MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Objective Type)Published by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. 011-23 26 23 63 Prone: { 011-23262370 011-23 25 28 72 ‘OUL-23 26 22 79 Branches: © 120/1, Mid Main Road, IX Cross, Chamrajpat, Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) © 26, Damodaran Street, T. Nagar, Channal (Phone :044-24 34 47 26) ‘@ St. Benedict's Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0961-254 96 69, 251 38 81} © 42-453, lat Floor, Ramkote, Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 76 02 47) © Adda Tanda Chowk, N.D. 365, Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) © 106A, Ist Floor, S.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 78,22 27 52 47) © 18, Madan Mohan Maiviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) @ 128A, Block 3, First Floor, Noorani Building, L.J. Road, Mumbai (Phone ; 022-24 46 3998) # Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EMAIL : colazmi@hotmail.com WEBSITE : wwwlaxmipublications.com EME-0570-285. MECHANICAL ENGG (OT) Ul Rights Reserved. Thia book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated without the written permission of the author and the Publishers. First Edition : 1984 Reprint : 1986, 1986 Second Editign : 1987 Reprint 1988, 1990 Third Edition : 1991 Reprint 2 1992 Fourth Edition : 1993 Fifth Edition ; 1993 Revised Edition ; 1994 Reprint : 1995, 1997, 1999 Sixth Edition : 2001 Reprint : 2008, 2004, 2005 Price : is. 395.00 Only. ‘C—10694/05/08 ‘Typevetting by : Goswami Printers, Delhi-110088. Printed at : Mobra Offset Prose, New Dothi,CONTENTS “|. Fluld Mechanies and Hydraulic Machines 1-68 L Introduction 1 I. Objective Type Questions a 22 ‘Answers 2. Engineering Mechanics L Introduction Il. Objective Type Questions a 87 ‘Answers 3.__ Thermodynamics L Introduction IL. Objective Type Questions ‘Answers Internal Combustion Engines and Nuclear Power Plants [Introduction Il. Objective Type Quéstions Answers L Introduction IL Objective Type Questions Answers 6. Compressors, Gas Turbines and Jet Engines 1 introduction HL, Objective Type Questions Answer "Heat Transfer, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning LJntroduction Il. Objective Type Questions ‘Answers. 8.__ Strength of Materials 337—410 L Introduction 337 II, Objective Type Questions 355 Answers 408Pages ‘Theory of Machines om 411—491 LJntroduction Aly Il, Objective Type Questions 428 Answers. 488 10. Machine Design a» 492570 L Introduction 492 Ih. Objective Type Questions - 510 Answers 568 11,__Engincering Materials su S71—630 Lintroduction ts II. Objective Type Questions Answers Production Engineering LJntroduction Ii. Objective Type Questions Answers “73.__ Industrial Engineering and Production Management soe __TM—752 L Introduction mi Il. Objective Type Questions F 723 ‘Answers 751 14. General Engineering L introduction 3 IL, Objective Type Questions 765 Answers 803 18. Typical Objective Type Test Papers 805847 1. Test Paper No. 1 . 805 I. Test Paper No. 2 25 ‘Answers : Test Paper No. 1 845 Test Paper No. 2 846°1 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines 1-1. DEFINITIONS AND FLUID PROPERTIES Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of tho fluid (ie. liquids or gases) when they are at rest or in motion. When the fluids are at rest, thete will be no relative motion between adjacent fluid jayers and hence velocity gradient ($ } s which is defined as the change of velocity between two adjacent fluid layers divided by the distance between the layers, will be zero. Also the shear stress ¢ = oS du ay ‘The law, which states tha the shear stress (r) is directly proportional to the rate of shear onnin( ) , oy is calied Newton’s Law of viscosity. Fluids which obey Netwon’s law of viscosity are knowa as Newtonian flaids and the fluids which do not cbey this law are called Non-Newtontas fluids, (Density or manss density, It is defined as the mass per unit volume of « fluid and is denoted by the symbol p (rho). (Gi) Welght density or specific weight, It is defined as the weight per unit volume of a fluid and is denoted by the symbol w, Mathematically Mass of fluid will be zero in which & is the velocity gradient or rate of shear straia. P= Votume of fivid and von Helgi offtud | Mass of ald gg Volume of fivid "Volume ‘The value of density (6) for water is 1000 kg/m? and of specific weight or weight density (w) is 1000 «9.81 Nim? or 9810 Nin? in SL. units, Gi) Specifie volume, Itisdofined as volume per unit massand hence it isthe reciprocal of mass density. Specific gravity is the ratio of weight density or mass density of the fluid to the weight density or mass density ofa standard fluidat a standard temperature. Rortiquids, water is taken as a standard flvid at 4°C and for gases, air is taken as standard fluid. (io) Viscosity. it is defined as the property of a Suid which offers resistance to the movement of one {ayer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Unit of viscosity in MKS is expressed as SEES. in sy om system as“ and in CGS as 22°22 The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise. wm ‘The equivaient numerical value of one poiscin MES units is obtained by dividing 98.1 and in SI units is obtained by dividing 10.2 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (OBJECTIVE TYPR) Kineruatic viscostty is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of fuid. It is denoted by the Greek symbo! (v) called ‘na’, Unit of kinematic viscosity in MKS is an*/eee and in CGS is em /sec which is also called stoke. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with the incressc of temperatute while the viscosity of the gue inctenses. () Compressthitity. It s the reciprocal of the butk modulus of elasticity, which is defined asthe entie of compressive stress to volumetric strain, Mathematically, ._Mctease of pressure | dp Batk Modues ‘Volumetric sisia “ ( a } v * Fak Modulus dp (v) Sarfoce tension. It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a Hiquid in comiact with pas such that the contact surface behaves like a membrance under lension. it is expressed ax force per unit fength and is denoted by o (called sims). Hesee unit of surface tension in MKS is kefiim white in SI Nan. ‘The relation between surface tension (0) and difference of pressure (p) between inside and outside of 2 liguid drop is piven by p = SZ Compressibility For a soap bubble, pe ee For a liquid jet, aed. (Wi) Capillarity. It is defined as « phenomenon of rise or fall ofa liquid suxface in a amall vertical tube ‘held in a liquid relative to general level of the liquid. The rise ot fell of liquid is given by pw 0080 wd where d= Din, of tube = Angle: of contact between liquid and glass tube, (viii) Ideal fluid is a fluid which offers no resistance to flow snd is incompressible. Heace for ideat fluid viscosity (1) is zero and density (p) ix constant. (é) Real finld isa fluid which offers resistance to flow. Hence viscosity for res! uid is not zero, LZ. PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT Pressureat a point isdefined asthe force perunit area. The Pascal’slaw states that intensity of pressure for a fluid at rest is equal in all directions. The prescure at any point in a incompressible fluid (Le. liquid) at rest is equal to the product of weight density of fluid and vertical height from free surtace of the liquid. Mathematically, p = wz = pgz. (2) Hydrostatic law stats that the rte of increase of pressure im the vertically downward direction is equal to the specific weight of the fuid ie. Be wea pg. () Absolate pressure is the pressure measured with reference to absolute zero pressure while gauge pressure is the pressure measured with reference to atmospheric pressure. Thus the presume above the atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure. Vacuum pressure is the pressure below the atmospheric pressure, Mathematically,FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES 3 Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure — Atmospheric pressure ‘Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure — Absoluie pressure, (ii) Manometersare defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure ai a poiat in a fluid. They are classified as: 1. Simple Manometers, and 2. Differential Manometers. Simple manomesers are used for measuring pressure at » point while differential manometers are used for mensuring the difference of pressures between the twa points ina pipe or two different pipes. () The pressave ata poiat jn a static compressible uid is obtained by combining two equations ie. equation of state for a en e. ar} and the equation given by ydrostatic tev 2 -- os) -Forisothermal process, the pressure at a height Z ina static compressible fluid is given asp = pyc” 22/77 (W For adiabotic process the pressuse and temperature at a height Z are yok « izh 2] 7 = UYol > al SHE]? ant rat] & Where p, = Absolute pressure at ground or sea-level R= Gas constant, 7-= Ratio of specitic heats T, = Temperature at ground or sea-level. 1.3, HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES “The Force exerted by x static liquid on a vertical, horizontal and inclined surface immersed in tbe liquid is given by Fapgah where p= Density of the liquid A= Areaof the immersed surface Fee Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed surface from free surfoce of the liquid. (i) Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the resultant pressure on the surface. ‘The depth of centre of pressure (b*) {rom free surface of the Hiquid is given by eats 5 Al Ae a for inclined surface for vertical surface Ak ‘The centre of pressure for # plane vertical surface lies at a depth of two-third the total height of the immersed surface from free surtace. (1) The total force on a curved surface is given by F= VE,'+ £7 where Fy = Horizontal force on a curved surface and is equal to totat presanre force on the projected aca of the curved surface on the vertical plane and Ry = Vertical force onthe curved surface and is equatto the weight of the liquid actustly or virtually stipported by the curved surface. F, “The inclination of the resultant force on curved surface with horizontal is given by tan @ = =.4 MBCHANICAL ENGINEERING (OBECTIVE TYPE) (i Phe resattant force om a sluice gute is given by Fer,- where F, = Pressure force on the upstrensn side of the shuice gute Foe Pressure farce on the downstream side of the stuice gate, (iv) Lock-gates. For a tocksate, the reaton between the tro gates (Ps equal tothe eaton athe binge (R), Le, R = P and the reaction between the two gates (P) is given by P= = where F = Resultant water pressure on the lock-gale = Fi — F, and 8 = Inclination of the gate with the normal to the side of the lock. 1.4, BUOYANCY AND FLOTATION ‘Buoyant force is the upward force or thrust exerted by a liguid on body when the body is immezsed in the liquid. The paint through which the buoyant force is supposed {o act is called centre of buoyancy, It is dented by B. The poles, about which a Hosting body starts oscillating when the body és given a small anguler displacement, is known as Metacentre. It it denoted by M. The distance between the meta-cemtre (Mf) and ceatre of gravity (G) of a Boating body is known ax teta-centric height. This is denoted by GM and mithematically itis given #5 Tent om = 4-86 where f= Moment of lncitia ofthe plan ofthe floating body at the water surface V= Volume of the body submerged in water BG = Distance between the centre of gravity (C) und centze of buoyancy (2). (9 Conditions of ecqulftirrium of a floating and submerged body are : Equilibrium I Floating body | ‘Submerged body Stale ‘Mahould be above G | B should be above G (@) Unstsbie ‘M vhoold 39 below G B abouki be below G (id) Newtral ‘Mars @ coincide B ard Govinekde (i The metarcantris height (GM) experimenully is given by GMa Winns where w = Movable weight x= Distance through which w is moved W = Weight of fioating body inchiding w = Angle (hrough which floating body is tihed (Gi) The time period of enciilation of « floating body is given by 7 = 2 where k = Radius of gyration, GM = Meta-centtic height. 1.5. KINEMATICS OF FLUID ‘Kinesustics /s defined as that branch of science which deals with the stedy of fluid in motion without considering the forces causing the motion. The fuids flow may be compressible of incompressible ; steady or vasteady ; uniform or non-vniform ; laminar or turbvleat ; rotational or irrotetional ; one, two or three dimensional. GMxgNLUID MECLANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES 5 (@ le the density (p) changes from point to point during fiuid flow, itis known compressible flow. But if density (p) is constant during fluid (low, itis called incompressible flow, Mathematically, p » Constant for compressibie flow p= Constant for compressible flaw. (di) If the fluid characteristic like velocity, preasure, density etc. do not change at a point with respect to time, the fluid flow is known as steady flow. If these fluid characteristic change with respect io tine, the tluid flow is known as unsteady flow, Mathematically, wv B) 9 (2B) one (F)-0(2 ) =05( 3] = ersteay ow, aa (z= (E}+00r( $2 20 fc umteaty to (id Wthe velocity in a fluid dow dacs not change with reapect to the length of directian of flow, the flow is said unifarns and if the velocity change it is known non-uniform flow. Mathematically, (3) = 0 far uniform, and ( = #0 for non-uniform flow, (iv) If the Reynold number @,) in 4 pipe is tess than 2000, the flow is said 10 be laminar and if the Reynold memnber is more thar 4000, the flow is said to be turbulent. vi Reynolds number (R,) is given by 2, BR or where V= Velocity of fuid, D = Dia. of pipe }e= Viscosity of fluid, v= Kinematic viscosity of fluid. (9) if he uid pantictes while Dowing slong stream lines also rotate about their own axis, that Now is known as ratational flow and if the fluid pasticles, while Llowing slong stream lines, do not rotate about their own aris, thot type of flow is cated irratational Bow. (vi) The rate of discharge for incompressible fluid ix given by QeAxv (vif} Continuity equation is writen is general formas pAV= constant %, z + = 20 forthree-dimessional Sow ou av anensi and art ay™ a for two-dimensional flow (vii) The components of ncceleration inx, yand z direction are ou, ou eWay ond in differentia! farm ax (iy Local acceteration is defined 1 te me of change of velocity at a given point. In the above components of acceleration the expressions 2, Sana St are called local acceleration.6 ‘MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (OBIECTIVE TYPE () Convective acceleration is defined as the cate of change of velocity due to change of position of floid particles in fluid Row. (x) Velocity potential function (6) is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that it negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity inthat direction. Hence the components of velecity ins, y and z direction in terms of velocity potential are we ye @ and wend, (i) Stream famction () is defined os the scalar function of space and time, such thet its partial derivative with wapect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that dinection. It ix defined only for two-dimensional flow. The velocity components in.x and y directions in terms of streant fonction are - et a -y ond ¥: x iif} Equipotential fae is 8 Hine along which the velocity poteatia! () ts constant, A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and streama fines is called a Nlow net. (xiv) Angular defurrantion of shear deformation is defined ss the sverige change in the angle contained by two adjacent sides. It in also cafled shear strain yate and is given by ifm,m Steerenia e+ 3] 3+ Rotational components of a fluid partick are given as. et) ged ola af 2 ‘Vortieity is equal to two times the value of rotation. (xv) Vortex flow is defined as the Bow of a fluid slong a curved path. It is of too types namely (8) Forced vortex flow and (fi) Free vortex flow. if the fluid particles are moving round a curved path with the belp of some external torque the flow is called forced vortex flow. And if no external torgue is acquired to rotate the Alvid panticies, the flow is called free-vertex flow ‘Te relation between tangential velocity and radius for vortex flow it given by Feeoxr for forced vortex yxy «constant for free vortex. ‘The pressure variation along the radial direction for vortex flow along a horizontal plane, ip oF wor For forced vortex flow, zee , ie 2 2 For free vortex flow the equation is Pagina en 1.6, DYNAMICS OF FLUID Dyuaniics of fvid flow is defined that branch of science which deals with the study of fluids ia motion ‘considering tke forces Which cawae the flow. €) Ewler’s equation of motion is obtained by considering forces due to pressure and gravity. Nevler-Strokes equatious arc obtained by considcting pressure farce, gravity force and viscous force.FLXID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES 7 Reynold’s equation of motion arc obtsined by considering pressure force, gravity force, viscous force and force due to turbulence, (d) Bernoulll’ nequation is obtained by integrating thc Euler's equation of motion. ft states that, ‘For SPatcady, ideal {low of an incompressible fluid, the total energy which consists of pressure energy (3) . Kinetic energy ( 5) and datum energy (2) at any point of the fuid is constant,” Mathematically, tis wrinea a5 Erk re censan Pa wey o yy 96° 2g "7" og * 2¢ ‘Bemoulli’s equation for real fuids is weltten as ‘where fy = Loss of energy between section f and 2. (ii) Applications of Bernoulli's eqqustion are : @ Veuturimeter, (2) Orificemeter and (iii) Pitottube. The discharge through a venturimeter is given by where # = Difference of pressure head in terms of fluid head flowing through veaturimeter for 2 borizontal- venturimeter Cz = Co-eflicient of ventorimeter Ay & Asea atthe inlet of venturimeter Az= Area at the throat of the venturimeter. ‘Thevalue of ‘h’ is givea by the differential U-tube manomacter, Fora horizontal ventarimeter or inclined venturimeter hex] 1] ermmoneer wheat Fo Sp = Specific gravity of heavier liquid in manometer S7= Specific gravity of tiquid Bowing through veaturimeter Sr Specific gravity of lighter liquid in manometer. (Gy) Pitot tube is used to find the velocity of a Sowing fluid at any point in a pipe of 4 channel, The velocity is given by the relation, . VaCvighi where C, = Co-efiicient of pitot-tube, and A= Difference of the pressure head.8 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (OBJECTIVE TYPE) (@) Momentara equation states that the net force acting on a fluid mats ia equal to the change in momentum per second (or rate of change of momentum) in that direction. Mathematically, i is written as = 4 inv) whore ney» Momentum, (v2) The impulse-momentuns equation is given by Fridted Qn) and it states that the impulse of'a force (F) acting on a fluid nies (m) in a short interval of time (di) is equal to the change of momentum a{mv) in the direction of force. (vif) Force un a hend, exened by a flowing fluid in the direction of x and y, ate given by F,= P2412 — Yad + PAs + PArke F,= Ql v1y —v29] + Pray + PAD, where v,, = Initial velocity in the x-direction ¥2¢ = Final velocity in the x-direction As). = Initiat pressure force in x-direction (PyAo), = Fined pressure force in x-direction and 50.08 Resultant force on the bendis Fy = VF, +E. 1.7, ORIFICE AND MOUTHPIECE ‘Orifice is a sail opening of any cioss-section on the side or af the bottom of a tank, through which a uid is flowing. A mouthpizce is 2 short length of a pipe which is two of thrce times its diameter in length, Fited in a tank of vessel containing the fluid. a Hydraulic Co-efficients (8) There are thiee Aydrautic co-effcients namely, (@) Coefficient of vefocity, C, (©) Covefficient of contraction, C. (6) Co-ctficient of discharge, Cy. (i) The expression for co-efficient of ‘etoiy interns ‘of, ¥ co-ordinates from vena-contracts is Ge aH Height of water from the centre af orifice. (i) Co-ctficient of discharge for different types of mouthpieces are (@) C,©0.855 Forexterns! mouthpiece o .707 For internal mouthpiece sunning full © 50 For intesnat mouthpiece ranting free @ = 1.0 For convergent or convesgent divergent. 18. NOTCH AND WEIR Notch isa device used for measuring the rate of flow of a Yiquid through a small channel, A weir is a ssstticrete or masonry structure placed in the opeu channet over which ite flow occurs, (9 The discharge through the following notches or weirs is given by where Okc kW siu.For rectangular notch or weirFLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES: 9 8 a 7 ‘ = jg Carton » Ve x suaFor a telangle notch or weit, (@ The discharge through a trapezoidal aotch or weir is equal to the sum of discharge through a rectangular notch and the discharge through a wiangular notch. (Gi) The error in discharge dve to error in measurement of head over a notch fs given by 2. 3a an Fora rectangular natch we.-Fora teiangular notch where Q = Discharge through notch artt H’= head over the notch. Anertos of 1% in measuring H will produce 1.5% errorin discharge over 4 rectangular notch and 2.5% errorin discharge over a timngelar notch. () Velocity of approach (V,) is defined as the velocity with which the water approaches the notch or welt. This is given by V, = _Dlsohate over the nately ** Cross-sectional area of channel 2 “The bead due te velocity of approach is givenby f= e Discharge over 4 rectangular weir, considering velocity of approach is given by (= 2CANTG, hy? 17] 19. VISCOUS FLOW Viscous Gow is the flow for which Reynold number is less than 2000 or the flaid flows in layers. (@ For the viscous flow ihrough ctrvular pipes, the shear sures disiribation, velocity diswitution, ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity and difference of pressure head are given by @t= -#5 sae {Linear] won E SUH tae|1-(5) | se Parbolic| (i) BF =20 oy he 32ba Gi) he ne where 2 = Pressure gradient, 1 Shear stress y= Radius atany point, «R= Radius of the pipe Unax= Maximum velocity, hy = Loss of pressure head Ga Avernge velocity, D = Diameter of pipe. Gi) For viscous flow between two parallel plates, the shear stress distribution, velocity distribution, ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity and difference of pressure head are given by @te -4 2 Ue (Linea) @)u=- xe lw-?t sou(Paraboic)10 ‘MECHANICAL ENGINEBRING (OBJECTIVE TYPE) oats hyn where ¢» Distance between two plates, y= Distance from the plates. (#8) Kinetic energy correction factor (q) is defined as the rutio of Kinetic energy per second based on actual velocity to kinetic energy per second based on average velocity. For a cireular pipe through which viscous flow is taking place, o: = 2.0, {#) Momentum correction fiscter (8) is defined as the ratio of momentum of a fluid based on actual velocity to the momentum of the fluid based on average velocity. For a circular pipe, having viscous flow, 4 B=5- (0) The co-efficient af friction (f) which isa function of Reynold number is given by ie for viscous flow or for R, < 2000 ® ie for R, varying from 4000 to 16° = 0.0008 + for R, x 16° but #4 10”, 1.40. TURBULENT FLOW (9 Smooth and rough boundaries. If the average height (K) of the irregularities projecting from the surface of the boundary is small compared with the thickness of the laminar sutb-layer (6'), the boundary is known as smooth. But if & is lange in comparison to 5, the boundary is known as rough. Mathematically, t <025 — forsmooth boundary 26.0 for rough boundary, And ek fies between 0.25 to 6.0, the boundary is in transition. Darcy formula is given by hyn where hy~ Head lost due to friction and is known as Major, Head loss. Chezy's formula is given by VoC Ym? where C = Chezy’s constant, m= Hydraulic mean depth = 4 for ciecalat pipe (running full), is Loss of bead pera leag = 1.1L. FLOW THROUGH PIPES + @ Misor lasses 2 (6) Lass of bead due to sudden expansion (his given by ipa VVFLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES. u (0) Loss of head due to sudden contraction (f,) is given by C. 28 ¥ ©) Loss of ead attheinlet of apipe, = 052 °- [a 1 yu h(a) giv, where C, = Co-efficient of contraction (@) Loss of head atthe outlet ofa pipe, y= 7 {i#) Hydraulic gradieut and total energy lines. The line representing the som of pressure head and data head with respect to some reference line ix called hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.) while the Tine representing the sum of pressure bend, dotum head and velocity hetd with respect to some reference line is, known as total energy line [T-EL.]. (iif) The equivalent size of the pipes consected in series is given by Lh ky bs Pee Ee where L = Equivaten! length of pipe = £y + 1q +23 4 = Equivalent size of the pipe 4, do, dy = Diameters of pipes connected in series. (iv) For paraite! pipes, the foss of head in each pipe is same and rate of flow in main pipe is equal to the sum of the rte of flow in cach pipe, connected in parnlie! ic. @2=01+Q+— Gn = b= (@) Power transmitted through a pipe is given by, ap. WxO2xIH =i " 75 where Hs Total head st ibe inlet of pipe fiy= Head fost due to friction Etticieney of power trensmission through pipes == This efficiency will be macirmum when = 4 Diameters of nozale for maximum power transmission through nozzle is vu“ ae(2 a where d= Diameter of nozzle at outlet, D = Diameter of pipe L = Length of pipe, f= Co-effictent of friction. (vi) Water hammer. When a liquid is flowing through along pipe fitted with a valve at the end ofthe pipe and the valve is closed suddenly, a pressttre wave of high intensity és produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is having the effect of hammering action of the walts of the pipe, This phenomenon is known as water haramer. The intensity of pressure rise (p)) due to water hammer is given by Bi av Lfvaive is closed gradually = WVEp Uf-valve is closed suddenly12 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (OBJECTIVE TYPE) =v ae _ If valve tx closed suddexly and pipe is elastic. KE whereL Length of pipe, V= Velocity of ow K = Butk modvhus of Ovid, D = Diameter of pipe 1 = Time for closing valve E-x Modulus of elasticity for pipe material ‘The valve of closure is said to be gradual if > alk alk ‘The valve closure ia said to be sudden if re. were C'= Velocity of pressure wave produced dveto water hammer «Vf 1,12, DIMENSIONAL AND MODEL ANALYSIS (@ Hydraulic Similarities. There are three types of similarities that must exist between the model and prototype. They are : (9) Geometric similarity, (i) Kinematic similarity, and (id) Dynamic similarity. Geometrte sluilarity means the similarity of al incar dimensions of mode! and prototype. Kineraatic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype. Dynamic similarity means the similatity of forces between the model and prtotype. (2) Dimensionless parameters, They ate five dimensionless parameters, namely : (i) Reynold’s amber, (if) Froude mmber, (ii) Enler member, (7v) Weber number and (v} Mech number. Reynold’s number is the ratio of Inertia force to viscous force and is given by Ree oe YP tor pipe tow. Froude number is the eetio of square root of the Intrtia fore to gravity force and is given by ~s 5 Enters number is the ratio of equere root of inertis force to pressure force and is given by Bx oo VE ge ‘Weber number is the ratio of aquare root of inertia force to surface tension force and is given by Fi Ww WOVE *YorIp ‘Mach number (if) is the ratio of square root of inertia force to elastic Force and is given by Mf EE aXe’ RWC where C = Velocity of sound wave in ait, Gif) Models are of two types namely (@) Undistorted and (di) Distorted Model, If the models are Bcometzically similar to its proto-type the models sre known as undistorted model, And if the models are having different sente ratios {or horizontal and vertical dimensions, the models are known as distorted model,