Seismic Damage Detection of a Full-Scale Shaking Table

Test Structure
Xiaodong Ji1; Gregory L. Fenves, M.ASCE2; Kouichi Kajiwara3; and Masayoshi Nakashima, M.ASCE4

Abstract: A series of full-scale tests was conducted on the E-Defense shaking table facilities in Japan to simulate various levels of
realistic seismic damage in a high-rise structural steel building. During the shaking table tests, the specimen experienced damage of the
concrete slabs, beam-to-column connections, and nonstructural walls. The densely recorded test data of global and local structural
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

deformation and the extensive acceleration records provide a unique benchmark case for evaluating the effectiveness of vibration-based
damage diagnosis methods. Dynamic properties of the specimen were extracted from floor accelerations under the white noise excitations
by the frequency response function curve-fitting method and autoregressive with exogenous term method. The natural frequencies of the
structure decreased on average 4.1, 5.4, and 11.9% after three levels of seismic excitation, respectively, because of increasing extent of
structural and nonstructural damage. The analysis of the vibration data shows that the mode shapes changed very little because the damage
was distributed over the entire specimen rather than being concentrated on one floor or story for the high-rise moment frame building.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲ST.1943-541X.0000278
CE Database subject headings: Damage; Monitoring; Steel frames; Seismic effects; Shake table tests; Full-scale tests.
Author keywords: Damage detection; Health monitoring; System identification; Steel moment frame; Seismic damage.

Introduction Group on SHM organized a benchmark study of a four-story steel

Structural health monitoring 共SHM兲 has emerged as a promising
technology because of the potential for rapid assessment of pro-
gressive deterioration in structures or abrupt damage induced by
earthquakes and other extreme events. The objective of SHM is to
detect, locate, and quantify damage based on measurement and
analysis of data from sensors. Analysis of dynamic properties
using acceleration data is the most straightforward approach, and
many vibration-based damage diagnosis methods have been de-
veloped as presented in extensive literature reviews in Doeling et
al. 共1996兲 and Sohn et al. 共2003兲. The premise of these methods is
that the damage reduces the stiffness of structural components,
and it can be inferred from changes in the identified dynamic
properties of structures, e.g., natural vibration frequencies and
mode shapes. Mode shapes, especially for higher modes, have
been considered to be more sensitive to damage than vibration
frequencies 共Kim et al. 2003兲.
To examine different damage diagnosis methods, the Interna-
tional Association for Structural Control and the ASCE Task
1
Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing
100084, China 共corresponding author兲.
2
Dean, Cockrell School of Engineering, The Univ. of Texas at Austin,
Austin, TX 78712.
3
Senior Researcher, E-Defense, National Research Institute for Earth
Science and Disaster Prevention, Shinjimicho, Miki, Hyogo 673-0515,
Japan.
4
Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto Univ.,
Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 7, 2009; approved on
July 2, 2010; published online on July 15, 2010. Discussion period open
until June 1, 2011; separate discussions must be submitted for individual
papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
137, No. 1, January 1, 2011. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/2011/1-14–21/
$25.00.
braced frame model 共Johnson et al. 2004兲. Several algorithms
were found useful for identifying the damage in the model 共Bar-
roso and Rodriguez 2004; Bernal and Gunes 2004; Caicedo et al.
2004; Lam et al. 2004; Luş et al. 2004; Hera and Hou 2004; Yang
et al. 2004; Yuen et al. 2004兲. The damage was introduced in the
model by removing and reinstalling braces and loosening the
bolts at beam-to-column connections. This type of modification,
however, does not necessarily represent the realistic damage of
moment frame structures. The benchmark model did not consider
concrete slabs either, but damage to them may result in a signifi-
cant stiffness loss.
To investigate the effects of seismic damage on a specimen
representative of a high-rise building, a series of tests was con-
ducted by using E-Defense shaking table facilities 共Chung et al.
2010兲. The specimen had realistic full-scale dimensions 共8 m
⫻ 12 m ⫻ 21.9 m兲 and it included concrete floor slabs. A variety
of levels of seismic damage was generated by applying increasing
levels of table input excitations. To investigate the dynamic re-
sponse and seismic performance, the test specimen was instru-
mented with more than 600 channels of sensors including
accelerometers, strain gauges, and displacement transducers. The
large volume of recorded data, including the global and local
information, provides a unique benchmark case to evaluate the
effectiveness of vibration-based damage diagnosis methods.
In the shaking table tests, the seismic damage to the specimen
was distributed over the height, rather than concentrated on one
floor or story. Using the test data, this paper presents a case study
to examine how distributed damage affects the vibration frequen-
cies and mode shapes. In the first section, the full-scale shaking
table test is reported and the earthquake response and associated
damage are described. The second section presents the system
identification methods for identifying the dynamic properties
from the recorded floor acceleration data. In the third section,
changes in dynamic properties before and after various levels of
ground motions are estimated. Finally, a numerical simulation is

14 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011

J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21

 1000

Connection Ι
Transverse
8000

2000
1000
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

(a) (b) (c)

120
90
560(@70x8) Slab
800
150

Honeycomb beam
H-800×199×10×15
Column
□-400×400×25×25

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 1. Overview of the test specimen: 共a兲 specimen; 共b兲 plan view; 共c兲 Elevation-1 in transverse direction; 共d兲 Elevation-A in longitudinal
direction; 共e兲 beam-to-column connection I 共welded flange-bolted web兲; and 共f兲 beam-to-column II 共fully welded兲

implemented to compare with the experimental observations.
Shaking Table Test and Seismic Damage
Full-Scale Shaking Table Test
When subjected to a long-period, long-duration ground motion
from a large-magnitude earthquake, high-rise buildings may ex-
perience significant dynamic response that could lead to low-
cycle fatigue failure of beam-to-column connections caused by
numerous cycles of plastic deformation 共Suita et al. 2007兲. To
evaluate the seismic behavior of high-rise buildings subjected to
long-period ground motions, an 80-m-tall, 21-story building, rep-
resentative of 1970s steel moment frame buildings constructed in
Japan, was selected as the prototype structure. A full-scale shak-
ing table test of the entire prototype was impossible because of
the capacity and space limitations of shaking table facility. To
produce dynamic loading on a realistic scale, a substructure shak-
ing table test was used to represent the key features of the struc-
ture. As shown in Fig. 1, the test specimen consists of a four-story
steel moment frame that represents the lower portion of the pro-
totype structure, and a rubber-damper-mass system that represents
the dynamic properties of the upper portion of the building. The
representation of the upper stories by the rubber-damper-mass
system and detailed design of the test specimen can be found in
Chung et al. 2010.
The test specimen had a plan dimension of 8 m by 12 m, a
total height of 21.9 m, and an overall weight of 11.7 MN. It was

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011 / 15

J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21

 El Centro-NS
Tok-NS
Accelaration Hog-NS
San-EW
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Input motions in the longitudinal direction: 共a兲 acceleration
histories; 共b兲 velocity response spectra 共with 5% damping ratio兲
mounted on the E-Defense shaking table, which has a plan dimen-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
sion of 20 m by 15 m and can accommodate a specimen up to a
weight of 12 MN 共Nakashima 2006; Ogawa et al. 2001兲. The test
specimen was designed with a fundamental period of 2.3 s and a
yielding base shear coefficient of 0.17. The steel frame had one
bay and two spans in the plan. In the transverse direction, honey-
comb beams were connected to square tube columns using a
welded flange-bolted web connection detail. In the longitudinal
direction, wide-flange beams were connected to the columns
using a fully welded connection detail. Steel beams were in con-
tact and acted compositely with 120-mm-thick concrete slabs via
shear studs. Two types of nonstructural walls, the drywall parti-
tions and autoclaved lightweight concrete 共ALC兲 panels, were
installed in the second and third stories, respectively, the locations
of which are shown in Fig. 1共b兲.
On each floor, two tridirectional servoaccelerometers mea-
sured floor accelerations. Displacement transducers and strain
gauges were installed in the test specimen to record structural
response, from which the story drifts and the moments and cur-
vatures of structural elements were determined.
Four bidirectional motions were selected for the shaking table
input. The acceleration histories and velocity response spectra are
shown in Fig. 2. The El Centro wave is a standard motion for the
Japanese seismic design code 共BCJ 1997兲. The Tok wave is a
synthesized motion induced by a hypothetical earthquake at a
Tokyo site, and the Hog and San waves are synthesized motions
at Tokyo and Nagoya sites, respectively, based on hypothetical
subduction earthquakes in the Pacific Ocean zone.
The test sequence with three levels of ground motion is given
in Table 1. Level-1 consists of El Centro scaled to 0.25-m/s peak
ground velocity 共PGV兲 and Tok corresponding to the first seismic
force level of the Japanese design code 共BCJ 1997兲. Level-2 in-
cludes El Centro scaled to 0.5-m/s PGV and Hog, which corre-
spond to the second seismic force level of the Japanese design.
The San wave is designated as Level-3, which is 1.8 times the
second seismic force level in terms of the velocity spectrum at the
Table 1. Summary of Loading Program and Damage
Maximum story
drift angle
Loading Motions 共%兲
Level-1 El Centro 共0.25-m/s PGV兲, 0.49
Tok 共0.34-m/s PGV兲
Level-2 El Centro 共0.5-m/s PGV兲, 1.1
Hog 共0.4-m/s PGV兲
Level-3 San 共0.5-m/s PGV兲 2.2
共applied three times兲
16 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21
fundamental period of the test specimen. The specimen was ex-
cited three times by the San wave to cause serious seismic dam-
age.
Seismic Damage
The maximum story drift occurred in the second story and in the
longitudinal direction for all seismic loadings of the test speci-
men. In Level-1, the story drift angle reached 0.49%, and the
maximum base shear coefficient was 0.14. The structural compo-
nents remained elastic. In Level-2, the maximum story drift angle
was 1.1% with a story ductility ratio of 2.1, and the base shear
coefficient reached 0.25. In Level-3, the maximum story drift
angle increased to 2.2% with a story ductility ratio of 3.2, and
the base shear coefficient reached 0.31. More information about
the dynamic response of the test specimen can be found in Chung
et al. 2010.
Table 1 summarizes three types of seismic damage: concrete
slabs, beam-to-column connections, and nonstructural walls. It is
notable that the damage to slabs and beam-to-column connections
occurred on all floor levels in the specimen. The damage observed
after each level of shaking is summarized as follows.
After Level-1: Cracks were observed in concrete slabs in all
floors. These cracks initiated from the column corners and had a
maximum length of about 1 m and a maximum width of 0.15 mm.
Cracking was also found around the doors in the drywall parti-
tions.
After Level-2: The cracks in concrete slabs increased to a
maximum width of 0.3 mm. Concrete spalling from localized
high compressive stresses occurred near columns in all slabs, and
gaps of a 1.0-mm width between the steel column flanges and
concrete slabs developed at all joints. The beam-to-column con-
nections yielded, accompanied by yielding lines and cover flak-
ing. A few gypsum boards in the partitions sustained severe out-
of-plane deformation. In ALC panels, crushing appeared at
corners and gaps were observed between adjacent boards.
After Level-3: After each of the three inputs with the San
wave, new cracks developed in the concrete slabs, the existing
cracks were extended, and concrete spalling was more notable.
Some concrete cracks perpendicular to beams widened to over
1.0 mm. In the first San wave 共denoted as San 1兲, few gypsum
boards of drywall partitions fell down because of significant out-
of-plane deformations, and none of the doors in the nonstructural
walls could be opened. In San 1, fractures occurred on the bottom
flanges of beams at three welded flange-bolted web beam-to-
column connections. As indicated in Fig. 1共c兲, the fractures oc-
curred on the second to fourth floors of the transverse frame.
After the third San wave 共San 3兲, local buckling developed at
beam ends, and the bottom flanges and webs of beams fractured
Damage
Concrete Beam-to-column
slabs connections Nonstructural walls
Cracking None Cracking
Cracking Yielding Out-of-plane deformation,
and spalling crushing, gapping
Cracking Local buckling, Boards fell down,
and spalling fractures at seven locations doors could not open

(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Structural damage after San 3: 共a兲 fracture on bottom flange
and web at beam end; 共b兲 cracking in concrete slab
at four fully welded beam-to-column connections. Three fractures
were present on the third and fourth floors in the longitudinal
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
frame A, as indicated in Fig. 1共d兲. Another fracture occurred on
the second floor in the longitudinal frame B. A fracture at a beam-
to-column connection and cracking in concrete slab is illustrated
in Fig. 3.
Stiffness Loss due to Damage
Before and after each ground motion test, bidirectional white
noise was applied to the table to induce low-level vibrations in the
specimen with a 0.1% maximum story drift angle and a 0.06%
maximum rotation of the beam ends. The white noise had a band-
pass frequency of 0.2–20 Hz, a RMS magnitude of 22 gal, and a
duration of 250 s. As shown in Fig. 4共a兲, four strain gauges were
mounted on beam sections. The curvature at a section was esti-
mated by linear fitting of the measured strains over the depth to
determine the strain distribution. Since the beams vibrated in an
elastic stage under the low-level white noise excitation, the
stresses of steel could be estimated by using an assumed Young’s
modulus of steel of 2.05⫻ 105 N / mm2. The moment at the sec-
tion was calculated by integrating the steel stresses over the sec-
tion about a point at the middle height of the above concrete slab,
which was assumed to be the centroid of compressive force in the
slab. Based on the ratio between the moment and curvature, the
section’s stiffness as the composite beam was estimated by the
least-squares estimation, as shown in Fig. 4共b兲.
This section information allowed the determination of the flex-
ural stiffness of the beams in the undamaged and damage states.
The average stiffness losses for the 600- and 800-mm height
beams, in the transverse and longitudinal frames, respectively, are
shown in Fig. 5共a兲. The beam stiffness decreased by more than
20% after Level-1 and was reduced further because of the reduc-
tion in composite stiffness from concrete cracking and spalling.
Fig. 5共b兲 shows that the composite effect ratios 共stiffness ratio
Moment （kN･m）
h/3
Strain gauge h/3 h direction presented in the following.
h/3
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Stiffness of composite beams: 共a兲 strain gauge locations; 共b兲
moment-curvature relationship
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011 / 17
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21
Composite effect ratio of stiffness
60 2
Transverse direction Transverse direction
Stiffness loss (%)
45 Longitudinal direction 1.8 Longitudinal direction
1.6
30
1.4
15
1.2
0 1
Level-1 Level-2 Level-2 Level-3 Level-3 Un- Level-1 Level-2 Level-2 Level-3 Level-3
motions El Centro Hog San 1 San 3 damaged motions El Centro Hog San 1 San 3
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Average stiffness loss of composite beams: 共a兲 stiffness loss
compared with undamaged status; 共b兲 composite effect ratio of stiff-
ness
between the composite beam and the steel beam alone兲 are 1.8
and 2.0 for the undamaged structure. The composite effect essen-
tially was degraded completely after the Level-3 excitation.
The apparent story stiffnesses were also estimated from the
white noise vibration data. The story shear forces were calculated
from the floor masses and recorded floor accelerations. The ap-
parent story stiffness, defined as a ratio of story shear divided by
measured story drift, was estimated using the least-squares esti-
mation. Analysis of the measured data shows that the stiffnesses
of rubber-damper layers were reduced by 5.1, 6.7, and 23.9% on
the average after Levels-1, -2, and -3, respectively. The damage
developed in the rubber-damper-mass system included the yield-
ing of the U-shaped steel dampers and the damage to the connec-
tions between the dampers and concrete slabs. The yielding in
dampers corresponded to the damage developed in the steel ele-
ments of upper stories of the high-rise building. However, the
damage at the connections could have some discrepancy with
actual damage at upper stories of the prototype structure.
System Identification
The dynamic properties of the test specimen 共natural frequencies,
modal damping ratios, and mode shapes兲 were obtained from
the recorded table and floor accelerations using the white noise
excitations. The accelerometers had a measurement range of
⫾100 m / s2 and a resolution of 9.8⫻ 10−6 m / s2, and the analog
to digital converter had a 24-bit resolution. The sampling
frequency was selected as 100 Hz and the duration was 250 s.
The acquired data were filtered by a Chebyshev I digital filter
共Williams and Taylors 1988兲 with a band-pass frequency of
0.2–20 Hz to eliminate low- and high-frequency noise.
As commonly used frequency- and time-domain system iden-
tification algorithms, the frequency response function 共FRF兲
curve-fitting method 共Ewins 2000兲 and autoregressive 共AR兲 with
exogenous term 共ARX兲 method 共Pakzad and Fenves 2009兲 were
used to identify the dynamic properties. In the following discus-
sion, only the vibration characteristics for the longitudinal direc-
tion are provided due to space limitations. The vibration
characteristics for the transverse direction were also estimated,
and the conclusions were similar to those for the longitudinal
FRF Curve-Fitting Method
The FRF curve-fitting method is a classical frequency-domain
system identification algorithm 共Ewins 2000兲. The natural fre-
quencies and damping ratios of respective modes are estimated by
peak picking of FRFs, and the mode shapes are obtained by fitting
the FRF curves.
 22

Real part
20

Order of ARX model

18 Stable mode

16 Stable frequency
& mode shape
14 Stable frequency
Imaginary part

& damping
12 Stable frequency

10 FRF

8
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 6. FRF 关FRF共␻兲 = Accout共␻兲 / Accin共␻兲兴 for undamaged test Fig. 8. Stabilization diagram for ARX model for undamaged test
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

specimen in the longitudinal direction specimen in the longitudinal direction

The FRF was estimated as a quotient of the autospectral den-

sity of response acceleration over the cross-spectral density of The results are plotted as the dashed line in Fig. 6 and the
excitation and response accelerations. The power spectral densi- mode shapes in Fig. 7. The first four modes are dominated by the
ties were calculated by Welch’s method 共Welch 1967兲, in which a motion of the upper rubber-damper-mass system with modal
Hanning window was added to reduce the effects of signal leak- damping ratios of 3–5%. The three higher modes of the specimen
age, and an averaging technique was adopted to minimize the are dominated by the motion of the steel frame with modal damp-
random errors 共variance兲 of the power spectra. The FRF of the ing ratios of about 1–2%.
undamaged structure from the base to the third floor is plotted as
the solid line in Fig. 6. ARX Method
The natural frequency, ␻0, corresponds to a peak of the imagi-
nary part of the FRF. Denoting the frequencies associated with a The ARX method gives parametric estimates of vibration modes
pair of adjacent peaks in the opposite directions of the FRF real from acceleration data in the discrete-time domain. As a time-
part as ␻l and ␻r, the damping ratio of this mode is given by series model, the ARX model is able to represent the differential
equations of motion for a linear time-invariant system 共Worden
␻r − ␻l and Tomlinson 2001兲
␨= 共1兲
2␻0
N N
The identified first seven natural frequencies and damping ratios
of the undamaged structure are shown in Fig. 7.
兺
i=0
Aiy共n − i兲 = 兺
i=0
Bix共n − i兲 + e共n兲 共3兲

The mode shapes were estimated by fitting the FRF curves

in which N is the model order; x共n兲 and y共n兲 are the
共Ewins 2000兲
p-dimensional input and q-dimensional output vectors, i.e., the
p⬘ excitation and response vectors; e共n兲 is the residue error vector;
1 ␾ ␾ 1
Hik共␻兲 = −
␻ 2S
+ 兺
l=p m l 共␻ 2
l − ␻
il kl
2
+
+ 2␨l␻l␻j兲 Z
共2兲 and Ai and Bi are the coefficient matrices of the AR polynomial
and exogenous input. After the AR coefficient matrices are esti-
mated by the least-squares method, the system matrix of the struc-
in which Hik共␻兲 denotes the FRF from joint i to joint k; ␻l, ␨l, and
ture can be constructed from the coefficient matrices 共Pakzad and
ml denote the lth-order natural frequency, damping ratio, and
Fenves 2009兲. The dynamic properties are extracted from the ei-
modal mass; ␾il and ␾kl represent the lth-order mode shape com-
genvalue decomposition of the system matrix.
ponents at joints i and k; −1 / ␻2S and 1 / Z reflect the low- and
The order of the ARX model depends on the number of de-
high-frequency components beyond the concerned modes; and
j = 冑−1. Fitting the FRF curves by a least-squares estimation gives
grees of freedom of the structure as well as on the number of
measurements 共Fassois 2001兲. A high order for the ARX model is
the unknown parameters in Eq. 共2兲.
necessary because measurement and random noise introduce a
number of computational modes in addition to the structural
modes of interest. A stabilization diagram was used to determine
the order of the ARX model, an example of which is shown in
Fig. 8 for the undamaged structure. The stabilization means that
the relative differences of the dynamic properties identified using
two different model orders are within 1, 10, and 5% for the natu-
ral frequencies, damping ratios, and modal assurance criterion
共MAC兲 of mode shapes 共Allemang and Brown 1982兲, respec-
tively. From Fig. 8, an ARX model order of 20 was found neces-
sary to achieve stable modes. Two additional criteria were used to
exclude spurious computational modes: 共1兲 the damping ratios
should be less than 10% and 共2兲 the modal phase collinearity of
mode shapes should be larger than 0.9 共Pappa et al. 1993兲.
Fig. 7. Dynamic properties of the undamaged test specimen in the Using these criteria, the identified dynamic properties are
longitudinal direction identified by FRF method shown in Fig. 9. It is notable that the dynamic properties extracted

18 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011

J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21

 Rubber-damper-mass modes Frame modes
Frequency 0.51 1.31 2.04 2.76 5.74 11.50 16.79
(Hz):

Damping
ratio: 3.5% 3.4% 4.0% 4.4% 1.8% 1.6% 1.9%

Fig. 9. Dynamic properties of undamaged test specimen in the lon-

gitudinal direction identified by ARX method
Fig. 11. Mode shapes of test specimen for different states in the
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

by the FRF curve-fitting method and ARX method match very
well with natural frequencies within a 1.1% difference and the
mode shapes with an average MAC value of 0.999. Since time-
domain methods are considered to provide more accurate infor-
mation than frequency-domain peak-picking methods 共Andersen
et al. 1999兲, the values obtained by the ARX method were used
for the following discussions.
Changes in Dynamic Properties
Taking the undamaged state of the test specimen as the reference,
the changes in dynamic properties were quantified after various
levels of damage. Fig. 10 shows the changes in natural frequen-
cies. The damage resulted in a decrease of natural frequencies for
both higher and lower modes. The first natural frequency de-
creased most significantly among the rubber-damper-mass modes,
i.e., the first to fourth modes. The fifth natural frequency de-
creased most significantly among the steel frame modes, i.e.,
the fifth to seventh modes. Damage after Level-1 resulted in an
average frequency decrease of 4.1% for the first seven modes.
With increasing damage, the average frequency reductions for all
seven modes reached 5.4 and 11.9% after Level-2 and Level-3,
respectively.
The identified mode shapes are plotted in Fig. 11 for various
states, indicating that neither lower nor higher mode shapes are
altered significantly by damage in the test specimen. The MAC
index of associated mode shapes before and after damage, which
ranges between 0 and 1, was used to estimate the changes in
mode shapes. An index value close to 1 indicates that two modes
shapes are nearly identical 共West 1984兲. After Levels-1, -2, and
-3, the MAC indices for the first seven modes were 0.999, 0.997,
and 0.993 on the average. The small changes observed in mode
longitudinal direction
shapes with increasing damage to the structure are not in agree-
ment with the past findings that mode shapes are more sensitive to
damage than natural frequencies 共Kim et al. 2003兲. As it will be
demonstrated also by a numerical simulation in the next section,
the finding in this test is attributed to the fact that the damage was
distributed over the entire specimen, rather than concentrated on
one floor or story.
Numerical Simulation
Numerical Models
A numerical simulation was conducted to provide further insights
about the changes in dynamic properties observed in the test
specimen with increasing damage. Simplified models were
adopted to represent the specimen for the purpose of examining
the experimentally observed trends. First a shear spring model
with lumped mass was considered, as shown in Fig. 12共a兲. The
shear spring elements were calibrated to the apparent story stiff-
ness measured from the tests. The modal analysis of the shear
spring model gave natural frequencies that were different from
those obtained from the system identification of the test specimen.
For the undamaged structure, the rubber-damper-mass modes had
a difference of 2.9% on the average, while the difference of the
steel frame modes was 22.7% on the average. Large discrepancies
in higher modes resulted from the bending effect of the lower
steel frame.
8#
7#
7# Shear
6# spring
Shear 6 #

20
spring 13#
Mode 1 5# 5 #
Mode 2
Frequency decrease (%)

#
Rotational
15 Mode 3
Lumped 4 # 4# 12 spring
Mode 4 mass Lumped #
Mode 5 mass 3# 11 Boundary
10 Mode 6 3#
Mode 7 #
10
2# 2# Representative
5 column
#
1# 9
1#
0
Un- Level-1 Level-2 Level-2 Level-3 Level-3
damaged motions El Centro Hog San 1 San 3 (a) (b)

Fig. 10. Decrease of natural frequencies of test specimen compared Fig. 12. Numerical models: 共a兲 shear spring model; 共b兲 fishbone
with the undamaged state in the longitudinal direction model

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011 / 19

J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21

 To achieve a reasonable numerical model of the test specimen,
a so-called fishbone model was used because it can simulate both
shear and bending behavior of structural frames 共Nakashima et al.
2002; Luco et al. 2003兲. As shown in Fig. 12共b兲, the model con-
sists of three types of elements: the shear spring, rotational spring,
and representative column. Since the rubber-damper layers be-
haved in pure shear, they were represented by shear springs.
Adopting the assumption that all rotations at joints lying at each
frame floor were identical and the inflection points of all beams
were located at midspan, all beams at a floor level were con-
densed to one rotational spring element, and all columns in each
story were condensed to one representative column element. A
rotational spring element 13 was added to represent the restraint
of the concrete slab to the steel columns at the boundary where
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
the columns were embedded into the slab. For the undamaged
structure, the stiffnesses of shear spring elements were set to the
measured stiffnesses of the rubber-damper layers. The stiffness of
a representative column was taken as the sum of all column stiff-
nesses in one story, calculated based on the actual dimensions and
the Young modulus of the steel. The stiffness of a rotational
spring element was taken as the sum of the rotational stiffnesses
of all beams at one floor level, considering the composite effect
ratio of stiffness as described earlier. The stiffness of Element 13
was determined by matching the dynamic properties between the
fishbone model and the test specimen 共by system identification兲.
Note that determination of the stiffness of Element 13 through
matching dynamic properties was only used for the undamaged
model.
A simplified method was used to estimate the effect of the
nonstructural walls in the test specimen. The apparent story stiff-
ness may be calculated using two estimates of story shear force:
共1兲 the floor mass multiplied by the floor acceleration and 共2兲 the
sum of columns’ shear forces that were calculated from the strain
data at columns. The difference of the results between these two
methods can be attributed to the contribution of nonstructural
walls. Analysis of these data indicated that the nonstructural walls
increased the frame stiffness by about 10%, which was then used
in the column elements for the fishbone model.
The modal analysis of this fishbone model provided a reason-
able correspondence with the dynamic properties observed in the
tests. For the undamaged structure, the predicted natural frequen-
cies had the average differences of 2.7 and 4.8% with the identi-
fied frequencies for the rubber-damper-mass modes and steel
frame modes. The MAC index of associated mode shapes be-
tween the numerical prediction and test identification was 0.990
on the average.
Changes in Dynamic Properties due to Simulated
Damage
The seismic damage in the test specimen was simulated by de-
creasing the element stiffnesses of the numerical model. The dam-
age in the rubber-damper layers was modeled by reducing the
stiffnesses of the shear spring elements based on the measured
apparent stiffness of the rubber-damper layers. The damage in
concrete slabs was simulated by reducing the stiffnesses of rota-
tional spring elements. The stiffness reduction of Elements 9–11
was achieved in reference to the decrease of the measured stiff-
nesses of composite beams. The stiffness reduction of Elements
12 and 13 was taken as the average of the decrease in Elements
9–11 since no measured data were available.
Using the undamaged model as the reference, the changes in
dynamic properties were estimated, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14,
20 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21
Mode 1
Mode 2
Frequency decrease (%)
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 6
Mode 7
Fig. 13. Decrease in natural frequencies of numerical model com-
pared with undamaged state in the longitudinal direction
for the natural frequencies and mode shapes, respectively. The
natural frequencies of the numerical model decreased signifi-
cantly with the increasing damage, whereas the mode shapes re-
mained nearly the same. After the simulated Levels-1, -2, and -3
damage, the natural frequencies decreased by 4.0, 6.2, and 11.1%
on the average of the first seven modes, while the average MACs
of mode shapes before and after damage were 0.999, 0.995, and
0.993. Comparison between Figs. 10 and 13 indicates that the
reduction of natural frequencies for the highest two modes is less
than those obtained from the experiments. This may result from
the fact that the damage to nonstructural walls was not considered
in the numerical simulation.
Since nonstructural walls were not instrumented for their stiff-
ness evaluation, a case study was implemented to illustrate the
effect of nonstructural wall damage. Because of significant failure
after Level-3 San 3 loading, the nonstructural walls may lose any
contribution to the structure’s stiffness, so the 10% stiffness added
to Column Elements 2 and 3 was removed. The result is plotted
Fig. 13, in which the frequencies of the highest two modes de-
creased more significantly and were close to those of the system
identification of the test specimen.
Conclusions
A series of full-scale shaking table tests was conducted to exam-
ine realistic seismic damage on a specimen representative of a
high-rise steel building. The damage to concrete slabs, beam-to-
column connections, and nonstructural walls were generated by
three levels of ground motion. Dynamic properties of the test
specimen were extracted from the recorded accelerations under
Rubber-damper-mass modes Frame modes
Undamaged Level-1 motions
Level-2, Hog Level-3, San 3
Fig. 14. Mode shapes of numerical model in the longitudinal direc-
tion for different states
 the white noise excitations by both the FRF curve-fitting method
and ARX method. The changes in dynamic properties before and
after damage were estimated. A numerical simulation was imple-
mented to validate the observations in the shaking table test.
In a series of shaking table tests with strong ground motion,
the structural damage was distributed over the height of test
specimen, rather than being concentrated on one floor or story.
The most important finding is that the distributed damage reduced
the natural vibration frequencies but did not alter the mode shape
significantly. Global information about mode shapes, such as the
MAC index, did not change much because of the distributed na-
ture of the structural damage in the beams at multiple levels over
the height. The finding based on full-scale testing is relevant for
multistory and high-rise steel moment frame buildings. The effect
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Aliah University on 04/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
of damage on mode shapes for other types of building structures
may be different, especially ones in which damage may be con-
centrated at one level by design, such as a core wall structure, or
unintentionally such as in a soft-story mechanism. The identifica-
tion of damage location and evaluation of severity of damage will
be the subject of a future paper on damage diagnosis methods.
Acknowledgments
The work presented herein was conducted as part of a compre-
hensive research project, Evaluation and Assurance of Safety and
Functionality of Urban Infrastructure, sponsored by the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 共MEXT兲,
Japan. The first writer was supported by the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science 共JSPS兲 Postdoctoral Fellowship for Foreign
Researchers Program at the time of this study. The second writer
was supported by Kyoto University as Visiting Professor of
Kyoto University at the time of this study. The writers wish to
thank to these sponsors. The writers would also like to thank the
anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and sugges-
tions.
References
Allemang, R. J., and Brown, D. L. 共1982兲. “A correlation coefficient for
modal vector analysis.” Proc., 1st Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Orlando,
Fla., 110–116.
Andersen, P., Brincker, R., Peeters, B., De Roeck, G., and Hermans, L.
共1999兲. “Comparison of system identification methods using ambient
bridge test data.” Proc., 17th Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Kissimmee,
Fla., 1035–1041.
Barroso, L. R., and Rodriguez, R. 共2004兲. “Damage detection utilizing the
damage index method to a benchmark structure.” J. Eng. Mech.,
130共2兲, 142–151.
BCJ. 共1997兲. Structural provisions for building structures (1997 edition),
Building Center of Japan, Tokyo 共in Japanese兲.
Bernal, D., and Gunes, B. 共2004兲. “Flexibility based approach for damage
characterization: Benchmark application.” J. Eng. Mech., 130共1兲, 61–
70.
Caicedo, J. M., Dyke, S. J., and Johnson, E. A. 共2004兲. “Natural excita-
tion technique and eigensystem realization algorithm for Phase I of
the IASC-ASCE benchmark problem: Simulated data.” J. Eng. Mech.,
130共1兲, 49–60.
Chung, Y. L., Nagae, T., Hitaka, T., and Nakashima, M. 共2010兲. “Seismic
resistance capacity of high-rise buildings subjected to long-period
ground motions: E-Defense shaking table test.” J. Struct. Eng.,
136共6兲, 637–644.
Doeling, S. W., Farrar, C. R., Prime, M. B., and Shevitz, D. W. 共1996兲.
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2011 / 21
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(1): 14-21
“Damage identification and health monitoring of structural and me-
chanical system from changes in their characteristics: A literature re-
view.” Rep. No. LA-13070-MS, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los
Alamos, N.M.
Ewins, D. J. 共2000兲. Modal testing: Theory, practice and application, 2nd
Ed., Taylor and Francis, London.
Fassois, S. D. 共2001兲. “MIMO LMS-ARMAX identification of vibrating
structures—Part I: The method.” Mech. Syst. Signal Process., 15共4兲,
723–735.
Hera, A., and Hou, Z. 共2004兲. “Application of wavelet approach for
ASCE structural health monitoring benchmark studies.” J. Eng.
Mech., 130共1兲, 96–104.
Johnson, E. A., Lam, H. F., Katafygiotis, L. S., and Beck, J. L. 共2004兲.
“Phase I IASC-ASCE structural health monitoring benchmark prob-
lem using simulated data.” J. Eng. Mech., 130共1兲, 3–15.
Kim, J. T., Ryu, Y. S., Cho, H. M., and Stubbs, N. 共2003兲. “Damage
identification in beam-type structures: Frequency-based method vs
mode-shape-based method.” Eng. Struct., 25共1兲, 57–67.
Lam, H. F., Katafygiotis, L. S., and Mickleborough, N. C. 共2004兲. “Ap-
plication of a statistical model updating approach on Phase I of the
IASC-ASCE structural health monitoring benchmark study.” J. Eng.
Mech., 130共1兲, 34–48.
Luco, N., Mori, Y., Funahashi, Y., Cornell, A. C., and Nakashima, M.
共2003兲. “Evaluation of predictors of non-linear seismic demands using
‘fishbone’ models of SMRF buildings.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn.,
32共14兲, 2267–2288.
Luş, H., Betti, R., Yu, J., and De Angelis, M. 共2004兲. “Investigation of a
system identification methodology in the context of the ASCE bench-
mark problem.” J. Eng. Mech., 130共1兲, 71–84.
Nakashima, M. 共2006兲. “Test on collapse behavior of structural systems.”
Sci. Technol. Jpn., 96, 14–19.
Nakashima, M., Ogawa, K., and Inoue, K. 共2002兲. “Generic frame model
for simulation of earthquake responses of steel moment frames.”
Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn., 31共3兲, 671–692.
Ogawa, N., Ohtani, K., Katayama, T., and Shibata, H. 共2001兲. “Construc-
tion of a three-dimensional, large-scale shaking table and develop-
ment of core technology.” Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 359,
1725–1751.
Pakzad, S. N., and Fenves, G. L. 共2009兲. “Statistical analysis of vibration
modes of a suspension bridge using spatially dense wireless sensor
network.” J. Struct. Eng., 135共7兲, 863–872.
Pappa, R. S., Elliott, K. B., and Schenk, A. 共1993兲. “Consistent-mode
indicator for the eigensystem realization algorithm.” J. Guid. Control
Dyn., 16共5兲, 852–858.
Sohn, H., Farrar, C. R., Hemez, F. M., Czarnecki, J. J., Shunk, D. D., and
Stinemates, D. W. 共2003兲. “A review of structural health monitoring
literature: 1996–2001.” Technical Rep. Annex to SAMCO Summer
Academy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N.M.
Suita, K., Kitamura, Y., Gotoh, T., Iwata, T., and Kamae, K. 共2007兲.
“Seismic response of high-rise buildings constructed in 1970s sub-
jected to long-period ground motions.” J. Struct. Constr. Eng., 611,
55–61 共in Japanese兲.
Welch, P. D. 共1967兲. “The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation
of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modi-
fied periodograms.” IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust., 15共2兲, 70–73.
West, W. M. 共1984兲. “Illustration of the use of modal assurance criterion
to detect structural changes in an orbiter test specimen.” Proc., Air
Force Conf. on Aircraft Structural Integrity, Los Angeles, 1–6.
Williams, A. B., and Taylors, F. J. 共1988兲. Electronic filter design hand-
book, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Worden, K., and Tomlinson, G. R. 共2001兲. Nonlinearity in structural dy-
namics, IOP Publishing, Bristol, U.K.
Yang, J. N., Lei, Y., Lin, S., and Huang, N. 共2004兲. “Hilbert-Huang based
approach for structural damage detection.” J. Eng. Mech., 130共1兲,
85–95.
Yuen, K. V., Au, S. K., and Beck, J. L. 共2004兲. “Two-stage structural
health monitoring approach for Phase I benchmark studies.” J. Eng.
Mech., 130共1兲, 16–33.