing for mavial iteration with nyacin Explanation Itls generally accepted that maximal eantraction of muscle nber will occur when tne overlap between actin fllaments and the cross-bridges ofthe myosin filaments is optimal. At point 0, the actin flamanthas pulled all he way outta the end ofthe eryosin flaent withaut overlap, and tensions mininral.As the rruscle shortens pastthe optimal length, ©, actin laments tend to overlap each ather and the myosin flaments decrease in length A, contributing ta the destine in contraction al shorter tran optimal lengths,‘The tumar pictured in the phetomicragragh arises trom which ane ofthe fellowing types cf cells? Be rr : 4 i & Fw 5 i a 5 . 1 @ 8 4 Ca Ceretellar astrocites sf @ BLLeptomeningoal colls © Neurons © D Oligodendrocytes © ESchwann cells© ACeretellar astrocytes ‘6 © BLLeptomeningeal cells © cNeurens © Dligadendrocytes © ESchwann cells Explanation ‘The tumorin the photemnicrogreph is a meningioma, which has a marked prediection for wamen and arises from the pia~srachroid cells of he leptameninges. itis usually well cirsumscribed and may have a hyperastotc reaction of overbina bone associated with it The tumor cells are arranged inwhot's or nests, and thay are frequanty observed with concoriticcalcifid conerations called psammoma bodies, as shown on the rightof the photomicragragh,Whien one of he following statements about the retinoblastoma protein Is emostilkely rue? © 4, Hypaphosphowylated retinoblastoma pratein binds ta the transcription factor called E2F and causes aG, arest Cp Hyperphospherylated retinablastoma protein binds to p21 and causes a G, arrest Cc. Hyserphasphorylated retinoblastoma binds 10 E2F and causes a, artest © p._ Hypemphospherylatad retinablastoma hinde ‘o 721 and causes a, anest Ce Retinoblastoma protein is nhosphorlated by the cyclin B-cde2 kinase complex Explanation The retinoblastoma protein (Rh) is a tumor suppressor gene thet binds to several important gene regulatory prcteins, but its binding capacity depends on its state of phosphorylation. When Rb is, dephosphorylated it binds a set of gene regulatory proteins (e.g. the transcription factor E2F), which causes G, arrest Phasphatyiated Rb releases the E2F and atrer proteins, allawing thers to act Rib coes not bind tothe edk inhibitor p21 ner does itarrestcells in the G, of he cell cycle. Rb can be phosphorylated in vivo by several kinases, such as the cyclin-dependent kinase complexes (e.g, cyclin-edk?, cyclin D-cdkd}, but natby the cyslin B-ede2 kinase compiles.Replication of nuclear DNA oA vo a Co. ©. For each statement below, select the phase ofthe cell cycle that kest corresponds to the property described. ‘Standard cal cle ° o oReplication of nuclear DNA oA vo 6a Co. oo. Explanation ‘The cell cycle is divided into several cistinct phases. Replication of the nuclear DNA usually rcupies only a portion of interphase, called the § phase of the cell cycle. The interval between the end of DNA sinthesis and the keginning of mitosis is called the G., phase. The G, phase provides safety g2p, allowing the cell to ensure that DNA replication is complete before geing into mitosis. Mitosis, or M phase, isthe next shase, during which the process ofnuclear civision occurs, leading Up tothe moment or cell asian, The interval between the completion or mitosis and the beginning of DNA synthesis is celled G, phase. During G, phase, the cell monitors its ensironment and its own size and, when the time is right, takes the step that commits itio DNA renlicaton and comaletion ofthe division cycle. Phases S, G,,M,and G, are the subdivisions ofthe standard cell evel.vo eA cB Co. ©. o o For each statement below, select the phase ofthe cell cycle that kest corresponds to the property described. ‘Standard cal cle ° Interval between completion of ruciear division and beginning of DNA synthesisTnfewal between campletion of ruciear division and beginning ofO\NA synthesis vo eA cB Co. oo. Explanation ‘The cell cycle is divided into several cistinct phases. Replication of the nuclear DNA usually rcupies only a portion of interphase, called the § phase of the cell cycle. The interval between the end of DNA sinthesis and the keginning of mitosis is called the G., phase. The G, phase provides safety g2p, allowing the cell to ensure that DNA replication is complete before geing into mitosis. Mitosis, or M phase, isthe next shase, during which the process ofnuclear civision occurs, leading Up tothe moment or cell asian, The interval between the completion or mitosis and the beginning of DNA synthesis is celled G, phase. During G, phase, the cell monitors its ensironment and its own size and, when the time is right, takes the step that commits itio DNA renlicaton and comaletion ofthe division cycle. Phases S, G,,M,and G, are the subdivisions ofthe standard cell evel.” o o Process ofnuslear division, lzading up to the mament of cell civision oA cB Co. ¥ 6D. For each statement below, select the phase ofthe cell cycle that kest corresponds to the property described. ‘Standard cal cle °© Process ofnuslear division, leading up to the moment of cell civision oA co co. vo &O. Explanation The cell cycle is divided into several distinct phases. Replication ofthe nuclear DNA usually occupies only a portion of interphase, called the S phase of the call cycle, Tha interval hehween the end of DNA synthesis and the keginning of mitosis is called the G, phase. The G, phase provides ‘a safely gap, allowing the cel to ensure hat DNA replication Is complete before going Into mitosis. Mitosis, or M phase, isthe next ahase, during which the process of nuclear civision occurs, leading Up to the moment of cell division, The interval between the completion of mitosis and the beginning ofDNA synthesis is celled G, phase. During G, phase, the cell monitors its environment and its ‘own size and, when the time ic right, fakes the otep that commnits ito DNA replicaton and comaletion ofthe division eysle. Phases 8, G,,M,and G, are the subdivisions ofthe standsrd cell yee.” o o Cytobinesis occurs at the end ofthis phase ofthe cell cycle oA cB Co. ¥ 6D. For each statement below, select the phase ofthe cell cycle that kest corresponds to the property described. ‘Standard cal cle °© COylobinesis occurs at he end ofthis phase of the cell cycle oA co co. vo &O. Explanation The cell cycle is divided into several distinct phases. Replication ofthe nuclear DNA usually occupies only a portion of interphase, called the S phase of the call cycle, Tha interval hehween the end of DNA synthesis and the keginning of mitosis is called the G, phase. The G, phase provides ‘a safely gap, allowing the cel to ensure hat DNA replication Is complete before going Into mitosis. Mitosis, or M phase, isthe next ahase, during which the process of nuclear civision occurs, leading Up to the moment of cell division, The interval between the completion of mitosis and the beginning ofDNA synthesis is celled G, phase. During G, phase, the cell monitors its environment and its ‘own size and, when the time ic right, fakes the otep that commnits ito DNA replicaton and comaletion ofthe division eysle. Phases 8, G,,M,and G, are the subdivisions ofthe standsrd cell yee.Internet Explorer ‘A 40-year-old woman with refractory peptic ulcer cisease presents to @ gastroenterologist for @ complete evaluaton, + Snes a nonsmoker and drinks only infrequently. Endoscopy reveals ectopic ulcers in the esophagus as well as humerous ulcers in the siomach and duodenum. The physician considers a diagnos's of Zolinger-Ellison syndrome, Which of the following problems characterizes the cause of pentic ulcer disease in most patents with Zollingar-Ellison syndrome? CA. Increased vagal tone inthe gastiic branch OB Increased release of histamine 3 @C_ Increased sectetian of gastrin ©D__ Increased secretion of pepsin CE Decreased mucous production Explanation Zaliinger-Elison synarome was initially descriaed in a person with renactory, e1osive peptic ulcer disease. Most cases invalve a pancreatic islet cell tumcr that secretes gastrin, which is the most potent physiologic stimulator of parietal cell acid production. Agoressive medical teatmentis sometimes nat sufficient to block the copious production cf atid in these patents, and usuallythe gastin-secreting tumor must be extracted surgically or treated medically. Increased vagal tone Tesulls n increased acid production, outvayal hyperactvily Is rarely sumcient to account for acid production ofthis magnitude, Increased release of histamine also leads to hyperactivity f theInternet Explorer ‘gastin-secreting tumor must be extracted surgically or treated medically. Increased vagal tone results in increased acid arcdustion, outvayal hyperactvily is rarely sufficient to acount or acid production orthis rragnilude, Increased release orhistamine also leads to hyperactiily of te parietal cells. However, histamine is produced by mast cells located near the parietal cells, and ‘mast cell tumors are rat a cormmon cause of Zollinger-lison syncrome. Pepsin is the protealytic enzyme whose activation is pH denendent; hypersecreton of pepsin is uncommon and, in any e266, would rat load te the rafractery ulears inthie paticnt, Decreaced mucasal production ic probably involved in many cases of peplic ulcer disease, most notably hase induced by stress or nonsteroidal ant-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Locally produced prostaglandins are imoortant in regulating the production of mucus by the cells lining th stomach, and stess as well as NSAIDS can inhibit prostaglandin orcdustion. However, peptic ulcer disease ofthis maonitude, particularly a concition thatincludes esophageal ulcers, could not be caused by insufficient mucous production. “The production cf acid bypartetal cells Is regulated by the interplay of tares main substances: histernine, gastrin, and acebicholine, all of which can stimulate acid producton. Parietal cells have receators for al ree signals, and each of he three signals can requlate release of the other signals inderendent ofthe paristal cell receptors. H,-histamine receptor actvation causes an elevaticn of eyelic adenosine manophosphate (cAMP) and the subsequent activation of cAMP- depencent protein kinases. Acetylcholine from the vagus nerve mediates its actor's Wa muscatinic- ‘ype receptors. These muscarinic receptors, as wellas their gastrin receptor aralogues, mediate their signals through an elevation of fiee intacellular calcium. Acid praduction is atwo-siep procass; in the frst step, carbonic anhydrase splits the carbonic acid molecule inte a bicarbonate ha ts Ith stan th taf ha hinathnnat tha ninacdInternet Explorer Concifion tatincludes esophageal uicers, could notbe caused oy msuMicient mucous production. ‘The production of acid by parietal cells is regulated ky the interplay of thres main substances: histernine, gastin, and acebyicholine, all of which can slirulale acld producton. Parietal cells nave receators for all ree signals, and each of he three signals can regulate release of the other signals independent ofthe paristal cell receptors. H,-histamine receptor actvation causes an elevation of cyclic adenosine manophosohate (cAMP) and the subsequent activation of cAMP- dopendont protein kinases. Acctylehaline from the vagus nerve modiaios its actions wa muscarinic. type recepiors. These muscatinic receptors, as wellas their gastiin receplor analogues, mediate their signals through an elevation of fee intacellular calcium. Acid praduction is atwo-siep process; in the first step, carbonic anhydrase splits the catbonic acid molecule into a bicarbonate anion and a fydrogen ion, Inthe second step, the movernentof e bicarkonate arion info the bload causes the meaeurable snd ptysiolagically nermal alkaline tide" curing reals (12., whan the arterial pH increases slighth), andthe hydrogen ions pumped against a million-fold concentration gradient irto te stomach bythe nyarogen-potassium adenosine tmphosahatase.Whien one of he following statements Is rue for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic eels? OA. Thay toh contain extensive intemal mambranes uncennacted to the plasma membrane OB They bot contain organelles © ¢ They sot contain a membrane-bound nucleus © D._ They both utilize membrane transporters to sllow passaye of macromolecules, OE Mest ofthe cellular DNA is in the fom of ¢ sinale circular molecule Explanation Both prokeryctic and eukeryatic cells are surrounded bya phospholipid bilayer to forrn a alasma membrane. The internal membranes in prokaryotic cells are all connected to the outer plasma membrane, whereas eukaryotic cells contain extensive internal membranes that are unconnected. Those intemal mombranos of eukaryotes onclose cubcallular stucturos known a¢ organellas. Tho outer plasma membrane acis as a barriar fa the cell, which allows only certain substances to enter (€.9, oxygen, catbon dioxide, water). To obtain the essential macromolecules, a cell must use membrane transporters that allaw suostanses (e.g, inorganic icns, sugars, and amino acids) to permeste the cell, Prokaryotic callular DNA\s in the form of a sinale circular molecule within a single chromosome. In contrast, eukaryotic DNA is ¢ single, linear, double-stranded molecule divided between two or more ctramasomes cantainedin a membrane-bound nucleus,‘The esseniialtranseriplional binding factor tal binds diiectly b the TATA koxiniiatng RNA polymerase Il wanseription in mammalian calls is @a THD Cp THE Oc Tre op Tris Explanation Many protein transcription factors are requitedto form a pre- initiation complex at the TATA box ta initiate RNA polymerase I ranscrintion, However, anly TFIID binds directly to the TATA box region of the DNA. Thic transcription factor must bine ta the TATA box fret, farming a stablo complex between TFIID and the DNA. A second transcription factar, TFHB, then binds lo RNA polymerase land associates wth the DNA at the TFID-TATA box site. TFIB acts as an ATPase, which induces rmeltng ofthe DNA\ta farm an oaen complex. Transcription then begins inthe presence of TFIIE and is assisted in elongation oy the transcription factor TFUS,‘An «heli protein conformation is an example of which one ofthe folowing structures? COA Primary structure @ a Secondaty structure Cc Tertiary structure OD. Quaternary structure Explanation Polyseptides can be arranged in four diferent structure types. Primary structure refers tothe linear arrangement of a polypeptide chain along with the available corresponding cysteine side chains. Secondary stlucture consists of two different forms: «-halb and f-pleated sheet Tertiary structure comaines these secondary structures into complex and ecmpact domains. The combination of several polypeptide chains into one molecule is an example of a quaternary structurePhospholipids are vansported ftarn the eylogiasrric leat or fhe endaptasrnic raticulurn to tre exoplasinic learet by ‘which one of the following processes? OA. Sponiancous fipping from one leafet o another CB Membrane budding Oc Phospholipid exchange proteins ©. Flippase protein Explanation The inner and outer leaflets of biologic membranes nave different isid compositions, inducing lipid asymmetry. Anhospholipid cannot mave spontaneously fram the cytoplasmic leaflet to the exoplacmic leafiot in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) because the hydrophilic head group cannot pass through the hydrophobic bilayer. This does notoczurthrough membrane budding because this is # process by which phospholipids are transferred ftom ane organelle ta another ty vesicles. ltalso does not occur through rhospholipic exchange proteins kecause these proteins also remove phasoholipids from one membrane and release them to another memarane or organelle, ‘The mevament of a phospholipid in the ER inte the exoplasrnic laafetis catalyzad by the flippase protein so thet movement occurs within a few minutes,ATuorescent prove that binds to glucocofticatd receptors Is applied to cells. The prabe Is freely difusible throughout the cell and has no effect on the glucocartcoid receptor. tthe cell nas not heen previously stimulated ay glucocorticoids, ‘where is the most intense fluorescence? CA Cell membrane ®B oytosol © Nuclearmembrane OD. Nucleus CE Nucleus and cytosol Explanation The cytosol would contain the most fluorescence, Glucocorticaid receptors are soluble recentors and are not associated with the plasma membrano. Glucccotticolds diffuse inte colls, bind to receotors in the cytosol, and then tanslocale to the nucleus. Inside the nucleus this hormone~ Teceator complex regulates transcripton vis binding to specific sequences of DNA.6 proteins are Invohedwith various cellular signaling pathways end are knovin to tydrolyee OA. adanosine tripnosptate (ATP) @ 8 quanosine triphosphate (GTP) © ¢ _ adanosine diphosphate (ADF) ©D. guanosine diphosphate (GDP) © _ adanosine monoshosphate (AMP) Explanation Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding prcteins (6 proteins) are involved with the process of signal transduction and are the target of toxins, such as pertussis and cholera toxins, 6 proteins are activated when bound ta GTP and deactivate via the hydrolysis of GTP to form guanosine diphosphate (GDP).Resliiclon enzymes have which ore of the folewing characteristics? They OA. can cleave only circular DNA @ a generate ether stagyered (sticks) or blunt ends upon cleaving DNA ©¢ _ cleave different DNAs randorny OD. cancleave different DNAs only ance OE cancleave both DNA and RNA Explanation Restricion enzymes recognize specifc ase sequences in doutle-helical DNAand cleave both strands ofthe duplex at specific siies. Mostof ihe cleavage sites contain a twofold ratational symmetry the recognizes sequence is palindromic) The cuts resuiting from these enzymes maybe other staggored orblunt. Restriction anzyres can cleave DNA malaculos into a numbor of specif fragments These enzymes ate specif for DNA, they do not cleave RNA.Internet Explorer Light microscopy requires the use of special techniques, such as stains, i visualize cells and cell components. Yvrich By ofthe following cellular components can be visualzed ater staining for catalase? OA Gclgicomplex OB Lysosomes ©¢ Rough endoplasmic reticulum ©. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum BE, Perorisomes Explanation Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis and degradation of hydregen percxide. Percxisomes, also called microsomes, contain large amounts cf catalase and, there‘ore, can be visualizad after taining for eatalaco. Poroxisomes function in the motsbolicm cf hydrogen peroxide, cholestercl, and lipids.Gentioles are replicated in which phase orthe cel cycle? CA Byphase Cp Oyphase @o Sphase Cp. Syphace CE Mohase Explanation Cenitioles are made of nine tubular tiplets, and they function in mitotic spindle formation and in the production ofcilia and flagella. Centrisles are selt duplicated in the S (synthesis) phase of he cell cycle