pr. Take Nag la 24¢19-2611 OO i= [™ Renewable aaPreface Chapter 1 A Thermodynamics Review 1-1 Inirodtion 1-2 The Fics Law and the Open System 1.3 The First Law and the Closed System 1-4 The Cycle 1-5 Property Relationships 1-6 The Second Law of Thermodynainios 1-7 The Concept of Reversiilty 1-8 The Concept of Entropy -9 The Carnot Gysle Chapter 2 The Rankine Cycle 21 tatroduction 2.2 The Ideal Ratikine Cycle 23 The Externally Irreversible Rankine Cycle 2-4 Superheat 25 Reheat 26 Regeneration 2-7 The Internally Ireversible Rankine Cycle 12-8 Open or Direct-Coniaet Feedwater Hosters 2-9 Closed-Type Feedwater Heaters witp Drains Cascaded Backward 2-10 Closed-Type Feedvater Heaters with Drains Pumped Forward 2-11 The Choice of Feedwater Heaters 2-12 Effioienay and Heat Rate 2-13 The Placement of Feedwater Heaters 2-14 Suporertical-Pressure Cyele 2415 Cogeneration Chapter 3 Fossil-Fuel Steam Generators 344 Introduction 3-2 The Fire-Tube Boiler See SAIMyvessekeee se Bea seer-- €= weomens 3.3.The Walee-Tube Boiler: Barly Developments 8 43-4 The WaterTube Boiler: Recent Developments "7 3:5 Water Circulation ° 4-6 The Sica Drum * 3-7 Supercars and Reheaters %6 3-8 Once-through Boilers ” 3-9 Economiaeis wo 3-10 Air Prcheatrs 102 $11 Fans 15 3-12 The Stack no 3.13 Steam-Generator Control us Chapter 4 Fuels and Combustion me 41 tnteduction 12 42.Coal 133 4-3 Coal Aualysis 128 44 Coal Fring 8 4-5 Mechanica Stoker: 10 46 Pulverized-Coal Firing 32 47 Cyclone Furnaces 0 48 Fluidied-Bed Combustion 42 49 Liquid Fuels “7 4-10 Liquid, Gas, and Soli By-produets 150 4-11 Symbetie Fuels in 4-12 Biomass 139 4.13 The Heat of Combustion ist 4-14 Heating Values 16s 4.15 Combustion Tempertures 167 Chapter 5 Turbines in $41 Introduction 2 5-2 The impulse Principle im 5-3 Impulse Turbines 1 $-4 The Resston Prveiple 190 5-5 Reaction Turbines i9t 5-6 Turbine Losses 17 5-7 Tube Etficensies 204 5-8 Turbine Arangemeats 206 5-9 Gas Turbines ait Chapter 6 The Condensate-Feedwater System 219 61 Intoduetion 219 6-2 DirestContaet Condensors 20 6-3 Surface Condensers: Gener] 2 (4 Surace-Condenser Caloulations 233 {6-5 Closed Feedwater Heaters: General 28 6-6 Closod-Feedwater-ttester Calculations 22 {6-7 Open Feedwater Heaters 2486-8 Boiler Makeup and Treatment 250 6-9 Evaporators 254 Chapter 7 The Circulating-Water System 260 7-1 Introduction 260 7-2 System Clessiiction 261 7-3 The Cireuation System 268 7-4 Wel-Cooling Towers 268 745 Wet-Cooling Tower Calculations 283 7-6 Dry-Cooline Towers 249 7-1 Dry-Cooling Towers and Plant Efficiency and Economics 204 7-8 Wet-Dry Cooling Towers 297 7-9 Cooling-Tower Ising 299 7-10 Cooling Lakes and Ponds 300 7-11 Spray Ponds and Canals 303 Chapter 8 Gas-Turbine and Combined Cycles 309 841 Introduction 309 #2 Gas-Turbine Cyetes 310 853 The Ideal Brayton Cycle 312 8-4°The Nonideal Brayion Cycle 318 #55 Modifications ofthe Braytoa Cycle 323 3-6 Cycle Analysis with Variable Properties 331 8-7 Desiga for High Temperature 34 8:8 Combined Cyeles: General 3a 8-9 Combined Cycles with Heat-Recovery Boiler Ba 8-10 The STAG Combined Cycle Powerplaat MS 8-11 Combined Cycles with Multipressure Steam Bas 8-12 A Combined Cyele for Nuclear Powerplants 351 ‘Chapter 9 Principles of Nuclear Energy 354 9-1 Inteoduetion 384 9-2 The Atomic Structure 355 9-3 Chemical end Nuclear Equations 339 9.4 Energy from Nuclear Reactions 302 9-8 Nuclear Fusion and Fission 302 9-6 Energy from Fission and Fuel Burmup 365 9-7 Radioactivity 366 9-8 Desay Ratos and Hal-Lives 310 949 Neutron Energies 3m 9-10 Thermal Neutrons 376 9-11 Nuclear Cross Sections 378 9-12 Neutron Flux and Reaction Rates 380 19-13 The Variation of Neutron Cross Sections with Newtron Energy 385 9-14 Fission Reactor Types 386 915 Reactor Contiol 391XcONTENTS Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 10 Thermal-Fission Reactors and Powerplants 10-1 Introduction 10-2 The Pectsucized-Water Resetor (PWR) 10-3 The PWR Primary Loop 10-4 The Pressurizer 10-5 ChersicalShie Control 10.6.4 PWR Powerplant 10-7 The Boilieg-Water Resctor (BWR) 10.8 BWR Lead Foltowing Conteal 10-9 ‘The Gureent BWR System 10.10 A BWR Powerplant 10-11 The Gas.Cooled Reactor (GCR) 10-12 The High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR) 19-13 Pebble-Bed Renetors 10-14 The Pressurized Heavy-Watee Reaetoe (PWR) 11 Fast-Breeder Reactors and Powerplants 111 Inteosuetion 11.2 Nuclear Reactions, Conversion, and eee 11.3 .LMFRR Plant Areangeients 11-4 The Clinch River Beeeder-Resetor Project ‘The Supee Phénix LMFBR s-Cowled Fast-Brecder Reactor (GCFER) 12 Geothermal Energy 1241 foteoderion 12.2 Past, Present, and Foture 12.3 Origin and Types of Geethermal Energy 124 Operational aad Bayironmental Problems 12.5 Vapor-Dominated Systems 12.6 Liquid Dominated Systems: Mashed Steam 12-7 Liguid-Dominared Systems: Binary Cyele 12-8 Liquid-Dominated Systems: Tota-Flow Concept 12.9 Petrotheemal Systems 10 Hybsid Geothetmal-Foell Systems 13 Solar Energy 134 Inzeduetion 132 Mistery 134 Lseatetresdal Solar Radiation 13-4 Tereetrl Sole Radiation 13-5 Solar Elecide Conversion Spee 13-6 Solu- Thermal Cental-Raceler Systems 147 The Meliataes TATE Receiver 13.9 The Het-Tranaport Sytem 13-10 The Thermal Siowsge Sys 13-11 Wodd Experience 46 453 453 456 aot 463 493 9 499 sat 50 315 519 521 525, 30 530 53 533 536 541 543 5S 350 553 554 359cones A 113-12 Distributed SolarThermal Systems 560, 13-13 Other Solar-Thermal Power Systems 564 13.14 Solar Pons 368 13415 Photovoltaie-Enorgy Conversion sn 13-16 Solid-State Principles 313 13-17 Semicondusrors a7 13418 The Solar Celt 39 {3:19 Photovoliaie-Energy Storage 50 13-20 Satelite Soar-Power Systems (882) $83 Chapter 14 Wind Energy 59 141 intodtion 9 142 History of Wind Power 391 1453 Principles of Wind Power 385 1444 Wind Turbine Operation soo iss Site Chanaterisis 02 1446 New Developments: Small Machines on 14-7. New Developments: Large Machines att 148 The Magis Effect 613 1469 The Malas Root Wind Machine ai 14-10 The Darrius Machine on 1-H Otter Wind Turbine Designs ou Chapter 15 Energy from the Oceans on 1S-1Imzoduetion on 15-2 Osean Temperature Differences ee 15-3 The Opei, or Claude, Cyele ai 15-4 Modifications of the Open OTEC Cyele as 15: The Closed, or Anderson, OTEC Cycle 68 15-6 Recent OTEC Developments at 15-7 Ocean Waves 2 15-8 Wave Motion out 159 Energy and Power from Waves 46 15-10 Wave-Energy Conversion by Floats 6530 15:11 High-Pressure Accumulator Wave Machines. 653, 1512 Other Wave Machines 635 15-13 The Tides 659 15-14 The Simple Single-Pool Tidal System 66 15:15°The Modulated Sinle-Pool Tidal Systro 663 15:16 The Two-Poo! Tidal System 661 Chapter 16 Energy Storage on 36-1 Iniraduetion on 16-2 Energy-Storage Systems ers 163 Pemped Hyeo ‘7 16-4 Compressed-Ait Storage 630 16-5 Enetay Storage hy Flywheels as 16-6 Elecirical Buttery Storage 68916-10 Chemical-Resction en Chapter 17 Environmental Aspects of Power Generation 174 Introduction 17-2 Constitnents-of the Atmosphere 173 Oxides of Sulfur 17-4 Oxides of Nitrogen 17-5 Oxides of Carbon 17-6 The Greenhouse Effect 17-7 Acid Precipitation 17-8 Particulate Matter 17-9 Flue-Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Systems 17-10 Electrostatic Precipitators. A7-11 Fabri Falters and Baghouses 17-12 Thermal Pollution 17-13 Natural and Artificial Radioactivity 17-14 Nuclear Power and the Enviroament 17-15 Radiations from Nuclear-Powerplant Efuents 17-16 High-Level Wastes References Appendix Index asi98 voweancantrrecrneoGY PROBLEMS 1 Ale ame a ie der tr ing ptt ron et oie stnceig aoe 13 nd oon ole in fen. File reg et fon fect, sn ha ee ne coop perc fh el ny 1-2 A le sms rer rear wii ie fa it Wa tere ween feo)» 10° The eur wo by age si worn 013 Fert nr Col he eo sil ae alg ts, Dt oh fd EE coc ony an) eaten otro bins wer ac me 13 A flee ecu pncos 2000 MW bet, Te i cmd of 20 FO, ‘MO; by mn The coe eae 10 Ent tl ins fe il mal nt oe Inv fa son and amo ms ystems we 0.25 pe on ste Ie Ei th stn eo (ea of mers ht ale or esi te sc cs UCP and Rt yen oneness ss a 1 a Ea TS A tener er co tht ene 248 HW i tt wt PMD, Te ms of er ster. ts tse a Ux (2) fe asinon orl ling Tels any he comeponig mime ing comps ting Ses, ews Atme ‘ere tet eae occ 75 pre oft mace Re een THA esr race poem acecs 100 MO wih 39 pce cy, The ce fakin "0-0, wh Po ce ibe a ol | 4 Tee ser on Bx 10 Et) mints ni of ale eile ce) te rons a of Fo uc conte pe a ae (he ner aso ancl br an pte oy. oun cs aes esd pri sont O25 per wt rol TEP A hema eaten St cor i » 2°73 being ec erie: The fk composed of 15 percent UO; by mass. The average nevtre fx ik 10", The reactor generates 2000 IW in (a ps fo he ce) Dein aid gan oe son es {egy an use new 2 per een arte) ile cone hing ies, Sipe tinct bent ln. emo, co 118 Fo he dno te inc ier Brice React cae eel at aa ets in Bs prturpr se fn or ers Forn fo) th nee et excagen, ) t Spon eal sper 1 Fo hs taf Sper Pixie he sel et an seis a wats ie cir per kevin and os per hae par snr fot per depce Feenet f(a) be termed beak ‘Ceca and (8) fo conense,expoctar ant sapereatr of te scr prea, Use fre pei ea of sn 1.256 kg» K 11-40 Aum that» p-cble fe Sender ator poe peas on si cps and as the Sanne yer and ecleey al Pliom and See pests and tenes i he desonton GFER ‘ee 116). Avs for Yt the dats ene he sea generator. 468° and that 3 MF of ‘eum poe emit i ving the elim celta Draw atenperurepat-enl age of he ‘Stun geese cll) he Hl 5s Bore, in pot rs pe t,t) estes a fw rae in ponds mass per mr. and (c) te est tone, i Bs pat hour conan, ‘vapatot. fnt od secoed sopra, eect re a, cular 7 —____TWELVE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY500 rowenrLant THoHNOLOGY fae ees ein ama ea ees ee es paola lopeeeat elie pean Scrat wa en erm Pe em ore See es ee eae ee , it come | efficiencies. sic taint imenecel isp thle sae etn ae eae ee See Se oe ee ee ee gee pr eer ee ae ee eee em eevee oa pete a ete meer eae et cer ee es ered as at ee ee ee ea po a ere See ae eae eas woe ae See ee ec ence nat er ee coon ger ae heave eerie ce Sie se eo arte ‘as renewable because the earth's interior is and will continue in the process: weed Loc emetic tes ee ee ee see and economically tapped. 122 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE, 7 som incr, The nasal et eotera enerey is pry energy fom he ext ine carh ante rth ea ine fo of Ie flows sings, ad eis Tese wr ay tu, wen thw et res nen ears ana es tral ea Spe oh ert es wy thee Ronan dco, ot Boek ef seam fat cw Late wath of xis a1 become history's fot geothermal lect genraing san. “Ihe Uned Sines, rota es were rt acre i 187 by waa Bel i an xploersineyr vio vas ikingin te routs been Clove si aii, aban, He nr Sn i of te ground slong a quater of + mic on te step slope of «canyon nat Co Manin anetog sean, now Known te Geers ein ea ha ee LGEOTIERMAL ENERGY SOL pon the gates of hel, the word spread! and the area became something ofa tourist attraction ‘The Geysers is teally a misnamed field, as a geyser like Old Faithful in Yellow- Stone National Park, periodically and dramatically spews jets of water and steam: Ia the Geysers, howe continuously vented though fissures in the ground. These vents are call Historically, th fst applications of geothermal energy were for spce heating, ooking, and medicinal purposes. The earliest cord of space heating dates back tp 1300 in Iceland, Inthe early 1800s, geothermal energy was used on what was then ® large scale by the Conte Francesco de Laderel to recover boric acid. The fist mechanical ‘conversion was in 1897 when the steam ofthe fed at Larderll, Italy, was used to ‘eat boiler protucing steam which drove a small steam engine. The fr amp to produce eletricty (our main concer inthis book) also took pace st Larderello in 1904 with an eletic generator that powered four light bulbs. This was followed in 1912 by a condensing turbine; and by 1914, 8.5 MW of eletricty was being produced By 1944 Larderelo was producing 127 MW. The plant was destroyed near the end of World War IL, but was fortunately rebuilt aad expanded and eventually reached 360 MW in 1981, nthe United States, the first stempt at developing the Geyser field wes made in 1922, Steam was successfully tapped, but the pipes and turbines ofthe tine were ‘unable to cape with the corosive and abrasive stam, The effort was not revived until 1956 when two companies, Magma Power and Thermal Power, tapped the are for steam and sold it to Pacific Gas and Electric Compaay. By thet time stainless tee! alloys were developed that could withstand the corrosive steam, and the frst electric- seocrating unit of L1-MW capacity began operation in 1960. Sine then 13 generally DProgressively larger units have been added to the sytem, The latest, No. {7 (Fig. 12. 1), fs 4 109-MW unit that bogan operation in September 1982 and which brought the Ge ‘more are planned, which wil bring the total capacity to 1514 MW by the late 1980s Othe: electric: generating fields of note ar in New Zealand (where the rain activity Wairake dates back to 1958), Japan, Mexico (at Cero Prita), the Philipines, the Soviet Union, and Iceland («large space-heating program). These and other electric. generating flelds are listed in Table 12-1. Future world projections for geothermal electric production, based on the decade ofthe 1970s, are 7 percent pet year, In the lat four years of that decade, however, the growth rte was 19 percent per year (Fig. 12-2). In the United States, the projections ane for growth between 13.5 and 22 percent per year through the 1980s, which is 2.5 {04 times the 5.3 percent per year growth rate of the ttl elctic generating capacity, ‘This includes the stcam eld atthe Geysers and other elds of diferent types (See 123), ‘The U.S. Geological Survey [105] predicts a U.S, potential from curently iden- tiled sources tobe around 23,000 MW of electric power and around 40 % 10" Btu {abou 42 x 10" ki) of space and process heat for 30 years with existing techoology, and 72,000 to 127,000 MW of electricity and 144 to 294 x 10" Blu of heat fom tnidentied sources. Aress of geothermal potential inthe North American continent502 rownarLater TEcHOLODY Figure 12-1 The 109-MIW wil No. {4 of he Geyer: (Courtesy Pact Ge ant Elecrie Co.) (Gromtenea exunoY $03 ‘Table 12-1* World yeothermal-energy utilization as of Space an proces heat, MW Py i 70 ” a 30 December 1979 a let, MW Coury Installed Under contrition Usa 72 on hay a = ‘New Zeaians 208 ts Japan 166 10 Mexico 130, 20 ElSalvator 38 Texan a 20 ussie 6 3 Pritipines a as Turkey os — Homgary = = France = = Toul 1689 a 10.000 = og i — Se Figure 12-2 Workwide inal goubernal ease epacity and fire pojestions: THEp Hn 1942 -Bproais he desencton ofthe Lael pis 1109)504 rowenstanr TECHNOLOGY are mainly west of the Great Pins from Cana to Mexico, with a geopressured zone (described in the next setion) extending along the Gulf Coast and low-temperature Gone extending down the eastem seaboard. These include about 1.8 million acres of land of known sources in the western states and addtional 96 million acres of pro- spective value. Between 800 and 1000 acres are needed for 100 MW of production for 30 years. Tecan be seen that while geothermal energy is aot the sought-after sole and long range solution to our energy problems (the U.S. total installed electric capacity in 1982 is nearly $00 million MW), it nevertheless represents a not insignificant factor if its resources are developed in careful and efficient manne. 123 ORIGIN AND TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ‘As indicated cartier, geothermal energy is heat transported from the interior of the cart. It is recoverable in some form such as steam oF hot water. “The earth is said to have been created as a mass of liquids and gases, 510 10 percent of which was steam, As the fuids cooled, by losing hea at the surface, an bute solid erus formed and the steam condensed to form oceans snd akes in depres- ‘ions of that crust. The erust now averages about 20 mi (32 ki) in thickness, Below that crust, the molten-mags, called magma, is still in the process of cooling. Earth tremars inthe esrly Cenozoic period” caused the magma to come close to the earth's surface in certain places and eras fissures 10. open up. The hot magma near the surface thus causes active volcanoes and hot springs end geysers where water exis. It ‘steam to vent through the fissures (fumaroles). show | field. The hot murgma near the surface solidifies into . rock found at the surface is called Volcanic rock.) The heat of the magma is comicted upward to this igneous rock. ‘Ground water that finds ts way dowa to this rock through fissures in it willbe heated by the heat of the rock or by mixing with hot gases and steam emanating from the tipma, The heated water wil thea rise convectively upward and into « porous and permeable reservoir (C) above the igneous rock. This reservoir is capped by a layer oi fe solid rock (D) that traps the hot water inthe reservoir. The solid rock, hhawever, has fissures (E) that act as vents of the giant underground boiler. The venls ‘how up atthe surface as geysers, fumarcles (F), or hot springs (G). A well (H) taps stcam from the fissure for use in geothermal powerplt. ‘can be seen thal geothermal steam is of two Kinds: that originating from the smagea itself, call and that from grand water heated by the magma, calle Tater is the largest source of geothermal steam. +The Cenasne eo is» geologic eta ste ome 60 milion years ag lowing the Mesos tid and nade the preset characte bythe appearance and development of manana, "tao te atin gnees mein “ole” oF ery,” from gm, "especialy fomed by voleanic scfion great he OrOTuERNAL ERGY S05 Figure 123 A opis geoibecma fn Notall gctheml sures profi tm a dese above a adie above a ia tepeaae so ht here only ht wate. Some eave wo found Wate at il nd contin only hot rok. Geena sures ae therfore of te tai Mids: (1) Indore (2) georesred and) perothermal Tes ae explained blow Hydrothermal Systems Hydrothermal systems are those in which water is heated by etl ater is | yy contact with the hot rock, 3 explained ave. Hydotermal stems ae in tum subdivided in (1) vapor: inated and (2) liquid-dominated systems. Vapor-dominated syste In these is stems Tn these sytem the water vaporized into eum tat eae ‘surface in @ relatively dry condition at about 400°F (205°C) and rarely shore 10 psig ba) Thi tea te ms inl for in bode po lt, ithe est ess, herr itr ptems ino te euntered by all geothermal systems, namely, the presence ef comosive gases erosive material and eny % repied a506 rowineLaNT TECHNOLOGY however, are a ratty; there are only five known sites in the world to date. These systems account for about 5 percent of all U.S. geothermal resources. The Gcystrs plant in the United Staies, the largest im the world today, and Lardereo in Italy, are both vapor-dominated systems. LLiquid-dominated systems In these systems the hot water circulating and tapped ‘underground is at temperature range of 350 to GO0°F (174 to 315°C). When tapped bby wells drilled in the right places and to the right depths, the water flows either naturally to the surface or is pumped up to it. The drop in pressure, usually 10 100 psig (8 bat) or less, causes it to partially flesh to a two-phase mixture of low quality, liguid-dominated. It contains relatively large concentrations of dissolved solids ranging between 3000 to 25,000 ppm and sometimes higher. Power production is ‘adversely affected by these solids because they precipitate and cause scaling in pipes ‘and heat-exchange surfaces, thus reducing flow and heat transfer. Liquid-dominated systems, however, are much more plentiful than vapor-dominated systems and, next to them, require the least extension of technology. The U.S. Geological Survey [109] shows from 900 to 1400 quads (Q) (1Q = 10" Bru, about 10"* J) of energy available rom liquid-dominated systems with liquid above 300°F (150°C). “The hydrothermal systems, of both kinds, are the only ones in commercial op- eration today, Figure 12-4 shows the major high-temperature hydrothermal reas of the world, The next two systems are under study, but mainly in the preliminary stages at this time (1982). Geopressured Systems Geopressuréd systems are sources of water, or brine, that has been beated in @ manner similar 1o hydrothermal water, except that geopressured water is trapped in much deeper underground aequifers,* at depths between 8000 to 30,000 ft. (about 2400 to 9100 m). This water is thought to be at the relatively low temperature of about 325°F (160°C) and is under very high pressure, from the overlying formations above, of about 15,000 psia (more than 1000 bar). It has a relatively high salinity of 4 t0 10 percent and is often referred to as brine, fo addition, it is saturated with natural gas, ‘mostly methane CH,, thought to be the result of decomposition of organic matter. ‘Such water is thought to have thermal and meckanical potential 0 generate elee- ticity. The temperature, however, is net high enough and the depth so great that thore is lite economic justification of drilling for this water for its thermal potential alone. ‘Wha is drawing attention, however, is the amount of recoverable methane in Solution that can be used for lectic generation. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates 100 ‘Qof electricity from the thermal content of geopressured water and 500 Q of enerEy in the gas. Studies have been under way (0 determine the ecocamic feasibility of generating electricity by a combined cycle, one that involves the combustion of the ‘methane as well as heat from the thermal content of the water. * Aw aif 0 woe tevng rau of pomeabl rock, gre, or and ‘igure 12-4 Majoc hich seperate hyoiermal areas of the werd [110)508 rowenpLaneTucunoLoeY ‘There are some 20 prospective geopressured sites along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf coasts in the United States. Work to determine the extent and quality of geo- pressurized energy has been undertaken with the drilling of some fest wells. The intial ‘esulls were not as encouraging a had been hoped for, however. A test well, called the General Crade-DOB Pleasant Bayou No. 2, was drilled in 1979 in Brazilia County, ‘Texas, toa depth of 16,500 ft (5030 m) and tested at a flow rate of 2500 bbliday (~300 mPeday) and a pressure of 4570 psig (316 bar). Initial data indicated a potential flow rate of 30,000 bbl/day (~3575 m’Atay). The gas content was 20 to 25 ft'/bbl of ‘water, or about 4.75 to 6 gas-to-iquid volume ratio. Economic studies to determine if the cost of drilling and spent brine reinjection are recoverable from the energy ‘content in the water and gas are yet inconclusive. [tis estimated that a minimum yickt ‘of 40,000 to 50,000 bbiday is necessary to make @ well worth considering from an ‘economic point of view. Further work is continuing, however, with the possibility of building a pilot plant in the late 1980s. A study by the Southwest Research Institute for the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) optimistically predicts 1100 MW of geopressured eapucity ‘could be on line by the end of the century, Petrothermal Systems “Magma lying elatvely close fo the earth's surface heats overlying rock as previously ‘explained. When no underground water exists, there is simply hot, dry rock (HDR). ‘The known temperatures of HDR vary between 300 and 5S0°F (~150 to 290°C). This energy, called petrohermal energy, represenisby far the largest esoure of geothermal nergy of any type, as it accounts for about 85 percent of the geotbermal resource base ofthe United States, Other estimates put the ratio of steamhot waterHHDR at 1:10:1000 (111) ‘Mich of the HDR occurs at moderate depths, but itis largely impermeable. tn order to extract thermal energy out of i, water (or othe Hid, but water mos Tikely) ‘wll have to be pumped into t and back out to the surface. It is necessary forthe heat- ttansport mechanism that 2 way be found to rendcr the impermeable rock into a Dennesble structure with a large heat-trasfer surface, A lage surface is patculasty ecessary because of the low thermal conductivity of the rock. Rendering the rock permeable is to be done by fracturing it. Fracturing methods that have been considered involve drilling wells into the rock and then facturing by (1) high-pressure water or (2) nuclear explosives. High-pressure water Fracturing by high-pressure water is done by injeting water into HDR at very high pressure, This water widens existing fractures and creates new ‘ones through rock displacement. This method is successfully used by the oil industry to facilitate the path of underground oil, The oil-bearing stauum is sedimentary rock that is softer than HDR. The cos tothe oil companics is thus lower and, in adtion justified by the additional oi it produces. The method is under stady by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) with support from the Department of Energy (DOE), Japan, and West Germany. 12-4 OPERATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ‘Steam and wate rom to hy deter ia besides : = te Systems contain, besic lids. inthe wt, niin slid purl and sncondcessl ots see Fis te eon mucha peal, sally by eneiga spo th i fr thy ne ln ep any sins, uly betes the qm anondesate ps conte ves fo 0.2180 ete, open te Pra well andi. The jog the wel, tgs he renee reeaciaensables tend to vent out ifr tan the 10. The noncondensbls Hatt a mostly CO (about 80 erent plis varying ames of mete CH Ida een Nona Wy nec He Bese nes steve with el no the pa quinn, he nena: ao pa ont ne cat he lng opera Pan cote, arti? Bsns of te nonconiemable gases has seve eft, guano es uc veo ect corenionl kesh ace, Teenie tearful design of adequate gus eects to mini vac in the ender, Secon, elhogh the presence of forming pes eas 9 pay oben in iy sam nest a made of etna caton ser ch Stet nt onda neces the so ais el inal equi sted to Wet seam o conden, Such eqipne nes uncon sel sn a seals exaust dt ining, conde: nn, coment ns an pm, nal Ling tower. (Condensers in goothermal plans may be of th cet coment * Ae hal ge tong th ations shal eh ie thy alba tr sword asa eb ny pepe i {ho owshres and tsa iat praning bool, Nation sll nt it sword ws aon, ete a ¥ i i 7S10 rowunrL ast TECINOLOOY types and hence cooling towers are expos to geothermal condense.) {nthe wine, rr are mls and bids subjected v0 Ary or high-quality steam are ususlly made of TT to 13 peroent chrome sect. The nozzes are usualy designe with arg tro 16% aria pitch to xnimize scaling. Becaute nickel i particulary sensitive to HS crrsesion, iis not recommended for use in the rotor. The cooling awers are usually designed wih plastic fill and concrete shells, the later coated with coal erm ae ris revommended for condetsate pipes and valves hat ae made large enough aintiw low velocities and hence erosion. Aluminum i also recommended for switch- ‘Another effect of HS is that itis eorrsive to bare copper, particulasly in the humid stmosphore around geothermal plans. Unprotected copper isto be avoided in ‘lant elezcal equipment that requires special tention. Fletical elys, motes, ver equpment, elation gear, switchgear, and oer ar often kept in “lean roons” odes weve gauge pessure to jaolate tem from the corivesosphere ous. Senic ype casters, instead of copper-conmutao, tnaordrven excites ae wet asics are usually motor-driven to avoid the addtional corusian of seam that ‘occurs with turbine drives. " fanhereffect ofthe noncondensables is that hey are environmentally undesirable tecamse ty parly escape into the mosphere. Most are corrosive inthe normaly tp aunosphere ofthe plant st and are noxious and tori and hence major si pollatans, The most objectionable are H,S and, to a lesser extent, NH vAaather environmental problem caased by geothermal plants i land surface sub sidenee "Tuts occurs because ofthe extraction of large quantities of underground Suits, thecal hs i pany alleviated by rejecting the spent brine oF condensate into te round, a procedure widely used in the oi industry. Reinjetion also minimizes stor tin, Large extractions and reinjetions also pose the possibility of seismic di tutbances. ‘Noise pollution iS another problem, Exhaists, blowdowns, and centrifaal $2 aration are some of the sources of noise thet necessitate the installation of silencers ‘on some equipment. Geopressured water, in wdton tothe above problems, i thought fo car} las quotes of sand, especially tthe hgh lows required. The result imcresed erosion ‘and sealing problems. 42-5 VAPOK-DOMINATED SYSTEMS ‘As indicated previously, vapor-dominated systems are the rarest form of geothermt ‘mergy but the most suliable for eleaticity generation and the most developed of SPotherrnalaysims. They have the lowest cost and the least numberof serious pro lems. Fires 12-5 and 12-6 show a schemstic and 7 diagram of. vapor dominated ponerse. Dy scan from the well 1) at pertaps 00°F C2O0°C) i we oe ted atthe bottom of the well and may have a shut-off pressure upto 500 bm). Pressure drops through the well causes i o slightly supeeat at the ‘otorvmwat eraoy S11 ise conat seer Renton toric i ‘eaeton Figure 128 Schematic of» epor-domintedpowerlan, wllnead The pester vet racy excels 00 pa (7 thn ‘eat pn es pric mater an nr etn ‘hon esr dop Pcs 3 seal ig i wih cnt ey. Te ean xs og ao Beause turbine flow is not returned to the eyele but reinjested back into the earth Figure 12-6 Fadagramo ie 7 shown i Fig. 125, ee‘512 roweRr ANT TECHNOLOGY (Mother Nature is our boiler), a direct-contact condenser of the barometric or low- level type (See. 6-2) may be used. Direct-contact condensers are more effective and Jess expensive than surface-type condensers. (The latter, however, are used in some new units with H,S removal systems, below.) The turbine exhaust steam at 4 mixes ‘with the cooling water (7) that comes from a cooling tower. The mixture of 7 and 4 is saturated water (5) that is pumped to the cooling tower (6). The greater part of the ‘cooled water at 7 is recirculated to the condenser. The balance, which would normally te retuned to the eycle in a conventional plant, is reinjected into the ground either before or after the cooling tower. The mass-flow rate of the reinjected water is less than that originating from the well because of losses in the centrifugal separator, steam- jet ejector (SJE), evaporation, drift and blowdown in the cooling tower, and other losses. No makeup water is necessary. ‘A relatively large SJE (Sec. 6-3) is used to rid the condenser of the relatively large content of noncondensable gases and to minimize their corrosive effect on the condensate system. Examples of vapor-dominated systems are the plants at the Geysers in the United ‘States, Larderello in Italy, and Matsukawa, Japan, A view of one of the 110-MW units, No. 14 at the Geysers, was shown in Figure 12-1. Note the large number of ‘mechanical draft towers, which are necessitated by the relatively large amount of heat ‘ejected. Geothermal plants use much lower temperature and pressure steam and higher ‘condenser pressures than conventional plants, and hence they are much lower in efficiency, having heat rates some 2 to 3 times those of the best fossil-fucled plants. Other differences are the large-diameter steam piping as a result of the large specific ‘volume of the low-pressure steam, the large SJE, and because of the low efficiency, large turbines, condensers, and plant auxiliaries. In order to reduce the amount of ‘cooling water needed, and therefore cooling-tower Gow, the turbines are usually op- crated at relatively high back pressures, about 4 inFlg absolute (~2 psia, 0.135 bar) or higher. Example 12-1 A 100-MW vapor-dominated system as shown in Figs. 12-5 and 12-6 uses saturated steam from a well with a shut-off pressure of 400 psia. Steam centers the turbine at 80 psia and condenses at 2 psia. The turbine polytropic efficiency is 0.82 and the turbine-generator combined mechanical and electrical cfficiency is 0.9. The cooling-tower exit is at 70°F. Calculate the necessary steam flow, Iby/h and fP/min; the cooling-Water flow, Iby/h; and the plant efficiency and heat rate, Bru’kWh, if reinjection occurs prior to the cooling tower. SOLUTION Refer to Figs. 12-5 and 12-6 and to the steam tables, App. A. ‘hg at 400 psia = 1204.6 Btu/lb,, and ‘hy at 80 psid = hy = 1204.6 Bulb, ‘GboTmERWAL ENERGY 513 Thus Ts = 350°F (38°F supertcat) 5; = 1.6473 Btw/lby - °R) Vy = 5.801 F/Iby qu At 2 psia = $3 = 1.6473 = 0.1750 + x4y(1.7450) ‘Therefore Hay = 0.8437 he = 94.03 + 0.8437(1022.1) = 956.4 Btullb Isentropic turbine work = hy ~ hey = 1204.6 — 956.4 = 248.2 Bru/lb,, Actual wirbine work = 0,82 x 248.2 = 203.5 Bulb, hg = 1204.6 = 203.5 = 1001.1 Bulb, ‘hs Cignoring pump work) = 94.03 Btu/lbq iy = hy At 70°F = 38.05 Bruit, » 100 x 3.412 x 10° ‘Turbine steam flow = ——————_—. Ib, fh m 203.5 x 0.9 ieee : ‘Turbine volume Dow = 1863 * 10° X99 1g 5 105 nein 0 Cootingewater Nw ty: hs — Ai) = maha — ha) 1001.1 — 94.03 38.05 "™ = 30.187 10° Ibgth = 16.2 = 16.2 x 1.863 x 10° Heat added = hy — hg = 1204.6 ~ 94.03 = 1110.57 Bru/lb,, Plant efficiency 25 x02 = 0.1649 = 16.49% 3412 Plant hear'sate = 222. lant heat rate = 5 20,690 BrwkWhS14 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY HS Removal : rund in the Geyser steam at concentrations around 200 ppm. It is toxic, pio Sal joes ee AAG Hessen: eoussel ec enum oqo, Spent 28 WS ~ wnt stce, Dees 2; VE Veal oepe ae a 3, WS = winter slice, December 2; VE = Vera (sri y Mach 2.() Teer at wen fm thes; PA = pl ti EA ~ ep lg EF = ele De: Cis fom ah oot ante sie (| tone fen tn8. mck cries a). ns me in extraterrestrial solar radiation intensity that is ne i arly constant and js call constant $. It is equal to the area under curve A in Fig. 13-3 and has co $= 1353 Wim? = 1.353 kWim? S = 1.940 langley*/min S = 428 Buh - f S = 4871 kii(h - m*) reat 3 ‘ Pe ai lia rit ofthe cart around the sun causes the seal exrateesial -viate only slightly from the solar constant with a range roughly =3 ‘The langley isa unit frequently used in solar engineering. Bis equal (01,0 cate. 2100) 2000] 1600] g ‘Beam spettlfadiane. Wham & 8 sos 18 1 20 2a Wavetength. om igce 133 Solvency beam rion wa faction of wavlengt (0) exe WAS 8 3? Fim radamee, f= 135 Win (8) ees, maw 1.0.1 = 924.9 Wh (Semel eZ era i) rerial, mg ~ 101 = 23435 Win. Curve A scoring ONASAIASTM Sande, oa cD ual competed for 20-tim preciite water vapor, 3.4m ort, af eae ences on. percent, Other small variations occur with diferent periodicities and as a result of sunspots. + Extraterrestrial solar radiation i ll of the beam-radiation type, also alled direct radiation, This is radiation received from the sun in essentially straight rays or beams that are unscattered by the atmosphere. ‘The earth's polar axis (the axis of rotation of the earth) is inclined @ permanent 23.45" from a nonnal tothe ecliptic plane (EP). the plane ofthe earth’s orbit around the sun (Fig. 13-26). The ecliptic axis (EA) ofthe earth isthe one that B08 through its center but which i always perpendicular tothe ecliptic plane, The: dace are ina plane normal to the sun's rays at the two equinoxes and to them at the two solstices. Thus, although the earth’ it appears to wobble around the sun with eee voc and away from it in the winter, with both hemispheres “seeing” it ‘equally only at the equinoxes. ‘The angle between the sun’s rays and the earth's equatorial plane (normal to the polar axis) is called the sun's dectination angle @- In the northery hemisphere 0s is pov at beth cauinoxes and has a maximum value that corresponds to the tit “angle536 rowaRhLANT TecuNOLOGY . $d zo z j- eae a ye Tee een ee aor Slee +23.45° at the summer solstice and ~23.45° at the winter solstice. The variation of 6, during the year, for the northem hemisphere, is shown in Fig. 13-4, The seasonal variation of the terrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface at any one location on the earth's surface is accounted for by the variation in @y. 13-4 TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION ‘The solar energy falling on the earth's surface is called terrestrial radiation. The rate of terrestrial energy falling on a unit surface area in Wim", 1(s + m"), or Btw/(h « 2) is variably referred to as radiation, iradiation, irradiance, insolation, or energy fux. Terrestrial radiation varies significantly, both daily because of the earth's rotation and seasonally because of the change in the sun’s declination angle. During both the vernal and autumnal equinox, the sun's rays are perpendicular to the earth's surface at the ‘equator and cause equal radiation intensities inthe northern and southern hemispheres. At the summer solstice the earth's axis is tilted towards the sun so that its northern hemisphere receives more radiation than the southem hemisphere. At the winter sol- stice, the reverse is true, with local solar intensities strongly dependent upon latitude. Besides variations caused by the spatial changes between the sun and earth, terrestrial -tadiation is subject to reductions and changes due to the presence of various gases, ‘vapors, and particulate matter in the earth's atmosphere. The extraterrestrial radiation is said to be attenuated by two mechanisms: scattering and absorption. Scattering is « mechanism by which part of a radiation beam is scattered laterally and is, therefore, attenuated by the air molecules, water vapor, and the dust in the atmosphere. The mechanism is dependent upon the type of scattering medium and the wavelength of radiation and is a rather complex phenomenon. It is known, however, that scattered, or diffuse, radiation is mostly of shorter wavelengths, which is the reason the sky appears blue. Absorprion of solar radiation in the atmosphere is mainly by ozone Os, water vapor H,0, and carbon dioxide CO;. X-ray and other very short wavelength radiations ‘of the sun are absorbed high in the ionosphere by Nz, Os, and other components. The SOLAR ENERGY 537 main effects are caused by: (1) Ozone in the ultraviolet (short wavelength) rays with absorption complete below 0.29 jum and decreasing between 0.29 and 0,35 um, where it ceases except for a weak absorption band near 0.6 jm. (2) Water vapor with absorption strong in wavelength bands in the infrared (long wavelength) part of the spectrum, at 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8 pm. (3) Carbon dioxide with no absorption bands in the short or visible parts of the spectrum but several between 2.36 to 3.02 yum, 4.01 to 4.08 jum, and 12.5 to 16.5 jm. The extraterrestrial radiation is very low in that region (less than 5 percent of the total spectrum) so that absorption by both HzO end CO, causes the energy reccived at wavelengths greater than 2.3 yum at the earth's surface to be insignificant.* For terrestrial applications, therefore, only the wavelength ‘range 0.29 to 2.5 jm is significant. ‘The terrestrial solar radiation, that incident on the earth's surface, is composed of two pars: (1) beam radiation, defined above, and (2) diffuse radiation. The latter is radiation that had its direction changed by atmospheric scattering. It is sometimes called sky radiation because itis the radiation one feels if standing in the shade or under a small cloud on an otherwise sunny day. (It should not, however, be confused with radiation emitted by the atmosphere itself) ‘The incident radiation on the earth's surface is usually presented in terms of dimensionless air mass m,, defined as ‘m, = air mass = ratio of optical thickness of the atmosphere through which beam radiation passes to the surface (o its optical thickness if the sun were at the zenith, i.e., directly above (dimensionless) Thus, ms = 0 means extraterrestrial, m, = 1 indicates sea level on the earth when the sun is at the zenith, m, = 2 when the sun is at a zenith angle 6, equal to 60°. 6, is the angle subtended by the solar beam and the zenith. The air mass m, is related to zenith angles from 6, = 0° to 6, = 70°, at sea level, by mz = (cos 8," (3-1) For values of @, greater than 70°, the curvature of the earth becomes significant and ‘m becomes progressively smaller than that given by Eq. (13-1). Figure 13-3 shows the spectral distribution of extrateresrial beam radiation (m, = 0) 4 well as terrestrial beam radiations for air masses m, = 1, 4, and 10. The spectral Aistribution of the sora! radiation isthe sum of both the beam and diffuse components, Measurements show that the diffuse component distribution is similar to that of the ‘oval, though shifted somewhat toward the short wavelengths. (Recall that scattering ‘occurs most at short wavelengths.) This suggests that the spectral-energy distribution, from an overcast sky is similar to that from a clear sky. Considering a horizontal surface on a clear day, both beam and diffuse radiation ‘depend upon the hour of the day. Both are maximum around noon and both decrease * The COs iniared absorptions are, however, siguticant when one considers low-temperature radiation from the earth back to space, which typically covers a spectral range of 3 w 50 ym with « pesk neat 10 lum. An increase in COs concentrations in the atmosphere are cause for cancer because ofthe “greenhouse tic" (See. 17-6),$38 rowsneLanT TECHNOLOGY toward dusk, but beam radiation decreases at # faster rate, ‘Thus the ratio of diffuse {o-beam radiation also depends upon the hour of the day, as it is very low around noon and increases slowly toward unity and slightly exceeds it at dusk. Table 13-1 shows calculated beam and diffuse radiations for a clear August day in the Midwest (Madison, Wisconsin), including beam radiation on a surface normal to the radiation, i.e., one that tracks the sun, J; beam radiation on a horizontal surface: fx; diffuse radiation ,; and cumulative radiation on a horizontal surface /.y. All are in M¥/tn? for I-h periods as shown. ‘The totals for the day would be twice the sums of the ‘columns. Thus the day total beam radiation on a normal surface is2. x 15.38 = 30.76 Mi/m? per day. Likewise the day total beam radiation, diffuse, and cumulative on @ horizontal surface would be 18,82, 3.74, and 22.56 Mi/m* per day, respectively. The ratio of diffuse to beam radiation and their total are given only for @ horizontal surface. ‘The reason is that for a surface normal to the beam radiation, diffuse radiation is affected by the decrease of the “total” sky seen by the surface as well as reflectance ‘effects from the ground, ‘The computations given in Table 13-1 dealt with a clear day, The available terrestrial solar energy at a given time and place is influenced not only by time of day or year, location, and scattering as mentioned above but also by cloudiness. All effects ‘may be combined in one parameter called the clearness index C,, defined as C; = cleamess index = ratio of the average radiation on a horizontal surface for a given period to the average extraterrestrial radiation for the same period ‘The averaging could be nonthly, daily, or hourly, in which ease C, would be a monthly, daily, or hourly clearness index. C; varies widely from near 30 to as high as 70 percent in some localities on earth, with its value going down to.zero in some locations because of bad weather even in the daytime. Table 13-2 shows measured cumulative daily radiations on a horizontal surface in selected locations in the United States. ‘The total radiation received by a surface however is undoubtedly greater from ‘Table 13-1 Beam and diffuse radiations for a clear August day in Madison, Wisconsin® Hour, pm. ie ton ttle ew R41 296 250 ont 286 12 290 231 0s 2.66 232m 195 O17 229 MIs on 175 45° 22 O87 ost Lig 56 138 03 as 031 67 on 00 133 007 Table 13-2 Average cumulative daily solar radiation on a horizontal surtace* ‘Mar. Apr. “May June uly Aug. Sept. Ox. Nov. Dea eb. Jan *From Ref. 116.‘540 rowenpLawr TECHNOLOGY surface that is normal to beam radiations, as ean be seen when comparing columns 2 and 6 of Table 13-1, even though diffuse radiation is not included in the former. This is the reason why a radiation “collecting” surface would be more effective if it were made to track the sun, .e., to change angle, so that it would always remain perpen- dicular to the rays emanating from it. We will sec later, however, that in a central- receiver system, the tracking is such that the collecting surface should alter its angle 0 that it reflects solar radiation to a fixed in-place central receiver. The total amount of solar radiation received by the earth is, as indicated earlier, immense. Because the sun's rays are essentially parallel and hence perpendicular 10 the earth's projected area, the extraterrestrial power P. received is given by the solar ‘constant $ times the projected area of the earth, or Pe = Sak? 3:2) ‘The radius of the earth R is 6.378 x 10° m and $ = 1,353 kWim?, so that P. = 1.353 x {6.378 x 105? = 1.73 x 104 kW Energy per year = 1.73 x 10! x 8766 lvyear = 1.516 x 10!" kWh/year = 1516 X 10" X 3.6 = 5.457 x 10" Mi/ycar ‘The continental United States land area is about 2.885 x 10° mi?, about 7.5 x 10" sm. It thus receives extraterrestrial radiation at the ratc of 7.5 x 10"? x 1.353 = 10° L L i z La i ey oo * as Peels cand jnction———S ese em | (abe) | a0 i ‘a ee J is on fA Angel S09) Be et th oy" Rages Pe ea 1 ( Teer cin a Bey 3 450 ‘Tampa (453) Mami C481) igure 13:5 Annual mean duly solar ration in the United Statee, areas A < 300, B > 300, C> 350, 1D > 400, E > 450, F > $00 lanleyiday. (1 angley = 1 caen. 1 langleyiday ~ 4.846 x 10-* KW sm? = 0.01163 kWivin? per day.) SOLAR ENEHOY S41 Spring fall —~ i enuinox g 2 Sram sel cr sige igure 13-6 Dally variations of s0- lar radiation falling on @ surface | perpendicular beam radiation at i both solces and equinoxes in Al- S45 67 SSW T Zs 4 SS TE pees New Mee, Sols! noon kW when the sun is shining, For a yearly average’ sunshine of 12 h/day, the total yearly extraterrestrial radiation would be 10" x 8766/2 = 4.43 x 10'° kWhiyear. ‘Assuming an average clearness index C, of 50 percent, the terrestrial radiation received by the continental United States would be about 2.2 x 10° kWh/year, Figure 13-5 shows the annual terrestrial mean daily solar radiation falting on the United States in Tangleys (1 langley = 1 calicm? = 41.87 ki/m? = 0.0116 kWhim? = 3.69 Bruit’). Figure 13-6 shows an example of solar radiation falling on a surface normal to the ‘sun's rays in Albuquerque, New Mexico, versus time of day based on the mean sun time* at the two solstices and either equinox. It is interesting to note that during the- ‘winter solstice, the: maximum radiation is highest because the sky is clearest thonigh it does not last as long during the day. 13-5 SOLAR-ELECTRIC CONVERSION SYSTEMS ‘The yearly consumption of all forms of energy in the continental United States in the early 1980s was 78 x 10" Btu, or 2.286 x 10" kWh, of which about 25 percent 020 x 10'S Buu, 5.86 x 10!?kWh, was used to generate clectrcity. Atan average conversion efficiency of about 30 to 32 percent, the total electric-power consumption ‘was about 1.8 x 10)? kWh/year. The mean san time (MST) on earth icaculated fram the local standard time (LST) for esc ongtu. ‘The 360" of the earth are divided into twenty-four 15°-wide geographicel time zones (artificially mviied ‘by politcal boundaries). An imaginary longitudinal line runs through the ceoter ofeach rine zone, tis callod the standard meridian of that zone. (In the United States the stndard meidans are located st longitudes 75° for easter standard time, 90° for cetral standard time, 105 for mountain standard ie, ‘nd 120° for Pacific tundard time.) At each meridian the local standart time andthe mean san time ae ‘eaical. At points within a 2nne east or west of its meridian, the mean sun tine is Ister or eal, ‘espectively, chan th local standard time. Because the eath rotates 360” in 24h 24 x 60 = 1440 mio, each degree of rotation coresponds 19 14400460 = 4 min Thus‘S42 rownneLaNr TECHNOLOGY It can be scen that the terrestrial solar incidence of 2.2 x 10'° kWhiyear can supply some 1000 times all the energy consumption or some 12,000 the electric-energy consumption in the United States, if the entire surface area is available for collection and nothing is left for housing, industry, food growing, etc, and ifthe sola-to-clectric conversion efficiency were 100 percent. tis this abundance of “free” energy that has given solar proponents much am- munition, though their arguments ignore the fact that not all areas have-dependable solar radiation (high average C;), and even these suffer from daily and seasonal pe- riodicity, and that solar-to-electric conversion is capitalintensive and inefficient. Still, ‘such conversion is an engineering feasibility and, in locations remote from an electric arid, where the demands are low, may be an economic feasibility. Solar energy may be converted to electricity by one of two means: solar thermal conversion or photovoltaic conversion. Solar-Thermal Conversion By this method solar radiation is converted to heat that in tum is added toa ther- modynamic cycle to produce mechanical work and electricity. For this to be efficient, and hence economical, it is necessary to collect and concentrate the diffuse solar radiation in an efficient manner to arrive at a reasonably high-temperature heat source. The collectors gather the sun's energy and direct it onto receivers that contain the working fluid of the thermodynamic cycle. The receivers that arc the subject of the ‘most serious considerations are: 1. Central receivers. 2. Dispersed or distributed receivers. These could be of (2) the polat-focus type oF () the line-focus type. 3. Ponds. degrees eas’ st =1st{ or) of standard nieriian > 4 min degrees wes, During periods of daylight saving time, LST is obi apn. ‘The tre or local sumtime, called the apparent solar rime (AST), and the mean sun time (MST) would ‘be the same if th earth rotated around the sun ina eircuar orbit and thus at constant velocity. The somevhot elliptical orbit ofthe earth causes its velocity fo vary and, therefore, the sun to appear on earth o be etl ‘or ue dan the mncan su time, The difleence between AST and MST is called the equation of me (ET), whichis not an equation at all but a variable coretion factor that depends upon the time ofthe year 25 shown: by siburting 1 ffom the local daylight time i et,_NéW, Mar. Ape. May June July Aug. Sept Sarrass T ist day of. +18 ‘Thus AST = MST + equation of time, SOLAR ENERGY $43 The conversion systems used in Solar-thermal-electric conversion are of many types. These include: 1. Rankine cycle, using steam or other working fluid 2. Brayton cycle, using helium or air as working fluid 3. Hybrid systems 4. Repowering systems In addition, storage systems may be necessary. Systems producing process heat only are also receiving some attention. Photovoltaic Conversion Photovoltaic systems consist of direct-conversion devices in the form of cells that ‘convert the solar radiani-energy photons to electricity without benefit of @ thermo: dynamic cyele or working fluid. They can be thelr own collectors or ean use concen ‘wating collectors that focus the solar input on them. ‘The cells produce low currents and voltages and are therefore usually combined into modules that in turn are combined in panels and then arrays to meet specific power requirements. The cells are made of 1. Single-crystal silicon 2, Silicon with many erystals 3. Thin films with a wide range of single chemical compounds or combinations of them ‘These various devices will be covered in the next few sections in this chapter, 13-6 SOLAR-THERMAL CENTRAL-RECEIVER SYSTEMS ‘The central-teceiver approach to solar-thermal-electric systems uses a large field of reflecting mirrors called heliostats that redirect the sun's energy and concentrate it on ‘central receiver mounted on top of a tower (Fig. 13-7). The heliostas are individually guided, since they cover a large field, so that each focuses the sun's energy it receives ‘on the central receiver at all hours of sunlight. In the receiver the concentrated solar energy is absorbed by a circulating fluid. The fluid could be water, which vaporizes into steam that is used to drive a turbogenerator in a Rankine cycle, or an intermediate fluid that transports the heat to the steam cycle. ___The system should incomporate storage for nighttime and cloudy periods, as shown, in Fig. 13-7. ‘The receiver output is made greater than that required by the steam cycle, land the excess output during periods of greatest solar incidence is bypassed to a thermal Storage system, During periods of low or na solar incidence, the feedwater is shunted‘Sole incident radiation i ~ | reneaca _\~| Ei can | fl [ Hess Tune gents Drycotigtors Deon ene AAT) Pomp Figure 13-7 Schematic ofa solarthermal cenil-xeceiver system powerplant, to the storage system, instead of to the receiver, where it vaporizes for use in the turbine, Proper valving in the system allows operation in either mode. Because solar-thermal electric plants are most likely to be located in hot arid arcas where land is plentiful (for the large heliostat field) and where the sun's energy is plentiful and dependable, but where cooling water is scarce, the condenser water is ‘most probably cooled by a dry-coaling tower. Such towers are less effective and cause ‘reduction in Rankine cycle efficiency but require practically no makeup water (Sec. 7. In the next five sections, the major subsystems of the central-receiver concept will be presented, with many of the design features and data obtained from the Solar One plant experience. Solar One is x 10-MWe) (peak) pilot plant located in the Mojave Desert in California that went into operation and (esting in mid-1982 (Sec. 13-11). SOLAR ENEROY S45 13-7 THE HELIOSTATS The heliostats* are reflecting mirrors that are steerable so that they can refleet the sun's rays on the central receiver at almost all times during the daylight hours. In ‘essence, they keep the sun stationary as far as the receiver is concemed. They are. ‘made to track the sun, not by being perpendicular to its rays (as in distributed systems, See, 13-12) but by being at such an angle to these rays that they reflect them to the stationary receiver. This angle depends upon both the time of day and the position of the individual heliostat with respect to the receiver. ‘A heliostat is composed of a refictive surface or mirtor, mirror support structure, Pedestal, foundation, and control and drive mechanisms, Current designs have total reflective areas between 40 and 70 m*, Ideally, the surface should be slightly parabolic ‘with the focal length equal to the distance from the surface tothe receiver but, because that distance is long, spherical or even fat surfaces offer good performance. There are two typés of reflecting surfaces: glass and plastic. A glass heliostat is typically divided into 10 to 14°panels rather than & single large surface for case of manufacture and transportation (Fig. 13-8). A glass pan! is typically a second-surface mirror (similar to household mirrors). The panels ae usually rectangular, 1.2 x 3.6 m (4 X 12 ft) being typical. They are made of thin (1.5 to 3, ‘mim) lowiron glass sheets to minimize absorption. The panels, when assembled, are canted slightly with respect to each other, with the canting varying throughout the field, to focus the sun’s rays on the receiver. Heliostats that use glass are much further developed at this time (1982) than plastic ‘ones mainly because of their higher reflectance and strength. Current heliestas, there- fore are constricted of glass and silver forthe reflecting surface pls stel and alurninum cor copper for the supporting structure. They must be constructed in a massive, sturdy ‘manner to withstand strong wind loads and other severe weather conditions. They. range widely in mass, from 5 to 60 kg/m? of mirror area, excluding foundation. The 10-MW(e) Solar One pilot plant uses 1818 glass heliostats of the type shown in Fig. 13-8, each containing 12 separate panels. ‘The hiliostats curently account for about 45 percent of the total capital cost of 8 solar-thermal central-teceiver powerplant (the tower and receiver account for about 1 percent each, the thermal storage system for about 17 percent, and the rest is divided ‘among the land and the balance of the plant). A reduction in heliostat costs is therefore ‘8 major goal in reducing plant capital costs, which are currently estimated at 2 to 5 times the cost of conventional and nuclear powerplants, with a heliostat cost of about $250/m?, DOE second-generation heliostat studies indicate the cast would go down to $110/m? to $150/m? (in 1980 dollars) if ordered in quantity. The plastic heliostat, although lower in reflectance and strength than the glass hreliostat, promises lower costs, lower mass of the reflector surface, and hence lower ‘mass and costs of the support structure and drive mechanism. A typical plastic heliostat design by Boeing (Fig. 13-9) has a reflecting, stretched plastic film disc of 16.7-m? ‘area that is protected from wind loads by an air-supported plastic bubble. “From the Greek helios, “ihe sun In Greek mythology: the sun god, son of Hyperion,Figure 13:8 A typical glas-hliostt system, sear view (McDonnell Douglas.) ‘The Heliostat Field ‘The heligstat field supplying # central receiver, also called the collector subsystem, has a shape that must be optimized to suit the topography of the area and the power level of the plant, The field may be on a flat terrain, on the side of a hill, otc. In the northern hemisphere, the noontime sua is always south of the central-teceiver tower, $0.4 north field is usually most cost-effective because its cosine loss (below) is least. For small plants, of less than 100 MW of thermal-energy input, a totally north field is optimum (Fig, 13-10a), As plant size increases, the field becomes larger ancl many heliostats ate farther from the tower. The atmosphere around the plant attenuates the reflected radiation from the most distant north heliostats. The receiver input can then be improved by relocating the distant heliostats to the east and west of the tower and, as plant size increases further, to the south of it (Fig. 13-106). In such cases, the additional cosine loss is less than the atmospheric attenuation foss from the distant north heliostats, ‘Figure 13 A typical plastic hatiosa system (Boeing. ‘SoxaR enency 547 fe eto els igure 13-10 Optinum ellos field shapes oriented forthe northern heni- sphere: (a) smal plant < 100 MWCO) and (large plant > S000 MW. Dimensions in multiples ofreeiver- ‘tower height (118). ‘The energy losses betwen the extraterrestrial (solar constant) and terrestrial in- solations have already been discussed. There are, in addition, energy losses between the incident encrgy on the heliostat field and the receiver. ‘These may be summarized by: 1. Shadowing. This is caused by one heliostat casting a shadow on the reflective surface of another at certain times of the day. (The tower shadow on the heliostats has a negligible effect.) 2. Cosine loss. Since the reflective surface of a heliostat is not perpendicular to the ‘beam radiation from the sun, but assumes an angle that would reflect that beam to the central receiver, the area of solar flux intercepted by the heliostat is less than its reflective surface by the cosine of the angle between the surface and the per- pendicular to the beam. 3. Blocking. This is the result when the reflected light from one heliostat is partially blocked by the back side of another. 4, Reflective losses. "These result from absorption ofthe incident radiation by the glass and silvering and by scattering by dirt on the reflective surface. They prevent some of the light from being specularly reflected to the receiver. ‘5. Attenuation. This represents losses by absorption and scatter by water vapor, haze, fog, smoke, and particulates in the atmosphere between the heliostat and receiver. ‘The collector field, and the heliostat layout within that field, should therefore be ‘optimized to transport the required thermal energy tq the receiver at the lowest cost, As always, optimization implies trade-offs between usully conflicting requirements. For example, reducing shadowing and blocking by increasing spacing between he- ligstats results in greater attenuation, greater land use for a given energy input, and & larger image at the receiver, resulting in greater spillage (below), Studies have shown that the most cost-effective layout of heliostats within their ficld is radial stagger layout (Fig. 13-11). It minimizes losses by blocking and attenvation and results in minimum land use‘548 poweRPLANT TECHNOLOGY igure 13-11 Radial stggerhelistat layout with respect to the receiver. Heliostat Control The insolation to the field varies from hour to hour, as well as seasonally (Fig. 13- 6). Atsunrise most ofthe heliostats are shadowed except in the extreme westem sector. AA similar situation occurs at sunset. A minimum practical amount of energy, usually considered at 10 percent of peak power, can only be collected when the sun is at an elevation of 15° or greater from horizontal. The reflected power and the receiver losses (below) are shown compared to the normal incident terrestrial insolation forthe summer solstice, equinox, and winter solstice in Fig. 13-12, with a rapid rise and fall at 15° from sunrise and sunset, The receiver loss is nearly constant and independent of time of day as it operates ata fixed design temperatire. Hence, that loss is a greater fraction of the input during off noon operation. ‘The daily operating cycle of solar-energy collection therefore includes morning start-up, operation during the power periods shown in Fig. 13-12, and evening shut- down. During nonoperation, the heliostats are placed in the stow. or storage, position. This is usually a horizontal face down or a vertical position. For moming start-up, they are maneuvered from the stow position to a standby position with the reflected sun rays aimed at a point adjacent to but not atthe receiver itself. This maneuver may take as. much as 15 min and may consume as much as 0.1 kWh per heliostat. The receiver is then started up (coolant pumped through), after which the heliostats are sequentially moved from the standby position to the operating position, i.e., with reflected sun rays aimed at the receiver surface. This prevents overheating of the receiver. Receiver flow controls also help prevent overheating, During normal operation, the heliostats are in a sun-rracking mode, in which each is adjusted by a controller to keep the reflected sun rays at the aim point. Different hrliostats can have slightly different aim points in order to spread the energy flux tuniformly over the receiver surface. Sun tracking of the heliostats is aecomplished by ‘one of two methods. The first uses active reflected-beam sensors that control drive ‘motors on the heliostat to orient the reflective surfaces so that the beam is continuously reflected to its aim point. The second method uses a preprogrammed computer control that orients the reflective surfaces according to their position with respect othe receiver, SOLAR evency 549 Reflected power Norma nein Ieslation, Summer wists WS elevation > 15° ‘Thecal power, kim? a r Equinos 0a) Figure 13-12 Incident emul insolation, reflected power reaching the receiver, and thermal power tL. wintse converted by the receiver atthe two sobs and MEE OT FE oltse —equinoxes, showing effects of start-ap and shut Hours from solr oon down (118), time of day, and day of year. Tracking in either method is done by adjusting two axes of rotation, azimuth and elevation, of the reflective surface. ‘The shutdown procedute is the reverse of the start-up procedure. The heliostats ‘are moved from the sun-tracking mode positions to the standby position and then to the stow position. The stow position is used during the night but also during plant outages and periods of extreme weather (vertical stow in hail; horizontal for high winds; vertical slightly slanted upwards, for rain to take advantage of its cleaning action). "Ti id systems must be capable of extremely accurate reflective surface otientation (within a few milliradians) because even a tiny angle error would result in the refleeted beam widely missing its aim point as a result ofthe long distance between heliostat and receiver. This accurate operation must also be maintained in strong winds by the rigidity of the heliostat support end structure, ; Loss-of-coolant accidents (LOCA) require great attention to avoid damage t the receiver (8 similar concem to that in nuclear reactors where a loss-of-coolant accident can result in overheating and damage to the reactor core and possible core fuel melt‘550 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY down). A'LOCA must be met by shutting off the energy power input to the receiver by rapidly moving the heliostat aim points away from it, a process that might take 30 s. A back-up power-supply system is necessary in cases of concurrent loss of ‘electric power. In that case, a passive-energy input reduction to the receiver, due to defocusing as the sun travels away from the set point, takes place, but the reduction is gradual and slow, taking 2 to 3 min for completion. As in nuclear reactors, con- sideration may have to be given to the installation of an emergency cooling system, especially for heavy receivers with a large thermal mass. 13-8 THE RECEIVER Central receivers sit atop tall towers. [Solar One has a 94,5 m (310 ft high tower.) ‘They are subjected to peak radiation energy fluxes ranging roughly between 300 and 700 kW/m?. The receiver is designed to intercept, absorb, and transport most of this energy to a heat-iransfer fluid. Although radiation beams leaving the heliostats may be rectangular, the beam reaching the receiver is more circular because of the canting and focusing of the heliostat reflecting panels and because of the finite image of the sun, The flux distribution of the reflected beam reaching the receiver is approximately gaussian. ‘The heat-absorbing surface is usually similar (o that in a water-wall,fossil-fueled boiler (Sec. 3-4): Panels of parallel tubes with headers at each end absorb the solar ‘nergy incident on their outside surface and conduct it to a heat-transfer or coolant fluid flowing inside. The panels are typically supported at the top to allow thermal expansion to occur downward. ‘There are two basic types of receivers under consideration: cavity and external Fig. 13-13). A cavity receiver has coolant-tube panels lining the inner walls of the cavity. The tube-panel arrangement within the cavity is concave toward the heliostat field, and the panel area is 2 to 3 times the aperture area. The aperture arca is sized about the same as the sun's image from the farthest heliostats, The aperture-to-panel ‘area ratio is sized to minimize the sum of thermal losses and spillage (below). A cavity receiver may be designed with one or more cavities and apertures, each witha collecting sector with an angle between 60 and 120°, Figure 13-13a shows a four-aperture cavity receiver. The panels of adjacent cavities may form a common wall, heated from both sides, to reduce thermal stresses that result from one-sided heating (as in an external receiver). ‘The extemal receiver (Fig. 13-135) has the coolant-tube panels lining the outside of the receiver. The panels may either be flat, for small plants, or slightly convex toward the heliostat field, for large plants, The external receiver shown is a multipane!} polyhedron approximating a cylinder with a height-o-diameter ratio ranging between 1: to ‘The coolant tubes range in diameter from 0.75 to 2.2 in (20 to 56 mm) and in thickness from 0.049 to 0.25 in (1.2 to 6.4 mm), depending upon pressure, material, and other engineering design considerations. Figure 13-13 Typical cenral receivers: (2) foutapernre cavity type and (b) extemal type (118), ss‘552 pownRPLANT TECHNOLOGY Receiver Efficiency ‘The efficiency of a receiver is defined as the ratio of the energy absorbed to that intercepted by it at the design point. The efficiency of a given receiver is the result of design compromises between several energy-loss mechanisms. These may be sum- marized as: 1. Spillage. This is energy reflected by the heliostats but not intercepted by the receiver heatransport fluid. The reflected rays may miss the receiver altogether or fall outside an aperture (in a cavity receiver), Spillage may be caused by heliostat tracking errors caused by control system errors, wind effects, stecring backlash, etc. Spillage is normally less than 5 percent in a well-designed system. 2. Reflection. This is energy scattered back from the receiver heat-iransfer surface. tis minimized by painting these surfaces with high-absorptivity paint. Its typically Jess than 5 percent in a well-designed system. Convection. This is energy lost by convection from the receiver body to the sur- rounding air, It is the sum of natural and forced (wind-driven) convection. 4. Radiation. ‘This is energy lost by infrared radiation of the hot receiver surface back to the environment. Both convection and radiation losses are functions of the receiver temperature, its configuration, and type (cavity or external). The combined convection and radiation losses vary between 5 to 15 percent. 5. Conduction. ‘This is energy lost internally through structural members, insulation, cic, It is the least of the losses, being typically much less than 1 percent. 3 Design optimization is important. For example, a large receiver enjoys low spillage but suffers from large convection and radiation losses. A cavity receiver has fewer reflection losses than an external receiver as well as less convection because the heat- transfer surfaces are protected (a cavity approximates a black body*). It does, however, have greater conduction losses because of its greater size and complexity. Cavity receivers are therefore more efficient than extemal receivers. Cavity re- ceivers designed by Honeywell and Martin Marietta companies showed efficiencies in excess of 90 percent. An external receiver designed by McDonnell Douglas Company showed an efficiency of approximately 80 percent. On the other hand, cavity receivers are much larger, heavier, and more costly than extemal receivers. In the designs proposed for Solar One, the cavity receivers had masses of more than 250 metric tons each, whereas the external receiver had a mass of approximately 136 metric tons. * A black body canbe closely approximated by «small aperture toa larger cavity. The radiation entering trough the aperture is repeatedly efeied within the cavity with very litle of it laing ls way back ot. thus trapped inside, and dhe result is an absorbivity nearly equal to nity, SOLAR ENERGY 553 13-9 THE HEAT-TRANSPORT SYSTEM ‘The heat-transport system is composed of the heattransfer fluid (primary coolant), receiver piping, piping between recelver and power-generating equipment, and pumps. ‘The primary coolant may or may not be the same as the powerplant working fluid. Five primary coolants have been extensively studied: 1, Water-steam, Water receives heat in the receiver, where it is converted to steam, which doubles as powerplant working fluid. The phase change in the receiver ‘occurs as in conventional stcam generators, either in a drum boiler with separate boiler ‘and supetheater sections, or in a once-through boiler without drum (Sec. 3-8). Steam may be generated at 1000 to 1100°F ($40 to 600°C) and 1000 to 2000 psia (70 to 140 bar), The use of an all water-steam system has the advantages of least extension of technology and hence lower developmental costs. It is the one used in Solar One. Its performance, however, is considerd somewhat inferior to the other systems still under development. 2. Liquid metals. Liquid metals, particularly sodium Na, are under intensive development as heat-transport fluids for fast-breeder nuclear reactors (Secs. 11-3 to 11-5). Their main advantage is the high heat-transfer coefficients they are capable of, which result in a more-compact and lighter receiver. Sodium freezes at 208°F (98°C) ‘and thus requires freeze protection during plant shutdown, either by heating the pipes or by draining them. Sodium is also chemically active, oxidizing rapidly in air or ‘water. A cover gas such as argon, which is heavier than air, is used (as in sodium- cooled nuclear reactors) to protect the coolant and prevent oxidation and fires. Cold ‘and hot traps need to be used to remove oxides and carbon respectively, from the sodium. Sodium may be operated up to 1000°F (540°C) as a single-phase liquid coolant fit has @ normal boiling point of 1621°F, (883°C)] and must transport the solar heat to a steam generator at the plant site [119]. Liquid metals have low vapor pressures 8 the operating temperatures of interest and ence donot require high pressurization in the heattransfer loop. 3. Molten salts, Molten salts are used as heat-transport agents in the chemical industry and have been used experimentally as nuclear-reactor fluid fuels. They, as liguid metals, do not require high pressurization at operating temperatures and, in addition, have high volumetric heat capacities. Nitrate salt mixtures have been proposed for solar central-receiver systems (120). The salt can also operate at high temperature and transfer its heat to a steam generator at the plant site. It does, however, suffer from an even higher freezing point, about 290 to 430°F (140 to 220°C), which requires precautions against solidification during shutdown, 4. Gases. Gases can be operited at any temperstures desired that are compatible ‘with component materials, often in excess of 1550°F (840°C), Pressurization is nec- essary only to overcome pressure losses in the coolant loop and to increase their mass~ flow rates. The low heat capacities of gases require large volume flow rates and hence large flow velocities. Pressurization increases density and thus increases the volumetric heat capacity and decreases velocities, and bence pressure losses, for a given heat- transport rate. The gases considered are air and helium. They can be used as heat-‘584, FOWERLANT-TECHNOLOGY transport agents that generate steam ina steam generator in a Rankine-cycle powerplant, or they can be used directly in a Brayton-cycle powerplant gas-turbine of the open type (with air) [121], in a closed cycle (with helium) [122], or in a combined cycle 1123} (Sec. 8-8). 5. Heat-ransfer oil. Oils have the advantages of low-corrosion characteristics swith most materials and can be selected for low vapor pressures; They are, however, flammable, can cause flow problems at low temperatures, and usually suffer pyrolitic damage, i.c., they decompose under high-temperature conditions, called pyrolitic decomposition (in a nuclear-radiation environment it is called radiolytic decomposi- tion). The decomposition results in low boilers (gases and low-molecular-weight liq- uuids) that cause’an inerease in system pressure and in high boilers (thick, gummy sesidue-type oils) that foul heat-transfer surfaces. They can only therefore be operated ‘over a relatively narrow temperature range. Two suggested oils for solar central- receiver systems are Thermninol 66 and Carolina HT-43 [124], which have an operating range of 20 to 600°F (—7 to 315°C). Gils are also used to transport receiver heat to a steam generator at the plant site, ‘The piping that takes the primary fluid from the receiver, down the tower, and ‘across the heliostat field to the plant site is a major cost item of the total powerplant. Pipe sizes for a 400-MWW(®) receiver range in ID from 1.0 to 1.5 ft (0.3 t0 0.5 m) for ‘molten salt to 8 ft (2.4 m) for air at 175 psia (12 bar) and in length up to 2000 ft (600 1m) for both the hot and cold runs. Because of the differences in their densities and heat-transport properties, the heat- transport fluids influence the mass of the receiver. For 2 400-MW(}) receiver, the mass ‘may range between 550,000 Iq (2.5 metric tons) fora sodium-cooled external receiver to 5.5 million Ib, (2500 metric tons) for an air-cooled cavity receiver. 13-10 THE THERMAL-STORAGE SYSTEM Although several energy-storage systems art possible, such as chemical, electrochem- ical (batteries), mechanical (compressed air, pumped hydro, Aywhcel), and single- or ‘multiphase thermal energy (Chap. 16), the probable location of most solar powerplants precludes most such systems as being cost-incffective, The one exception seems at present fo be thermal single-phase energy storage. Such a system stores as sensible heat, i-c., without change in phase of the storage medium, some of the energy of the primary coolant after it has passed through the receiver. The energy thus stored is extracted when needed for use in the electric-generating station (or industrial process). Energy storage is needed in solar-thermal-electric powerplants (and solar process- heat applications) because of normally variable solar insolation, nonsolar periods, and abrupt insolation changes in inclement weather. Conventional (fossil-fired) backup systems may, of course, be used during such periods, as in hybrid systems (Sec. 13- 13), but thermal storage is another option that must be used in pure solar systems. ‘There are two types of thermal storage that are considered with solar systems. These are (I) single-tank, or thermocline, and (2) duai-tank, or hot-cold, systems. SOLAR ENERGY S55 ‘The single-tank, or thermocline, storage system is shown schematically in Fig 13-7. Storage takes place by circulating some of the hot primary coolant through the storage medium and returning the cooled primary coolant from the bottom of the Storage tank back to the receiver for reheating. Heat extraction during times of need is accomplished by reversing the process: cold primary coolant from the powerplant is heated by the storage medium, drawn from the top of the tank to the power system, and then returned to the bottom of the tank. The thermal gradient of hot at top, cold at bottom maintains stratification, allowing the hot fluid to remain afloat on the top, and gives the tank thermal stability. In addition, a solid storage medium of low thermal conductivity and high volumetric heat capacity, such as rock, is used to help impede ‘mixing of hot and cold fuids, A solid storage medium is a necessity in case the primary coolant is a gas (such as air or helium) because of the low heat capacity of gases, A Porous solid makes a good storage medium for gases. Figure 13-14 shows temperature-time characteristics of thermocline thermal- Storage system. Note that the-temperature gradient is never completely flat at any one time, a factor that affects the performance of such systems (below). ‘A variation of the thermocline system is one in which a separate storage fuid, ‘ther than the primary coolant, may be used, This would be a liquid of low thermal conductivity and high volumetric heat capacity, usually an oil. t may be used alone a5 a single medium or be assisted by a solid storage medium, such as rock in a dual- ‘Temperauce of sora ins Low Distance from top of storage tank Figure 13-18 Temperaturtime characterises of storage system556 rowERPLANT TECHNOLOGY ot plant ther storage unit 145m 7 te6 0) Grivel + sand Int rastr ol [igure 13-15 Thermocline storage system for the Solar One pilot powerplant. medium system as above, to reduce the volume of costly storage liquid and impede its mixing. Heat would be added to and extracted from the primary coolant via inter- mediate heat exchangers. ‘The Solar One powerplant uses a dual-medium thermocline storage system, shown in Fig. 13-15. The liquid is oil, The solid is composed of 1-in diameter gravel plus sand. The oil is uniformly distributed over the rock bed and extracted uniformly from it by diffuser manifolds, The tank is large, being nearly 50 ft (14.5 m) high and more than that in diameter, ‘The dual-tank, ot hot-cold, system uses two tanks. The fluid, a liquid, is, unlike the stratified thermocline system, at one temperature, hot in one tank, cold in the other, The amount of sensible energy stored varies by varying the level of the fluids in the well-nsulated tanks (Fig. 13-16). Thus, during storage, cold liquid is drawn from the cold tank, heated, and added to the hot tank. During extraction the operation is reversed. This dual-tank technology is borrowed from tefinery work. It is suitable ‘only for liquid coolants such as sodium, molten salt, of oil. The hot tanks used with sodium and molten salt need be made of high-alloy material such as austenitic stainless steel. ‘Thermal-energy-storage densities vary widely among the different storage media. ‘Some typical values for the temperature range 550 to 1050°F (290 to 565°C) are given in Table 13-3, The Solar One pilot plant has an oil-rock storage medium that operates at the much lower temperature range of 425 to 575°F (220 to 300°C) and has an energy storage density of 5300 Btw/ft? (0.05 MWh/m*). SOLAR syERaY 887 Receiver To From ‘igure 13-16 Schematic of « dusl-tank; o ht- Ey, ‘At higher temperatures, the high-energy portion of the distribution is different from that at T = 0. The probability that states much less than E> are occupied is still 1, the extent depending upon the value of T. For E = Ey the probability is exactly 1/2 (independent of temperature). For energies much greater than Er, the exponential term is much gresier than the 1 in the denominator of Eq. (13-4), and the probability rediices to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution probability (given by Ae?™*, where Ais # constant), ‘The Fermi energy can be computed by evaluating the total number of free electrons per unit volume nas Fey ape Ming oo ["* pin ne (me) ae Foamy? [2 a Figure 13-29 Energy distebucon of an electon gas at Tr F fee teamperares, 7; > 7) * 0, ‘SOLAR enmray 575 from which _ (a wm (2) (35) ‘The values of E¢ for metals are typically of the onder of a few election volts (eV),* about 7 eV for copper and 3.1 eV for sodium. It can also be easily shown that the average energy of a five electton at T = 0 is equal to 3/5 Ey, or a few electron ‘volts, much higher than the average kinetic energy of a particle ina classical gas eveu at high temperatures, which is given by 3/2 &7, thus being zero at 7 = 0, about 0.025 eV at room temperature, and 0.1 eV at 1160 K. ‘The behavior of free electrons at temperatures higher than 0 is important. At ‘moderate temperatures, the comers of the zetu temperature distribution (Fig. 13-29) are only slightly rounded. The difference increases as the temperature increases and becomes significant only within the energy range fe -BAsar (13-6) and, a6 indicated previously, the probability that the state E! = Bis occupied is 12. The free electrons whose energies are much less than the Fermi energy remain locked in the same energy states they occupied at 7’ = 0 irespective of temperature. A fraction of the most energetic electrons, those having energies within KT of the Fermi energy, occupy higher energy states than the Fermi energy. Such electrons can be elevated to these energies by collision with energetic particles such as high-energy photons or by thermal excitation (the basis for thermionics),. The Band Theory Photovoltaic devices, like thermoelectric devices, require a knowledge ofthe distinction between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Electrical materials differ in their ‘electrical conductivities by factors as high as 10°. The band theory of solids helps Us understand this distinction as well as the phenomena of electrical and thermal ‘conduction. A quantitative treatment of the band theory involves detailed wave me- chanics and is beyond the scope of this book. The following is an adequate (for our purposes) qualitative presentation of some aspects ofthat theory. In a system of noninteractive (or isolated) atoms of the same species, as in a gas, the valence electrons occupy a set of singte-energy levels, corresponding to permitted states of thst species (Fig. 13-30), When these atoms are brought together, such as ina crystalline sold, they interact strongly and thus cause the energy levels to spread throughout a set of energy bands (Fig. 13-306), The regions between the energy bands Of the interacting atoms, like those between the levels of noninteracting atoms, eannot bbe occupied by electrons and are called forbidden bands. The widths and spacings of * Aa cect yore (eV) is» ai of eney equal to he enerey ase by a single eecton charge ten accented thrush + potenal of 10 V. eV = 10021 x10" T= 4.44 x 10 AW =1519 > 10° Bro, {lon electron wots (MeV) = 1.6021 % 10°71876 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY meet CLA a —-— sex Fst 13.90 (0) Bion ey etn. once ea (ee ti locas cena es eee ” o in the energy and forbidden bands depend upon the crystalline material in question. Energy bunds may be occupied, only partially filled, or completely unoccupied. The shading in Figs, 13-30 to 13-32 indicates which bands are occupied. High conductivity in a metallic crystal is caused by its uppermost band not being completely filled with electrons. An extemal electric field causes the electrons in this band to gain small amounts of energy that are sufficient to promote them to the continuuia of available states immediately above this band. Distribution of electrons among the available states may be varied slightly by energizing them, The shift is Controlled by the Feni-Dirac satis (above), and therefore significant shift oseus ly for those electrons that are within a range +K7 of energy about the uppermost filed tevel at T = 0°, : ee, : Figure 13-31 shows energy bands of a conductor (sodium) and an insulator (dia- ‘mond). For sodium, the 3s band is partially filled, the 3p band is unoccupied, and the two bands overlap. The number of unoccupied levels readily available for the 3s band electrons is therefore large, which results in high electrical conductivity. Diamond, on the other hand, has two 2p energy bands, one filled, one unfilled, separated by a forbidden band that is 6 eV wide. This gap is much larger than XT at room or high temperatures (above) so thermal excitation, or weak electrical or other fields, will not impart sufficient energy to promote the electrons to the unoccupied 2p band and create ‘electron flow or an electric current. The same applies to photons of visible light that one ie se the electrons, which is the reason why diamond is transparent le light, lr Zia “re » : Yi) WG ° a SSSSg 2 fs, te Figure 13-34 Electron bunds for (a) » conductor, a » soll, aod () on asl, danond ‘SOLAR ENERGY S77 The uppermost filled, or partially filled, energy band is called the valence band, and the next empty but available energy band is called the conduction band. A substance is a conductor if these two bands are separated by a very narrow forbidden gap or if they overlap. A substance is an insulator if they are separated by 2 large gap. 13-17 SEMICONDUCTORS ‘There isa class of crystalline solids where the forbidden band between the valence and conduction bands is relatively small, about 1 eY. Silicon and germanium are ‘examples, with gaps of 1.1 and 0,7 eV, respectively. Such solids behave as insulators at low temperatures. At very high temperatures, an appreciable number of electrons receive sufficient thermal energy to be promotei! into the conduction band, the number being a function of both the temperature and the gap width—and thus the material becomes a conductor. Such # material (a pure material) is called sn intrinsic semi- conductor. ‘Semiconductors are manufactured by adding controlled amounts of impurity to the pure material, 10" atoms per cubic centimeter being typical. These are called extrinsic, ot doped, semiconductors, The impurity adds an allowed energy level (not band) in the forbidden band between the valence and conduction bands. There are two types: n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors (Fig. 13-32). In n-type semiconductors the allowed energy level is near the bottom of the conduction band; this is called the donor level. It has an abundance of electrons that, at room temperatures, are easily excited into the conduction band (since the gap is very narrow). By contrast only a few electrons (one shown) are intrinsically (due to the pure material) elevated from the valence to the conduction bands. In p-type semiconductors the allowed energy level is near the top of the valence band; this is called the acceptor level. The impurity has an electron deficiency. At room temperatures, electrons are easily excited from the valence band to the acceptor Jevel, thus leaving a deficiency of electrons in the valence band. ‘The absence of an ‘electfon is called a hole and may be considered a positively charged particle. Again Condaction comtesinn ontucon te tnt at {C0609 8 oror ea Accetor a i z lance tence ulnce mi band band and 0 tne iam serctndator Figure 13-82 Elecironeaesgy bands for tee typos of semiconductors.‘S78 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY intrinsic motion of electrons is small by comparison and conduction in a p-type semi- conductor, therefore, is largely the result of the movement of holes to the valence band. In both types of semiconductors, the conductivity is largely determined by the amount and form of the impurities. Photons Energy, on a microscopic scale, is transferred not continuously but in discrete picces, the smallest of which is the quantum. Light is radiant energy, whose quantum is called photon. Max Planck was the frst to suggest that the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of radiation, or = hy = a7, >To where E, = photon energy A = Planck’s constant, 6,6256 x 10% J+ s, 4.13576 x 107 eV-s y = frequency of radiation, hertz ¢ = speed of light, 2.997925 x 10* m/s A = wavelength of radiation, m At any given frequency v, light energy is thus « whole or mulipte of hv, never a fraction of it. Light thus has a dual personality. It is characterized both as energy transferred in discrete amounts, the photons, and in waves having a frequency and, therefore, wavelength. Radiation from the sun, or any other fadiant source is therefore composed of energy chunks, the photons, each one carrying a quantity of energy ‘exacily equal to its frequency times Planck's constant. ‘Thus @ monoenergetic radiation beam having a wavelength of half a micrometer, 0.5 wm = 0.5 x 10 m, the energy of avsingle photon is 3x 10 Se om OS % 10 Recall now that the spectral distribution of the terrestrial solar radiation depends upon scattering and absorption of several constituents (Fig. 13-3). Recall also that it depends upon an air oss m, given by m, = I/cos 8, wliere 8, is the zenith angle (See. 13-4). It also depends upon the number of centimeters of precipitate water vapor in the atmosphere. 9, changes during the course of the day from 2 mininwm 8, xin that occurs at noon and that varies with the seasons between 8, min = latitude +23.45° and 90°. ‘A quantity useful in photovoltaic-cell calculations is the photon ux q. It is defined as 4, = number of photons crossing a unit area (usually a square centimeter) perpen- dicular to beam radiation per unit time (usually a second) ‘The solar energy Aux E” is related to the photon fux simply by E, = 4.13576 * 1 = 2486 SOUR EnROY 579 E = Lidyohy, (13-8a) hore the subsccipt indicates a frequency or energy range. Equation (13-Ba) may be simplified by assuming an average frequency v,, and corresponding wavelength Ae, and obiaining a total photon ux @,. Thus Et = dyhy = dyhictd,) (13-88) Outside the earth's atmosphere, the solar energy flux is equal to the solar constant 1359 Wimn?, or 0.1359 Wiem?, m = 0, » = 0, and the average photon energy 1.48 eV. 1359 Pee. 48” 1.6021 x 10% = 5.8. x 10" photons/(s - cm?) ‘Thus py (extraterrestrial) Both terrestrial insolation and the average photon energy decrease as mi increases and as « increases, The photon flux thus decreases from 5.8 * 10,"” above, to about hhalf that amount at m = 3 and @ = 5 [129] When the sun's rays, i.e., the sun's photon flux, strike a pr semiconductor junction, they help generate electron-hole pairs; i.¢., they cause electrons to be raised to the conduction band in the m material and holes to be moved to the valence band in the p material. When connected to a load, electrons will thus diffuse from n to p ‘across the junction, thus creating an electric current through the load and hence electric power, which is a function of the photon fux. 13-18 THE SOLAR CELL Figure 13-33 shows a schematic representation of @ solar cell composed of pn semi- conductor junctions, For single-crystal silicon, p is obtained by doping silicon with boron and is typically 1 jum thick; n is obtained by doping siticon with arsenic and is typically 800 jm thick. Thin film cells are composed of copper sulfide for p, typically 012 jum thick, and cadnium sulfide for a, typically 20 um thick. ‘The sun's photons strike the cell on the microthin p side and penetrate to the junction, There they generate electron-hole pairs. When the cell is connected to a load as shown, the electrons will diffuse from n to p. The direction of current I is con- ventionally in the opposite direction of the electrons, Typical voltage-current characteristics ate shown in Fig. 13-34 at two different solar radiation levels, For each V, = open-circuit voltage 1, = short-circuit current Pa = point of maximum power (VDnsxFigure 13-33 A schematic cross section of 2 solar el Solar cells do not convert al solar radiation falling upon them to electricity. Weak, Jow-frequency (long-wavelength) photons do not possess sufficient energy to dislodge ‘electrons. Strong, high-frequency (short-wavelength) photons are too energetic, and although they dislodge clectrons, some of their energy is left over unused. Table 13- 4 shows a breakdown of solar energy wavelength distribution, the fraction utilized by ‘typical cell and the percent solar energy converted, idcally, to clectrcitv. ‘There, thus, is a maximum theoretical efficiency of solar cells, around 48 percent. Efeciency is defined as the ratio of electric power output of the cell, module, or array to the power content of sunlight over its total exposed area, Efficiencies of modules Sola inolition > Ss a : a. < en SOLAR ENERGY 581 ‘Table 13-4 Ideal spectral solar energy utilized by silicon cells fraction convened, Solar eetgy Wavelongih range, pm Solar energy, by cell ‘converted, % <03 ° 0 0 03-05 7 036 5 05-07 28 085 15 07-09 20 73 5 09-11 13 ot 2 Sul 2 0 a Tol 48 fo arrays are therefore lower than those of the cells because of the areas between the individual cells. The fraction of cell to total areas is called the packing factor. ‘Actual efficiencies are much lower, however, because part of the solar euergy is reflected back to the sky, absorbed by nonphotoyoliaic surfaces, or converted 10 heat; and because of various electrical losses and the recombination of the electron-hole pairs, a process that is encouraged by increased temperatures. Cells are ustally Iab- ‘oratory rated at 1000 W/m? and 28°C but normally operate at 50 to 60°C. This reduces the efficiency by 1 or 2 percent. With modules and arrays, there are additional losses that result from the mismatch between individual cells in a module and between modules in an array. Thus the best single-crystal cells yield efficiencies of about 16 to 17 percent. Mass-produced modules yield efficiencies seldom exceeding 10 percent. Table 13-5 gives a typical energy balance of a nonconcentrating-silicon photovoltaic array, showing an array efficiency of about 8 percent. Methods of increasing cell efficiency besides « search for other materials include concentration, thermophotovoltaic, and cascade systems. Concentrators improve cell efficiency. They subject the cells to concentrated sunlight by putting them at the foci of parabolic or trough concentrators. EPRE-spon- sored research indicates cell efficiencies of about 25 percent can be achieved with « concentration of about $00 suns. Concentration has other advantages: With improvemants in efficiency, fewer cells as well as fewer arrays, structures, and tricking equipment are needee! per unit output, and the high cost becomes a bit more bearable. Concentrators, however, are more expensive than flat-plate photovoltaic arrays, are effeetive only with direct solar ra- dition, i.e., excluding most of the diffuse radiation, and lose about 15 percent of that radiation in various optical losses. In addition the high cell temperatures and high currents result in higher electrical losses. Concentrators, therefore, are cost-effective only if the improvement in cell efficiency results in performance far exceeding those ‘obtained from flatplate arrays Thermophotovoliaic systems, considered seriously at one time, involved the use of highly concentrated light that is absorbed by a refractory material that becomes hot and reradiates the solar energy to silicon cells at Jonger wavelengths. Such wavelengths ‘are more efficiently converted to electricity by the silicon cells (column 3, Table 13-(582 POWERFLANT TECHNOLOGY ‘Table 13-5 Typical energy balance of a nonconcentrating silicon photovoltaic conversion array, arbitrary units apt o raspy disira aay ® 12 Reflection by and sorption in cover glass soapotovae aaa 15 | Absorption by ames, scr, uth Nometccric | 64 | Dissipation 2s heat in silicon - too 1S Laie due at tempers above 28 taphowvotaic | 75 | wesme | | 0.5 Lassa w cell and rode modal misnatch 1.0 Losses in witng ans éto-ac conversion 8.0 Deliver as ae powse 4), The temperatures required, however, are in the neighborhood of 3400 to 3500°F (1870 to 1925°C), which results in severe materials problems. It is now believed that thermophotovoltaic systems do not attain efficiencies higher than concentrated systems to warrant these high temperatures. Cascade systems are in essence multijunction systems in which different cells are subjected to different regions of the solar spectrum at which they operate most effi- ciently. Such systems are believed to yield conversion efficiencies even higher than 25 percent, but they are still in the developmental stage. 13-19 PHOTOVOLTAIC-ENERGY STORAGE Solar-thermal systems, as has been noted, usually use thermal storage. Photovoltaic systems, on the other hand, must share conventional powerplant grids or must use electrical storage if their output is 10 last longer than sunlight. Several schemes are being considered. Some are: 1, Electrochemical storage. This is storage of eleettic energy by conversion 10 ‘chemical energy in batteries. The most common and most highly developed is the lead-acid battery. Other battery sysicins, sill in the developmental stages, have higher ‘energy-to-mass ratios than the lead-acid battery. Large electric energy storage, on a utility scale, in lead-acid or other batteries, however, is not economically feasible. ‘SOLAR ENtRGY SBI 2. Pumped-hydro storage. ‘This method is more suitable to large powerplants. It involves the use of surplus electric energy to pump water into high reservoirs during sunny periods or periods of low demand and the extraction of power during evening ‘or cloudy periods or periods of high demand by running the same down through Wwaterturbines. The storage and regeneration are done via reversible pamp-turbine ‘motor-generator sets (Sec. 16-3). The energy extracted is less than that stored because of losses in both pumping and generation. Another problem is the necessity of fiading sites with suitable topography near solar powerplants, which tend to be located in desertlike flat terrain. ‘The system is in use with conventional plants as a load leveler but on a somewhat limited scale. ‘Variations of hydrapump storage would be underground pumping and compressed air storage (Sec. 16-4). 3. Cryogenic storage. This ig a system in which electric energy is directly stored in ange underground electrical coils at liquid-heliuen temperatures, about 4K. At that temperature the electrical resistivity of the coils is nesrly zero. The system is currently under development, and the costs are still an unknown factor (Sec. 16-7) 13.20 SATELLITE SOLAR-POWER SYSTEMS: ‘The earth satellire solar-power system (SSPS) is based on technological advances stemming from the space program. First proposed by Glaser of Arthar D. Little, Inc., in the late 1960s [130], the concept has since received wide attention and serious consideration. ‘The concept involves the placement of earth satellites that would function as solar- energy collecting stations in geostationary or synchronous orbits around the earth. ‘Such orbits would be at an altitude of about 22,300 mi (36,000 km) and would be equatiowal, ie., parallel to the carth’s equational plane. A satellite traveling from east to west in that plane would have an angular velocity equal to that of the earth and ‘would then appear stationary with respect to any point on earth, (Geostationary civilian and military communication satellites are in common use around the earth.) Figure 13-35 shows a schematio of the concept. The satellites would have Targe collectors of photovaltaic arrays. ‘They would also have conversion systems that would convert the electric power generated by the arrays into power at microwave frequencies. A large transmitting antenna on each satellite would beam the microwave energy from its fixed position relative to the earth to a receiving station on the surface of the earth. That station would have a large receiving antenna that would reconvert the microwave power into ac electric pawer and feed it into a conventional power transmission grid. ‘The satellites, being so high above the earth, would be in sunlight mast of the day, and no eleetric-energy storage would be needed ‘The attitude-controls of an SSPS, possibly through use of laser technology, must see to it that the collector areas are constantly facing the sun an that che transiting, antenna is constantly faving the receiving antenna on earth, Still, the SSPS would have to pass through the earth's shadow once a day (Fig. 13-36), $0 that a complete:S84 rOWERFLANT TECHNOLOGY Receiving untonma pd ae ~ — Niro bea Taine A oworosie Sue Sisaaays — ioe [igure 13-35 4 sehsmatic of a eth satelite sor-powersystes (SSP), cutoff of power from any one-satellite is experienced about 5 percent of the time. A possible solution to this would be a system that would consist of two geostationary satellites separated by about 7900 mi (12,700 km) and thus about 20° out of phase, both having a direct line of sight to the same receiving antenna on earth. Such a system ‘would ensure that one would be illuminated curing the time the other is in the earth's shadow. This woulu mean a 50 percent power cutoff during roughly 10 percent of the time, instead of a 100 percent cutoff during 5 percent of the time, and a possibly Gatetie sale power system ot Collctns Binh reset Ena's Earth sues alow jotation ny coticton -_ Tanaslting — = Figure 13-36 Effex of the earth's shadow on SSPS operation, showing salle and receiving antenna xt (0 diferent times (not seal). SOLAR ENERGY 585 better match to load demands. Additional satellites would even the power output further. Solar insolation in space is 40 percent larger than insolation on earth. Is available to the satellite for nearly 0.95 x 24 hvday, whereas on earth itis available for only 4 bday figured at maximum intensity. "Thus, the output of an SSPS would be aboat 8 times that of a photovoltaic plant located on the surface ofthe earth, with a comparable solar collector area. Energy analyses on SSPS systems [130, 131) show them to be adaptable to various power ranges. A plant resulting in 10 GW on earth is believed to require two square photovoltaic arrays, each 4 km on the side, a 1-km-diameter transmitting antenna, and a 7-kmi-diameter receiving antenna on earth. A much higher density system envisages the transmission of 20 GW to an earth receiving antenna only 3 km in diameter. The microwave power density on that antenna would be less than 10 kW/m,? about an ‘order of magnitude greater than terestrial solar radiation density. Highly efficient solid-state rectifiers would be required to absorb this anid the converted power would be distributed through superconducting transmission lines operating at cryogenic temperatures. It is estimated (Arthur D. Little, Inc.) that a number of SSPSs with @ total solar- collector area of about 4900 km? of arrays of single-crystal silicon cells operating at their upper theoretical maximum efficiency of 24 percent would supply the total electric~ ‘energy demands of the United States in the year 2000. Such arrays would have a total ‘mass of about 1460 million metric tons, excluding structures, etc. This is considered impractical, and other more efficient cell materials are being sought, Thin-film organic cells, still early in their development stage, are believed to attain efficiencies of 80 percent and require about 920 km of collector area and a mass of about 5.9 million ‘metric tons [130]. ‘The Inunching, deployment, and assembly of the large structures of an SPS, such a5 the collectors, transmitting antenna, attitude-control systems, and operator life-support systems in outer space, now seem like problems of gigantic proportions. However, itis not unreasonable to believe that if and when SSPSs are really ready to 0 into space, space technology will have also advanced to a point where such un- dertakings have become feasible. Space transportation is currently estimated to account for about 45 percent of the total capital cost of the system, ‘The transmitted energy should have frequencies in a spectral region having the least absorption and scattering in the earth's atmosphere. Most ofthe absorption occurs at the 22 GHz line of the water vapor molecule and the 60 GHz line of the oxygen molecule [131]. Below 10 GHz the attenuation caused by molecular absorption is approximately 10 dB or less. Attenuation by rain, cloud droplets, snow, and hail depends upon their size distribution and composition. The most serious is the result of rain clouds and may reach 4 percent at 3 GHz, and a 1-km path through wet hail ‘may cause 13 percent attenuation at the same frequency. Scattering, which causes a broadening of the main microwave beam, is not ex- pected to be a significant problem. A 5-GW beam operating at 3 GHz is believed to scatter only 3 mW isotropically in a L-km-high storm; the restitis'& seattered beam density of only about 2X 10 mWiem? at a 10ckm range.‘586 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOOY Environmental Effects Studies haye been made to ascertain expected various environmental and hiological effects of SPS microwave beams [132]. Some of theve are; 1. Stratospheric pollution. This is caused by the space vehicles that deploy the sat- elltes and transport personnel and equipment. This is already 2 problet of concern ‘due to present military and eivilian supersonic aircraft and space shuttle exaust. Although not fully evaluated, the injection of water vapor anid NO, is believed (0 ower the ozone concentrations and requises further investigation, 2. Thermal pollution, ‘This isa result of waste heat at the receiving antenna. tt is believed to be in the neighbottiood of 15 percent, which is about a fourth of the ‘waste heat generated by the most efficient conventional powerplants and hence of litle concer. 3. Land exclusion. A 5-GW plant is believed to require @ land area of about 105 mi? (270 km?) from which the public would be excloded (of which one-third would be covered by the receiving antenna.) This compates favorably to the land required by conventional plants of the same output. Offshore locations may also be an attractive alternative, 4. Radio-frequency interference. The most desirable SSPS frequencies are in heavy use for worlwide communications and are based on internationally assigned fre- quencies. Thus, there is a high probability of interference with existing commu- nications systems. Such radio-frequency interference can be controlled by careful selection of frequencies, narrow-band operation, and the use of filters. Detailed ‘and specific effects will have to be carefully studied, however. 5. Biological effects.. Standards for microwave exposure are already in effect. In the United States, the maximum, based on microwave heating of body tissue, is 10 mW/em.? In the USSR, the maximum is based on possible effects on the central Hervous system and is a much more conservative 0.01 mW/cm.* The induced biological effects of the SSPS thus need careful study. Icis important that adequate, fail-safe controls of the microwave-beam pointing apparatus be incorporated in the development program. ‘Microwave effects on birds in flight through the microwave beam need! eval- uation. Preliminary evidence suggests that bits are affected at 25 mW/em? ex- posures in the X-band. Effects on aircraft flying through the beam are also of ‘conver, although the shielding effect of the metal fuselage and the short exposure ‘time at aircraft speeds make it unlikely to result in significant human exposure. A more worrisome effect, perhaps, is that of microwaves on aircraft operations, such as fuel tank susceptibility to electrical discharges (now a standard protective feature of aircraft design) and interference with aircraft communications and radar equip- ment. PROBLEMS 1H From ihe solar constant and the average distance between the sun and the eth estimate othe otal ‘ower emitted by the sun, in megawatts, and (b) the mass fos of te sun in tons per day (See. 9-4), SOLAR ENERGY 587 15:2 Fort cy Altugrge, New Mei, etimite the storage erty a mame td ino inethly cling indices dn Hoon sae, nd the cormeoatig possible ower soe Filuwachowrs pr aq nice per day, ithe avenge sari coneinefiny 0.08 15-3 central sive solar thesis oven ses 100 lls hat ve SO of fling sae ach. The scm plat sa over eine of 27 perce aid gers 3.0MW penk pws, Using Tesomable lar oegy selon on the loi let yy, extn foe ovr lacy ‘he sole perl ant (the oficney of ey isan fo he sta he or eve tot at pa cons, 13.4 A conta ecive solar thermal pont we 100 ios ht hve ef reletve matce tach, The chr eflcony of th pat Sprint. Ti licny aft scan opine 30 pee ‘conse 20 percent of th incident very the eee i aime ogo ose dng OPT atin he powerplant uu, cegawats, 3 pen semicon mown, Asse al felis ane constant ang he dy. 1B-5:A JonAJong tse gable teh conenoe esesarmlsleraian tO Wi 2 pie tthe fa line esevs 430th of wc t 20 pia ad a 17a exist 180 ei, Cae tha pp est eonfidans Aine concontatreletive nae of 5 pre 1346 A cnt receiver thermal sole powepabas 257 elas, egh oped of 122.2% 36m teectng gs ce Te average lar setton rng 10 of epcrnton 635 Wi? The stan ke tsa [OM average output en an overall efsiency of 30 percent, aud comin, Te megs oa Jet in radationanenison Gm war nclaton ont cos nt reeled by steam eo #835 perme, Caste (th sie, ice mets of sarge wih 28 percent eid rock ot wit sok, and 2 the numberof ours fhe agen ean ri the lan at WEB Ot 1347 A conta eciver solar teal powerplant wih serge has 100 helt thi have of recive sce each, The taamission efleeneyIswcen insiders a the ener 25 pce The ‘tampa ety 0 pect, bo considere conta daring the day. Aart thes iidese inn follows sin ave egiesing with 2 a6 hefore solar nova, and ening wih Zo at +0 Hf soar ooo, witha pak of | Win. The plan opens betwen 55h a +35 hard ar toon During tnt pred te ed ise power rl cna at 2.5 MW. Cale) he sk power tye, in megs, (2) the powean cpt a sari, mepawas, (th tal ney tp! eng ferton, i mea oes, he eet electri nes) i No mg, eva os tnd (the tine end ae stops withering rom orge and cnr np rage eis, haus bone tol 9008 13.8 A panbolc doh sole conerrator his 6? of rfstv ras. A Siting eine i mou a the fc point anu to ve cst fice of 38 percent an is comesed oan ehctc ‘eersor tn as ab efcincy of 95 percent The concentra este lnies ie 4 pect Te pak toler molto is 1 EW. Asuning fr siplcy tate concent shape ca be approximated by ‘epee! varices by a6 wd angle fom is ceteris Ce the pale owe ofthe enero in lows, the eimai power ben the ss evo 1° Sane sale), an (6) {he fr ein grams er secon, nosy to produce pk ower sigh. Asine elo wih heating ‘ale of 42,000 is 139 sla thermal central river sym tes 200 toate each 4 nee sre ae ‘he rerivr conver fetatr frm the eames ia ota t 50 psa an OO. No feewate esr are wed. Assuming boron by the amin their tobe 60 pect of allan inset the helo, hat 20 percent of ll ever eargy goo to orgs 3t peak rato, and that the ‘enbied tine gener polytpic mechanical eins be 80 pret, nd fir the cm- Sons at peak racaton th ea ded to te ple, in Bas per bor, (the rain sea flow mt, in pounds mass pr hour, and (the peer Ou in mega ; 13.40 A combine thermal solar pweplan peas on «Aw agra silat bt ike with that of Fig. 15-25. At pes oer sation 10" fb of atnonphesaexS20°R is compel 109.76 at, fr which its Heed nthe xt! recive, ctesing the bgh ess: gs tb 9.6 at a 1860". eves the lowes turbine at 20 pinto sea geese, ving GOP. Supt steam generated t 1000 pss ual 780% and exp i th ew bine psa The empesr aBd ‘both gns turbines have polytropic efficiencies of 0.82 and 0.88, respectively. The steam turbine has =‘S88 FOWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY plytople efficiency 0f 0.90. The compressor and all turbines have mechanical efiiicies of 095, The eetic gnerator his a combined mechanicalletial efficiency of 0.96, For simplicity ignore sore, Feedwater heating and cnseneate pump work, Calculate (a) the scam mass ow rte, in pounds mass per |hoo, (5) the nil power output ofthe pnt, in megawatts, if 20 percent ofthe gross powsr i used internally, (6) the combined plan net efficiency, and (2) the numberof helistats needed if their reflective acas are 100 meat and tive radiation transmission losses to the air inthe tower ae 40 percent of soar inolaion. 13-11 A 7.5-cm-iametesciratar photovoltaic solar ali subjected tos solar coergy fuk of 2.5 x 10° potonsls cn at an average photon wavelength of 0.838 jm. Calculate (a) the solar insolation on the ‘el, in watts per square meter, and () the maxiiwum theoretical power tat can be prose hy the cll, in wots, [12 A 0.08-m-diameter circular photovolaie cell wosives the folowing solar Bure, in photons per second per square centimeter, inthe wavelength ranges between the parenieses:0.5 X 10" (03-05 pm, 0.85 x 107 (0.5-0.7 um), 0.5 % 10" (0.7-0.9 jum), 0.45 % 10" (0.9-1.1 pn), and zero below 0.3 and above 1.1 jem, Estimate (a) the number of sch cells necessary o produce 10 kW of sc power, and (@) the aray area'on which they are mound, 13-13 Calculate the overall efficiency of a satelite solar power system thar produces 10 GW on exih fom «wo square photovotsi ays, each $ km on the side. Assume 2 0.95 packing faction of he cells. cHArTER FOURTEEN WIND ENERGY 14-1 INTRODUCTION ‘Wind energy is rightfully an indirect form of solar energy since wind is induced chiefly by the uneven heating of the earth's crust by the sun. The topic would have fit in Chap. 13 except that that chapter was already quite lengthy and a separate chapter devoted to wind energy seemed appropriate. ‘Winds can be broadly classified as planetary and local. Planetary winds are caused ‘by greater solar heating of the earth's surface near the equator than near the northern fr southern poles. This causes warm tropical air to rise and flow through the upper atmosphere toward the poles and cold air from the poles to flow back to the equator nearer to the earth’s surface. The direction of motion of planetary winds with respect to the carth is affected by the rotation of the earth. The warm air moving toward the poles in the upper atmosphere assumes an easterly direction (in both the northem and southern hemispheres) that results in the prevailing westeries (Fig. 14-1). (Winds are named according to the direction they come from.) At the same time, the inertia of the cool air moving toward the equator neater the earth's surface causes it to turn ‘west, resulting inthe northeast trade winds inthe northern hemisphere and the southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere. ‘The western motion toward the equator and the easter motion toward the poles result in large counterclockwise circulation of air around low-pressure areas in the northern hemisphere and clockwise circulation in the southem hemisphere. The wes- terlies control events between the 30° and 60° latitudes (where a majority of the earth's Popalation lives). Because the earth's axis is inclined to its orbital plane around the ‘sun (Fig. 13-2), seasonal variations in the heat received from the sun result in seasonal(590) FOWEKPLANT TECUINOLODY foie erates Peay faded ‘ites, — Po gure 141 Planer winds in the at's stmosphere (EPRI) variations in the velocity and direction of the wind from the general flow pattern deseribed above. Local winds ate caused by two mechanismis. The first is dliferential heating of Jand and water, Solar insolation during the day is readily converted to sensible energy of the land surface but is partly absorbed in layers below the water surface and partly consumed in evaporating some of that water. The land mass becomes hotter than the water, which causes the air above land to heat up and become warmer than the ait above water. The warmer lighter air above the land rises, aml the cooler heavier air above the water moves in to replace it. This is the mechanism of shore breezes. At night, the ditection of the breezes is reversed because the lund mass cools to the sky ‘more rapidly than che water, assuming a clear sky. The second mechunism of local winds is caused by hills and mountain sides. The sir above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night, more rapidly than the air above the low lands, This ‘causes heated air during the day to rise along the stopés and relatively cool heavy air (0 flow down at night thas been estimated [133,134] that about 2 percent of all solar radiation falling on the face of the earth is converted to kinetic energy in the atmosphere and that 30 Percent of this kinetic energy oveurs in the lowest 1000 m (32R0 ft) of elevation. ft is thus said that the total kinetic energy of the wind inthis lowest kilometer, ifhamessed, ‘WIND ENERGY SOT can satisfy miore than 3 times the energy demands of the United States at the early 1980s" rates. It is also claimed that wind power is pollution free and that its source of energy is free. Such sre the seemingly compelling arguments for wind-powes, not unlike those for solar-power. Although solar energy is eyclic and predictable, and even dependable in some parts of the globe, wind energy, however, is erratic, unsteady, and often treacherous except in very few areas, It does, however, have a place in the ‘otal energy picture, particularly for those areas with mare or less steady winds, especially those that are far removed from central power grids, and for small, remote domestic and farm needs, 14-2 HISTORY OF WIND POWER ‘Human beings have always dreamt of converting wind power to mechanical and, more recently, electric power. Wind, more than any other renewable energy source, has inteigued serious and amateur inventors over the ages. It is said that miore patents for ‘wind systems have been applied for than almost any other device to date. In ancient tinies the kinetic energy of the wind was used to propel ships by sails. Windmills, however, are more recent, having been wsed for a litle over a thousand years. The earliest reference to windmills appeared in Arab writings from the ninth ‘century 4.0. that described mills that operated on the borders of Persia and Afganistan some two centuries earlier. Vertical-Axis Windmills ‘These early machines, sometimes referred to as the Persian windmills, were vertical- axis machines. They evolved from ships. Sails, firs nade of canvas and then of wood, were attached to a large horizontal wheel. The wind pressure against the sails caused the wheel to tum. A vertical axle attached to the wheel usually turned a grindstone to grind grain into flour, hence the name windmill. Similar mills were known to have been used in the thirteenth century 4.0. in China to evaporate seawater for the pro- duction of salt, and later in the Crimea, Europe, and the United States, though few of them remain today. One of the most sticéessful early forms of the vertical-axis mill is the one named after Savonius of Finland. The Savonius windmitt had single or multiple S-shaped sails and a vertical axis (Fig. 14-2). Vertical-axis machines that are still being investigated are the Madaras (Magnus effect) and Darrieus machines (Secs. 14-9 and 14-10). (One advantage of vertical-axis machines is that they operate in all wind directions and thus need no yaw adjustments. Horizontal-Axis Windmills ‘The vertical-axis windmill was changed, after the idea of a windmill reached Europe, into a vertical-wheel horizontal-axis configuration. Thc first designs had sails built on 8 post that could be made to face into any wind direction. The vertical wheel drove$92, poweRNLANT TECHNOLOGY seslt tn 4|& @ ire apy SS Etta ® A) te a4 ro, = vom: Doren ma a sees annie sane wen = ‘tical- and horizentabazis types [135]. 4 vertical axle through gears, Such machines first appeared in France and England in the late twelfth century and were called post mills. Various modifications of these mills evolved in Europe and America throughout the middle ages and were used for srinding grain, drainage, pumping, sawmilling, and other purposes. Inthe Netherlands, ‘where very large land areas are below sea level and constantly threatened with flooding. epied widely used to pomp water ou of the lds and into canals which it back to the sea. Nowadays, only a few romantic mills remain i relies mostly on electric drives. ae Electrical Generation ‘The first windmill to drive an electrical generator was built by P. La Cour of Denmark late in the nineteenth century. After World War I, sails with airfoil eross sections (like the blades of an airplane propeller) were Vqand Vi, > Ve, and therefore, from Eqs. (14-4) and (14-5), P, > Py and Py < Psi that is, the wind pressure rises as it approaches, then as il leaves the wheel: Combining Eqs. (14-4) and (14-5) gives — wine Py Py = ( + pf *) = (0. + ny (14.6) tis reasonable t assume that, far from the turbine at e, the wind pressure returns. to ambient, or ®, aan Ties ae 4 ; Mm ao : i i 7 . z " 1, % a i i if Figure 14 Presse ad Vly ' 7 Zs ofa wld moving eh 3 Diswace « oaths propel wid tabi596 rowesrtanr TeceNOLOGY and that the velocity within the turbine, V,, does not change because the blade width 4a-b is thin compared with the total distance considered, so that Vim Va ~ Vo (14-8) Combining Eqs. (14-6) to (14-8) gives ‘vi Pe-P= a(' = ) 4-9) ‘The axial force F., in the direction of the wind stream, on a turbine whee! with [projected area, perpendicular to the stream A, is given by ~ ve F.= (P.~ PyA = (2%) (14-10) This force is also equal to the change in momentum of the wind A(riV)lg. where rt is the mass-flow rate given by PAY, 4-11) Thus 1 F, = Tp Aviv ~ Vd) 412) Equating Eqs. (14-10) and (14-12) gives 1 Vom V+ Ve) (14-13) We shall now consider the total thermodynamic system bounde! by and.e. The cchanges in potential energy are, as above, zero, but so are the changes in internal snergy (Tj = 7.) and flow energy (Piy = P.y), and no heat is added or rejected. The ‘general energy equation now reduces'to the steady-flow work W and kinetic energy W = KE, - KE, = KE — KE, =“ (14-14) The power P is the rate of work, Using Eq, (14-11) (14-15) Combining with Eq. (14-13) 1 P= Tavs + VV? ~ V2) (14-16) Equation (14-15) reverts to Eq. (14-3) for Py when V, = V, and V; = 0; that is, the wind comes to a complete rest after leaving the turbine (Fig. 14-5). This, isan impos win meray 597 Vilexty ¢ eb 21 Figure 14-8 Toul conversion of incoming wind ki Distance etic energy 10 wotk be seen from Eq, (14-16), where V. is positive in one term and negative in the other, that too low or too high a value for V, results in reduced power. There thus is an ‘optinum exit velocity Vz ge that results in maximum power Prax, which is obtained by differentiating P in Eq. (14-16) with respect to V. for a given V; and equating the derivative to zero, i.c., dPldVe = 0, which gives VE + 2ViVe — VF ‘This is solved for a positive V_ to give Veo 1 V. aan ing with Eq. (14-16) gives Prue Pass = Goat (14-18) 786 The ideal, or maximum, theoretical efficiency tins (also called the power coef ficient) of & wind turbine is the ratio of the maximum power obtained from the wind, Eq. (14-18), to the total power of the wind, Eq. (14-3), of Prax 8 atte 5 Ye = FE = age ® Ute = 3 = 0.5906 (14-19) In other words, a wind turbine is capable of converting no more then 60 percent of the total power of a wind to useful power. ‘Actual Power Like steam- and gas-turbine blades (Sec. 5-5), wind-turbine blades experience changes in velocity dependent upon the blade inlet angle and the blade velocity. Because the blades are long, the blade velocity varies with the radius to greater: degree than Steam- or gas-turbine blades and the blades are therefore twisted. The maximum efficiency (or power coefficient) given by Eq. (14-19) assumes ideal conditions along the entire blade. A rigorous treatment of the power extracted from the wind by @ propeller-type wind turbine shows that the power coefficient is strongly dependent on06 rr) Fae effin for propel (ype wins a eo Ss apse E voblide type eo. Savonina rotor a / 7 ‘Aercan Dartcts tor eB smug al ute four | am ype — Pigure 14-6 Power cosficieat of od a. de Sw? aged acnatline Rati oF bade tip spd to wind sei tip to wind speeds (135. blade-to-wind speed ratio, that it reaches its maximum value of about 0.6 only when the maximum blade speed, i.¢., the blade speed at the tip, is some 6 or 7 times the wind speed, and that it drops rapidly at blade tip-to-wind speed ratios below about 2.0, Figure 14-6 shows the power coefficient for an ideal propeller-type wind turbine and various other wind turbines, Because a wind-turbine wheel eannot be completely closed, and because of spillage and other effects, practical turbines achieve some 50 to 70 percent of the ideal effi- ciency. The real efficiency 7 is the product of this and tjag and is the ratio of actual {0 total power 1 AV (14-20) ‘where 1 varies between 30 and 40 percent for real turbines: P= Pu = Forces on the Blades There are two types of forces operating on the blades of a propeller-type wind turbine. ‘They are the circumferential forces in the direction of wheel rotation that provide the torque and the axial forces in the ditection of the wind streara that provide an axial ‘thrust that must be counteracted by proper mechanical design. ‘The circumferential force, ot torque, T is obtained from PLP "aw (1421) where T = torque, N oF Iby @ = angular velocity of turbine wheel, m/s or fs D = diameter of turbine wheel = V4A7r, m or ft N = wheel revolutions per unit time, = For a turbine operating at power P, Eq. (14-20), the torque is given by range 422) For a turbine operating at maximum efficiency ‘ju = 16/27, the torque is given by Tes ao (14-23) 2g. W ‘The axial force, or axial thrust, given by Eq. (14-10), here repeated, is Treas, 1 2 vy=—, = F, 2gPAWE va Bi va (14-10) ‘The axial force on a turbine whee! operating at maximum efficiency where Ve = 1/3 Vis given by 4 = Freaan = > — PAV? = —— pD*V} (14-24), ig. PANE = 99, ‘The axial forces are proportional to the square ofthe diameter ofthe turbine wheel, which makes them difficult to cope with in extremely large-diameter machines. There is thus an upper limit of diameter that must be determined by design and economical considerations. Example 14-1. 10-m/s wind is at | standard atm pressure and 15°C temperature. Calculate (1) the total power density in the wind stream, (2) the maximum ob- tainable power density, (3) a reasonably obtainable power density, all in Wim? (4) the total power (in kW) produced if the turbine diameter is 120 m, and (5) the torque and axial thrust Nif the turbine were operating at 401/min and maximum efficiency. SOLUTION For air, the gas constant R = 2873/(kg K). latm = 1.01325 x 10° Pa. P _ 1.01325 x 10° 26 a dleasiica © 1.01325 10 = 1.226 kg? Air density p = r= Fercis + 273.15) ~ 1776 He(600 rowenetanr recHNaLoGy () Bg, 04-3): 1 2x1 1.226 x 10? = 613 Wim? 8 = Bp 226 * 10" = 363 Win? G74 Be) = 0.4 x 613 = 265 wi? (in English units this corresponds to 22.76 Wift? at 22.37 mi/h,) ® = we ao P= 0.5 x SE = 0.245 x I — 270 kw (8) Bq. (14-23): Tame = -2-PDVE 2 1.20 x 1.226 x 10° 27g. N 27xKt 40/60 = 16,347 N (=3675 by Eq, (14-24): Fon x femen = 9g PDPVE = 51.206 % 120% x 10%) = 616,255. N 38,540 1b) 14-4 WIND TURBINE OPERATION Bara Cee (14-20) demonstrate an inherent weakness of all-wind machines, sth son one of pos edo te aes speed, being proportional to turbine wheel area, i.e., to the square of its diameter, and to the cube of the wind velocit ne ee velocity. The later dependence means that even small which almost always occur, would i 2 J ican large i fons in power. For example, «drop in wind velocity by only 20 percent all sok coe ha Coast lss than al the power, whereas a drop in velocity to approximately Stren Ce Stould esult in a drop in power to one-tenth, assuming constant firey Og. on Actually, a greater loss in power occurs because many of the Fasten ones a independent of wind velocity: the reul are an increase in machine Te ine losses and a decrease inefficiency as wind velocity and power decrease num machine efficiency occurs over a relatively narrow power range. WIND ENERGY 601 os 08) y & oa a ST oa BS BT TO gure 14-7 Power-velocty characteristics of wind bine Vetoity ¥ with constant effleoncy, arbitrary nis. Fiat Rating Severe fluctuations in power are, of course, undesirable. They pose power-osciliation problems on the grid and severe strains on the windmill hardware. From an economic ‘point of view, a windmill designed to produce a rated power output corresponding to the maximum, or near maximum, prevailing wind velocity at a given site would generate low powers, with the full capacity of the turbine and electric generator unused ‘much of the time, It is, therefore, more cost-effective to design a windmill to produce rated power at less than the maximum prevailing wind velocity, using a smaller turbine and gen- trator, and to maintain a constant output at all wind speeds above rating, This is called fat rating (Fig, 14-8). "Because of the severe loss in efficiency and power at low wind velocities, a wind turbine is also designed to come into operation at a minimum wind speed, called the ‘cutin velocity. To protect the turbine wheel against damage at very high wind veloc- ies, it is designed to stop operation (such as by feathering the blades) at a cut-out velocity. Thus the wind rurbine operates with variable load over a narrow range between the cut-in and the rated velocities and at constant power between the rated and the ‘cut-out velocities and ceases operation above the cut-out velocity. ‘An example of flat rating is that of the MOD-2, a second-generation class of wind turbines, each of which produces 2.5 MW (peak) (Sec. 14-8). The cut-in, rated, and cut-out wind velocities are 9.0, 20.0, and 36.0 mith, respectively. ‘Wind-urbine ratings are usually given for a wind velocity occuring ata reference height, usually 30: (9.1 m) above grade, and with an availability factor, usually 90 percent. The availabilty factor is defined as the fraction of time, during a given period, that the turbine is actually on line (Fig. 14-9). The actual wind velocity, at the propeller hbub, thot determines the turbine power is usually higher [Ea. (14-28), Sec. 14-5]. Because they do not always operate at rated power because of changing wind ‘velocities, the overall load factor is much lower than the availability factor. The overall load factor, also called the plant operating factor and the plant eapacity factor, i the fatio of the total energy generated during a given period of time to the total rated(602 POWERPLANT TECLNOLOGY . Figure 14 Powervelcity harass ofa arte wind Citi Ration Cutout” bine ‘generation capacity during the same petiod (Fig. 14-9). This factor thus takes into account operations a€ less thao rated wind velocity, nonoperaton below cua al above cut-out velocities, and power outages caused by various situat eg aioe lig. ges Caused by various situations, such as ‘The overall load factors typically 20 to 40 percent the MOD-0A 200-kW machine in Oahu, Hawaii, accumulated nn impressive 45 percent factor in 1981 hecause of favorable wind patterns there). Considering an average load factor of 1/3, a wind Powerplant of a particular rating would have to be nearly 2.5 times as large as a Conventional powerplant of the same rating operating at a load factor of about 80 Bercent. The unit capital cost $4W ming, fra wind powerplant would have 10 be ltiplied by about 2.5 to: yield a more realistic cost to a utili i economic burdens of wind power. Soe 14-5 SITE CHARACTERISTICS: ‘Small Machines Wind turbines ate broadly clasified as small or large, Small wind nurbines are those ‘of less than 100 KW rated capacity, ‘They are usually used for generating power for Figure 14-9 Flypothtia! diagram of operation Fa powseplan:x = rate net capacity of plant, » = peak load during pesiod d, 2 = average load ding period. Plant overal oad factor, plant opererng factor, = (A + B + Cad ‘Plat load factor = 2), Pant availabittyfoctor (a + B+ eld. d 6 usualy taken as 1 yest ‘wan exeRcy 603 local use in a particular location. Siting procedures for small machines involve ac- ccurately evaluating the wind characteristics and finding the best acceptable site within that location. Gu for siting small machines may be found in the Handbook for Siting Small Wind Energy Conversion Systems (136), Large Machines Large wind turbines are those of 100 KW rated capacity or greater. They are used to gencrate power for distribution in central power grids. Siting procedures for such ‘machines are approached differently. The geographic area in which they may be located may be very large, and there usually is a great deal of freedom in site selection. The ‘main objective is to minimize the cost of power production for the entire grid, end this requires rather extensive analysis. A handbook for siting large machines was in preparation at the time of this writing, but various techniques have already been developed as tools in the different stages of siting. These include flow modeling, ‘measurements, and biological, geological, topographical, social, and cultural indicators ‘of wind, Some are included in the proceedings of a 1979 Conference and Workshop ‘on Wind Energy Characteristics and Siting, [137] Suitable sites for large windmills around the world depend upon favorable wind activity and, in the United States, have been consolidated under a program area called Wind Energy Prospecting. They result in maps showing annual average wind-power density, W/m, such as that shown in Fig. 14-10. The map is general in the sense that ‘good sites may occasionally be found in low power density areas and vice versa. 300-599 wim! i <300wine As Figure 110 Annual isibution of syerage wit power inthe United States (EPRI)604 roWERMLANT TecHNOLOGY Mean Wind and Energy Velocities ‘Wind-power potential can be estimated from the mea wind velocity V, which is based on measurements over a period of time. I is given by (14-25) where © V; is the sum of all velocity observations and n is the number of these observations, Powerplant sizing would, however, be grossly underestimated if it were rated at the mean wind velocity. A more representative figure would be based on the mean «energy velocity Ve, which because of the power dependence on the cube of the wind velocity, is given by S vs\? te (14-26) ‘The ratio of V; to V depends upon the distributions of velocity in the observations. Taking a hypothetical case in which 10 observations yielded velocities of 0 to 9 (in any units) with increments of of 1, V would be-4.5 while Vz would be 5.872, greater by a little over 30 percent. Another in which nine observations are zero and one was 9 would yield V = 0.9 and Vz = 4.177, which is 364 percent greater, A third in Which one observation was zero and nine were 9 would yield ¥ = 8.1 and Vz = 8.69, an increase of about 7 percent. Long-term observations taken by the U.S. National Storms Laboratory at a number of sites in Oklahoma showed Vito be greater than V by about 25 ‘percent, The use of V to estimate energy potential in that case would underestimate it by a factor of 1.257, oF almost 2 The total energy production of a wind wrbine of @ given rating during a given Period is, a6 by now known, not equal to its rating times the number of hours during that period because (1) the availability factor of less than 100 percent and (2) the ‘arations of wind velocity during that period. The effect of this variation on energy production can be obtained only if itis precisely known, For estimation purposes a distribution, called the Weibull distribution model, discussed in Ref. 138, has been found useful and appropriate for wind-turbine per. formance analysis by many investigators. That model gives the probability that the ‘wind velocity is greater than a selected value V for a locality where the mean wind Nelocity V is Known. It is given at reference height H, = 9.1:m (30 fi), where ¥, and V are in mis, by PU, > Vy = etme warn win ExERaY 60S = probability that incoming wind velocity ak PO ete value V at reference height, K, = 1.09 + 0.204 vo —— Yas C= Ts WK T= gamma function . se and endur- ws wind-distribuaion curves (sso called exceedance an Laser [139]. The abscissa shows the number of hours iS during which the wind velocity exceds tat given bythe ordinate, For extme, fe? 5 ih, the wind velocity exceeds 20 nhs ee 2 percer ime. {Some sites in Oklahoma, one is states, hhave aes i 8 knots (about 9.2 mi/h) or greater about 70 percent of the ne is usually used a8 a reference elevation we ground of 30 1(9.1 m) is usually : vnieh bod sli ae tabulatod or sed (sin Fig. 1411. The voy te used in determining the power ofa wind tabine, toneve i tha a the a of the tubine whet, wich s 10 to 20 (30 to 8 m for cosa large wind tines ‘The ratio of wind velocity V at a height H {0 the reference velocity V, height, is given by a wind-sbear model (137) as Figure ‘ance eurves) for three values v= (zy (14.28) Vv, Mi, Jog Ve where me so Pa Tenesn wid peta 20 fo. mi = ty 2 — fn * Joos $000 000 7000 #00 8760 "0 To0e 30003000 bs ours pet yar Tor whi 9.Lm win speed exci ; count values ofthe mean wind sped Vat ‘igure 14-11. Windspeed istsitation (excosdance) curves for tres values of ‘height of 30 (9.1 my [139]Zo ~ surface roughnes length, varying widely but taken as 0.4m for eratation purposes ‘conform with the empiri i w conta ‘empirical values used in Vo = a fixed velocity = 67.1 mis Atelevations /, other than the mee ; reference H, (30 R, 9.1 m), the Weibull distibuti is used, but the parameters and Ca motied Ky wher : oe K, a re oo] (oe FA) /' ios Ve | —_ a 0 mt C= “ey hi, (1430) where oy = sof 1-22 los Vo, (4.30) Thi aa ese eg ‘output for any horizontal-axis wind turbine can now be est ees mean wind velocity V using the wind-distribution “i ¢ he power output at each wind velocity and it cae dean art integrating itover the time duration Pecifcations for wind turbines usually inchud estimated annual power output, 600) 90 percent bly LA savy 4900} é i 000 “Ania electric output Migr iol Tapa] Pewre 1412 Compute mma power pene ‘(a te hones wid ie eee te ssi far, Wel winspeeddaton ae seat sf, 8, Mca nd vatoursenaante ate ee in oc ia ees 139 ne Reset nde ‘win ENERGY 607 in MWhiyear, computed for the reference clevation of 9.1 m (30 ft), for 2 machine availabitity factor of 90 percent, fora Weibull wind-velocity distribution, and including the effects of aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical losses, up to the busbar (beyond the step-up transformer). Such calculations have been made for three large machines, the MOD-DA, MOD-1, and MOD-2 (See. 14-6) at various values of the mean wind speed V (Fig: 14-12), 14-6 NEW DEVELOPMENT: SMALL MACHINES ‘As indicated cotlier, small nsachines are classified as those less than 100 KW cated capacity, They are designed primarily for loeal use ator near their intended! toad for farm, home, or rural use. In the United States, the Department of Energy bas a “Small ‘Wind Energy Conversion Systems (SWECS)” test program that is managed and op- erated by Rockwell International at a est center at Rocky Flats, Colorado (Fig. 14- 13), The program is designed to develop small advanced machines with the goat of thei earliest possible commercialization by attempting to make their costs competitive with the costs of power obtained from conventional systems and by dealing with the problems of small consumer and institutional acceptance. The program is producing SWECS, (Courtesy DOE) Figure 14:13 ‘The Rocky Flats, Color, Small Wind Machine Test Center(608 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY technical deta on machine costs, construction, output, durability, and behavior undec varying as well as extreme weather conditions ‘The first eycle of the SWECS program included nine contracts to build machines in the 4-, 8, and 40-kW ranges. In the 40-KW range, McDonnell Aircraft Company 's building a three-bladed, 65-t-diameter rotor geared to a vertical axis, while Kaman Actospace Corporation is building two prototypes—each a twin-bladed, 64-ft-diameter ‘olor, horizontal-axis machine—one to generate electricity and the other to drive = ‘equipment, such as irrigation pumps, mechanically, 14-7 NEW DEVELOPMENTS: LARGE MACHINES ‘The large horizontal-axis wind turbine i currently receiving the lion's share of research and development funds and is the beneficiary of the most advanced technology for hamessing wind power, In the United States the development effort is by ‘managed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the Department of Energy and by the U.S. Bureau of Recl lamation, ‘The program has gone through three - = 2 ‘generations of machines (Fig. 14-14), astk ‘The first generation started with the MOD-O machine, which was rated at 100 KW in 18-mith wind (atthe reference height of 30 ft) and first tested in September 1975 at a NASA experimental station near Sandusky, Ohio. MOD-0, not shown in Fig. 14-14, has a power coefficient of 0.375, a power train efficiency of 0.75, a cut. = in wind velocity of 8 mith (13 km/h), and a rotor speed of 40 t/min in winds over 6 bi smith (10 kewh). The blades are fully feathered in 60-mith winds, and the system was designed 0 withstand 150-mifh (240-Kin/h) winds. The rotor, transmission train, gen- rato, and contols were mounted on a bed plate atop a 100-ft(30-m) tower of pinned. ‘uss design. The controls inchuded a blade pitch change mechanism and a yaw control that rotated the bed plate at 1/6 r/min to keep the rotor aligned tothe wind. The gear EE box had a speed ratio of 45 : 1. The alternator weighed 1425 Iby (645 kg), rotated at : ra 1800 simin, and was rated at 125 kVA. The installation had a capital cost of $500,000, | ‘ora unit capital cost of $5000 per rated kW, 4 to 5 times that of conventional systems. The real cost is of course higher because it must take into account the overall load factor. aes} Four updated versions of the MOD-0 machine, called MOD-OA and rated at 200 KW, were subsequently built between 1977 and 1980. Their design data are shown in | | Fig. 14-14. The most improved and successful of the MOD-OA machines is the one | TE builtin Oahu, Hawaii. It generated 1.14 GWh between July 1980 and November 1981 {or an overall load factor of about 0.45. The MOD-OA machines were followed by a i single MOD-1 machine built at Howard's Knob, », Boone, North Carolina, in 1979. a a a & * Figures 14-15 and 14-16 show an overall view and a cross section of the nacelle of I MoD-1. Ss. wtzicasc HY i | j ‘The first-generation machines described above were research prototypes used for field experimentation, for the assessment of structural and aerodynamic performance, and to gain operating experience. Data gathered have bven used in the design of the second-genetation machines, Md wi leciric Power Research Insite 14:14 Stages in the developmem of large orizonial-xis wind whines in the United States. (Courtesy Eleciic Power Research Intute.) Figure(610 rownstrtawr-recrmoLogy igure 1418 The MOD-{ wind tube t Howard's Keob, Boose, Nott Cassin (Courtesy DOE.) wine mvenay 611 fa re) Basie amiied Se || ema satreazang S|) Ni tenon Yow bilig Toner Yaw brake Figure 1416 The MOD-1 nacelle showing tor and des ht) om the Felecia pensar the righ nd yaw veo the buon. “The second-generation machines, called MOD-2 (Fig. 14-14), have two-bladed upwind turbines and are rated at 2.5 MW and situated atop 200-ft (61-m) cylindrical towers. The rotor is 300 f (91 min diameter (which isthe length of a football fet) ‘and is constructed as a continuous blade without a protuding: hub. Speed control is accomplished by pitching the tips of the rotor. The cut-in, rated, and cut-out wind velocities (at tower top) are 14, 27.5, annd 45 mith (6.3, 12.3and 20:1 mils), respec tively. Five such machines have been built, three in Goodnoé Mills, Goldendale, ‘Washington (in 1980, 1981, and 1981), and one each in Medicine Bow, Wyoming (Gn 1981), and Solano County, California (in 1982), Figure 14-17 isamartist’s rendering ‘of one of the Goodnoe Hills MOD-2 machines, and Fig, 14-18 is cross section of the MOD-2 nacelle. Some design parameters of the MOD-2 machines are given in Table 14-1. “The third-generation machines, called MOD-, are currently. (1982) in the design stage. They are designed as advanced multimegawatt systems with the goal of reducing ‘unt capital costs approximately 30 percent below the second generation achines. There are two MOD-5 designs (Fig. 14-14), both upwind and twin-bladed. MOD-5A is tated st 6.2 MW with a rotor diameter of 400 ft (122 m). MOD-5B is rated at 7-2 MW with a rotor dian-.ter of 420 f¢ (128 m). They are being designed with new features, such as two-speed and variable-speed operation, induetion geoetators, and. blades made of laminated wood. ‘Much of the early. work on blades and ther controls benefited from the experience of the helicopter rotor industry, The advanced wind whines, however, have fotor diameters much greatet than those commos in helicopters, though their control systems sre somewhat less complicatedG12 ROWERMLAKT TecUNOLOGY. Figure 14:17 Ariss in ‘onesption ofthe MOD-2 wind tine at Godice His, Wadhingion.(Coaney PLANETARY GEARBOX —\ Rotor \ oar ea = 7.51pm | outer: rxteg 771" LOY HUB \ \, \— GENERATOR \L itic-speep starr 2800 rpm yaw pawe ENCLOSURE \ wyorauusc suppLy FOR PITCH CHANGE igare 14-18 The MOD-2 micelle [159 ‘Materials for the blades have varied over the years, including steel, aluminum, fiberglass, laminated wood, and combinations such as steel spar with foam trailing ‘edge (MOD-1). Novel Wind Turbines ‘Although research anid development funds have gone largely to propellet-type wind turbines, some have been expended (o investigate other designs that may offer future technica and economic advantages. Two of these will be covered inthe next sections, the Madaras concept and the Darrieus rator. While they are referred to ere as “novel,” the principles behind them are not ne¥. 14-8 THE MAGNUS EFFECT “The Madaras concept is based on the Magnus effect, which was fist demonstrated experimentally by Magnus in 1852. The effect showed that if «horizontal eylinder is rolated about its axis and moved through a sil win, a lift force is produced. Similary, if.a sutionary horizontal cylinder is rotated about its axis in a cross wind, i will ft force, ‘The effect is equally applicable to a vertical cylinder being(614 rownerLaxr TecioLoay Table U4 Some design parameters of the MOD-2 wind-turbine plant Pesormaes Rated power z5MW ‘Wind veesity, mb A308 hain Athub Catia 90 180 Rated 20 m5 Gitoat 360 450 ‘Man. design 120.0 B50 Roe Diameter 300 ft, 91 [Nomber of lads Two Location, eoaion Upwin, counterclciwise ewostios perminute 17.5 Cone it ist anges 0", 2 Tip engl, each 41, 37m Material Sil Tower Hesght 192.0, 58.5 m ‘ub bei 200, 61 Tye are shel ‘Access Poser aol Comols Power regulation ‘Rotr-p pte conto, yea Yaw {ote oothing gear Yate ctor me Hydamilie, 0.25 depis Speirs -Meropmestor Generator iting, power incor 3825 RVAL 0.8 Voalige,fequeney “4160 (he pase), 60 te Resolutions per minute 1800 Gearbox ‘Tee stage planetary Gets sep-ap rt 103, as Rowe 180,000 hg 81,670 ig 364,000 Tha, 165.150 ig Tower £25,000 In, 115,700 ky, we ‘tated about its axis in a cross wind. It will experience « force perpendicular to its axis, which will eause ito move in a direction essentially perpendicular to that of the wind. ‘The magnus effect can be explained by first considering a cylinder in nonviscous flow (Fig. 14-19). The cylinder has a fength much greater than its diameter, so end effects are unimportant and flows around it can he considered two dimensional In Fig, 14-19a the cylinder is not rotating and uniform siream is lowing past it, which gives rie to streamlines as shown. The velocity at any point on the surface of the cylinder is given {140} by Vy = 2¥,sin 0 4-32) where Vp = air velocity on the cylinder surface at angle 0 V; = incoming uniform air velocity, far from the cylinder 0 = polar angle, measured from the stagnation point ‘win enn 615 ost roan eine igace 1419 Steams and eset trials frog Bo ving Pr = (Py ~ PpYa,)- and b, oases News © surface of the cylinder Jemoulli's equation to any position @ on the surfice of the cy! Applying Bi gives VEL Ps 4433) eB ‘Combining with (14-32) gives es) (14-35)(616 rowexrLae recuNoLocy where P, = pressure of incoming stream Py = pressure on the e¥linder surface at 0 P = air density, considered constant eo rnondimensional pressure on cylinder surface at 0 uss Py is greater than P, at the stagnation point (@ = 0) by the quantity pv?) mieten statement ts, - 3 fone less ‘han P, at 0 = 90° by the quantity 3pV7/2g,. The variation a is shown by the P; plot in Fig. 14-19, which shows a symmetrical distributic = se nee ‘Thus no resultant forces occur either parallel or pepe stiealgaenne mai ¢., there is neither lift nor drag on the cylinder for the case Ree a a dt ft nh me a cn na tt fecal re! 2arV, = 2nV, or z i= 5 (14:36) ane a = 4.37) where V, = velocity at distance r from the cylinder axis ¥, = cylinder peripheral velocity = 20 nl gare 1.20 Clery Row ua ange ‘indler in an otherwise still ait. = won pwecry 617 4S give 1421 Velocity sweamlines around a rotating eli in stream Fit = radial distance ftom eylinder axis R = cylinder radius P = aconstant = 2aRV, = (2nk)v having the dimension length?/time and celled the circulation constant N= number of revolutions per unit time [Now we will combine the two eases from above, ic., # rotating cylinder in & streatn of at, When Figs. 14-19a and 14-20 are superimposed, i s obvious that the two velocity pattems will reinforce each other when in the same direction, i.e.» atthe cylinder top. and oppose each other at the boctom. Thus there will be a velocity increase atthe top and a velocity decrease at the botoxn (Fig. 14-21). The velocity V fn the eylinder surface is given by the sum of Vp and V,, from Eqs. (14-32) and (14 37), oF r = 14-38) jin 04 oe 4-38) ve (and 180° and negative between 0 and — 180", refore be higher atthe bottom (where the velocities se the velocities are higher) than in the case oF ‘are no fonger at 0-= 0 where sin @ is positive between 0 = ‘The pressures on the eylinder will ther are lower) and lover at the top (whe ‘no eylinder rotation. Note the stagnation points where V and 180° but are slightly on the lower side of the cylinder.* Te two stagaton points aproiceach oer Vy neeases anny one sation pont oes a1 9 —90" when Wp = 2¥; and P= AR,(618 rowERM ANT TECHNOLOGY ‘The Lit Force Trt will therefore, be lif force acting perpendicular to the direction of the stream, te i eis obs by integrating the component of te preen oe the eylinder ea Perpendicular fo the tee stream, The pressure is obaied y sing Bernoulli's teal niga ts dows for Ea, (1432), expt thatthe veloclty fo Ee (14-38) is used in place of Py. Thus Pantie [v = (= sin 0+ i) | (1439) en? = pressure on eylinde surface at (Fig, 14-210). The itt orc obtained from Fe= [""~psin or don (14-40) Combining with Eq. (14-39) and integrating results in 2 P= Sony, = Pecan, any where Fy = lift force on cylinder H = length (or height) of cylinder the spanrnient ove the lit force in tems ofa dimensiones if coefficient ete, Qu otsue of the ive steam AVF. and the projed mea cylinder A = 2H, oF Vi Fi =C, 14-42) ‘AP (14-42) Comparing this with Eq. (14-41) gives, for nonviscous flow vy, a an (14-43) rior ats te it coefcieot in nonvscous flow is directly proportions to the ‘atio ofthe eylinder peripheral tothe fre stream velocities As Indicated, the above development of the Magnus effect was based on ideal meatus Now. Fora real Mud, the effects of viscosity and boundary layer separation Crain mesure dlstibution for nonrcatng cylinders as shown in hg. Ise Experimental measurement on rotting eylinders in real fils show value G that wine exincy 619 Wes FS ten Lt aa Eons iments xin 3 10) | Figure 14-22 Lift coefficient of a r0- feng elise nan seams fo of tel he tinder 2 a , S Nnh peripheral und fice stueuun Veloctes et yl ‘The Drag Force seo, ern atid oa ial hd was ond ove be For a inbelnes in pressures (ig 14190, eae ag fee ne dono he fee sucam, given, lal 0B. (1642), by ul (14-44) > = CoApse ie, ae here Co = diag coeflicient, dimensionless. It 6a function ofthe Reynolds number where C= . Pig (14-45) R= = where D = ciawietet of eylinder = 2 scosty OF Mid = viscosity of Mh min Fig, 14 “The relationship between Cp and Re for long smooth cylinders is shown in Fig. B. and drag “The force acting on the cylinder isthe resultant foree between the forces. forces on a 6-f-dlameter, culate the Hit, drag, and resultant amit SD lng sth ie aig 0 in in 30 muh wind The Wid a | standard atm pressure and 60°F. Sovumon For air at 1 atm and 60°F % oo x a4 * RF 5 x + A) = 01086 thy =f 0.0763 Ib, ft?G20 rowERRLANT TECHNOLOGY oiLbaul eau sul vals Ton ore eS Siem rage asa % MDW = 2x6 xO. 44 ty Vi = 30min = 328280 44 ty, Vy = 1.0 pe = DMP 6X 44 x 00763 e ~“a.ea6—9 = 1576-400 Therefore o C= 10 (Fig. 14-22) a= 04 — (oyextaplation fom Fg. 14-25) Dynamic pressure pV#2g, = 0.0763 x 44%(2 x 32,2) = 2.204 loge Lif force = 1.0. 6 90 x 2.294 = 1239 tly Drag force = 0.4 x 6 x 99 x 2.294 = 495 Ih, Resultant force = Vi2iF + 495? = 1334 my, dea! lift coefficient 2a x 1 = de Weal lit force = 2 % 60 x 90 x 2.204 = 7785 tly wire enero 624 un toe Sinn elinder (res fest Diag fone Spueing be ed owen “taste carrie —S ras eeeraneia ven by cartage weet ” w igure 14.24 elas fore of if nd eg prope inning vera yin mg ek (135) 14.9 THE MADARAS ROTOR WIND MACHINE Based on the Magnus effect, the Macaras rotor powerplant was invented by Julius D Madaras in 1912 and was soon sponsored by the Detroit Edison Company, which actually built a pilot model of it at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1933. It generated ‘uch interest because of the novel idea behind it and because it was sponsored by an important utility. “The concept consists of several tall vertical cylinders that are rotated bout their axes in the presence of a wind. The resultant ofthe lift and drag forces, more inthe dlireetion of lift because of its larger value (Fig. 14-24a), propels the cylinders hori- zontally* along a track (Fig. 14-240) “The powerplant concept as proposed by Madaras consists of circular train track ‘with a continuous train of four-wheel fat cars on it (Fig. 14-25). Each flat ear has 2 90-ft-high cylinder that is rotated about its vertical axis at 120 min by 2 small electric motor, ‘The resultant force along each cylinder moves flat cars around the circular track. To keep the free in the same circumferential diretion along the track, the direction of rotation of the cylinders is reversed twice each complete turn around the track, The carriage wheels drive electrical generators, and the electricity generated is transmitted (o the mains by a wolley. “The Madaras project generated alot of excitement and attracted a umber of highly qualified engineers who agreed that it was a sound, eeonomical, and safe means of leatie-power generation. It was relatively insensitive to wind velocity changes, above ‘about 6 mit, and was believed able xo withstand winds of 100 to 120 mifh. I capital ‘cost was estimated in 1928 at $40/KW for a 10-MW plant. The pilot plant erected at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1933, unforunately, blow down in a high wind before i ‘was even tested with the 1oss of several million dollars and much time and effort, Ii was the failure of both the Madaras:and Smith Putnam (See. 14-2) machines that caused commercial utilities in the United States to quietly abandon efforts: at “The Mayas effect was wed prope! «ship across he Alani Osean in the early 1930s,(SES POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY. Figure 1425 Tie Mathrs concept in perpective 135}, fencing power othe wind bck othe 1930s al 10s, was oe Boverment to sponsor wind-power research and devel eee rekindled with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oe 14-10 THE DARRIEUS MACHINE The Darrieus wing ie ind turbine, shown in two forms, the @ and dié A in Fig. 14-2 is an jiucation of Georges Darieus of France, who patented it in 1920, The bs that may efficiently fil the gap between WIND ENERGY 623 a West Texas Sate Universi (Courtesy DOE.) Figure 1426 A Daria wind ner tex ‘The Dairicus machine has the advantages of spinning in eny wind direction, thus vertical axis that allows the power-conversion equip- requiring no yaw contiol, and a to be located in a statfonary ground ment, such as an electrical generator-or pump, installation "The Darrieus concept is under investigation by Sandia Laboratories for the DOE, he early 1980s, Several machines have been constructed and were unidergoing tests in th min Bushlend, Texas. It has, the largest being used for ¢ dep-weliigation syste two blades 37 fin diameter and 35 high, produces 56 hp (2 kW) in 30-mia (13.4- ts) wind, and is used eo pomp 300 gal/min of water font a 280--deep wel, Pump Speed is maintained in this experimental unit by connecting the pump in parallel to ‘an electrical motor or a governed Diesel engine.(GAM POWERPLANT TECHINOLOGY 14-11 OTHER WIND TURBINE DESIGNS Besides the propeller, Madaras, and Daricus, there has béen a plethora of designs for wind machines: Wind, more than any other renewable energy source, has intrigued Professional and amateur inventors over the ages. In recent years DOE has been evaluating literally dozens of designs for wind systems, some have already been shown in Fig. 14-2. The governing consideration, as always, is the economic one: what size And cost are needed per unit power output, One intriguing powerplant design, called aatodeti l @ tower that looks much like ‘wcooling tower. Its wal Because the walls are circular, the sun's ‘rays need not be tracked as it changes position in the sky during the day. The heated walls in tura heat the inside air and a flow up the tower is established, “This sir ow is made to drive a number of air turbines located near the top ofthe. tower, The turbines, in tum, dive eletieal generators, The diving pressure causing airflow is given by the now familiar expression Pe = (om ~ oak (14460) and, since’air can be treated asa perfect gas where p = PART aifte_ Py pe ar, = it: 7) (14-460) ‘AP, = driving pressure needed to overcome the Dressure losses in the tower and to drive the air turbines Po = outside air pressure 1 = average inside air pressure R = air gas constant = ouside air absolute temperature 7 = average inside air absolute temperature H = height of tower 8 = acceleration of gravity &e = conversion factor A variation of the above system is one proposed by.P. Carlson of California, The interior air in @ very tall tower would be cooied by pumping wate tothe top. The intr evaporates inthe low-pressure air there, causing a downward flow of the cooled sir The driving pressure is obained from Eq. (14-464) but with PZT, and Py in ‘eversed positions, They are to be caleulated ins maner similar that for wet cooiag ‘win RNERGY 625 J3 Figure 14-27 The Carton aroclecrc tower (ASME) i fora 1.5-mihigh, 900- 5). A conceptual design of such a plant called fora 1.5m Routes lowe eel To abe dtr and 0 ibd bins suxundg the tower periphery atthe botiom producing 2500 MW (Fig. 14-27). cme mane mini 4nd Yo i i tat he nh yore te mcm a) etl ac aaah sty attainable turbine Fall in horsepower and kilowatts, (d) the torque, ancl (e) t plead yanluntane rer yon oni wn cree i wy ex et eyo ing be i Teas ya ae er tt Nal Mra ty ine benec a eaten i Se ee ec caraeatne crete suhine | F turbine is used 10 pump ee a aca Sey wl Hemmer mpl elo ony. oe fic ee ester ae i hae a a2 i ei os iene ts ae aac on enna seat sacle am canoie mene ee ee emcee uae : period ‘wind velocity increased steadily east teaches ah ence emer tomo val tcc bs spy, cons 25. Cue) pve ig ty lt ny an) wind ean ee wy, ne ye te ta a ssnmatuarrd it Sea see cement(626 voweRM ANT TECtNOLOGY Catalase (a ne enetny generated, in iowa hoa dro it day, ithe overall efciccy of he wie: ‘Berto is O.34, we () the wind ape ergy velocity, in feet per bow, 147 A wind at 14.5 psi and 33°F had 8 velocity pata during Ge day ha lowed a fl sinusoid rave witha mean velocity of 20 ml alan aeplitde of 1D mit, A wind turbine with ¢ 90.000 9c {x,2 Sosa velocity a the mean vale, () eaconby atsinable tins enc athe steal wed, ‘a in foo pound fore a Kilowart hows, and (the wid mea ere velocity, los pe hour, 148 Repeat rob. 14-7, but samme tht the wind trbine bad cu-in and cucoot velocities of 8 and 20 Ah espectvey, and was no Bat-mid fee, il pares follow the Weibull srt made. One has‘s mein wiad vel of 12 wi, the oder 8 ms Calculate the percent of tine that each exceed a welt of 10 Ait & wid pate that follows the Weibull dstibaion model bas a reference mean vey 10 tls. Consider 3 send tutbine tat fas at iC operates a net apa {H6AK Repeat Prob. 14-10 but for a wind tine wid «hls 50 m Stove groane 1412 Wind | bar and 20°C has veloc of 15 a, mused athe reference igh above ground af 21.m 0M). Cae () te power daily i the wind athe referee heigh. Estimate (0) ee poner 8, that 8 varies from 0 at the bottom where 7 = 0 0a, at the surface where 7 = A, and that for large depths a ~ 8 ~ a ‘and the motion is essentially circular at the surface, ‘A wave therefore possesses hoth potential and kinetic energies. These are evaluated in the next section, 15.9 ENERGY AND POWER FROM WAVES ‘The total energy of @ wave is the sum of its potential and kinetic encrgies. ‘900 7 T i 0 a 41 " | » (ois 100] * i \ re re 10 vf"Te pti erry ies he ean of he wa stove ie men ve o differential volume y de (Fig. 15-9), it will havea mean beight its potential energy is =F pak (15-6) ae, where m= mass of liquid in y dx, kg OF iby, ‘& = gravitational acceleration, m/s* or fUs* = conversion factor 1.0 kg + m/(N-s*) oF 32.174 Ib Fully 3%) = water density, kg/m? or Ib,/ft ce 4 arbitrary width of the two-dimensional wave, perpendicular to the direction or wave propagation x, m or ft ‘Combining Eqs. (15-6) and (15-46) and integrating gives the powetial energy PE in Jor ft Iby PE = AE [* sin? (mx ~ m0) de eed 2888 (la Na if = Be elem sem), = Hee (ms) 1 ae aoe | Cal ean Teper oni PN, ne = AmB fis then given by 05-8) The kinetic energy of the wave is that of the liquid between two vertical planes perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation x and placed one wavelength apart. The derivation of kinetic energy is rather complex and beyond the scope ofthis book. However, from hydrodynamic theory, it is given by [148] Reade Epeea 1s) EXERGY OM THE OCEANS 649 where w is @ complex potential given by costs ~ nB) sinh (mh) and 2 is distance measured from an arbitrary reference point, ‘The integral in Eq. (15- 9) is performed over the cross-sectional area bounded between two vertical planes. The result is Ke = tpaar® 15-10 a ae nd ms i dy | (as) 1k can be seen that the potential and kinetic energies of a progressive sine wave are that the total energy’ half potential and half kinetic en Js given by bn, wey oe. Po Ga TA GA . volumes of low-pressure water at wave crest info small volumes of ure water pansion, the work i ‘obtained from that turbie per unit ~2 se Iectc ley ahs tomcat dives: Tacs to ls covered 6 ‘would be given by 65) ‘piston and a small-diameter piston at its center. In one design, that of the main large ow, Hes piston moves inside a. ee cylindrical generator while the bin piston moves where sass of ai, kg oF by Specific heat of air, /(kg - K) or Buby ~°R) Pressure ratio in compressor = PP, expansion ratio in turbine = PyP, = Py, ‘exhaust pressure in turbine, Pa or byt? ratio of specific hens for air dr thay be taken as Optimization of a system as above [150] has shown thatthe power der roughly given by 0.05 KWH664 yowexruanr eciNOLOGY we tec ene eae Fig. 15-15). A similar pressure magnification piston is used, but the_pres- sured wate i elevated (oa natural eserynicabove he wave gencrator, which would ave be near a shoreline, or to an artificial water reservoir. The waler inthe reservoit ENEROY FROM THE OCEANS 655 ae ed Sgr The maj conpne ae sca 10 ae 3h fra tos coal pea iis a rolling motion about its own fulcrum the connecting rod. Ise relative revolving movements between the float and the connecting oT cher erly vera! or heaving motion about th connecting i lout eames slave volving movement betwecn the coencing rbd an the stationary dolphin. In both cases, the movements are amplified and converted by Cearinto continuous rotary motions that drive the two electrical generators.656 POWERELANT TECHNOLOGY Figure 15-16 Seems of te pipe Wate geen (Fn Research Laboraerie:) inland basin. The results were the ab- so ‘wave power of 0 Wand the complete elimination of waves stream :€0 W were used up in mect eee se resulting in a net f electric output. The experiments on float showed the linear Power output to be given by deer power per unit length perpendicular to the wave, kW/m @ = wave ampliuide (half the height), m wave period, 5 : wave height ere the period is{6 §)the linear-power output is about oD a linear aay oF units totaling ka} WOuld thus generate some fue Tse i envisaged wo be (15.15) where Pil, aL appears to overcome some ofthe dsatvantages of many other devises, namely, complexity and fragility in heavy seas. Its said wo be sirong enough to survive any ocean storm, ‘The dam-atoll derives its name from the fact that it incorporates some of the characteristics of both dams and atolls. The principle of operation is based on the ENEROY FROM THE OCEANS 657 igure 18-17 Tish an bie Stee wit tes 01 i i C Toveraatt A ACs ae pod iene Sone area tof the Isle of Wi ig strange of Coven weve aby wi tS aS TR) Pt el sven wt eon Sa i igi recta to the Gaplak Chau), They would genemiCT MW per fA seis feats 830 16 km (5 to 10 mi bffshore and stretching sor ‘parallel to the coast coil enego ae flo rts Kind epee Brae pot han ny other enewble ery source and that af 30- Cam line of wave-power machines might generate half of the United Kindgom’s elec- trial demand. vy oO otER PURER ANA TREN OER Figure 1618 An i's conception oF «cm-l ways chine fa elon Burbank, Calf) hive Fan (Couresy the Lactheed! Compa 15-13 THE TIDES ‘The tides are yet another source of energy from the oveans. ‘This enérgy’ cam be ped from coastal waters by building dams that entrap the water at high tide and release it at low tide back to the sea. Power can then be obtained by turbines from both in-out flows of the water. The amount of energy available is very large but only in few parts of the world. “Tidal energy is somewhat similar to hydro energy in that it uses the potential energy of water.* Both have been in use for centuries. Tidal “mills” were used in England and Europe, An early example is that of a miller in Woodbridge, Suffolk, who used the tide to mill grain in 1170. Another is a tidal waterwheel that was Zonstructed in the sixteenth century under the London Bridge and that supplied water to London up to the nineteenth century. Other tial mills were common for hundreds of years. They were used, particularly inthe seventeenth and cightcenth centuries, for ‘grinding grain, sawing wood, pumping water etc. Mills were to be found in Britain, New England, Russia, and other places. One of the earliest scientific works on the tides was writlen by George Darwin, son of the great biologist Charles Darwin, and published in 1898 (152), ‘The tides, as we will see, although free, were inconvenient because they come at varying times from day to day, have varying ranges (heads) and, for large outputs, ‘equired large capital expenditures. Their early use dectined and eventually came to ‘a halt with the consing of the age of steam and cheap coal. With the beginning of the cenergy'ersis inthe 1970s, tidal energy, like other tenewable energy sources, received renewed attention, "The tides are rhythmic but not constant, nor'do they occur on a regular daily schedule, Their occurrence is due toa balance of fonees, mainly the gravitational forse Of the moon but also that of the sun, both acting together with that of the earth to balance the centrifugal force on the water due tothe earth's rotation. The tesult is the rhythmic rise and fall of water. ‘The tides are characterized by thelr schedule and range R. ‘The tidal schedites vary from day to day because the orbit of the moon does not ‘occur on a regular, 24-h, daily schedule, Instead, the moon rotates around the cart every 24h, $0 min. During this time the tide rises and falls twice, resting in vida yee that lasts 12 h 25 min. "The tidal range R is defined as R = water elevation at high tide — water elevation at low tide (15-16) + Hy energy, covel i hv lex, converts he potesal eng of wate rapped at rlatvy igh elation of behind en artificial dam) to mechanical work by 2 wae bing Deore the ina of electricity inthe sistent centary, hyo eras was used wo power iadstal matinery dest 10 the mid-nineteenth ceamy, wind and hydro power Akeni fr some awo tds of al imesianizal power ted inte Unis Stes. Tis pecestage apy dropped, bowever, with he intention of sea i He faner par ofthe ninaenth century. Hye energy is now wed aos exclsively an genet sos660 rownnr.anr-TECINOLDOY The range is not constant. It varies during the 29.5-day lunar month (Fig. 15-19), being maximum at the time of new and full moons, called the spring tides, and ‘minimum at the time of the first and third quarter moons, called the neap tides. The spring-neap tidal cycle lasts one-half of a lunar month. A typical mean range is roughly ‘one-third of the spring range. The actual variations in range are somewhat complicated by seasonal variations caused by the ellipticity of the earth's orbit around the sun ‘The variations in daily periodicity and monthly and seasonal ranges must, of course, be taken into-account in the design and operation of tidal powerplants, The tides, however, are usually predictable, and fairly accurate tide tables are usually available. ‘Tidal ranges vary from one earth location to another. They are influenced by such Conditions as the profile of the local shoreline and water depth. When these are favorable, a resonancelike effect causes very lange tidal ranges. Ranges have to be very large 10 justify the huge costs of building dams and associated hydroelectric powerplants. Such tides occur only in a few locations in the warld. One of the most svitable is the Bay of Fundy between Maine, USA, and New Brunswick, Canada, where the range can be as high as 20 m (~66 ft). Other potential sites are the estuary of the River Sever in Britain, the English Channel, the Patagonian coast of Argentina, the Kislaya inlet on the Barents Sea in the USSR near the Norwegian border, the Rance estuary on the Brittany coast of France, the coast along the Sea of Okhotsk in Japan, and several others with ranges equal to or exceeding 10 m (~33 1). ‘The total tidal power tht is dissipated throughout the world is estimated at 2.4 x 10° MIW, which is about one-third of world consumption in the carly 1970s. OF these, some 10 MW are dissipated in shallow seas and coastal areas and are not recoverable, Because of the very high capital costs of dams and other structures associnted with tide energy-conversion systems, oly a small fraction ofthe rest, and a smaller fraction of increasing world energy needs, is expected to be satisfied by tidal energy. eR eee {ENERGY FROMTHE OCEANS 641 We will next discuss three schemes of tidal-energy conversion forthe production of electric energy: two depend upon a single-pool or basin, the third on a two-poo! design. A discussion of recent developments in tidal electric powerplants may, be found in the proceedings of a conference held in Nova Scotia in 1970 [153}.. Th dal system has ove pool or basin behind a dam that is filled fn oe a high de snd smpd 1 to Ge: Bot ag sf eng processes take place during short periods of time: the filling when the ocean is at high tide while the water in the pool is at low-tide level, the emptying. when the ocean at low tide and the pool at high-tide level (Fig. 15-20), The flow of water ia both directions is used to drive a number of reversible water turbines, each diving an clectrical generator. Electric power would thus be generated during two short periods during each tidal period of 12 i, 25 min, or once every 6h, 12.5 min. ‘The maximam that can be generated during one generation period can be evaluated with the help of Fig. 15-21, which shows the case of the pool beginning. at hhigh-tde level, emptying through the turbine to the ocean, which is at low tide. (The reverse process results in identical energy). For atidal range R, and an intermediate head h at a given time during the emptying process, the differential work done by the water is equal to its potential energy at the time, or Tine(662 rowexMaNT TECHNOLOGY ‘igure 15-21 Level changes daring power prouction in single poo tal sytem. aw == dmn (517) = pA dh (5-18) but dm so that aw ~ gpa (15-19) where W = work done by the water, ft thy or J § = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 (us? or 9.81 mis 4 = conversion factor, 32.2 by -fU(bys") or 1.0 kei(N = 7) 1m = mass flowing through turbine, Thy or ky, = head, for m p= water density, Iby/t? oF kgm 4 = surface rea of pool, considered constant, 2 orm? ‘The total theoretical work ducing a full emptying (or filing) period is obtained by integrating Eq. (15-19) as " £ £ on [han w= flav or re (15-20) ‘Thus the work is proportional to the range to the power 2. The power generated during each of the periods is equal to W divided by the time duration of that period. {EMIRGY MRORL TIE OCEANS 63 as20 Assuming an average soawater density of 64 1b,/(P, of 1025 kgf, the average theoretical power per unit pool area would be given (5-220) (15.208) ‘The actual power generated by e real tidal system would be less than the above because of fictional losses and inefficiencies in the turbines and electric generators and might only be 25:to 30 percent of the above. ‘The power generated, however, could be immense. The Bay of Fundy, for 6x- ample, has an area of 13.000 kim? and an average range of 8 a. If we assume an efficiency of 27.5 percent, it has a potential of generating more than 50,000 MW, or 50 GW, which is about (wice the electri-power consumption of Canada in 1980, Inthe simple single-pool system (above), two high-pesk, short-duration power outpits ‘occur every tidal period. Such peaks necessitate large turbine-generators that remain idle much of the time. The power peaks also occur at different times every day (50 ‘min later each suecessive day), at times of high and low tides that almost surely will ‘ot always correspond to limes of peak power demand, and pose @ burden on the electric-power grid they are connected, i ally cores for these deficiencies by generating power more uniformly at a lower average head, though stil with some periods of no generation. Because the average head his lower and work and power ‘are proportional to, the turbine-generators are mach smaller snd operate over much longer periods. The resulting total work is reduced, however. In the sysiem, shown by the ocean and pool level and power diagrams of Fig. 15-22, the reversible turbines are allowed! to ope is of pool filling and ‘emptying instead of at high and low levels only. ‘They cease to operate when the head is t09 low for efficient operation. Period C, begins with both pool and ocean at low- tide level (1), the ocean atthe beginning of tide rise, and all gates closed. When the head is sufficient (2), gates to the turbines are opened and water from the ocean is allowed through, Power is generated ciring period G, as both ocean and pool levels rise. The ocean level reaches its peak and begins to decrease but the poo! level i still nnn nies _s__, __ __s—*="»n eee — eee ee(664 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY ‘increasing until, a 3, the head is too low for efficient generation, The gates to the turbines are closed and bypass gales are opened so that the pool is allowed to fil up ‘during petiod F to 4. At 4 all gates are once again closed and the pool level remains ‘constant while the ocean level decreases during period C2. At the head is once again sufficient to allow for turbine: watet Bow in the opposite direction and a second generation period Gz begins. At 6 generation ceases but the poo! is allowed to empty ‘uring period E and the system goes back to point 1, repeating the cycle. The power encration shown is certainly not uniform but much more so than in the case of the simple system. ‘The evaluation of the tial work is obtained bby assessing the characteristics of the system, ic, the variation of water mass flow and head with time 8, and integrating their product over the time span'dutig which generation is taking place, When we ‘consider the first-generation period (Fig. 15-23), the general relationships take the form H=fO (15.23) Y= FAO) (15-24) = inti = Lan oe — aw & dm - dm (H — y) (15-25) but dm = pi dy (15-26) [RNERGY FROM THE OCEANS 665 ‘Thos aw = Eon [ae - 10] tO) (isp & % = and w= on [lx 10 | 00 (1528 where H = ocean level aboye mean or other approptiste datum ¥ = pool level above mean or datum time and the other symbols have already been defined. H may be closely approxiinated by 4a sinusoidal function of @ such as i where 0 is in hours and one ofa approximated by a linear function of 6, starting at 0 at @, for a constant mass-flow tate such as ae (15-30) were i. a constant havi ory could be a funtion 1y for a constant flow resistance or some other function determined from ‘operational data, Using the relationships for Hand y of Eqs. (15-29) and (15-30), the work diting period Gy (or G2) would be evaluated from asaty «Za /t, = = o- = Lp [Eon ct ane ~ aeane = oj) -tahe % 1025 x 10! x 12 [oss > 0.0625(0.43795 + 0.87468) ~ acs t= v] = 1.448% 10'4(0.08105 — 0.02930) omar Hom THB OCEANS 667 na "spike," which is very hare on the power grid and requires vary larye turbines that remain idle most ofthe time. The latter produces its work over several hours anid ence avoids these problems. 1 ‘he actual work and power above nus be muti bythe eiieney ofthe “| gp 2} system, which is probably ust tug Fooly See ee ee At periods of low power demand and high tie, excess energy from the power gtd is used to pump water into that basin raising its level almost 0.5 m above high tide level, pumping energy is more than recovered during the normal tidal-basin discharge to the ocean when at low tide because the head at dischange is greater than at pumping. Since the exergy is popartinal tie etry gin the operon i extn ‘a 12:1 maximum, Operating and maintenance difficulties have in a low plant availablity factor (fraction of plant is on line) of a with the plant operating only about ioe ea 6 wed lt is boli S ° ar it at copa 2 (FE. The USSE plant, ama 2M demonstration unt, bo ofthe modulate i ) Uh vrcarmes 0 at Kis erate it on arents Sea, of Murma ‘ows fom te hid thon po tug bi ‘The capacities ofthese two pools are large enough in relENEHG FROM THE OCEANS 669 (668 PoWwERPLANT TECHNOLOGY Tow pool Figare 16-25 Schomaticatatwo-gost ee Sal sytem, them thatthe fhictuations. jn the head are minimized, which results in continuous ao! ‘much more uniform power generation THe two: pool systenm hs been considered for th Paseamaqueddy Bay tdal project. Passamaquoddy Bay is an’arm of the Bay of Fund (Enclosing the whole Bay of Fundy is economically probibitive and not technically feasible, and it is more feasible i to enclose its basins and estuaries.) Passamaquoddy Bay itself would constitute the hhigh pool. The adjacent Cobscook Bay would be the low pool. A modest(@00-MW> plant was under consideration asa joint venture ofthe U.S, and Canadian governments but the project was abandoned in 1961 because it was considered uneconomical ‘Another larger plant of 1-GW capacity was again considered trom (1963 to 1974) but ‘no agreoment Was reached because of similar economic vonsiderations. PROBLEMS pcre oe ermine ee ce eran a eee Fn ee oe cer eee Pe Sees pee eee 1 Cee ee er a dera cae ee eee eee ares crt ae eee gn670 vowenn anr TECHNOLOGY 1844 Conse the powerput in Fig. 15-5, Assume an ocean sifice water How of 10? R/h x wring polyi-ic eliiency of 0.85, and lusbine-generwor combed miechaticlstrial efficacy of 0.80 {Clea (a) the poss power generate bythe mrbine gener, nowt, (b) he cod-wtr volemetic vy ri, cubic fet yer nut, an) the yuan of eh water reduce, in cube fet pot mina, \Compare the mass Row rates, in pound mss per hour, aid volume flow tales, in cab: fet per ute, at ube net of all four ids in Table 15-2, fora MW tase operating wih ature vapor a1 70°F and oxausing at SOF. The turbine polyroplcefclency is 0.88, assumed he same inal cases, 1546 Au Andeswa OTEC cycle generes 150 MW of nat power. I ates anonis ts the working ld “Ammonis vapor is generated a 70°F stat al condenses a SF. The urine han aba eficency ‘90.8 andthe tbine-generr ts a combine inehasical kcal efcienty of 088. The temperaure ‘op ofthe ocean watt att inthe evapaator and rise ofthe cold water nthe conser ave both 5°. 14 percent ofthe rost ouput ofthe generator i use or plant poms at che ania. Calla 2) ‘he amnenie mass and volume: lw rae, in pours mas per hour and evbic fet pee mine a thbioe int, () the warn and cold water miss aot me ow eats, in ponnds mas per hour and cubic fst et mine, ad () the pant net thermal efficiency. 418-7 An Andeson OTEC powerplintnste propane as the working id, Situred propane voputemets ‘he turbine a 70°F and the condenser at SOF. The bine polytrpiceficieny i 0.88 andthe turbine generar conbived mechanial-elecnea! efficiency is 0.80.10" Ih of hl water enters the evapattor AL 2'F and leaves al 74°F. Pumps and ether auxiliaries coasume 14 percent of the generator gros ap Cricut (a) the ammonia mas and voune Now rates, in pounts ma per hurt ei feet pr mite, at the urbe ine, (2) the plant net ost in seswans, (the eoldwater Row, in pounds mass pee owe, ity fempecatre inctesses STF inthe condenser, sl (2) the pl ne tiny. 4158 A 25am ncean weave has «60m wavelenlh in l0hm deep water. Calculate (a) the probable pei. i seconds, (0) the majo and minor aes, in meter, of the water maton at he surface and at midepth, aw (©) he wave power ilowats per meer width ofthe wave fon. Take water density ns 1025 ky 159 A wave-cnriy generator system sw produce 1 MW ls the ovtan where the waves havea sady 4 ‘amplitde and 227.18 wavelength The Hoos messure 12 X12 % 1 ft. Calculate the munber of oats ecesay ifthe overall efficiency a he system ie 9.6 percent. Sen water density i 6 Dy 15-10 Awaveeneray generator fut meant 40 x 40. For simplicity, asime ta it experiences waves fn 8 given day that ace 7 high half the time nd 4 ft high the oer haf, All waves have a wavelength of 184 ft. The overt conversion eeiancy ofthe plan 3 percent. The water density is 64 Ib? Calculate (0 the total eerpy ouput dri the day i fot ood trce and Klowat urs a (6) the sean energy wave eight, am (2) the perce enor obtains ifthe "itnetic mead” wave height were ‘ied for the whole diy SIL A single square foal measuring 10 % 10 % 1 fe placed inthe osean where ihe waves have 3 steady 3.50 amplinue and 200-1 wavelength, The Moat 'sconmecod to x piston of Uf deter tal ‘operates within 9 cylinder. The compressed ais expanded in» tthe. Both sempresion and expats floss 6. The air temperate is 40°F andthe weer density f 64 Tb, Calculate () fhe power, foot pounds fore per second and Klowats, imparted to the flout by the waves, (6) the ait Row to the ‘orb, in pounds ns per second, and fe) he eal trie wer, i ikowals 15-12 An oean wave power sytem ofthe fot type uses 2Semnthick Mou in 2m waves tha have 6-m wavelength. The cinder ba admeter ef { m. The sompresonpssee ratio y 10. The a sat 1 aun and 10°C. Calculate dhe power proved by the turbine i the compressa ibe ster hay a cflcieney of 98 percent of el 15-13 An ocem wave power device ofthe hippos accumultor ty pera in 25-m waves th have a wavelength af 60 m. The composite piston has diameters of 20-and 3m. The water his a density of 1025 Km’. Calculate (a) he eight ofthe reservoir above the ozctmaltr if icon nies inthe Gscharge pipe nverge | bn, () the average water volume low re othe reserve in he motes FE secon, (th power generat in Kilowats, by a tirbine-gencrtor of 70 perce! efceoey tht is fined 2m shove average ocean watr level. suming water level inthe reservoir i costa and (d) ‘he length, in meters, of dapin arrays (Fg. 15:16) that would pte the sme power EXERGY FROM THE OCEANS 6TH 15-14 tid) powerplint ofthe simple single pool ype, bas wp area of 300% 10H, The die has a range of 36 f. The turbine, however, sips operaing when hs bead oa i falls below 91. Clete the nergy seated in one fing (oc emptying) process, in fot pounds force and lowat hour the trbiae generator effcensy i 0.73. 15.15 A 300 x 10 tidal poo level follows a sino curve during the ial eye of 6.2083 Assume fo slic tht it dacargce ita a reserva with constant evel. The masa hea 36 Cleve the power generated dng the yee in oot pounds force a iowa hou. Astin fr sili ‘hat the water mas ow rate const. Take desity a water vo be 68 I. 15-6 Calelae the rot energy and average power of» modulated single-poo a plant operating with range of 12m. The tidal pater sassuedto be simi The wae evel the pool may be approxi by the ration 0.06258(,— 0) ee time i hours. Power generation ocuny between 8) = 1d 1 = 4h, The poo! hs # constant res of 10,000 kn. The water density is 1025 kyr 18:17 A til powerplant ofthe wooo) type supper pool are Aya ower pol area Ay (a) Desive xpresion for (a) the enray tht ean be detained ifthe upper poo seme it the lower poe! wen te inal head difference betneen them i and wena aes to the ocean ae ose, and () the rato ofthis energy to that tained frm a single poo of ea A. Detemie the munescal alu of his rt Am As= O54, 15-18 Consider for simplicity tot the twe-pool ta powerplant proposed fer the Bay of Fdy operates svi a constant Head ef 26 Calculate the necessuy ace low ete ino the sytem, in bic fet per ay, if tbe powerplants vo produce 200 GW wih a pence efficiency. Take water density a5 6 lyf w.Haren SIXTEEN ENERGY STORAGE, 16-1 INTRODUCTION “The need for energy storage arises because the demand for electric energy in a utility whereas the supply em acl hi from that system, in the majority of cases, has a fix ity. That capacity must be selected to correspond to the maximum demand plus 2 reasonable excess to take and unscheduled st . The result of this is large, expensive plants that operate ‘capacity, thus causing high operating and capital costs, ‘An example of electric-energy fluctuations in consumption during a typ in the life of « largely university town is shown i demonstrate the differences between a ‘cur in an industrial or commercial region, where demands drop on weekends. Sea- sonal fluctuations in all regions also occur. ‘The picture is move clouded, and the need for energy stofage is greater, if plants using renewable forms of energy such as solar andl wind are used to generate electricity. It isthe output of these plants that fluctuates severely because of their input energy intermittency. Their conversion systems are also much more expensive than those of conventional plants. “The objective of energy storage, therefore, is to counteract the dissdvantages that result from the fluctuations in demand for elecric energy by assuring a steady hie ‘cutput from existing powerplants, When the demand is lower than capacity, energy fs stored. When the demand is higher than that capacity, the stored energy is release. ‘The result then is to be able to supply lectrcity reliably, efficiently and economically, on umacy sroance 675 eo TTT ITE TTT Summer 0 while being able to provide pexk electrical demands on short notice during certain fF the day or week. - ie aed fo energy storage was ot ete when te geurting plants we cheap and the fuel supply plentiful. Indeed, energy storage has, ina sense, been historically done in the form of the lat stored by nature in the fuels themselves, THE ‘energy deasity in fuels, the need (0 conserve resources, and the ‘production costs (mills*/kWh) of electric~ ‘generating plants, suitable methods neces of these axe: 1. Supply power peaks by interconnecting power networks that might have different power demands on them. 2 2. Use newer and more efficient powerplants for base-toad generation and use older Jess efficient plants for peak power generation. 1 mill ~ one thousinds ofa dollar ~ 0.14674 powaRM ANT TECHNOLOGY 100 %” a0 0 @ a i so Wintel eee oF hidi dite bi © 8 0 We Ie we 2 oF our 3. Construct smaller, low capital Cost, though not so efficient Ea ———— _In general, reliability and economy of electrical supply can best be achieved by having a mix of three types of powerplants: a base-load plant, «cycling plant, and a ice used to provide a base electrical load to the grid. Such plants, ar uu le, ficient, soa-enerating, RakinesySe WE tons poeied by fossil or nuclear fuels. They tim Ree inten or forced outages. They have is relatively ‘eaulls in a comparatively low unit cost of power . also epee rea soy are older, less efficient steam plants, or new ones specifically designed for cyclic operation, such as combined ‘eycles (Sec. 8-8). They operate primarily during hours of high load demand and have an annual ‘This rather wide range is primarily the result of seasonal variations, such as those due to periods of high industrial output, air-conditioning loads in the summertime, etc. Bagpbe es specifically designed to provide relatively inexpensive power ENERGY STORAGE 675° cg pati hn, ih yt a eon oe nee hour domestic demands in the events of low annual POF of 510 TS poe. Toy ain operate. emia care ia aygem ciamant, Tele operation may be frail 26 af ch Sin Hay, hee rang 5 aye The Lato tie cous of ton, eerey sore tthe one dams Tn is capt, We are ere encore wih lege sale scape table fer corpo ih 10% 6 0.001166 The volume of the, comin larger to accommodate a steam blanket ‘on top and the water left at end of discharge. 3. The mifiimum cost of accumulators would therefore be 10,000 = $52.5. 10" 4. The energy contained that would be released if a rupture occurred is equal {to the mass of the Rashed! water times the difference between the enthalpy of water at 20 bar at ambient conditions (20°C). The minimum corresponds to the above mass and equals © 1,86. 10" 908.5 = 293 = 92146-0010! KIM2 rowexHLANT-TucHNOLOGY n sparen KeASTOEN {In this system energy is stored in the form of the latent heat caused by phase change, either by melting a solid or vaporizing a liguid. Energy release is-accomplished by reversing the process, i.e, solidifying the liquid or condensing the vapor. The storage: density here is equal to the product of the latent leat of fusion (or vaporization) times the density of the storage material, It is greater than that in sensible heat storage because the Intent heats are much larger than the specific heats of the single phases of the materials. The system has the additional advantage of operating at essentially constant temperature with Jow volume changes during phase changes, Tt also has the advantage of a wide choice of materials with different fusion and evaporation tem- peratures, which allows a choice of operating temperatures and the ability to generate high-temperature steam for the peaking unit. Some sensible heat storage may be added to latent heat storage by further raising the temperature of the resulting molten solid or vapor. Latent heat energy storage isnot, a this writing, considered a simple, operationally reliable solution to the problem of energy storage in electric generating powerplants. Itis, however, included here as a potential solution along withthe problems that must bbe overcame if such a solution is to become a viable one. Although litle work has ‘been done on the application of latent heat energy storage to large powerplants, much ‘work has been done on its use for residential and solar heating applications using fused salts that are available for high- and low-temperature operating ranges [163], ‘Storage materials must possess, in addition to proper transition temperatures and high latent heat, many other necessary physical and chemical properties. Some of these are good thermal conductivity, containibility, stability (considering eyclic op- ration), nontoxicity, and low cost. No material meets all these requirements but some fluoride salts meet some of them. One ofthe gilts considered most suitable for latent heat storage is the 70% Nak-30% FeF: eutectic salt, which has @ fusion temperature Of about 680°C (2256°F) and potentially possesses the highest storage energy density of any thermal-energy storage material, about 1500 MJ/m? (~40,000 Btw). ZC, js another with @ fusion temperature of about 370°C (~700°F) and a potential storage ‘energy density of about 400 MJ/en? (~11,000 Buu), ‘Other materials being suggested are silicon, germanium, and sulfides of germa ‘nium. These have high heats of fusion, and like water, they expand upon freezing, 0 that they tend to float upon solidification, which has advantages in heat transfer Silicon and germanium, however, have fusion temperatures that are too high for powerplant operation and are very reactive. Germanium sulfides have usable fusion temperatures but tend to solidify toa glassy consistency rather than crystallizing, thus posing an undesirable heat-transfer baries. In addition to finding a suitable medium, studies have to evaluate the extents of comosion, erosion, plant stir-up and shutdown, etc, Corrosion problems require that the system be free of oxygen and water vapor, which enter the system because of salt volume changes during heat addition and withdrawal, thus posing interesting engi- neering problems. Itcan be seen that there are many design and developmental problems eae be incorporated into an electric-generating powerplant, estimates. I envi ies and obtaining prelimin: temperature gas-cool ) as The helium coolant pia), and the heat soures the various temperatures are indicated on the figure. The storage-system capacity is 7200 MWh, whereas: the charge-discharge rat ‘The peak electric: generating capacity of the pl “tae one Wace pany te Water pee siesior TF704 vownn.anr-TocHNOLOGY For the storage capacity 6f 7200 MWh, 42,000 tons ofthe eutectic are to be used. Jn onder to give the necessary heat-absorption and heat-release rates, the euiectic is not allowed w freeze completely but instead operates as a stury. (Recall the unde- sibility of glassy freezing as with the germanium sulfides.) The total latent heat of fusion is not utilized, and a salt mass of about 80,000 tons is needed. This requires ‘huge containment vessel about 36 m (120 f) in diameter and 30 m (100 ft) high Another feature of the design is the addition of a secondary heat-transer loop using molten Tead as a heat cartier. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers between helium and the salt slury, and steam and the salt slurry, have been considered, However, the build-up of solids on the tubes during heat withdrawal would seriously impede the hieat-transfer rate and, therefore, the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. This neces- sitated the addition ofthe above-mentioned molten-Iead loop. During heat withdrawal, therefore, lead is heated from 380°C (700°F) to 675°C (1250°F) inthe slurry tank and ‘used in a lead-steam boiler to produce steam for peak-load operation. Lead heating is accomplished by having globules of lead “rain” on top of the slury, thus sufficiently stiring the reservoir. The globules distort as they fall and thus are expected to “shed” any thin skins of solidified salt. The design leat Row is 2 m's (70 1075). After passing through the lead-steam boiler, the lead is pumped back to the top of the reservoir ‘against more than 500 psi static pressure via an 800-EW pump. In addition it is important that the temperature of feedwater entering the lead boiler not be lower than the melting point of lead (325°C, 620°F), This necessitated the addition of a feedwater preheater that uses wet steam from the same boiler. The plant operation, therefore, has the following modes: 1, During base-load operation, helium {rom the reactor at 725°C (1430°F) is short- circuited directly to the helium-water boiler, 2. During periods of low demand, helium is shunted to the frsed salt reservoir, thus storing heat in the slurry at the fusion temperature of 680°C (1260°F) and leaving at 690°C (1280°F) to the helitim-water boiler. 3. During periods of peak demand lead is circulated to the reservoir, leaving at 675°C (1250°F) to the lead-water boiler. In all cases steam with the proper Row rate is ‘generated at 540°C (1000°F) and admited to the same turbine-condenser system. Condensate at 65°C (150°F) is fed back to the helium-water boiler and, during peak demand, also 10 the lead-water boiler via the preheater. ‘A good turnaround efficiency forthe storage system, mote than 90 percent, i expected because the percentage heat losses per cycle are expected to be quite small once the reservoir and other components teach thermal equilibrium. ‘An economic evaluation, based on 1974 dollars, shows salt costing $2.15/Ibw in large lots, with the price down to $0.1 to $0.5/by if large scale production i attained. ‘This is said co result in a unit energy storage cost of $3 to $1/kWh, a unit moken- lead loop cost of $33/kW, and a unit peak powesplant equipment cost of $90 to $110/ kw. [ENERGY STORAGE 705, 16-10 CHEMICAL-REACTION STORAGE In this mode of energy storage the heat of reaction of reversible chemical reactions is used to store thermal energy during endothermic reactions and to release it during exothermic reactions. Like latent energy storage, this form also offers large energy: storage densities and thus has been considered an attractive alternative for some time. (Besides reversible chemical reactions, this category also includes the solution and dissolution of a solid ina liquid and a gas in a sold.) Initial imerest focused on low temperature energy storage for residential heating and cooling. More recent interest contemplates its use to store high-temperature thermal energy suitable for power- generation cycles. In pioneering work by Schalten etal. [165], the following reaction ‘was suggested for long-distance transmission of gas-cooled muclear-eactor thermal m2 “This and other reversible reactions are listed in Table 16-1 with their operating ranges and heats of reaetion ‘Chemical-energy storage is now explained withthe help of Eq, (16-35). Heat is stored by absorbing it in the endothermic diretion ofthe reaction, from righ to left ‘The enthalpy of formation [167] of CH, + HO (liquid) at 25°C is given by (— 14.9) + (—286) = 360.9 4¥(g + mol). The enthalpy of formation of CO + 3H at 25°C is (— 110.6) + 0 = ~110.6 &M(g - mol). Thos, moving from right-t0 left ‘vith both reactants and products maintained at 25°C results in net energy transfer of (— 110.6) — (-360.9) = +250.3 K(g mol). The positive sign indicates energy added to the reaction, .e., energy is absorbed and the reaction is endothermic. The reverse reaction, from left to right, results in ~250.3 Kd/(g~ mol), i., eneray is CO +3 CH + HO ToO-1I «107.6404 260 ¥ aHys# CH + CO; 700-1200 106,380, C+ 3H = Calls 500-150 9.100 GH + 3th = ithe 450-700 91,200 Ctl # SH 2 Colt 450-700 135,000, Gite + HCl a2 CLC 420-710 24,120 0 + ch = Coch, 4820706 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY released and the reaction is exothermic. The signs have been ignored in Table 16-1. I not occur at low temperatures or catalyst or an “igniter,” which leads to potentially long storage ‘and the exothermic reaction ‘A schematic of a powerplant with a chemical storage system using the reaction in Eq. (16-35) is shown in Fig, 16-18. During periods of low demand, some heat from the primary heat source is diverted to the ceformer (endothermic reactor) 10 convert the products CH, + HO to the reactants CO + 3H, which are stored in 3 vessel at high pressure, probably 70 bar, but at ambient temperature. During periods of high demand, these reactants are fed to the methanator (exothermic reactor) where heat is generated to run a peak turbine (or generate more steam for the main turbine). {In the methanator the reactants are converted to the products CH, + H,O, which are stored in a separate vessel for later use inthe reformer during periods of low demand. A thermal turnaround efficiency ofthis system is estimated (but yet unproven) at 85 t0 90 percent {168}. The losses are mainly heat losses to storage vessels and piping and pumping, losses of the gases. ‘The two storage vessels and the two reactors will all have to operate at different pressures. Storage pressures need to be high to minimize vessel size and cost, and the ‘reformer has to operate at low pressures to maximize the rate of the endothennic reaction CHy + HO CO + Ha, There will, therefore, be a large pressure difer- ential between the tube side, which carries the primary heat source fluid (e.g. helium ‘at about 40 bar from high-temperature gas-cooled reactor), and the gases on the shell side. A similar pressure differential occurs between the steam loop and the gases in ‘he methanaior, Such pressure differences require careful design, A complicated scheme to minimize these difficulties envisages the use of compressor-expander seis with ‘compressor between the reformer and the reactants storage tank and an expander (turbine) between the latter and the methanator. A similar compressor-expander set would be put between the methanator, the products storage vessel, and the reformer, ‘with equal complication. The products expander may supply some ofthe work required by the reformer compressor because it operates at about the same off-peak time during the cycle, Similarly the reactants expander may supply some of the work required by the methunator compressor during peak hours. Noting the various compressor-expander ineficiencies and the fact that the number of moles of reactants and products are not the same, there will be @ net work available during peak operation that may be reabsorbed during off-peak operation, This imbalance in net work of the compressor- ‘expander sets may be remedied by clectrical or mechanical stomage, and thus we end ‘up with two (or three) forms of energy storage in the same plant. Some of the problems to be soived before such a storage system can become In genera, refvmaion 1 x proces in which fow-grde or ow nsleculweight hygrocatbon fs ‘ata cally reformed to a higher grade wr higher-moloeuar- eight yearn, The tera uso appli to the endoreemic reforming of methane (th races ler onsdetion shove) othe rection of yage by tie reaction of metre aid wea i the presence of nickel ext ‘ Medhanaion i the prduction of mete fom ante of eathon manaxie and ydagen. Condi Fee serious contender in powerplant use ate sfety ard developmental problems. The major safety problems are those associated withthe storage of large volumes of high-pressure flammable anc poisonous gases. Developmental sroblems include the operation of rmethanators, which in the past weie limited to relatively low temperatures to generat steam at high enough temperatures for efficient turbine operation. This emtils the availability and use of a suitable catalyst that can operate at high temperatures with reasonably long lifetime. Other significant problems involve the optimization of the entire cycle to reduce iereversibilites and increase overall efficiency and proper heat- exchanger design in the reformer and methanalor. One idea that bas been proposed involves the extraction of electrical work fon) the chernical react directly by elec- trochemical means. : ‘The size of the storage vessels, even with operation near a pressire of 70 bar,708 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY which is compatible with current technology for gas storage, is stil very ork hands of usando cbc cers Teves my et el ans or, 10 reduce costs, underground cavers if suitable sites are available. Cavers, however, would pose problems of contamination of the gases by impurity gases from underground rocks. Such impurities may eause corrosion io the system and result in Poisoning of the catalysts used in the reactors, Careful consideration must also be given othe problem ofthe cifison a igh gus, such a He, though mck and A preliminary, and pos tem, based on cavern storage PROBLEMS power pi ts pti ly oa dean ave at ye ae ‘ih mast Pe Od so 24,8 000 MY pono Brae sd ‘pntaion wit ator yt ta ns ote cflcongy of 005. Fed apa ead lope, that can be accommodated by the sysiem and the time at which the system switches fom generation 1 Pi cerns rasmei I eta era cea aa Se ees Teer ean ot ante Supe eee oie reficeney BOS. Wat nny kt egtt 7 ee Aarts ina Seog eern ce ee niente Sane cae ee mensmanee ern ae oe rec ea ret eae Seatac ak wrereciantnes ape Eeanh case Derm eornuee ans minimum volume af the air storage cavern, in cubic mews, (c) the energy storuge capaci bows, (4) the compressor ‘input, cgawatls, and (e) the turnaround effici tite. ‘ eer pe, earns ron cy ot pom aes ee Fens vee ri a ym iced of a compet wi et onan ferent ah tie hoe Sap eben ta us Sof tora, 100 MW we fal the motor geotir, i ener ta items te eames a in an SOF. he comps and bine owl sei 6. Te impestr ens ePie resilience of 0:7 08, rept, Iaing sl serolingrete efompete {ambien Duting 4 of pa Renrion, sir eaves sorage nal ote a O85 fice regenerate ste ht a a he conto hb OOF : amber OOF. Th te toms ne one talc tices 00.75 al 08 spc, ee el san nr The aoe gun ts tir af 090 Da fw agra fe espe ‘and calculate (a) the ait mass, in pounds mass, and volun aks in pou volume, in coi fet stored datz Of pe, {tenon efleney of he stm ig ino acs he ive clea enn f ba ale ‘using the main pam thermal efciency O38. Assume that | percent of the in stone is ERGY STORAGE 789 oy eae Farsi take oy ~ 024 0.6 Ha“ ~ NAD 358m especie, JA ytcel inthe fom of ix 25 in Umer am 10 thick rns acrly t 30 nin Hs “ile of a ansazopic filament composite material ofa mniform cosy 160 14/1" Calculate (a the enetey ike towel feet hous) the cage fiona! seed a careponing minim ec A etic of sand Mitton may ot exceed 0 166A hye! i de oa sorpic atrial with a denity of 50 Ih? and maxis AMowablesene ot 15 © 10 li has dames o 5 tka 6 The mas fisieny tau i 09, Cael (2) he imum every Bat ea be tol in he wheel, ise on ts oi ‘ermtons, (b) the maxirmm sotational speed, in revolutions por minute, and (¢) the eoefiicien of spied Aecnaton 2 percent of heey is within fom 167 A magna eng stone ex conse of caturr fsque crs ton x 40, Meda mcn dma a 2 n Coles te amie fs neces for wstore ery of 5 MWh fhe cent 160,000 168 Compressor erm acy soap Ke tina stan powerplant as shown in ig, 1645, “Tocive uml a se cat 20 mn dlametr ac 40 high They lve mover oe! of Meera of ONS i? K. The daly storage tne 168. The maxim and minim erage Arce 8 and 3 br 0 perc of tefl accumula wae volume ised to toe a rae ‘ay socom «seas bunt on op am wer esi at ho ving the car-acange Soe thc sm an peng scam pao eftinces are 38 al 23 pret, repel, The alent recuse: Chloe a he ermal every ted hats vl for paingsersie, in Regea teers po ay (the thermal emery mp megawatts pera, (0) Un aking pla lesa ‘itp ouput fr megawa hours pe dy, and (4) the roof pking cece energy 1 We elena cei thal woud ave tee proces by he sin pl fd aca heat ney seep tem ed in conan wt high empresa reactor ‘irre aus tbe paecrpln, The sore maria Is germanium whic Has »fskn emperate of PSST, eco hx of fn of 0 Bal, nd igi easy 335 Ih. Te TOR operates heat sare fos reeneaive helm Bryn et. U0 fh of helium eer he compres at 16 ‘aSencive wacnertr, and fen the HTC a 1650. Durig cure pod of 12%, 0 pect Stic helo ene the rua tine and SO percent i iene 1 he latent eat stor Ral echoes, om ta ete 1790" ocr the min ps rie a ower reste wage, During 4h peak ‘pecan ihe fal TGR flow eters the main tinea» peaking Bryon yo operates On the sored rar chon emer te pecingcompresior a HO"F, hen 0.8Seflectve eer, hat exchange Priore nk whee t pets braed (720, fica he pakog ys tute Ate Tor sip at ares and tris we iat with a res at of 3 an tee ae ea love rom the hans ai awa ow diagram Toe he powerplant wo Tr iagrans forte msi nd peaking xls, acim al we comerponigy. Coleus () the power roel ding off peak operon, in me (Goon, () the ery nore, oegawa tous, (0) te mina gemaaiom was, i pur ass er Sotaewatne fee fc, am (the power proud ring pak person, it meyavans (Ft In ep = 1.25 BIg = ab k= 1.252) 6-10 A chemical rection cacy stage stem of she meihataion efor pe 6 Gomi Fr stcng 2950 MWh of elo enigy. The fair aod efficacy etme 0.85. The mia Pov rma ffcency i 0.38 Clee) he ind mess, nba, of acta a vei une, (@) the ares sage voles, cobic ees asin sora sat 7 bur and SOC, ne canon mecha ergy tbe eve, io Aaj, suming fr simpy at pee (Goperonne sa este dop arsenal ects an tanks, ad ht al expander ad somes tive an tite 0F 0.0. End