Approaches to Regional Analysis: A Synthesis

Author(s): Brian J. L. Berry

Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 2-11

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 APPROACHES TO REGIONAL ANALYSIS: A SYNTHESIS
BRIAN J. L. BERRY
University
of Chicago

Alldiscord,
harmony
notunderstood.
Alexander
Pope,Essayon Man,1:289

In my dictionaryI finda synthesisdefined methods of exploration-scientificmethod-

as "a complexwhole made up of a numberof as comprisingspeculative general ideas, de-
parts united."' The suggestionsof complexity ductive reasoning,and experimentation.Like
and unityare bothersome,however,because all brief statementson any subject, these are
the synthesisof approaches to regional analy- ambiguous and incompleteoutside of the ex-
sis presentedin thispaper is simplisticat best, panded context given them by the author.
and we have all found that the parts hardly They do provide a useful settingfor the first
seem united at times. There is perhaps only thesis of this paper, however, that: Geog-
one advantage to be gained fromthe simplifi- raphersare, likeany otherscientists,identified
cation-that poorly developed or new ap- not so much by the phenomenatheystudy,as
proaches to studying the geography of an by the integratingconceptsand processesthat
area2 may be identifiedmore readily. they stress.5James Blaut expressesthe point
The paper beginswithcertainassertionscon- nicely,saying that the objects dealt with by
cerninggeography'srole among the sciences. science are not natural entities,ultimateob-
A synthesisof apparently dichotomous ap- jects,but are rathersets of interlocking
propo-
proaches to geographicunderstandingis then sitionsabout systems.6
proposed,3 and the concluding remarks are Systemsmaybe viewed in a varietyof ways,
directed to the question of new approaches. and hence the varietyof propositionsthatmay
The route towards such new approaches be- be developed concerningthem. The particu-
gins with analysis of the inadequacies of the lar set of propositionsstressedby any science
proposed synthesis,and continues with dis- depends upon its point of view, the perspec-
cussion of possible solutions to the inade- tive in looking at systemsthat it instillsinto
quacies via generalizations produced in its membersas theyprogressfromnovices to
General SystemsTheory.4 accepted membershipin that select profes-
sional core that serves as guardian and pro-
GEOGRAPHY AMONG THE SCIENCES ponentoftheviewpoint.As KennethBoulding
JamesConant describesscience as an inter- has said, subjects "carve out for themselves
connected series of concepts and conceptual certainelementsof the experienceof man and
schemesthathave developed as a resultof ex- develop theories and patterns of research
perimentationand observationand are fruitful activity which yield satisfactionin under-
of furtherexperimentation and observationas standing,and which are appropriateto their
man exploreshisuniverse.He characterizesthe special segments."7Within this context,our
second and third theses are thus that: The
1 The Oxford UniversalDictionaryon Historical geographic point of view is spatial and that
Principles(3rd ed., 1955).
2As applied later in the paper, and as befitsthe 5This contrasts with Hartshorne's view that geog-
purpose of the President'sProgram,the particular raphy is a chorological science similar to the chrono-
area of concernis the UnitedStates,but the remarks logical sciences but contrasting with the sciences
shouldapply generally. classified by categories of phenomena. See The
3The ideas are directlyattributable to JosephS. Nature of Geography,Chapters 4, 5, and 9, and
Berliner,who developedthem in his reviewof an- Perspectiveon the Natureof Geography,Chapters2,
thropology:"The Feet of the Natives are Large: 3, and 11. We are not alone in questioning Hart-
An Essay on Anthropology by an Economist,"Cur- shorne's views, for a similar debate has been raging
rentAnthropology, Vol. 3 (1962), pp. 47-77. for some time in history. Anyone interested in this
4 The idea of GeneralSystemsTheorywas originally debate should referto the journal Historyand Theory.
formulatedby Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General 6 James M. Blaut, "Object and Relationship," The
System Theory: A New Approach to Unity of Professional Geographer, Vol. 14 (1962), pp. 1-7.
Science,"Human Biology,Vol. 23 (1951), pp. 303- 7Kenneth E. Boulding, "General Systems Theory-
61. The journalGeneralSystemsis a basic sourcefor The Skeleton of Science," Management Science, Vol.
all interestedin GeneralSystemsTheory. 2 (1956), p. 197.
2

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1964 NEW APPROACHES TO THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES 3

The integrating conceptsand processesof the tems froma spatial viewpoint. We are well
geographerrelateto spatial arrangementsand aware,forexample,thatwhen certainphysical
distributions, to spatial integration,to spatial systemscoveringthe earth are studied apart
interactionsand organization,and to spatial from their relevance to man, even from a
processes.8 spatial point of view, the job is done by
But the experience of man encompasses people in otherdisciplines-geologists,meteo-
many systems,and the geographerdoes not rologists,and oceanographers,among others.
apply his spatial perspectiveto all. The sec- Similarly, bubble chamber work proceeds
ond and thirdtheses definethe way of view- from a spatial viewpoint at the microlevel,
ing, but not that which is viewed. Which and is undertakenby physicists.
systemis examined by geographers? Hart- What is thissystemcomprisingthe earthas
shorne properly describes it as comprising the home of man? It can be described as the
"theearthas the home of man." A geographer complex worldwide man-earth ecosystem.9
is so trainedand inclined that he assumes a An ecosystemlogically comprisespopulations
spatial perspectivein his analysis. But this of livingorganismsand a complexof environ-
perspectiveis not his sole perquisite,forother mental factors,in which the organismsinter-
scientiststake such a viewpoint. His contribu- act among themselvesin many ways, and in
tion is that it is he who provides the spatial which there are reciprocal effects between
perspectiveso importantto any understanding the environments and the populations.10
of the system comprisingthe earth as the Biologists,botanists,and ecologistsstudysuch
home of man. This definitionlogically ex- ecosystemsfrom a spatial point of view, of
cludes fromgeographystudies of other sys- course,but the geographeris the person who
concentratesupon the spatial analysis of that
8 A caveat is appropriate at this point. Edward worldwideecosystemof which man is a part.
Shils' remarks concerning sociology, which appear in The earth as the home of man is a gigantic
the Epilogue to his monumental collection Theories
of Society (with Talcott Parsons, Kasper D. Naegele,
ecosystem in which man, with culture,has
and Jesse R. Pitts, and published by the Free Press in become the ecological dominant. His earthly
two volumes in 1961), might well have been written environmentsare thus not simply-and less
about the scientificstatus of contemporarygeography: and less-the physicaland biological,but also
In so far as a science is a coherent body of emnpirically
supported propositionswhich retain their stabilitywithin a the cultural of his own creating. The fourth
particular theoreticalframework,sociology is not a science thesisthus becomes: Geography'sintegrating
today. The empiricallyverified propositions at a level of
low particularityare many; as they rise toward generality conceptsand processesconcernthe worldwide
they become fewer,not because the structureof any science ecosystemof which man is the dominantpart.
requires it, but because of the deficient coherence of the
analytical scheme that explicitly or implicitlyguides these There is a furtherproblem which emerges
inquiries, and because the techniques of research have still
not been sufficientlywell-adapted to the observation of at this point. Definitionof the systemwhich
more abstractly-formulated variability. Nor, for that matter, geographystudiesfroma spatial point of view
has theorybecome sufficientlyarticulated and explicit. The
gap between general theory and actual observation is still is perfectlyadequate to differentiate geog-
considerable. raphy's role from that of the physical and
This statement subsumes R. B. Braithwaite's views
concerning the structureof a science, namely that a
biologicalsciences. Many social sciencesstudy
science properly includes several elements: (a) the the man-madeenvironments, however: politi-
facts observed and the simple inductive generaliza- cal, economic, social, cultural,psychological,
tions based upon these facts; (b) abstract logical and the like, studied by political scientists,
constructs; and (c) scientific theories, which are
initially stated as hypothesis, and only assume the
economists,sociologists,anthropologists,and
status of valid and accepted theory when the simple psychologists.We resortto our second thesis.
inductive generalizations and the final deductions of None of these sciences examines the man-
the abstractlogical constructscoincide. "Coincidence" made environmentsfrom a spatial point of
is achieved when a satisfactorylevel of explanation
of the inductive generalizations from the deductive view, whether it be
to examine spatial dis-
constructsis achieved. Nagel provides an excellent
discussion of the four modes on scientificexplanation, 9Edward A. Ackerman,"Where is a Research
strictlylogical, genetic, functional, and probabilistic. Frontier?"PresidentialAddress,Denver, Colorado,
See R. B. Braithwaite, Scientific Explanation (Cam- September4, 1963, Annals,Associationof American
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), and Geographers, Vol. 53 (1963), pp. 429-440.
Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science (New York: 10RobertP. McIntosh,"Ecosystems, Evolutionand
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962). Adherence to RelationalPatternsof Living Organisms,"American
these views we consider basic to this paper. Scientist,Vol. 51 (1963), pp. 246-67.

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4 BRIAN J. L. BERRY March

tributionsor associations of elements, the Learning is breakingup into isolated subcul-

organizationof phenomenaover space, or the tures with only tenuous lines of communica-
integrationof diverse phenomena in place. tion between them. . . . One wonders some-
Otherdistributional and organizationalthemes timesif science will not grindto a stop in an
are strongerand more central to the other assemblage of walled-in hermits,each mum-
social sciences. Thus, whereas it is the system bling to himselfin a private language that
which is studied which differentiatesgeog- only he can understand...." Is this to be
raphy from the physical and biological our fate within geography,with analytically
sciences, in studies of man and his works it minded economic urbanistsoffbuilding their
is the spatial perspective that differentiates. fragilemodels,anthropologically orientedcul-
Within the worldwide ecosystem of which tural ecologistssequestered in some primitive
man is the dominant part, man creates for backwoods contemplatingtheir navels, and
himselfmany environments.These environ- the like? As Boulding continues,"the spread
ments are not studied in their totality by of specialized deafness means that someone
geographers,only in theirspatial facets. who ought to know somethingthat someone
else knows isn't able to findit out forlack of
DICHOTOMIES WITHIN GEOGRAPHY
generalized ears." His solution is "General
Debate about approaches to geographic SystemsTheory to develop those generalized
understandinghas traditionallyrun to dichot- ears . . . to enable one specialist to catch
omies: natural as opposed to human; topical relevantcommunicationsfromothers."13
or systematicversus regional; historical or A systemis an entityconsistingofspecialized
developmentalas contrastedwith functional interdependentparts. Most systemscan be
and organizational;qualitative versus quanti- subdivided into subsystemsby searching for
tative;perksversuspokes. RichardHartshorne modules with high degrees of internalcon-
has gone to great lengthsto show that many nectivity,and lower degrees of intermodule
of these dichotomiesare either meaningless interaction. If larger modules can be parti-
or useless,1'but the factthatdichotomieshave tioned into smaller modules, it is possible to
emergedat all suggeststhat the spatial view- talkof a hierarchyofsystemsand subsystems.14
pointhas several facets. In his seminalpaper What we will tryto do here is to construct
"Geography as Spatial Interaction"Edward a simple systemthat depicts the variety of
Ullman has gone so far as to argue that the approaches to regional analysis. The tradi-
essential intellectualcontributionsof human tional dichotomieswill be included either as
geographycan be summarizedin termsof a partsof the frameof referencewhich specifies
dichotomy,the dual concepts of site and how the systemis separated fromthe rest of
situation.12Site is vertical,referringto local science (the balance of science can be termed
man-land relations,to formand morphology. the "environment"of the system) or as
Situationis horizontaland functional, referring modules of the system. It is this systemthat
to regional interdependenciesand the con- constitutesthe synthesis of approaches to
nectionsbetween places, or to what Ullman regional analysis. The fact that a systemhas
calls spatial interaction. been created emphasizes the unity of the
Existenceof several facets poses problems, spatial viewpoint. The many facets are not
even ifwe agree that,as dichotomies,theyare dichotomousor polychotomous,but interde-
of littleutility.Boulding argues thatthe most pendent; each feeds into and draws upon the
significant"crisis in science today arises be- others. Moreover,by treatingthe systemso
cause of the increasingdifficulty of profitable created as one would any othersystemwithin
talk among scientistsas a whole." Very de- the frameworkof General Systems Theory,
scriptively,he says that "Specialization has poorly developed or new
approaches to the
outrunTrade, communication. . . becomes
geography of large areas may be identified
increasinglydifficult,and the Republic of
and elaborated. In this way the gift of the
"Ibid.
L. Ullman, "Geographyas Spatial In-
12 Edward 13op. cit.,pp. 198-99.
Proceedingsof the WesternCommitteeon
teraction," 14
I am indebted to discussions with Alex Orden for
Regional Economic Analysis, David Revzan and clarification of many concepts concerning systems
ErnestA. Englebert,eds. (Berkeley,1954), pp. 1-13. and general systems theories.

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 1964 NEW APPROACHES TO THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES 5

"generalizedears" can be used to catch com- identifiedin the row, and the place in the
municationsfromscientistswho have forged column.
ahead of us in the developmentof theirpar- At this junctureone mightobject and say
ticularsets of propositionsabout the systems that there is surely an infinityof character-
theysee and study. istics and thereforean infinityof possible
rows, and at the limit also an infinityof
A GEOGRAPHIC MATRIX15 infinitesimallocations on the earth's surface
Reflectfor a momenton the nature of a providing an infinite number of possible
single observationrecorded fromthe spatial columns. This is true;all convergesto infinity
point of view. Such an observationrefersto in the long run. However, to quote Keynes'
a single characteristicat a single place or well-wornmaxim,in the long run we shall all
location,and may be termed a "geographic be dead. In practice,forany particularprob-
fact." This geographic fact usually will be lem in any particular contextthere is some
one of a set of observations,eitherof the same specification of rows (characteristics) and
characteristicat a series of places, or of a columns (places) that is meaningfuland use-
series of characteristicsat the same place. ful. The present discussion is phrased so as
The two series need to be examined more to be applicable whenever there is such a
closely. If the characteristicrecorded at the problem, whatever the problem and conse-
seriesof places varies fromplace to place, it quent specificationof the rows and columns
is commonto referto its spatial variations. maybe, just so long as the viewpointis spatial.
These variationsmay be mapped, for just as Given a geographic matrix as described
the statistician'sseries are arranged in fre- above, how many approaches to regional
quency distributions, geographerslike to ar- analysis are possible? One can examine:
rangetheirsin spatial distributions.Study of (a) the arrangementof cells within a
the resultingspatial patternsdisplayed in the row or part of a row;
map is one of the essentialsof geography. As or (b) the arrangementof cells within a
fortheseriesof characteristics recordedat the columnor part of a column.
same place, they are the stuffof locational The former leads to studyof spatial distribu-
inventoriesand the geography of particular tions and maps, the latter to the study of
places. With such inventoriesit is the geog- localized associations of variables in place,
would
rapher'scommonpractice to study the inte- and to locationalinventories.Surelywe
agree that the two approaches are the bases
grationof phenomenain place.
of all geography.
Now assumea whole seriesof characteristics Next steps mightbe:
has been recordedfora whole seriesof places. (c) comparison of pairs or of whole
Perhaps we can imagine that complete "geo- series of rows;
graphic data files" are available (whether and (d) comparisonof pairs of columnsor of
such a dream may really be a nightmareis whole series of columns.
anothertopic). An efficientway to arrange The formerinvolvesstudies of spatial covari-
the resultingbody of data is in a rectangular ations, or spatial association. If the columns
array,or matrix.What does this "geographic are complete,runningacross all characteristics
matrix"look like? Each characteristicac- outlined in Figure 1, the latter implies the
countsfora row,and each place fora column, study of areal differentiation in its holistic
as in Figure 1. The intersectionof any row sense.16
and column defines a cell, and each cell is A fifthpossibilityis:
filledby a geographicfact,the characteristic (e) the study of a "box" or submatrix
(see Fig. 1).
15 This "Geographic Matrix" differsfromthe matrix It is evidentthat this kind of study could in-
developed for anthropologyby Berliner only in that volve some or all of steps (a)-(d) above, but
the columns are places for geography and cultures
for anthropology. This difference perhaps indicates with something additional-the abilityto use
the kind of variability of major interest to the an-
thropologistvis-a-vis the geographer, and thus the 16
Richard Hartshorne, "On the Concept of Areal
differentperspective in looking at the same systems Differentiation," The Professional Geographer, Vol.
taken by the two subjects. 14 (1962), pp. 10-12.

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6 BRIAN J. L. BERRY March

PLACE S

CHARACTERISTICS Columnj

Cell ij

RowiX

Box or 8ubmatrix

FIG. 1. The Geographic Matrix. A row of this matrixpresents the place-to-place variation of some charac-
teristic,or a spatial pattern of the variable which can thus be mapped. Each column contains the locational
inventoryof the many characteristicsof some place. Every cell thereforecontains a "geographic fact": the
value assumed by some characteristicat some place. Comparison of complete columns is the study of areal
differentiation in its holistic sense, and leads to regional geography. Comparison of rows implies the study of
spatial covariations and associations, and leads to topical or systematicgeography.

findings,say, fromstudies of spatial associa- cross sections or "slices" taken throughtime

tion to enrich an understandingof areal dif- in the same manner as rows were drawn
ferentiationin the partitivesense of the box, through the infinityof characteristicsand
or of areal differentiation to explain cases columnsthroughthe infinityof places. Each
which deviate fromsome generallyexpected slice thus summarizesor captures the varia-
pattern of spatial association between vari- tions of characteristicsfromplace to place at
ables. Each approach could indeed feed into a certainperiod of time. Our historicalgeog-
and enrichthe other. raphers follow this pragmatic procedure.
A ThirdDimension Andrew Clark, for example, noted that "the
cross sections which geographycuts through
The definitionof a geographic fact pre- the dimensionof time . . . musthave a certain
sentedto thispointis deficientin one respect, thicknessor duration,to provide a representa-
since a single characteristicobserved at a
tive picture of existingsituations."17
single location must necessarilyalso be ob-
It will be obvious that forany time period,
served at a particularpoint in time. At any
othertime it would be different;variationis each of the five possible approaches to geo-
temporalas well as spatial. Time, too, may be 17 Andrew H. Clark, "Praemia Geographiae: The
but it is usefulto think Incidental
subdivided infinitely, Rewards of a Professional Career," Annals,
of the geographicmatrixwith a thirddimen- Association of American Geographers,Vol. 52 (1962),
sion arranged as in Figure 2 in a series of p. 230, quoting Hartshorne.

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1964 NEW APPROACHES TO THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES 7

TIME 1

T1'
I14ME2

TIME 3 Places

Characteristics (Columns)

(Rows)

Time periods
or
cross - sectional I slices"

FIG. 2. A Third Dimension. The third dimension, time, may be introduced by arraying a whole series of
geographic matrices such as were presented in Figure 1 in their correct temporal sequence. Each time period
thus formsa "slice" of the three-dimensionalcake, and every slice has all the features described in Figure 1.
It will be obvious that such an arrangementmakes possible examination of rows through time, of columns
throughtime, and of boxes through time.

graphic analysis previouslyoutlined may be The Ten Approaches

taken. "Geographies of the past" can be It is thus possible to conceive of ten modes
studied in this way. Yet there are additional of geographicalanalysiswhichmay be applied
possibilitiesintroduced by the temporal di- to furtheran understandingof geographic
mension: data files such as are depicted in Figure 2.
(f) comparisonof a row or partof a row These ten modes fall into three series. The
throughtime,the studyof changing first[(a), (c), (f), and (h)] includes studies
spatial distributions; of the natureof single spatial distributions, of
(g) comparisonof a column or part of a the covariance of distributions
different at the
column throughtime, the study of same period of time or of the distributionof
the changingcharacterof some par- the same phenomenonat different periods of
ticular area through a series of time, and of the covariance of different dis-
stages, otherwisetermed the study tributions through time. A similar series of
of sequent occupance; three levels characterizes the second series
(h) study of changing spatial associa- [(b), (d), (g), and (i)], which spans
tions; locational inventories,studies of areal differ-
(i) study of changing areal differentia- entiation and of sequent occupance, and
tion; investigationsof changing areal differentia-
and (j) comparisonof a submatrixthrough tion. The thirdseries [(e) and (j)] involves,
time,a processthatcould involveall at its simplest,the cross-sectionalinterplayof
of the preceding approaches indi- studies of spatial distributionsand associa-
vidually,but more properlyunder- tions, locational inventoriesand areal differ-
taken requires their interplay. entiation,and at its more elaborate level the

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8 BRIAN J. L. BERRY March

;tage A.TIME 1 Past

|TIME 2 || /

TIME 3

Present

..Present MAJOR WORLD REGIONS

Region 1
Subregion 1

CHARACTERISTICS

Place 1

_ Variable
Population Geography

Hi Settlement
_

_ HD~ Resources

FIG. 3. Traditional Groupinlg of Dimensions. Geographers have traditionally grouped variables into an
ascending hierarchyof rows, the topical subfields. The broadest distinctionis between human and physical
geography. Within the formerit is possible to isolate that part concerned with culture in its holistic sense, and
within culture, the social, economic, and political. Economic is furthersubdivided into resources, industrial,
etc. Industrial itself has been furthersubdivided, and so forth. Hartshorne also speaks of the study of areal
differentiationas leading towards the identificationof a hierarchy of world regions, formed by successive
grouping of places and smaller regions into larger more general regions. This is to be seen in the arrangement
of the columns. Finally, arrangementof the successive slices into "stages">is the work of the historian. Given
this referenceframework,it is possible to locate such things as "Changing industrial structureof the English
Midlands and the Ruhr during the industrialrevolution" with ease, and to ascertain their immediate relevance
to other undertakingsin geography.

interplayof all nine of the earlier analytic slices,forwhichwe are indebtedto historians.18
modes. The most common categorizationof vari-
ables is into one of geography'sclassic dichot-
TRADITIONAL GROUPINGS OF ROWS AND COLUMNS omies, human and physical. Within the
Figure 3 shows the ways in which geog-
this groupingI reliedupon PrestonE. James
raphers have traditionallygrouped rows and and In
18
Clarence F. Jones,eds., AmericanGeography.
columns of the matrix,and also the conven- Inventoryand Prospect,by SyracuseUniversity Press
tional ways of grouping the cross-sectional forthe Associationof AmericanGeographers, 1954.

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1964 NEW APPROACHES TO THE GEOGRAPHY
human it is conventionalto differentiate be-
tween variables dealing with collections of
people and their numerical and biological
characteristics,and those dealing with cul-
ture,here used in the holisticsense of the set
of man-made variables interveningbetween
man and the earth'ssurface. These interven-
ing variables may be classified into urban,
settlement, transportation,political,economic,
and the like. Each of these can be, and has at
times been, further subdivided to create
furthersystematic "fields." Economic, for
example,is oftensubdivided into: resources,
agricultural,manufacturing, and commercial.
These in turn involve furthersubdivisions,
until very limited groups of associated char-
acteristicsmay be said to define "topical
fields." Such is always the pressure of in-
creasing specialization, and, at the extreme,
overspecialization.
Clearly,row-wisegroupingsof variables of
interestcorrespondwiththe topical or system-
atic branches of geography. The essence of
thiskind of geographyis thus the firstof the
threeseriesof modes of geographicalanalysis.
By the same token, groups of columns form
regions (most conventionally,such groupings
have been based upon countriesand conti-
nents, or upon physiographic or climatic
criteria). Analysisof such groups of columns
is regional geography,with its basis the sec-
ond series of modes of geographicalanalysis,
emphasizinglocational inventoriesand areal
differentiation.If the object of systematic
geographyis to find those fundamentalpat-
ternsand associationscharacterizinga limited
range of functionallyinterrelatedvariables
over a wide range of places, the object of
regional geography is to find the essential
characteristics of a particularregion-its "re-
gional character" based upon the localized
associationsof variables in place-by examin-
ing a wide range of variables over a limited
numberof places.
Yet neithera topical specialtynor studyof
a particularregioncan be sufficient untoitself.
More profoundunderstandingof spatial as-
sociationscan only come from"comparative
systematics"cutting across several topical
fields,from an understandingof local vari-
abilities, and from appreciation of the de-
velopmentof patternsthroughtime. Indeed,
geography'sfirst,unlamented,theoriesabout
man's distribution on the surfaceof the earth,
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OF THE UNITED STATES 9
those of environmentaldeterminismand their
wishy-washyderivativespossibilismand prob-
abilism,postulatedparticularpatternswhereby
arrangementsof characteristicsfromplace to
place in the "human rows" of Figure 3 were
determinedby arrangementsof physicalchar-
acteristicsin the physicalrows with,in many
respects,the formeras a reflectedimage of
the latter. The whole idea of study of man-
land relationshipsis the idea of comparative
systematics.
Similarly,"regional character"can only be
evaluated in its integrativesense by proper
comparative study of regions, the study of
areal differentiation.But here we mustpause.
What is the basis of regional character? Is it
the repetitiveappearance of a commontheme
or themes throughoutthe entire set of vari-
ables recorded for the places within the
region, which theme or themes differsfrom
those of other regions? If it is, and there is
every reason to believe so, then the under-
standing of regional character presumes an
analysis of spatial associations,simplifiedbe-
cause it is undertakenfor a relativelysmall
numberof places, but complicatedbecause it
must be definedformanyvariables. Only by
such study can underlying and repetitive
themes be identified. Much the same point
can be made fortopical studiesas well. They
are regionalbecause theyinvolvethe studyof
a certainnumberof variables withinthe con-
finesofa certainset ofplaces. Whetherwe call
a studytopical or regional,then,is basically a
functionof the relativelengthand breadthof
the portionof the geographicmatrixwhich is
studied. Likewise, whether we classify a
study as historicalgeographyor not depends
upon the depth of the portion of the matrix
studied relative to its length or breadth, or
else the distance of the slice studied fromthe
present.
To extendthe argumentfurther, selectionof
the columnsto be studied is not entirelyinde-
pendent of the rows under investigationin
American geography today. If a person is
studyingthingsin the economic, urban, and
transportation rows,it is likelythathis studies
will also be confinedto those columnsencom-
passing "modern" urban-industrialsocieties.
Similarly,if the rows under studyinvolve cul-
ture in its partitivesense of cultures,settle-
ment forms,language, religion,ecology, and
man-land relations,then it is quite probable
10 BRIAN J. L. BERRY March

that the columnsembracingthe studywill be between hard-nosedand softheadedenviron-

restrictedto preliterateand/or "nonwestern" mentalism. Similarly,more profoundunder-
or "preindustrial"societies. Although there standingof areal differentiation hinges upon
are differentmodes of analysis,on no account, comparativeregional investigations.This lit-
therefore,can it be said thatthe several series eratureis also limited. A thirdproblemis that
are undertakenindependentlyof one another, the model we have developed embraces most
nor should theybe. of the approaches conceived and undertaken
by geographers,but not all; the model itself
PERSPECTIVES ON THE ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
is limited. There are importantgeographic
OF THE UNITED STATES
questionswhichthe matrixwe have developed
Let us now use this matrix,and later a does not show.
critique of its inadequacies, to see how well The discussion was initially phrased in
or how thoroughlywe have studied the eco- termsof General SystemsTheory. This theory
nomic geographyof the United States.19We tells us what some of these unansweredques-
should firstdefine a submatrixin which the tions are. Any system,includingthe "world-
rows embrace those variables of interestto wide ecosystemof which man is the dominant
economic geographyand the columnsencom- part" can be viewed at a varietyof levels,the
pass all places in the U.S. By projectingthe firstthree of which are those of static struc-
box backwards,we get historicaldepth. ture,connectivityof parts (functionalorgani-
Studies of this box per se have been done zation), and dynamic processes. Figure 3
very well. The spatial distributionand asso- showsthe ways in whichthe systemof interest
ciationsof manyvariables have been mapped to geographymay be viewed at the firstof
and analyzed. The characterof the economic these levels,thatof staticstructure-offrame-
enterprisesof most places is well known, as worksand patternsin space and time. It says
is the historicaldevelopmentof most of the nothingat all about the second level of inter-
majorindustries.Attemptsof varyingdegrees connections across areas, connectivity of
of qualityhave been made to definethe rela- places, flowsand interactions, let alone of the
tivelyhomogeneouseconomic regions of the third,that of dynamic,interrelatedprocesses.
countryboth in the partitivesense of agricul- Studies of the economic geography of the
tural regions,manufacturingregions and the United States at the second level are fewerin
like, and in the holistic sense of real multi- numberand more limitedin scope compared
variate uniform economic regions. Spatial with those at the static level, in spite of the
aspectsof the economicgrowthof the country early effortsof Platt and the later investiga-
have been the subject of many investigations. tions of Harris and Ullman. The growing
Yet serious limitationsto a general under- central place literatureis undoubtedly the
standing of the economic geography of the best example of the level at which the spatial
countryshould also be noted. We have al- organizationof the U.S. economy is under-
ready argued that an understandingof the stood. This literaturerefersto a single sector,
spatial association of any single set of vari- the distributive,and is generallyconfinedto
ables requires an evaluation of their actual the local level of very small urban places.
covariance and theoretical relationship to There is no understandingof the spatial orga-
many other sets of variables, since we are nization of the U.S. economy that compares
dealing with a systemof which interdepen- with our understandingof the static patterns,
dence is the essence. Explicit and implicit no functionalregionalizationto matchthe uni-
form.
hypothesesrelatingto such broader associa-
There is no longerany real reason why this
tions are restrictedto somethingwhich varies
gap should exist,in spite of the complexityof
19 The evidence supporting these remarks will be
the systemwhich has to be clarified. What
found in Brian J. L. Berry and Thomas D. Hankins, needs to be grasped is roughlyas follows:
A BibliographicGuide to the Economic Regions of 1. We live in a specialized societyin which
the United States, a study prepared for the Com- there is a progressivelygreater division of
mission on Methods of Economic Regionalization of labor and scale of enterprise, accompanied by
the International Geographical Union, and published
as Research Paper No. 87, Department of Geography
increasing degrees of regional specialization.
Research Series, Universityof Chicago, 1963. 2. But in spite of the increasingdiversity

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1964 NEW APPROACHES TO THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES 11

of people as producers,as consumerstheyare and collectingthe entirerange of specialized

becomingmore and more alike fromone part products from other metropolitan centers
of the countryto another,consumingmuch spread throughoutthe countryto satisfythe
thesame "basketof goods"wherevertheymay demands of the consumers residing in the
live, as well as increasinglylarge baskets be- area it dominates; distributionthen takes
cause of risingreal incomes. place from the metropolisto its hinterland
3. The physical problem in the economic throughthe medium of wholesale and retail
systemis thereforeone of articulation-ensur- contactsorganizedin thefamiliarcentralplace
ing thatthe specialized productsof each seg- hierarchy.In the reversedirectionmove both
ment of the country are shipped to final requests for goods and services,and fundsto
consumers;seeing that consumers in every pay for goods and services received, so that
partof the countryreceivethe basketof goods the flows are not unidirectional.
and services they demand and are able to The foregoingseems simple enough but it
purchase;bringingdemands and supplies into is mostlyunsupportedby substantivestudies
equalityover a period of time. of the spatial organizationof the economyof
the United States. Here is a pressingneed for
4. Articulationrequires flows of messages,
careful analysis and synthesis. The amount
of goods and services, and of funds. The
we do not know at only the second level of
flows appear to be highly structuredand viewing the systemof interestto geographers
channeled, with major metropolitancenters is immense,without raising such third-level
servingas critical articulationpoints, as fol- questions as the ways in which the complex
lows: products move from their specialized spatial organizationof the countryis chang-
productionareas to transshipment or shipping ing throughtime,and why. The challenge is
points in the locally dominant metropolitan great, and if these considerationsconstitute
centers;a complete matrixof intermetropoli- poorly developed or new approaches to the
tan producttransfers takesplace on a national economic geographyof the United States, it
basis, with each metropolitancentershipping is towards their solution that we should be
out the specialized productsof its hinterland, moving.

ANALYSIS OF PROPERTIES IN LAND FORM GEOGRAPHY: AN

APPLICATION TO BROAD-SCALE LAND FORM MAPPING
EDWIN H. HAMMOND
of Wisconsin
University

The preparationof thispaper in its present
formwas undertakenin response to the gen-
eral question of how one might profitably
attackthe land formgeographyof the whole
United States. In attemptingto contributeto
answeringthat question,I shall considerfirst
a majorproblemthatconfronts any geographi-
cal studyof land formon a broad scale, and
shall then apply certain aspects of that dis-
cussion to a specific problem of land form
mappingof the United States.1
The principalsubject consideredis that of
1 The appendix expands upon the techniques of
preparation of the map, "Classes of Land-Surface
Form in the Forty Eight States, U.S.A.," that accom-
panies this issue of the Annals as No. 4 of the Map
Supplement Series.
land forminformation; its nature,the ways in
which it may be obtained and processed,and
its importanceto the progress of land form
geography. My argument, stated in most
generalform,is thatthe geographicalstudyof
land formwould be materiallybenefitedif it
were able to follow the example of other
topical branchesof geographywith respectto
the kinds of data it workswith and the ways
in whichit handles these data. This is part of
a more general contention that perhaps a
major reason for the slowness of land form
studyto develop as a geographicaldiscipline
is thatit has to a considerabledegree failed to
adopt the aims and methods of the rest of
geography. Further,it may be argued that
this differencein treatmentis in part due to

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