Task 1a

Nouns and verbs, active and passive voice, direct and indirect objects,
compound and complex sentences: you've probably heard these terms before.
Some you still remember, and others—well, others may not be quite as familiar
to you as they used to be. If you're in the mood to brush up on your grammar, this
page is for you: brief definitions and examples of the most common grammatical
terms.

HOW TO REVIEW THE TOP GRAMMATICAL TERMS

If you want to learn more about any of these terms, click on the word to visit
a glossary page. There you'll find an expanded definition and several more
examples, along with links to articles that examine related grammatical concepts
in more detail.
Put these concepts to work in Basic Sentence Structures.
A word of caution: learning (or relearning) these grammatical terms won't by
itself make you a better writer. But reviewing these terms should deepen your
understanding of how words are arranged in English to create sentences.
And that understanding should eventually help you become a more versatile and
confident writer.

Active Voice
Active voice is a type of sentence or clause in which the subject performs or
causes the action expressed by the verb. Contrast with Passive Voice.
(See also: Practice in Changing Verbs From Passive to Active.)
Example:
"A census taker once tried to test me.
I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti."
(Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)

ADJECTIVE
An adjective is the part of speech (or word class) that modifies a noun or
a pronoun.
(See also: Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit.)
Example:
"Send this pestilent, traitorous, cow-hearted, yeasty codpiece to the brig."
(Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, 2007)

ADVERB
An adverb is the part of speech that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
(See also: Practice in Turning Adjectives Into Adverbs.)
Example:
"There I was, standing there in the church, and for the first time in my whole life I
realized I totally and utterly loved one person."
(Charles to Carrie in Four Weddings and a Funeral, 1994)
CLAUSE
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause may
be either a sentence (independent clause) or a sentence-like construction
included within another sentence (that is, a dependent clause).
Example:
"Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog
is always right [dependent clause]."
(Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993)

COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains at least one independent
clause and one dependent clause.
Example:
"Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog
is always right [dependent clause]."
(Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993)
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains at least two independent
clauses, often joined by a conjunction.
Example:
"I can't compete with you physically [independent clause], and you're no
match for my brains [independent clause]."
(Vizzini in The Princess Bride, 1987)

CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is the part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences.
Example:
"I can't compete with you physically, and you're no match for my brains."
(Vizzini in The Princess Bride, 1987)

DECLARATIVE SENTENCE
A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement.
Example:
"A census taker once tried to test me. I ate his liver with some fava beans
and a nice Chianti."
(Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)

DEPENDENT CLAUSE
A dependent clause is a group of words that begins with a relative pronounor a
subordinating conjunction. A dependent clause has both a subject and a verb but
(unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as
a subordinate clause.
Example:
"Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog is
always right [dependent clause]."
(Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993)
DIRECT OBJECT
A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb.
Example:
"All my life I had to fight. I had to fight my daddy. I had to fight my uncles. I had
to fight my brothers."
(Sophia in The Color Purple, 1985)

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses strong feelings by making
an exclamation.
Example:
"God! Look at that thing! You would've gone straight to the bottom!"
(Jack Dawson looking at Rose's ring in Titanic, 1997)

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives advice or instructions or that
expresses a request or a command.
Example:
"Send this pestilent, traitorous, cow-hearted, yeasty codpiece to the brig."
(Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, 2007)

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
An independent clause is a group of words made up of a subject and a predicate.
An independent clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a
sentence. Also known as a main clause.
Example:
"Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog is
always right [dependent clause]."
(Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993)

INDIRECT OBJECT
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the
action of a verb in a sentence is performed.
(See also: Practice in Identifying Indirect Objects.)
Example:
"It's a family motto. Are you ready, Jerry? I want to make sure you're ready,
brother. Here it is: Show me the money."
(Rod Tidwell to Jerry McGuire in Jerry McGuire, 1996)

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.
(See also: Practice in Forming Interrogative Sentences.)
Example:
"What is the name of the Lone Ranger's nephew's horse?"
(Mr. Parker in A Christmas Story, 1983)
NOUN
A noun is the part of speech that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality,
or action and can function as the subject or object of a verb, the object of a
preposition, or an appositive.
(See also: Practice in Identifying Nouns.)
Example:
"Waiter, there is too much pepper on my paprikash."
(Harry Burns in When Harry Met Sally, 1989)

PASSIVE VOICE
Passive voice is a type of sentence or clause in which the subject receives the
action of the verb. Contrast with Active Voice.
Example:
"Any attempt by you to create a climate of fear and panic among the
populace must be deemed by us an act of insurrection."
(First Elder to Jor-El in Superman, 1978)

PREDICATE
A predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence or clause, modifying the
subject and including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.
(See also: What Is a Predicate?)
Example:
"I don't ever remember feeling this awake."
(Thelma Dickinson in Thelma and Louise, 1991)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A prepositional phrase is a group of words made up of a preposition, its object,
and any of the object's modifiers.
(See also: Adding Prepositional Phrases to the Basic Sentence Unit.)
Example:
"A long time ago, my ancestor Paikea came to this place on the back of a whale.
Since then, in every generation of my family, the first born son has carried his
name and become the leader of our tribe."
(Paikea in Whale Rider, 2002)

PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.
(See also: Using the Different Forms of Pronouns.)
Example:
"A census taker once tried to test me. I ate his liver with some fava beans and a
nice Chianti."
(Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)
SENTENCE
A sentence is a word or (more commonly) a group of words that expresses a
complete idea. Conventionally, a sentence includes a subject and a verb. It begins
with a capital letter and concludes with a mark of end punctuation.
(See also: Exercise in Identifying Sentences by Function.)
Example:
"I don't ever remember feeling this awake."
(Thelma Dickinson in Thelma and Louise, 1991)

SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence is a sentence with only one independent clause (also known as
a main clause).
Example:
"I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti."
(Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)

SUBJECT
A subject is the part of a sentence that indicates what it is about.
(See also: What Is the Subject of a Sentence?)
Example:
"I don't ever remember feeling this awake."
(Thelma Dickinson in Thelma and Louise, 1991)

TENSE
Tense is the time of a verb's action or state of being, such as past, present,
and future.
(See also: Forming the Past Tense of Regular Verbs.)
Example:
"Years ago, you served [past tense] my father in the Clone Wars; now
he begs[present tense] you to help him in his struggle against the Empire."
(Princess Leia to General Kenobi in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, 1977)

VERB
A verb is the part of speech that describes an action or occurrence or indicates a
state of being.
(See also: Ten Quick Questions and Answers About Verbs and Verbals in English.)
Example:
"Send this pestilent, traitorous, cow-hearted, yeasty codpiece to the brig."
(Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, 2007)

Task 1b
Language, grammar, and literary terms
a glossary of grammatical terminology, definitions and examples - sounds and
literary effects in language, speaking, writing, poetry..
This glossary of linguistics, literary and grammatical terms is aimed to be helpful
for writers, speakers, teachers and communicators of all sorts, in addition to
students and teachers of the English language seeking:
1. to understand the different effects of written and spoken language - what
they are called, from a technical or study standpoint,
2. to develop variety, sensitivity, style and effectiveness in your own use of
language - written and spoken - for all sorts of communications, whatever
your purposes, and
3. to improve understanding and interpretation of the meaning
of words without having to look them up in a dictionary.
There are very many different effects of written and spoken language. Most
people know what an acronym is, or a palindrome. But what is a glottal stop?
What is a tautology, or a gerund? What is alliteration and onomatopoeia? What
are the meanings of prefixes, such as hypo/hyper and meta, and suffixes such
as ologyand logue?
Words alone convey quite basic meaning. Far more feeling and mood is conveyed
in the way that words are put together and pronounced - whether for inspiration,
motivation, amusement, leadership, persuasion, justification, clarification or any
other purpose.

The way we use language - in addition to the language we use - is crucial for
effective communications and understanding.
The way others use language gives us major insights as to motives,
personalities, needs, etc.

The study and awareness of linguistics helps us to know ourselves and others -
why we speak and write in different ways; how language develops; and how so
many words and ways of speaking from different languages share the same roots
and origins.
Also, our technical appreciation of language is a big help to understanding
language more widely, and particularly word meanings that we might not have
encountered before.
For example why is a prefix so significant in language? And a suffix?
Knowing these and many other aspects of linguistics can dramatically assist our
overall understanding of language, including new words, even foreign words,
which we might never have seen before.
Some of these language terms and effects are vital for good communications.
Others are not essential, but certainly help to make language and
communications more interesting, textured and alive - and when language does
this, it captivates, entertains and moves audiences more, which is definitely
important for professional communicators.
Note that many of these words have meanings outside of language and grammar,
and those alternative non-linguistic definitions are generally not included in this
glossary.
tone - in language tone refers generally to the quality of the voice and vocal
sounds in terms of pitch, strength, and other qualities of sound and style or
mood, for example 'an angry tone of voice' or 'a harsh tone of voice' or 'he spoke
in hushed tones'. Tone of language may refer to qualities of sound, feeling,
attitude, volume, pace, and virtually any other quality that might be imagined for
verbal, or indeed written or printed communications too. Broadly when referring
to communications, tone equates to the nature or type or description of the
language and how the meaning is conveyed.

verb - traditionally children are taught that a verb is 'a doing word', which is a
good definition. We might extend it to 'a doing or happening word'. More
technically a verb is the 'predicate' (this describes what is happening to the
subject) in a phrase or sentence. Most statements comprise as a minium: a
subject (which is doing something, often acting on or affecting or experiencing
the effect of an object), an object (something which is being acted upon or
affected by or affecting a subject), and a verb (which describes the action or
affect). For example: The cat (subject) sat (verb) on the mat (object). It is very
difficult to compose a meaningful sentence without a verb. Some of the shortest
sentences contain just a subject and a verb, for example: 'He wept'. 'He' is the
subject, 'wept' is the verb, and there is no object. The sentence 'It rained'
contains the subject 'it' and a verb 'rained' ('it' is a pronoun and technically a
substitute for something implied such as 'the weather' or 'at that time' or 'at that
location'). The sentence 'I was happy' contains 'I' (subject), 'was' (verb) and
'happy' (adjectivedescribing the subject). The sentence 'I ran quickly' contains 'I'
(subject), 'ran' (verb), and 'quickly' (adverbdescribing the verb). The word 'verb'
is Latin, from 'verbum', meaning 'verb', and originally 'word'. A significant aspect
of a verb in use is its 'voice' or diathesis, which refers to whether the verb is
acting actively (the subject is doing something to the object) or passively (the
object is having something done to it by the subject).

voice - also called diathesis - in English grammar this refers to whether a verb,
including its related construction, is active or passive; for example 'the teacher
taught the class' is an active voice/diathesis, whereas 'the class was taught by the
teacher' is a passive voice/diathesis. Some other languages offer a 'middle voice'
which is neither active nor passive. In communicating sensitively it is often
helpful to consider whether active or passive voice is best for the situation,
considering also the verb and context. Commonly passive voice/diathesis of verb
constructions are less likely to offend or unsettle people, however for certain
verbs/situations the opposite may be true.
Task 1c

Imperative forms;
You can use the imperative form to give an order, to give a warning or advice, and
(if you use "please") to make a request.

To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb without 'to':
"Come here!"
"Sit down!"
To make a negative imperative, put "do not" or "don't" before the verb:
"Don't go!"
"Do not walk on the grass."
The imperative can be used for all subjects (you, he, they and we), but you can
also use "let's" before the verb if you are including yourself in the imperative:
"Let's stop now."
"Let's have some lunch."
The negative of "let's" is "let's not":
"Let's not argue!
"Let's not tell her about it."

Orders
Adults do not usually give each other orders, unless they are in a position of
authority. The intonation of an order is important: each word is stressed, and the
tone falls at the end of the sentence:
"Sit down now!" ('Sit', 'down' and 'now' are all stressed, and the tone falls on
'now'.)
However, adults can give orders to children and to animals:
Here are some orders you could give your pet dog:
"Come here!"
"Sit!"
"Heel!"
"Fetch!"

Warnings
You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the
warning are stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:
"Watch out!"
"Look out!"
"Don't cross!"

Advice
When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally:
"Eat an apple – it's much better for you than a biscuit!"
"Don't tell him you're resigning now! Wait until Monday when he's in a better
mood."
You can often read articles in magazines that give advice on a subject. Sometimes,
this advice is presented as "Dos and don'ts".
For example:
Travelling long-distance
Do try to sleep well the night before
Do drink plenty of water
Do try to walk about the plane during the flight
Don't drink alcohol
Don't eat heavy meals
Don't wear restrictive clothing

Requests
You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite
word before the verb:
"Please take a seat."
"Please wait here."
"Please hold the line."
"Please don't smoke here."
In written English, you might also see "Kindly" used as a polite word:
"Kindly return the documents as soon as possible."
"Kindly forward this to the Sales and Marketing department."
"Kindly send me 2 copies of your brochure."

Imperative + passive form

An imperative sentence in the passive voice has the following form: Let + object +
be + past participle.
 Active: Carry it home.
 Passive: Let it be carried home.
 Active: Do it at once.
 Passive: Let it be done at once.
 Active: Open the door.
 Passive: Let the door be opened.
 Active: Throw the ball.
 Passive: Let the ball be thrown.
When the active voice is in the negative, the passive voice takes the form: Let +
object + not + be + past participle.
 Active: Do not beat the dog.
 Passive: Let the dog not be beaten.
Note that do is not used in the passive form.
We can begin the passive sentence with you if we want to put emphasis on the
person addressed to.
Compare:
 Active: Help me.
 Passive: Let me be helped.
 Passive: You are requested to help me.
 Active: Learn the poem.
 Passive: Let the poem be learned.
 Passive: You are asked to learn the poem.
 Active: Don’t touch it.
 Passive: Let it not be touched.
 Passive: You are warned not to touch it.
Note that the passive form has to begin with you when the object of the active
verb is not mentioned.
 Active: Work hard.
Here the active verb does not have an object. Therefore the passive form should
begin with you.
 Passive: You are advised to work hard.
 Active: Get out.
 Passive: You are ordered to get out.