Professional Documents
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10cv757 PDF
10cv757 PDF
PART - A
UNIT – 1
INTRODUCTION: Definition, Land pollution – scope and importance of solid waste management,
functional elements of solid waste management
UNIT -5 COMPOSTING: Aerobic and anaerobic composting, factors affecting composting, Indore
and Bangalore processes, mechanical and semi mechanical composting processes. Vermicomposting.
6 Hours
UNIT -6 SANITARY LAND FILLING: Different types, trench area, Ramp and pit method, site
selection, basic steps involved, cell design, prevention of site pollution, leachate & gas collection and
control methods, geosynthetic fabrics in sanitary land fills.
8 Hours
UNIT -7DISPOSAL METHODS: Open dumping – selection of site, ocean disposal,feeding to hogs,
incineration, pyrolsis, composting, sanitary land filling,merits and demerits, biomedical wastes and disposal.
6 Hours
UNIT -8 RECYCLE AND REUSE: Material and energy recovery operations, reuse in other
industries, plastic wastes, environmental significance and reuse.
5 Hours
TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION
Solid waste
Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities and are normally solid as
opposed to liquid or gaseous and are discarded as useless or unwanted. Focused on
urban waste (MSW) as opposed to agricultural, mining and industrial wastes.
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is the term applied to all the activities
associated with the management of society's wastes.
In medieval times, wastes discarded in the streets led to the breeding of rats and the
associated fleas which carried the bubonic plague. The lack of management of solid
wastes thus led to the Black Plague which killed half of 14th century Europe.
USPHS has traced 22 human diseases to improper solid waste management.
Solid wastes also have a great potential to pollute the air and water. Mining tailings
from Colorado gold and silver mines will probably being spilling arsenic into the
water supply forever. Just finished toxic metal treatment facility in Park City, Utah.
Materials Flow - The best way to reduce solid wastes is not to create them in the first
place. Others methods include: decrease consumption of raw material and increase
the rate of recovery of waste materials.
Technological advances - Increased use of plastics and fast, pre-prepared foods.
Waste
Generation
Collection
Disposal
Rivers and Harbors Act, 1899, regulated the dumping of debris in navigable waters
and adjacent land. The idea was to protect navigation.
Solid Waste Disposal Act, 1965, PL89-272,
- The intent was:
- Promote solid waste management and resource recovery.
MSW, Municipal Solid Waste, is the primary focus of this course, which excludes
industrial, mining and agricultural wastes.
C. Industrial Wastes
D. Agricultural Wastes
Enormous quantities from planting, harvesting from row, field, tree and vine crops
and animal husbandry, feedlots.
Composition describes the individual components that make up solid waste and the
distribution of these components by weight.
Example Given: Scales indicate that a landfill is collecting about 800 ton/day of
MSW, 5 days per week. Find: The weight of material collected from the catch basins
in a year.
3. Variation in Distribution
Highly variable, local studies should be considered, collected data is expensive and of
limited value; make sure that collected data is useful before collecting.
Location, warmer more affluent communities generate more wastes.
Season, More yard and food wastes in the summer; more glass and metals in the
winter.
Example
Given: A recycling company is expecting about 1500 tons/year of glass and they
did some field testing during the winter to verify this number. They chose winter
to get a low end of the range assuming that less beverages would be consumed in
the winter.
Find: The percentage decrease in revenues when the glass is actually counted.
Assume that the real glass production will be based on the average of winter and
summer months.
3
lb/yd , a volume measure and, therefore, subject to interpretation and variable.
Beware of reporting: loose, as found in containers, uncompacted, compacted.
Use:
3
- 220 lb/yd for residential
3
- 270 lb/yd for commercial
3
- 500 lb/yd in the compactor truck
3
- 760 lb/yd in the landfill
Example
Given: MSW
Find: What's the decrease in volume for MSW from the house to the landfill.
1 1
Density - Density
original new
Volume =
Density
original
Volume = (1/220 - 1/760) / 1/220 = (.004545 - .001316)/.004545
Volume = 71.0% decrease
Example
B. Moisture Content
Wet-weight relationship:
w-d
M= w 100
Varies from 15-40%, use 21%, food and yard wastes very high-70%; paper, plastics
and inorganics very low-3%.
Important consideration for transformation processes: energy recovery (incineration)
and composting. Rain soaked trash will way more than its dry counterpart, a
consideration at the weighing scales.
Example
C. Particle Size and Distribution
The amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample subject to the
downward pull of gravity. Water in excess of FC will flow out of the waste as
leachate.
50-60% for uncompacted, commingled waste from residential and commercial
sources.
- .1 % N
- .1 % S
- 23.3 % ash
C. Energy Content of SW Components
A. Physical Transformations
Component separation
- Separating identifiable matter from the commingled MSW.
- Used to:
- Recover usable material
- Remove contaminants
- Improve specifications for the separated material
- Remove hazardous waste
- Recover energy and conversion products
Mechanical Volume Reduction (Densification)
- The initial volume is reduced usually by force or pressure.
- Compaction, baling.
Mechanical size reduction
- Purpose:
- reduce size
- create a more uniform product
- Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction, shredded paper occupies
more volume than the parent material
- Shredding, grinding, milling
B. Chemical Transformations
3.) Gasification
Waste
Generation
Collection
Disposal
1. Waste Collection
A. General
Major cost element of solid waste disposal - typically 50-70% of the total and
therefore, demands major attention especially with final disposal getting so
much press.
Collection includes:
- picking up MSW from sources
- hauling to the emptying location
- emptying of the truck or container
B. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Low Rise, Detached:
The waste is commingled or heaped together as opposed to source separation
e.g. picking out class, cardboard
Collection services:
- curb - (manual or mechanical) most common, homeowner moves the container
back and forth between the curb from the storage location. Larger 90 gallon
containers require placement in the street, perhaps at a precise angle in cul-de-sacs.
- alley - Narrow utility thoroughfare in the rear of residences; not uncommon in
older communities, Claremont, Pomona.
- backyard carry - collectors retrieve the container from the storage location, empty
it and return the container to the storage location.
Manual methods of collection:
- direct lifting and carrying
- rim roll
- small lifting devices
- satellite vehicles, Cushmans
C. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Others.
Low and medium rise apartments, high rise apartments, commercial
industrial facilities. Smaller containers handled by maintenance personal for
curb side collection, larger containers done mechanically.
Much collection is done at night and very early morning to avoid the traffic.
D. Collection of Waste at the Source
The generator separates the waste as opposed to commingled wastes.
Methods include:
- Curbside collection using standard or specially designed vehicles.
- Standard vehicles can be used to pick up just newspaper or just can on some kind of
appropriate time cycle; perhaps every other week or the third Thursday of the
month for glass.
- Specially designed vehicles include:
- closed body recycling trucks
- recycling trailers
- modified flatbed trucks
- open-bin recycling trucks
- compartmentalized trailers
Example
Given: You are a community activist and believe in recycling. It has been decided to make two
categories: the first for paper and cardboard and the second for everything else. You think that you can
get 50% of the 458 homes to participate. You have actually counted the residents and there are 1338 of
them. You have made a mini-survey of the paper wastes such as wrappers, packaging and determined that
newspapers are about 1/3 of the total paper; the rest you hope will be separated to the tune of 75%.
Find: The big meeting is Tuesday night and the neighbors want some hard numbers on how you are going
to accomplish the recycling.
1. Computation table to calculate volumes.
Inorganic
Glass 9.1 6.8 330 .0206
Tin cans 5.8 4.3 150 .0287
Aluminum .6 .4 270 .0148
Other metal 3.0 not-recycled 540
Dirt Ashes, 2.7 not-recycled 810
etc.
The waste container remains in the vicinity of where the waste is generated. The
waste is unloaded into a bigger truck. A large container is an integral part of the
truck. When fully loaded from multiple waste containers, the truck travels to and
from the landfill as opposed to the waste container.
Types:
- Manually loaded. Small containers. Residential pickup.
- Mechanically loaded. Larger containers. Wheeled residential pickup and
commercial pickup
- Almost all contain internal compaction equipment
The major advantage is that the vehicle does not travel to the disposal area until it
is full yielding higher utilization rates.
The major disadvantages include:
- The system is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky goods.
- Wastes e.g. demolition, that make damage the relatively delicate mechanisms.
- Large volume generations may not have room for storing large containers
Thcs = (Phcs + s + h)
The time required for a trip is the sum of the pickup time, the time on site and the
haul time. The haul time may be expressed as:
h = a + bx (Fig. 8-16, p.214)
and is essentially a function of the distance traveled. The pickup time may be
expressed as follows:
Phcs = pc + uc + dbc (Fig. 8-16, p.214)
In plain English, the pickup time is the sum required to pickup the container,
to unload the container and drive between containers (p+u+d).
C. Stationary Container System
Tscs = (Pscs + s + h)
Tw = 1.84 days/week
4. Collection Routes
A. General
Use a heuristic (common sense), trial and error approach consistent with the
philosophy of collecting the most waste with least resources in the context of
constraints such as equipment breakdowns, holidays and vacations, good
labor practices and the following guidelines:
- Crew size and vehicles must be known and coordinated.
- Routes should begin and end near arteries
- Topographic and physical boundaries should be route boundaries.
- Start at the top of a hill and work downward.
- Last collection point should be near disposal site.
Waste
Generation
Collection
Disposal
In this topic:
Importance of waste quantities
Measures and methods used to quantify waste
Waste generation rates
Factors that affect waste generation rates
Types and quantities of recovered materials
Household hazardous wastes
Waste characterization rules
Compliance with law such as AB939 which mandates 25% reduction by 1995
and 50% reduction by 2000
Equipment selections.
- Load-count analysis - A landfill without scales may estimate the vehicular capacity
and the number of vehicles of that capacity.
Example
3
Given: On a single day you observe the following at a landfill: 10-16 yd
compactor trucks
yd3 3
18-3 pickup trucks hauling loose and dry leaves 56-1 yd
private cars
3
2-45 yd trucks with broken concrete
Find: If there are 3.82 lb/cap.day with 2.7 cap/home and all the waste comes from the
town, estimate the number of homes in the town. What's wrong with the answer?
1. Compute the total weight
a
Item Number of Avg. Volume Specific Total Weight
loads 3 Weight lb
yd
3
lb/yd col.2x3x4
Compactor 10 16 500 80,000
truck
Pickup trucks 18 3 100 5,400
with
leaves
loose and
dry
private cars 56 1 220 12,320
broken 2 45 2595 233,550
concrete
Total 331,270
lb/day
a
From T4-1, p70
2. Determine the number of homes
lb capita.day residence
number of residence = 331,270 day x 3.82lb x 2.7cap
number of residence = 32,118
3. What's wrong with the answer?
The demolition load, broken concrete may not be representative; calculate the number of houses
with the concrete.
lb capita.day residence number
of residence = (331,270-233,550) day x 3.82lb x 2.7cap
number of residence = 9,475 vs. 32,118 with the broken concrete
- Material Balance (eq. 6-1, 6-2, 6-3)
Accumulation = inflow - outflow + generation
dM
= M - M +r
dt in out w
Note: Always write rw as positive in the parent equation and make a negative
substitution as required in the final analysis.
exampleGiven: Paper is 32% of the waste produced and all of it goes to the fireplace
except magazines. Find: Materials flow diagram and amount of solid waste disposed
of during the day.
1. Material Flow Diagram
Most studies prior to 1990 reflect the amount of waste collected as opposed to the
amount of waste generated. The difference may be in recycling, garbage disposal,
composting, fireplaces, donations to the Salvation Army etc. The variation may
be from 4-15%.
. .
One ton/capita year 2000 lb/365days/year = 5.48 lb/capita day. More precisely, 3.82
. .
lb/capita day for residential and commercial and 6.16 lb/capita day total. The total is
augmented by hazardous, institutional, construction and demolition, municipal services
wastes and treatment plant sludges. Residential and commercial is typically 60% of the
total.
example
Given: The Simi Valley Landfill services app. 50,000 homes. Find:
What is the weekly output of hazardous waste to the landfill?
Assume: 2.35 capita/residence, T6-3, p138 hazardous waste=.0063lb/capita.day
Rate Variation
- The larger the data base, the less the variation.
- For a residence, peak day factor of 3.0, minimum day factor of .20
example
Given: The projected volume at the transfer station was 325tons/day on St. Patrick's Day which
was identified and projected as a peak day. You subsequently discovered that holidays are, in
fact, not peak days but minimum days.
Find: The normal tonnage
Assume that the transfer station approximates a small community.
From T6-6, for a small community, peak day 2.0, minimum day = .5
Waste
Generation
Collection
Disposal
1. General
Methods used to recover source separated material:
- Curbside collection
- Homeowner delivery to drop-off centers
Further separation of source separated material as well as separation of
commingled waste
- MRF's Material Recovery Facilities
- MR/TFs Material Recovery/Transfer Facilities, a facility of the future which
may include:
-drop-off center
-materials separation facility
- composting
- bioconversion
- production of refuse derived fuel (DRF)
- transfer and transport facility
- Vibrating screens
- Rotary screens
- Disc screens
D. Other Processes
- Density Separation (Air Classification) is the unit process used to separate light
materials such as paper and plastic from heavy materials such as metals based on weight
difference in the air stream. In solid waste the light fraction is typically organic while the
heavy fraction is typically inorganic. Used to separate glass from plastic in a commingled
situation.
- Magnetic Separation is the operation by which ferrous metals are separated from the
waste stream utilizing magnetic principals. Used to separate tin cans from aluminum in
a commingled situation.
- Densification (compaction) is a unit operation used to increase the density of the
material so that it can be stored and transported more cheaply and as a means of
preparing densified refuse-derived fuels (dRDR) and include balers and can crushers.
6. Combustion
A. General
Object:
- Reduce the volume (85-95% reduction) and weight of wastes.
- Recover conversion products and energy.
Major concerns:
- Air pollution.
- Siting, NIMBY.
B. Description of Combustion Process
- Unload into a storage pit, usually a 2 day volume. The tipping area should
minimize unloading waiting time with reason.
- An overhead crane drops material into a charging chute which directs the wastes to the
furnace. The operator tries to get an even mix and remove non-combustible items such
as mattresses or engine blocks.
- The waste falls on grates and is mass fired. Air is typically introduced.
- Gases and small particles rise to the combustion chamber and burn at 1600 F.
- Heat is recovered from the gases using water-filled tubes in the combustion chamber
and a boiler that produces steam which is converted to electricity in a generator.
- Air pollution is controlled including NOx, SO2 and particulates.
- Clean gases are discharged to the stack.
- Ash and unburned material are quenched (cooled with water). The water and
residue must be properly disposed of. See p.641 for an excellent discussion of air
pollution systems.
C. Types of Combustors
Mass fired. Use unseparated, commingled MSW. Predominate in US, 68%. Pick out
the bicycles and refrigerators, burn the rest. The energy content is probably
extremely variable.
RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) fired. 23%. Produced from the organic fraction and can
be made with consistency to meet energy, moisture, ash content specifications.
Forms include: shredded, fluff, pellets or cubes. Also, since metals, plastics etc. are
not burned, air emissions are cleaner.
D. Volume Reduction
Typically 90% volume reduction of the materials that were combusted. Demolition
wastes, white goods, cars etc. were never considered.
Always a residue and ash left over after combustion consisting of glass, tin cans,
iron and steel.
E. Issues With Combustion Facilities
Siting. As with MRF's, a remote location with plenty of buffer zone.
Air Emissions. May exceed the cost of the combustion facilities. Most pressing
issue in the LA area. Important consideration in the decision between mass-fired and
RDF systems.
Disposal of residues, bottom ash, fly ash, scrubber product. Typically disposed of
in land fill.
Liquid Emissions. Sources: ash removal, wet scrubbers.
Economics. Standardized life cycle costing
7. Composting
A. General
The organic fraction of MSW (less plastic, rubber and leather) is converted into
an earthy, humus-like, material by the action of bacteria and other microbes.
Proteins
Amino acids
Lipids
Carbos + O2 +Nutrients+MOs Compost + New Cells + Dead Cel
Cellulose
Lignin CO2 + H20 + NO3 + SO4 +heat
Ash
Objectives:
- Convert the MSW into a biologically stable material which is reduced in volume.
- Destroy unwanted biologicals: pathogens, weeds, insect eggs.
- Retain the maximum nutrient (N, K, pH).
- To produce a valuable, soil amendment product. Not a fertilizer. Lousy C:N ratio.
B. Process Description
- bagging
C. Design and Control
- Particle size
- Seeding, mixing and turning
- Oxygen requirement (aerobic process)
- Moisture content
- C:N ratio
D. Composting Techniques
Agitated and Static. With agitated, the material is turned; with static, air is
blown through the material.
Windrow composting.
- Most common agitated method.
- The material to be composted is shredded into 1-3" pieces and the moisture is adjusted
between 50-60%.
-The material is formed into triangular shapes called windrows which may be 6-7'
high and 1`4-16' at the base.
- The windrows are tuned twice a week to maintain aerobic decomposition and
the temperature is maintained at 131 F (55 C).
- Takes 3-4 weeks and cured for an additional 3-4 weeks without turning.
Aerated Static Pile (Fig. 9-40, p. 307) (also Beltville or ARS process)
- MSW is placeed on top of exhaust piping in mounds 7'-8' high.
- Each pile has its own blower to deliver air, oxygen.
- 3-4 weeks of processing with an equal period for curing.
In-Vessel. Inside an enclosed vessel. Proprietary.(Fig. 9-41, p. 309)
- Plug flow and dynamic systems.
- Takes 1-2 weeks and 4-12 weeks of curing.
E. What Can Be Composted (Applications)
Yard wastes - Ranges from minimal which may take 3 years to high level in
container which can be done in several weeks.
MSW (organic fraction). Metals or household hazardous waste can easily contaminate
the compost. If a high quality product is desired, source separation is a must.
MSW (commingled, partially processed). Not suitable as a gardener's compost; use
as an intermediate cover if allowed.
MSW (with sewer sludge). May avoid sludge dewatering. Increases the nutrient and
moisture contents of the mix; may also contain heavy metals. A 2:1, MSW: sludge
is recommended as a starting point.
F. Issues With Composting Facilities
- Can be controlled with various towers and facilities and odor-masking agents
and enzymes.
Pathogens. Usually destroyed by normal composting parameters of 55 C for 15-20
days
Heavy metals. Particles are created when the waste is shredded and these
particles may become attached to the lighter fractions.
Definition of acceptable compost
Waste
Generation
Collection
Disposal
2. Handling
Low rise < stories; medium rise 4-7 stories; high rise > 7
stories typical size and dimensions of containers.
A. Low Rise
Single family detached and attached
Total weight of recycled mat'l = 1330lbs/week x .16(use max to give largest recycle
container) Total weight of recycled mat'l = 213 lbs/week
150lbs is a guess from T4-1, p.70 based on plastics at 110 and aluminum at 270 and glass at
330. A more detailed analysis would not be difficult. In any case, the best information may be
forthcoming from actual operating data.
Volume of recycle container = 1.42 yards Any container larger than this number will do the
trick. Since there should not be putrescible in the recycling bin, a larger container with more
infrequent collections e.g. may be suitable.
3
yd
Volume of waste container = 1170 lbs/week x 220lbs
3
Volume of waste container = 5.3 yd /week
4. Processing at Dwellings
Insinkeration of food - No significant decrease in the weight or volume of the
MSW. Separation - very effective if you can engender meaningful participation.
5. Composting
The biological conversion of the biodegradable organic fraction of the MSW
resulting in a volume reduction and producing a useful by-product
Isolate a 3ft square area with chicken wire and dump the yard wastes. Food wastes
may be stirred into the mix if odor and vermin problems can be obviated.
Water and turn occasionally, once/week. Perhaps ready to use after 1 year, put in
at top, take out at bottom.
Produces a humus-like material which is a soil conditioner, not a fertilizer.
UNIT – IV INCINERATION
In several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the
environmental impact of incinerators (see arguments against incineration).
In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include
a materials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before
combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local
environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control.
Most of these facilities did not generate electricity.
Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume
(already compressed somewhat ingarbage trucks) by 95-96 %, depending on composition
and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. [2] This
means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly
reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of
waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator. Alternatively, at
landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately
70%[citation needed] by using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant
energy cost. In many countries, simplerwaste compaction is a common practice for
compaction at landfills.
Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste
types in niche areas such as clinical wastesand certain hazardous
wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples
include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater
streams, which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant.
The first incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott &
Co. Ltd. in 1874 to a design patented by Albert Fryer. They were originally known as
destructors.
The burn pile, or burn pit is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal,
essentially consisting of a mound of combustible materials piled on bare ground and set
on fire. Indiscriminate piles of household waste are strongly discouraged and may be
illegal in urban areas, but are permitted in certain rural situations such as clearing
forested land for farming, where the stumps are uprooted and burned.[6] Rural burn piles
of organic yard waste are also sometimes permitted, though not asphalt shingles, plastics,
or otherpetroleum products.
Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example if wind blows burning
material off the pile into surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings. As interior
structures of the pile are consumed, the pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn
area. Even in a situation of no wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile
viaconvection, and waft through the air into grasses or onto buildings, igniting them.
Burn barrel
The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration,
containing the burning material inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the
exhaust. The barrel prevents the spread of burning material in windy conditions, and as
the combustibles are reduced they can only settle down into the barrel. The exhaust
grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers. Typically steel 55-US-gallon (210
L) drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around the base
for air intake.[7] Over time the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize
and rust, and eventually the barrel itself is consumed by the heat and must be replaced.
In the United States, private rural incineration is typically permitted so long as it is not a
nuisance to others, does not pose a risk of fire such as in dry conditions, and the fire is
clean-burning, producing no visible smoke. However, many states, such as New York,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have laws against private burn barrels due to EPA findings
that one household burning their own waste can release more dioxins and furans annually
than a modern incinerator processing 200 tons per day.[8] People intending to burn waste
may be required to contact a state agency in advance to check current fire risk and
conditions, and to alert officials of the controlled fire that will occur.[9]
Moving grate
The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The
moving grate enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be
optimised to allow a more efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate
boiler can handle up to 35 metric tons (39 short tons) of waste per hour, and can operate
8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of
about one month's duration.[10] Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as
Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWIs).
The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the grate,
from where it moves down over the deACEnding grate to the ash pit in the other end.
Here the ash is removed through a water lock.
Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from
below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important
for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving grates are also water-cooled
internally.
Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over
the grate. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence
for better mixing and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth
incinerators, the secondary combustion air is introduced in a separate chamber
downstream the primary combustion chamber.
The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters, where the heat is transferred to steam,
heating the steam to typically 400 °C (752 °F) at a pressure of 40 bars (580 psi) for the
electricity generation in theturbine. At this point, the flue gas has a temperature of around
200 °C (392 °F), and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system.
'boiler lines' (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste can continue to be
received at one boiler line while the others are subject to revision.
Fixed grate
The older and simpler kind of incinerator was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate
over a lower ash pit, with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening
in the side for removing incombustible solids called clinkers. Many small incinerators
formerly found in apartment houses have now been replaced by waste compactors.
Rotary-kiln
The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan, or steam jet
supplies the needed draft. Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried
along with the hot gases. The particles and any combustible gases may be combusted in
an "afterburner"
Fluidized bed
A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point
is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and
churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created and fuel and waste can now be
introduced.
The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents
and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated
keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of
waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.
Specialized incineration
Furniture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin
powder and many flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention
systems are essential as dust when suspended resembles the fire catch phenomenon of
any liquid petroleum gas.
Use of heat
The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which may then be
used to drive a turbine in order to produce electricity. The typical amount of net energy
that can be produced per tonne municipal waste is about 2/3 MWh of electricity and 2
MWh of district heating.[2] Thus, incinerating about 600 metric tons (660 short tons) per
day of waste will produce about 400 MWh of electrical energy per day (17 MW of
electrical power continuously for 24 hours) and 1200 MWh of district heating energy
each day.
Pollution
Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere
of flue gas. Before the flue gas cleaning system, the flue gases may contain significant
amounts of particulate matter, heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, and
hydrochloric acid.
In a study from 1994, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that, for same amount of
produced energy, incineration plants emitted fewer particles, hydrocarbons and less SO2,
HCl, CO and NOx than coal-fired power plants, but more than natural gas fired power
plants.[13] According to Germany's Ministry of the Environment, waste incinerators
reduce the amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced by
coal-fired plants with power from waste-fired plants.[14]
Gaseous emissions
Dioxin and furans
The most publicized concerns from environmentalists about the incineration of municipal
solid wastes (MSW) involve the fear that it produces significant amounts of dioxin and
furanemissions.[15] Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health
hazards.
In 2005, The Ministry of the Environment of Germany, where there were 66 incinerators
at that time, estimated that "...whereas in 1990 one third of all dioxin emissions in
Germany came from incineration plants, for the year 2000 the figure was less than 1 %.
Chimneys and tiled stoves in private households alone discharge approximately 20 times
more dioxin into the environment than incineration plants."[14]
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Solid waste management 10CV757
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, incineration plants are
no longer significant sources of dioxins and furans. In 1987, before the governmental
regulations required the use of emission controls, there was a total of 10,000 grams (350
oz) of dioxin emissions from US incinerators. Today, the total emissions from the 87
plants are 10 grams (0.35 oz) annually, a reduction of 99.9 %.
Backyard barrel burning of household and garden wastes, still allowed in some rural
areas, generates 580 grams (20 oz) of dioxins annually. Studies conducted by the US-
EPA[16]demonstrate that the emissions from just one family using a burn barrel produced
more emissions than an incineration plant disposing of 200 metric tons (220 short tons) of
waste per day by 1997 and five times that by 2007 due to increased chemicals in
household trash and decreased emissions by municipal incinerators using better
technology
There are trade-offs between increasing either the temperature or exposure time.
Generally where the molecular breakdown temperature is higher, the exposure time for
heating can be shorter, but excessively high temperatures can also cause wear and
damage to other parts of the incineration equipment. Likewise the breakdown
temperature can be lowered to some degree but then the exhaust gases would require a
greater lingering period of perhaps several minutes, which would require large/long
treatment chambers that take up a great deal of treatment plant space.
A side effect of breaking the strong molecular bonds of dioxin is the potential for breaking
the bonds of nitrogen gas (N2) and oxygen gas (O2) in the supply air. As the exhaust flow
cools, these highly reactive detached atoms spontaneously reform bonds into reactive oxides
such as NOx in the flue gas, which can result in smog formation and acid rain if they were
released directly into the local environment. These reactive oxides must
The temperatures needed to break down dioxin are typically not reached when burning of
plastics outdoors in a burn barrel or garbage pit, causing high dioxin emissions as
mentioned above. While plastic does usually burn in an open-air fire, the dioxins remain
after combustion and either float off into the atmosphere, or may remain in the ash where
it can be leached down into groundwater when rain falls on the ash pile. Fortunately,
dioxin and furan compounds very strongly bond to solid surfaces and are not solvated by
water so leaching processes are limited to the first few milimeters below the ash pile. The
gas-phase dioxins can be substantially destroyed using catalysts, some of which can be
present as part of the fabric filter bag structure.
Modern municipal incinerator designs include a high temperature zone, where the flue
gas is ensured to sustain a temperature above 850 °C (1,560 °F) for at least 2 seconds
before it is cooled down. They are equipped with auxiliary heaters to ensure this at all
times. These are often fueled by oil, and normally only active for a very small fraction of
the time. Further, most modern incinerators utilize fabric filters (often with Teflon
membranes to enhance collection of sub-micron particles) which can capture dioxins
present in or on solid particles.
For very small municipal incinerators, the required temperature for thermal breakdown of
dioxin may be reached using a high-temperature electrical heating element, plus a
selective catalytic reduction stage.
CO2
As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste
is emitted as CO2 to the atmosphere. MSW contains approximately the same mass
fraction of carbon as CO2 itself (27%), so incineration of 1 ton of MSW produces
approximately 1 ton of CO2.
If the waste was landfilled, 1 ton of MSW would produce approximately 62 cubic metres
(2,200 cu ft) methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste.
Since the global warming potential of methane is 21 and the weight of 62 cubic meters of
methane at 25 degrees Celsius is 40.7 kg, this is equivalent to 0.854 ton of CO 2, which is less
than the 1 ton of CO2 which would have been produced by incineration. In
some countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected, but still the global warming
potential of the landfill gas emitted to atmosphere in the US in 1999 was approximately
32 % higher than the amount of CO2 that would have been emitted by incineration.[18]
In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin. This material has been
formed by plants using atmospheric CO2 typically within the last growing season. If
these plants are regrown the CO2 emitted from their combustion will be taken out from
the atmosphere once more.
Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration
of the biodegradable part of waste as renewable energy.[19] The rest – mainly plastics and
other oil and gas derived products – is generally treated as non-renewables.
Different results for the CO2 footprint of incineration can be reached with different
assumptions. Local conditions (such as limited local district heating demand, no fossil
fuel generated electricity to replace or high levels of aluminium in the waste stream) can
decrease the CO2 benefits of incineration. The methodology and other assumptions may
also influence the results significantly. For example the methane emissions from landfills
occurring at a later date may be neglected or given less weight, or biodegradable waste
may not be considered CO2 neutral. A study by Eunomia Research and Consulting in
2008 on potential waste treatment technologies in London demonstrated that by applying
several of these (according to the authors) unusual assumptions the average existing
incineration plants performed poorly for CO2 balance compared to the theoretical
potential of other emerging waste treatment technologies.[20]
Other emissions
Other gaseous emissions in the flue gas from incinerator furnaces include sulfur dioxide,
hydrochloric acid, heavy metals and fine particles.
The steam content in the flue may produce visible fume from the stack, which can be
perceived as a visual pollution. It may be avoided by decreasing the steam content by
flue-gas condensation and reheating, or by increasing the flue gas exit temperature well
above its dew point. Flue-gas condensation allows the latent heat of vaporization of the
water to be recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Flue-gas cleaning
The quantity of pollutants in the flue gas from incineration plants is reduced by several
processes.
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Solid waste management 10CV757
Acid gas scrubbers are used to remove hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric
acid, mercury, lead and other heavy metals. Basic scrubbers remove sulfur dioxide,
forminggypsum by reaction with lime.[23]
Waste water from scrubbers must subsequently pass through a waste water treatment
plant.
Heavy metals are often adsorbed on injected active carbon powder, which is collected by
the particle filtration.
Solid outputs
Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The
total amount of ash produced by municipal solid waste incineration ranges from 4 to 10 % by
volume and 15-20 % by weight of the original quantity of waste,[2][24]and the fly ash
amounts to about 10-20 % of the total ash.[citation needed] The fly ash, by far, constitutes more
of a potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash often
contain high concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium,copper and zinc as well
as small amounts of dioxins and furans.[25] The bottom ash seldom contain significant levels
of heavy metals. In testing over the past decade, no ash from an incineration plant in the USA
has ever been determined to be a hazardous waste.[citation needed] At present although some
historic samples tested by the incinerator operators' group would meet the being ecotoxic
criteria at present the EA say "we have agreed" to regard incinerator bottom ash as "non-
hazardous" until the testing programme is complete.[citation
needed]
Odor pollution can be a problem with old-style incinerators, but odors and dust are
extremely well controlled in newer incineration plants. They receive and store the waste
in an enclosed area with a negative pressure with the airflow being routed through the
boiler which prevents unpleasant odors from escaping into the atmosphere. However, not
all plants are implemented this way, resulting in inconveniences in the locality.
An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic of waste
collection vehicles to transport municipal waste to the incinerator. Due to this reason,
most incinerators are located in industrial areas. This problem can be avoided to an extent
through the transport of waste by rail from transfer stations.
The highly toxic fly ash must be safely disposed of. This usually involves additional
waste miles and the need for specialist toxic waste landfill elsewhere. If not done
properly, it may cause concerns for local residents.
Incinerator Bottom Ash (IBA) has elevated levels of heavy metals with
ecotoxicity concerns if not reused properly. Some people have the opinion that IBA
reuse is still in its infancy and is still not considered to be a mature or desirable
product, despite additional engineering treatments. Concerns of IBA use in foam
concrete have been expressed by the UK Health and Safety Executive in 2010
following several construction and demolition explosions. In its guidance document,
IBA is currently banned from use by the UK Highway Authority in concrete work
until these incidents have been investigated
Alternative technologies are available or in development such as Mechanical
Biological Treatment, Anaerobic Digestion(MBT/AD), Autoclaving or Mechanical
Heat Treatment (MHT) using steam or plasma arc gasification (PGP), which is
incineration using electrically produced extreme high temperatures, or combinations
of these treatments. Erection of incinerators compete with the development and
introduction of other emerging technologies. A UK government WRAP report,
August 2008 found that in the UK median incinerator costs per ton were generally
higher than those for MBT treatments by £18 per metric ton; and £27 per metric ton
for most modern (post 2000) incinerators.
Building and operating waste processing plants such as incinerators requires long
contract periods to recover initial investment costs, causing a long term lock-in.
Incinerator lifetimes normally range 25–30 years. This was highlighted by Peter
Jones, OBE, the Mayor of London's waste representative in April 2009
Incinerators produce fine particles in the furnace. Even with modern particle
filtering of the flue gases, a small part of these is emitted to the atmosphere. PM 2.5 is
not separately regulated in the European Waste Incineration Directive, even though
they are repeatedly correlated spatially to infant mortality in the UK (M.Ryan's ONS
data based maps around the EfW/CHP waste incinerators at Edmonton, Coventry,
Chineham, Kirklees and Sheffield). Under WID there is no requirement to monitor
stack top or downwind incinerator PM2.5 levels.[43] Several European doctors
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Local communities are often opposed to the idea of locating waste processing
plants such as incinerators in their vicinity (the Not In My Back Yard phenomenon).
Studies inAndover, Massachusetts strongly correlated 10% property devaluations
with close incinerator proximity.
Prevention, waste minimisation, reuse and recycling of waste should all be
preferred to incineration according to the waste hierarchy. Supporters of zero
waste consider incinerators and other waste treatment technologies as barriers
to recycling and separation beyond particular levels, and that waste resources are
sacrificed for energy production.
A 2008 Eunomia report found that under some circumstances and assumptions,
incineration causes less CO2 reduction than other emerging EfW and CHP
technology combinations for treating residual mixed waste.[20] The authors found
that CHP incinerator technology without waste recycling ranked 19 out of 24
combinations (where all alternatives to incineration were combined with advanced
waste recycling plants); being 228% less efficient than the ranked 1 Advanced MBT
maturation technology; or 211% less efficient than plasma gasification/autoclaving
combination ranked 2.
Some incinerators are visually undesirable. In many countries they require a
visually intrusive chimney stack.
If reusable waste fractions are handled in waste processing plants such as
incinerators in developing nations, it would cut out viable work for local economies.
It is estimated that there are 1 million people making a livelihood off collecting
waste.
The history of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration is linked intimately to the
history of landfills and other waste treatment technology. The merits of incineration are
inevitably judged in relation to the alternatives available. Since the 1970s, recycling and
other prevention measures have changed the context for such judgements. Since the
1990s alternative waste treatment technologies have been maturing and becoming viable.
Incineration is a key process in the treatment of hazardous wastes and clinical wastes. It
is often imperative that medical waste be subjected to the high temperatures of
incineration to destroy pathogens and toxic contamination it contains.
The first incinerator in the U.S. was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York. [50] In
1949, Robert C. Ross founded one of the first hazardous waste management companies in the
U.S. He began Robert Ross Industrial Disposal because he saw an opportunity to meet the
hazardous waste management needs of companies in northern Ohio. In 1958, the company
built one of the first hazardous waste incinerators in the U.S. [51] The first full-scale,
municipally operated incineration facility in the U.S. was the Arnold O. Chantland Resource
Recovery Plant, built in 1975 and located in Ames, Iowa. This plant is still in
operation and produces refuse-derived fuel that is sent to local power plants for
[52]
fuel. The first commercially successful incineration plant in the U.S. was built
in Saugus, Massachusetts in October 1975 by Wheelabrator Technologies, and is still in
operation today.
Several old generation incinerators have been closed; of the 186 MSW incinerators in
1990, only 89 remained by 2007, and of the 6200 medical waste incinerators in 1988,
only 115 remained in 2003.[53] No new incinerators were built between 1996 and 2007.
The main reasons for lack of activity have been:
Economics. With the increase in the number of large inexpensive regional
landfills and, up until recently, the relatively low price ofelectricity, incinerators
were not able to compete for the 'fuel', i.e., waste in the U.S.
Tax policies. Tax credits for plants producing
electricity from waste were
rescinded in the U.S. between 1990 and 2004.
There has been renewed interest in incineration and other waste-to-energy technologies in
the U.S. and Canada. In the U.S., incineration was granted qualification for renewable
energy production tax credits in 2004.[54] Projects to add capacity to existing plants are
underway, and municipalities are once again evaluating the option of building
incineration plants rather than continue landfilling municipal wastes. However, many of
these projects have faced continued political opposition in spite of renewed arguments for
the greenhouse gas benefits of incineration and improved air pollution control and ash
recycling.
In Europe, with the ban on landfilling untreated waste, scores of incinerators have been
built in the last decade, with more under construction. Recently, a number of municipal
governments have begun the process of contracting for the construction and operation of
incinerators. In Europe, some of the electricity generated from waste is deemed to be
from a 'Renewable Energy Source (RES) and is thus eligible for tax credits if privately
operated. Also, some incinerators in Europe are equipped with waste recovery, allowing
the reuse of ferrous and non-ferrous materials found in landfills. A prominent example is
the AEB Waste Fired Power Plant.
The technology employed in the UK waste management industry has been greatly
lagging behind that of Europe due to the wide availability of landfills. The Landfill
Directive set down by the European Union led to the Government of the United Kingdom
imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and Landfill Allowance Trading
Scheme. This legislation is designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases produced
by landfills through the use of alternative methods of waste treatment. It is the UK
Government's position that incineration will play an increasingly large role in the
treatment of municipal waste and supply of energy in the UK.
Emergency incineration systems exist for the urgent and biosecure disposal of animals
and their by-products following a mass mortality or disease outbreak. An increase in
regulation and enforcement from governments and institutions worldwide has been
forced through public pressure and significant economic exposure.
Contagious animal disease has cost governments and industry $200 billion over 20 years
to 2012 and is responsible for over 65% of infectious disease outbreaks worldwide in the
past sixty years. One-third of global meat exports (approx 6 million tonnes) is affected by
trade restrictions at any time and as such the focus of Governments, public bodies and
commercial operators is on cleaner, safer and more robust methods of animal carcass
disposal to contain and control disease.
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Large scale incineration systems are available from niche suppliers and are often bought
by Governments as a safety net in case of contagious outbreak. Many are mobile and can
be quickly deployed to locations requiring biosecure disposal.
Pyrolysis
• It is defined as heating the solid waste at very high temperature in absence of air.
• Liquid: It contains tar, pitch, light oil, and low boiling organic chemicals
like acetic acid, acetone, methanol etc.
• Char: It consists of elemental carbon along with inert material in the waste feed.
• It has been observed that even after supplying the heat necessary for pyrolysis,
certain amount of excess heat still remains which can be commercially exploited.
UNIT – V COMPOSTING
Composting
Composting is an excellent method of recycling biodegradable waste from an ecological
point of view. Composting is in fact the controlled biological decomposition of organic
matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus, a soil-like material. Composting is
nature‟s way of recycling organic waste into new soil, which can be used in vegetable
and flower gardens, landscaping and the like. However, many large and small
composting schemes have failed because composting is regarded as a disposal process,
and not a production process.
Environmental problems may arise when waste is composted without noncompostible
matter like metals and plastics being removed. Hazardous substances like heavy metals
may then be found in the compost, which in turn may be taken up in the food chain
when compost is used on agricultural land. To prevent this situation, sorting at the
composting plant or even at the household level might be called for.
Benefits of Composting-
Composting is also defined as process in which organic matter of the solid waste is
decomposed and converted to humus and stable mineral compounds. The end product
of composting process is called compost which is rich fertilizer.
Composting by Trenching:
In this method trenches 3 to 12 m long, 2 to 3 m wide and 1 to 2 m deep are excavated with
clear spacing of 2 m. The trenches are then filled up with dry solid waste in layers of 15 cm.
On top of each layer 5 cm thick sandwiching layer of night soil animal dung is spread in
semi liquid form. On the top layer of night soil animal dung is spread in semi liquid form. On
the top layer protruding about 30 cm above the surrounding ground layer, a layer of earth
having thickness of around 10 cm is laid so that there is no problem of flies. Intensive
biological action starts in 2 to 3 days and organic matter decomposition starts. In this process
considerable heat is generated and temperature of the composting mass rises upto 75 0 C.
Due to this fly breeding does not take place. The solid waste stabilizes in 4 to 6 months and
gets changed in to a brown coloured, odourless, innocuous powdery form known as humus
having high manure value because of nitrogen content.
The stabilized mass is then removed from trenches screened to remove coarse
inert materials like stones brick bats, glass pieces plastic articles etc.
In this method solid waste night soil and animal dung etc. are placed in brick lined pits 3 m x
3 m x 1 m deep in alternate layers of 7.5 to 10 cm height, till the total height becomes
1.5 m. Chemical insecticides are added to prevent fly breeding. The material is turned
regularly for a period of about 8 to 12 weeks and then stored on ground for 4 to 6 weeks. In
about 6 to 8 turnings and period of 4 months time compost becomes ready for use as
manure. Insecticide used in Indore method was DDT but now because of very high half life
of DDT in nature other suitable insecticide is recommended, e.g. Gamaxine.
Bangalore Method
The solid waste is stabilized anaerobically. Earthen trenches of size 10 x 1.5 x 1.5 m
deep are filled up in alternate layers of solid waste and night soil/cow dung. The material
is converse with 15 cm earthen layer and left for biodegradation. In about 4-5 months the
compost becomes ready to use, normally a city produces 200 to 250 kg/capita/year of
refuse and 8 to 10 kg / capita/year of night soil. Composting will produce about 5600 to
6750 of compost annually from above waste.
• In This method large materials like broken glass pieces, stone, plastic articles
etc. are first removed are first removed and remaining solid waste is dumped on
ground in form of piles of 0.6 to 1 m height the width and length of pile are kept
as 60%. The piles are then covered with night soil, animal dung to supply
necessary organisms for biodegradation.
• The temperature rises because of biological activities in the waste piles and
microbial action shift to misophilic to thermophilic stage. After this pile is turned
up for cooling and aeration to avoid anaerobic decomposition. The temperature of
pile again rises to 75 0 C and process of turning cooling and aeration are repeated.
The complete process may taker 4 to 6 weeks and finally compost is ready to use.
As fertilizers
• Mechanical Composting
(2) segregation
(3) Shredding
(4) Stabilization
Aerobic composting
It is the aerobic, or oxygen-requiring, decomposition of organic materials by
microorganisms under controlled conditions. During composting, the microorganisms
consume oxygen (O2) while feeding on organic matter. Active composting generates
considerable heat, and large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor are
released into the air.The CO2 and water losses can amount to half the weight of theinitial
materials, thereby reducing the volume and mass ofthe final product
Vermicomposting
It is the product of composting utilizing various species of worms, usually red wigglers,
white worms, and earthworms to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing
vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding materials, and
vermicast. Vermicast, also known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is
the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of
earthworm.Vermicomposting is widely used in North America for on-site institutional
processing of food waste, such as in hospitals and shopping malls.This type of
composting is sometimes suggested as a feasible indoor home composting method.
Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both these industrial and domestic settings
because, as compared to conventional composting, it provides a way to compost organic
materials more quickly (as defined by a higher rate of carbon-to-nitrogen ratio increase)
and to attain products that have lower salinity levels that are therefore more beneficial to
plant mediums.
The earthworm species (or composting worms) most often used are red wigglers
(Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis or
Dendrobaena Veneta) could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most
vermiculture experts, as they have some of the best appetites and breed very quickly.
Users refer to European nightcrawlers by a variety of other names, including
dendrobaenas, dendras, Dutch Nightcrawlers, and Belgian nightcrawlers.
Land filling involves the controlled disposal of solid waste on or in the upper layer of
the earth‟s mantle.
The principal methods used for landfilling dry area may be classified as
(1) Area
(2) Trench
(3) Depression.
Site selection
Selection of a landfill site usually comprises of the following steps, when
a large number landfill sites are available:
(i) setting up of a locational criteria;
(ii) identification of search area;
(iii) drawing up a list of potential sites;
(iv) data collection;
(v) selection of few best-ranked sites;
(vi) environmental impact assessment and
(vii) final site selection and land acquisition.
The Area Method is used when the terrain is unsuitable for the excavation of
trenches in which to place the solid wastes. The filling operation usually is started by
building an earthen against which wastes are placed in thin layers and compacted as the
fill progresses untill the thickness of the compacted wastes reaches a height of 2 to 3 m at
the end of day‟s operation a 150 mm to 300 mm layer of cover material is placed over the
compacted fill. The cover material must be hauled in by truck or earth-moving equipment
from adjacent land or from borrow-pit areas. A final layer of cover material is used when
the fill reaches the final design height.
The trench method is suited to areas where an adequate depth of cover material
is available at the site and where the water table is well below the surface. To start the
process To start the process, a portion of the trench is dug with a bulldozer and the dirt
is stockpiled to form an embankment behind the first trench. Wastes are then placed in
the trench, spread into thin layers and compacted. The operation continues untill the
desired height is reached. Cover material is obtained by excavating an adjacent trench or
continuing the trench that is being filled.
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Depression Landfills
Leachate control
Leachate is a liquid generated as a result ofpercolation of water or other liquid through
landfilled waste, and compression of the waste as the weight of overlying materials
increases. Leachate is considered to be a contaminated liquid, since it contains many
dissolved and suspended materials. Good management techniques that can limit adverse
impact of leachate on ground and surface waters include control of leachate production
and discharge from a landfill, and collection of the leachate with final treatment and/or
disposal.
Gas control
Production. Although gas generated within some types of landfills may be
negligible, most
landfills are expected to generate a significant quantity of gas. The quality of gas
depends mainly on the type of solid waste. As with leachate, the quality and quantity of
landfill gas both vary with time. The following discussion on gas quality and quantity
pertains mainly to landfills with municipal type wastes, which would be expected at
most installations.
Quality. Landfill gases, specifically methane gas, are natural by-products of anaerobic
microbial activity in the landfill. The anaerobic process requires water and the proper
mix of nutrients to maintain optimal conditions. The quality of gas varies with time, and
may be characterized by four distinct phases.
Quantity The quantity of gas generated depends on waste volume, waste composition,
and time since deposition of waste in the landfill, as summarized above. Methane
production ranges from 0.04-0.24 cubic feet per pound of waste per year. Gas production
may be increased by adding nutrients, such as sewage sludge or agricultural waste, the
removal of bulky metallic goods, and the use of less daily and intermediate cover soil.
Until relatively recently, solid waste was dumped, buried, or burned, and some of the
garbage was fed to animals. The public was not aware of the links of refuse to rats, flies,
roaches, mosquitoes, fleas, land pollution, and water pollution. People did not know that
solid waste in open dumps and backyard incinerators support breeding of diseases
vectors including typhoid fever, endemic typhus fever, yellow fever, dengue fever,
malaria, cholera, and others. Thus, the cheapest, quickest, and most convenient means of
disposing of the waste were used. Rural areas and small towns utilized the open dump or
backyard
incinerator. Larger towns and cities used municipal incinerators. Later, land
filling became the method of choice for disposing of solid waste.
In solid waste management disposal is one of basic programs that has to be done with
maximum precautions. If it is not done effectively and efficiently, the whole program
will not be satisfactory. Strictly speaking the task of solid wastes disposal is normally
handled by a municipal, city or town authorities, if such service exists.
Disposal of solid waste has to be accomplished without the creation of nuisance
and health
hazards in order to fill full the objectives of solid waste management program. These are:
• improvement of esthetic appearance of the environment
• avoidance of smells and unsightliness.
• reduction of disease by curtailing fly and rodent breeding
• prevention of human and stray dogs from scavenging
In disposal of solids wastes, it is recommended that the following will be done to
avoid any risks:
the disposal site to be 30 meters from water sources in order to prevent
possible contamination
prevention of underground waster pollution should be taken into
account radioactive materials and explosives should not be together.
site should be fenced to keep way scavengers.
all surface of dump should be covered with materials all
wastes should be dumped in layers and compacted.
disposal site should be about 500 meters from residential areas
Solid waste disposal methods
Generally there are several methods of solid waste disposal that can be utilized.
These methods are:
1. Ordinary open dumping
2. controlled tipping/burial
3. Hog feeding
4. Incineration
5. Sanitary landfill
6. Composting
7. Grinding and discharge in to sewer
8. Dumping into water bodies
9. Disposal of corpus
1. Open dumping
Some components of solid waste such as street sweepings, ashes and non combustible
rubbish are suitable for open dumping. Garbage and any other mixed solid wastes are
not fit or suitable because of nuisance and health hazard creation. Generally, solid waste
is spread over a large area, providing sources of food and harborage for flies, rats and
other vermin. It causes unsightly odor and smoke nuisance and hazards. Carefully
selected rubbish must be disposed in order to prevent fire accidents that might occur.
The location of open dumping must be carefully chosen so that there will be a minimum
chance of complaints from near by residents.
Advantage of open dumping
Can take care of all types of solid wastes except
garbage It causes less health problem if proper site is
selected. Needs less labor and supervision
Disadvantage of open dumping
Attraction of flies, mosquitoes and other insects as well as stray dogs, rats,
and other animals.
Creation of breeding sites for rodents, arthropods and other
vermin Creation of smoke, odor and nuisance
It makes the lands and other surrounding areas
useless. It leads to cuts and wounds.
It attracts scavengers, both humans and animals.
The following points should be kept in mind and must be considered before selection
and locating sites for open dumping.
Sources of water supply and distance from
it Direction of wind
Distance from nearest residents near by farm areas and main land
Distance that flies can travel from disposal site to the living quarter as well as
the distance that the rodents can travel from disposal areas and living quarters.
Negligence to these and some other factors would lead unforeseen health problems; if
at all this method is selected.
2. Controlled tipping/burial
Indiscriminate dumping of garbage and rubbish create favorable conditions for fly-
breeding, harborage and food for rodents, nuisances etc. In order to avoid such
problems, garbage and rubbish should be disposed of under sanitary conditions.
One of the simpler and cheaper methods is burning garbage and rubbish under controlled
conditions. Controlled or engineered burial is known as Controlled Tipping or Sanitary
Land Fill System. In places where there is no organized service, this system can be done
by digging shallow 2 trenches, laying down the generated waste in an orderly manner,
compacting the waste manually or mechanically and covering with adequate depth of
earth or ash at the end of each day‟s work. The process is repeated each day
systematically at appropriate locations. If properly done this system can prevent fly-
breeding, rodent harborage, mosquito-breeding and nuisances. It can be applied in areas
where appropriate land is available for such practice. This system can be considered an
adaptation of what is technically called the SANITARY LAND FILL system in
municipal solid wastes management service. Principally it consists of the
following steps.
• Choosing suitable site, usually waste land to be reclaimed within
reasonable distance from habitation.
• Transporting the generated wastes to the site by appropriately designed vehicles.
• Laying the wastes in appropriate heap to a pre-determined height.
• Compacting the layer mechanically
• Covering the compacted layer with a thin layer of earth 22 cm depth at the end
of each work day. The same steps are repeated for each work period.
3. Hog feeding
The feeding of garbage to hogs has been practiced for many years in different parts of
the world. But there is surprising high incidence of trichinosis among hogs which are fed
with
uncooked garbage.
Consumption of insufficiently cooked meat from hogs is believed to be the main
source of
trichinosis. Hogs which are fed on garbage containing hogs scraps and slaughter
house offal are very likely to be infected. Also rats living around the slaughter house
are infected and there is possibility that hog eats dead rats.
Trichinosis worm is easily killed only at a temperature of 58 0 C. So the pork should be
cooked until this temperature is obtained. Refrigeration at -35 O C for a period of 30
days will also kill the larva. Pickling, salting and smoking also kill the larva when done
thoroughly. Garbage feeding is profitable if properly handled by farmers and if they are
willing to use them by collecting it them selves. They should collect it daily and furnish
clean cans while garbage is the most potential valuable element or component of solid
waste. It is the most difficult to handle in a sanitary manner and is responsible for the
majority of nuisances and health hazards associated with the disease. To use garbage for
hog feeding it has to be cooked at temperature of 100 C for 30 minutes just to be on safe
side. Cooking the garbage before Hog feeding will not reduce the food value.
4. Incineration
Incineration is a process of burning the combustible components of garbage and
refuse. Disposal of solid waste by incineration can be effectively carried out in small
scale in food
service establishments as well as in institutions such as hospitals, schools etc.
The disadvantage of this method is that only combustible materials are incinerated, hence
there is a need for separation of the waste into combustible and non-combustible. The
noncombustible needs separate disposal. Generally there are two types of incinerators,
the open and the closed systems. In the open system the refuse is incinerated in a
chamber open to the air; while the closed system contains a special chamber designed
with various parts to facilitate incineration. It requires a chimney of appropriate height to
provide a good flow of air thorough the combustion chamber. There are varieties of
designs for small scale incinerators. A typical example of design. The size can be varied
depending on the volume of the refuse to be incinerated.
The combustion chamber laid with iron grids, at the bottom of which are air inlets in
front and at the back.
• The front and back walls with provision for installing chimney.
On-site Incineration
This term applies to incineration of refuse at home, office, apartment house, commercial
building, hospital or industrial site. Refuse collection and disposal could be much reduced
satisfactory by using on-site incineration. Generally, air-pollution can be expected.
Advantages of an incinerator
1. Less land is required than for landfills
2. A central location is possible - allow short hauling for the collection service.
3. Ash and other residue produced are free of organic matter, nuisance- free,
and acceptable as fill material.
4. Many kinds of refuse can be burned. Even non-combustible materials will be reduced
in
bulk.
5. Climate or unusual weather does not affect it.
6. Flexibility is possible - no restriction for its operation
7. Getting income through the sale of waste heat for steam or power is possible.
Disadvantages of an incinerator
1. Initial cost is high - during construction
2. Operating cost is relatively high
3. Skilled employees are required for operation and maintenance
4. There may be difficulty in getting a site.
5. Sanitary landfill
Landfill design, construction, and operation
The problem of managing the increased volume of solid waste is compounded by
rising public
resistance to siting new landfills. There are five general phases of landfill
construction: site selection;
site investigation;
design;
daily operation; and, landfill
completion or closure.
transportation routes, certain distance away from airport, not located in wetlands, and
out of a floodplain. The engineer should also consider what the final use of the site will
be and how long-term management of the site will impact this final use.
After a suitable site is identified, a site investigation is then performed. The
site investigation includes items such as performing:
1) a topographic survey for surface contours and features (used also to estimate amount
of available soil),
2) a hydrologic survey that looks at how the local hydrology will impact
drainage requirements, and
3) a hydrogeology survey that will determine underlying geological formations and soil
types, the depth to the groundwater table, the direction of groundwater flow, and the
current quality of the groundwater (so one can determine whether the landfill is
adversely impacting groundwater quality).
Landfill design and operation is the next step in the engineering process. Engineers
have to
consider the method of land filling and design the landfill interface (soil
foundation, liners),
leachate collection and treatment systems, and gas collection and venting system. The
engineer also has to consider the selection of equipment that is used for hauling,
excavating, and compaction; access to haul roads, fencing, and the storage and use of
soil that is used for daily and final cover.
During daily operation, topsoil is removed and stored; refuse is transported into the
site, dumped, and compacted; daily soil cover is placed over the refuse; groundwater is
monitored; and, leachate is collected and treated.
water behind the deposited refuse. When the landfill has exhausted its life, a final cover
is placed on top of the landfill; topsoil is replaced on the site and the site is landscaped;
groundwater is continuously monitored; leachate is continuously collected and treated;
and, gases are continuously collected and vented. Leachate production and groundwater
monitoring. Leachate is the liquid that percolates through a landfill. It is very high in
concentration of water quality parameters. An engineer designs a landfill to minimize
movement of water into the mass of refuse and thus attempts to minimize the production
of leachate. The leachate collection system must be designed to keep the depth of the
leachate over the liner to less than 30 cm. Landfills are lined with either compacted clay
or some type of geosynthetic liner. The purpose of these systems is to greatly reduce the
hydraulic conductivity in the liner that minimizes the flow of leachate through the liner.
If compacted clay is used, it is typically 15 t0 120 centimeters thick and it is very
important that the clay liner be compacted properly and not be allowed to dry out or
crack. Geosynthetic liners are gaining widespread popularity and their installation is
extremely important so that seams are sealed properly. Lying on top of this liner system
is a leachate collection system, and on top of this is the compacted solid waste.
Generally, ground-water monitoring is conducted at all landfills. In fact, Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) requires that owners/operators install enough ground-water
monitoring wells in the appropriate places to accurately assess the quality of the uppermost
aquifer 1) beneath the landfill before it has passed the landfill boundary (to determine
background quality) and 2) at a relevant point of compliance (down gradient).
Owners/operators should consider the specific characteristics of the sites when establishing
their monitoring systems, but the systems must be certified as adequate by a qualified
groundwater scientist or the director of an EPA-approved state/tribal program.
Composting
Composting is an excellent method of recycling biodegradable waste from an ecological
point of view. Composting is in fact the controlled biological decomposition of organic
matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus, a soil-like material. Composting is
nature‟s way of recycling organic waste into new soil, which can be used in vegetable
and flower gardens, landscaping and the like. However, many large and small
composting schemes have failed because composting is regarded as a disposal process,
and not a production process.
Environmental problems may arise when waste is composted without noncompostible
matter like metals and plastics being removed. Hazardous substances like heavy metals
may then be found in the compost, which in turn may be taken up in the food chain
when compost is used on agricultural land. To prevent this situation, sorting at the
composting plant or even at the household level might be called for.
Benefits of Composting-
Composting is also defined as process in which organic matter of the solid waste is
decomposed and converted to humus and stable mineral compounds. The end product
of composting process is called compost which is rich fertilizer.
Composting by Trenching:
In this method trenches 3 to 12 m long, 2 to 3 m wide and 1 to 2 m deep are excavated with
clear spacing of 2 m. The trenches are then filled up with dry solid waste in layers of 15 cm.
On top of each layer 5 cm thick sandwiching layer of night soil animal dung is spread in
semi liquid form. On the top layer of night soil animal dung is spread in semi liquid form. On
the top layer protruding about 30 cm above the surrounding ground layer, a layer of earth
having thickness of around 10 cm is laid so that there is no problem of flies. Intensive
biological action starts in 2 to 3 days and organic matter decomposition starts. In this process
considerable heat is generated and temperature of the composting mass rises upto 75 0 C.
Due to this fly breeding does not take place. The solid waste stabilizes in 4 to 6 months and
gets changed in to a brown coloured, odourless, innocuous powdery form known as humus
having high manure value because of nitrogen content.
The stabilized mass is then removed from trenches screened to remove coarse
inert materials like stones brick bats, glass pieces plastic articles etc.
In this method solid waste night soil and animal dung etc. are placed in brick lined pits 3
m x 3 m x 1 m deep in alternate layers of 7.5 to 10 cm height, till the total height
becomes 1.5 m. Chemical insecticides are added to prevent fly breeding. The material is
turned regularly for a period of about 8 to 12 weeks and then stored on ground for 4 to 6
weeks. In about 6 to 8 turnings and period of 4 months time compost becomes ready for
use as manure. Insecticide used in Indore method was DDT but now because of very high
half life of DDT in nature other suitable insecticide is recommended, e.g. Gamaxine.
Bangalore Method
The solid waste is stabilized anaerobically. Earthen trenches of size 10 x 1.5 x 1.5 m
deep are filled up in alternate layers of solid waste and night soil/cow dung. The material
is converse with 15 cm earthen layer and left for biodegradation. In about 4-5 months the
compost becomes ready to use, normally a city produces 200 to 250 kg/capita/year of
refuse and 8 to 10 kg / capita/year of night soil. Composting will produce about 5600 to
6750 of compost annually from above waste.
Reduction: Reduction in generation, reduction in amount of material, increase
lifetime, or eliminate the need
use of the material as a source raw material,
Recycle - used, reused, or reclaimed,
involves physical transformation
– Reused: The direct use or reuse of a secondary material without prior
reclamation
– Reclaimed: regeneration of wastes or recovery of usable materials from
wastes (e.g., regenerating spent solvents in a solvent still). Wastes are
regenerated when they are processed to remove contaminants in a way that
restores them to their usable condition materials that must be
reclaimed/recycled prior to use or reuse
Recovery
- Process to recover useful material from mixed waste (energy is an
example)
Materials are solid wastes (and potentially hazardous waste) if they are recycled in the
following ways:
Used in a manner constituting disposal - Directly placing wastes orproducts
containing wastes on the land is considered to be use constituting disposal.
– If, however, direct placement on the land is consistent with its normal use
(e.g., pesticides), then the material is not regulated as a solid waste.
– For example, heptachlor can potentially be a P-listed waste. This pesticide is
not regulated as a solid waste, however, when it isused as a pesticide.
Burned for energy recovery
Reclaimed (with some exceptions) - materials that must be reclaimed/ recycled prior
to use or reuse
Accumulated speculatively
Materials that are not solid waste (and therefore not hazardous wastes) when recycled:
(i) Used or reused as ingredients in an industrial process to make a product, provided
the materials are not being reclaimed; or
(ii) Used or reused as effective substitutes for commercial products; or
(ii) Returned to the original process from which they are generated, without first
being reclaimed or land disposed
Recycling Advantages
Prevents the emission of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants,
Saves energy,
Supplies valuable raw materials to industry,
Creates jobs,
Stimulates the development of greener technologies,
Conserves resources for our children‟s future, and
Paper Recycling
~ 50% of consumed material and growing
Goal 55% by 2012
Strong markets for old corrugated cardboard (OCC) and newsprint (ONP)
Expanding domestic and international demand
Office paper lower demand
Expanding economy – increased steel demands; China and India biggest markets
36.4% of steel is recycled
Use of plastic for automobiles is a problem
lb of iron ore, 1000 lb of coal, 40 lb of limestone,
One ton steel recycled saves 2500
and significant energy savings
Steel Recycling
Expanding economy – increased steel demands; China and India biggest markets
36.4% of steel is recycled
Use of plastic for automobiles is a problem
lb of iron ore, 1000 lb of coal, 40 lb of limestone,
One ton steel recycled saves 2500
and significant energy savings
Aluminum Recycling
About 51 percent of aluminum cans is being recycled
Twenty years ago it took 19 aluminum cans to make one pound, but today, aluminum
beverage cans are lighter and it takes 29 cans to make a pound.
Americans throw away enough aluminum every three months to rebuild our entire
commercial air fleet.
Making new aluminum cans from used cans takes 95 percent less energy and 20
can be made with the energy needed to produce one can using
recycled cans
virgin ore.
Glass Recycling
Glass always lags other recyclables
Alternative markets needed – grind for construction fill, “glassphalt,” fiberglass
Transportation of heavy glass is expensive
Raw materials are inexpensive
Contamination is an issue
Reuse used to be common practice; however as manufacturing plants became larger
and decreased in number, bottles had to be carried further for refilling.
More colored glass is imported than used domestically
Plastic Recycling
– PET and HDPE have high prices due to domestic and international demand