PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTOR

As stated in a previous paragraph on the stator construction, the slots of the

stator core contain three separate single-phase windings. When three currents
120 electrical degrees apart pass through these windings, a rotating magnetic
field results. This field travels around the inside of the stator core. The speed of
the rotating magnetic field depends on the number of stator poles and the
frequency of the power source. This speed is called the synchronous speed and
is determined by the formula:

Synchronous speed RPM = 120 x frequency in hertz / Number of poles

S = 120xf / p

S = Synchronous speed

f = Hertz (frequency)

p = Number of poles per phase

Standard types of squirrel cage motors are as explained below:

(i) Class A - (Normal starting torque, normal starting current, normal slip)

Class A is the most popular type of squirrel cage induction motor. Motors of this type employ
squirrel cage having relatively low resistance and reactance. Its blocked-rotor current (with full
voltage) is generally more than 6 times rated full load current. For smaller size and less number
of poles, starting torque with full load voltage is nearly twice the full load torque.For larger size
and more number of poles starting torque is only a bit more than full load torque. The full load
slip is less than 5%. The rotor bars are placed close the the rotor surface to reduce the rotor
reactance.
Class A motors are used in fans, compressors, pumps, conveyors etc. which are having low
inertia loads so that the motor can accelerate in less time.

(ii) Class B - (Normal starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
Class B motors can be started at full load, developing normal starting torque with relatively low
starting current. Their blocked-rotor current with full voltage is generally 5 times the full load
current. Rotor bars are narrow and placed deeper to obtain high reactance at starting.
These motors are used where load is having high inertia, e.g large fans, machine tools
applications, for driving electric generators, centrifugal pumps etc.

(iii) Class C - (high starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
Class C motors are generally double squirrel cage type. Their blocked-rotor current and slip with
full voltage is nearly similar to that of class B motors. Their starting torque with full applied
voltage is genrally about three times the full load torque.
These motors are used where sufficiently high starting torque with reduced starting voltage is
reqired. They are used for crushers, compression pumps, large refrigerators, textile machinery,
wood working eqipment etc.

(iv) Class D - (high starting torque, low starting current, high slip)
In class D motors rotor bars of high resistance are used so as to give high starting torque with
low starting current. Their blocked rotor current with full applied voltage is similar to that of class
B or class C motors. Full load slip may vary from 5% to 20% depending upon application. Thin
rotor bars are used which reduces the leakage flux and increases the useful flux, thus giving
high starting torque with low starting current.
These motors are used where extremely high starting torque is required. E.g. bulldozers,
shearing machines, foundry equipment, punch presses, stamping machines, metal drawing
equipment, laundry equipment etc.

(v) Class E - (low starting torque, normal starting current, low slip)
Class E motors are having relatively low slip at rated load. For motors above 5kW rating,
starting current may be high, so they require compensator or resistance starter.
(vi) Class F - (low starting torque, low starting current, normal slip)
As these motors are having low starting torque with low starting current, they can be started at
full voltage. The rotor is designed such that it gives high reactance at starting. The blocked rotor
current and full load slip with full applied voltage is similar to that of class B or class C motors.
The starting torque with full applied voltage is nearly 1.25 times the full load torque.

Basic Working Principle Of An Induction Motor

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the rotor
winding. But in an induction motor only the stator winding is fed with an AC supply.
 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply.
This alternating flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called
as "Rotating Magnetic Field" (RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced
emf in the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. The rotor conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is
produced due to induced emf. That is why such motors are called as induction
motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be
called as rotating transformers.)
 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor
flux lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according
to Lenz's law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating
stator flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the
rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative
velocity. However, the rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed.
This is the basic working principle of induction motor of either type, single phase
of 3 phase.

Synchronous Speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply

P = number of poles

Slip:
Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But
in practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up. If rotor catches up the stator speed, there
wont be any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced rotor
current and no torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the
motor, the rotor will slow down due to lost of torque, the torque will again be exerted due
to relative speed. That is why the rotor rotates at speed which is always less the
synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor
is called as slip.

onstruction Of A 3 Phase Induction Motor

Just like any other motor, a 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor.
Basically there are two types of 3 phase IM - 1. Squirrel cage induction motor and 2. Phase
Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor). Both types have similar constructed
rotor, but they differ in construction of rotor. This is explained further
.

Stator

The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number of stampings, and these
stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The stator is wound with a 3 phase winding
which is fed from a 3 phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number
of poles is determined from the required speed. For greater speed, lesser number of poles is
used and vice versa. When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce
alternating flux which revolves with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely
proportional to number of poles (Ns = 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces
current in rotor windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.

Rotor
As described earlier, rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel
cage rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).

Squirrel Cage Rotor

Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor has
very simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consist of a cylindrical
laminated core, having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this
type of rotor, heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead of
wires.
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -
1. it reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator
teeth due to magnetic attraction.
2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor
3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor

The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus
this rotor construction looks like a squirrel cage and hence we call it. The rotor bars are
permanently short circuited, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature
circuit.

Phase Wound Rotor

 Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase,
double layer, distributed winding. The number of poles of rotor are kept same to the number of
poles of the stator. The rotor is always wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the
winding are taken out via three insulated sleep rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes
resting on them. These three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat.
This arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting
purposes and for changing the speed / torque characteristics.
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means
of a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip rings to minimize the frictional losses.

An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer whose secondary is short circuited.

Thus, at normal supply voltage, like in transformers, the initial current taken by the primary is
very large for a short while. Unlike in DC motors, large current at starting is due to the absence
of back emf. If an induction motor is directly switched on from the supply, it takes 5 to 7 times its
full load current and develops a torque which is only 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque. This
large starting current produces a large voltage drop in the line, which may affect the operation of
other devices connected to the same line. Hence, it is not advisable to start induction motors of
higher ratings (generally above 25kW) directly from the mains supply.
Various starting methods of induction motors are described below.

Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starters

Small three phase induction motors can be started direct-on-line, which means that the rated
supply is directly applied to the motor. But, as mentioned above, here, the starting current would
be very large, usually 5 to 7 times the rated current. The starting torque is likely to be 1.5 to 2.5
times the full load torque. Induction motors can be started directly on-line using a DOL starter
which generally consists of a contactor and a motor protection equipment such as a circuit
breaker. A DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactor which can be controlled by start and
stop push buttons. When the start push button is pressed, the contactor gets energized and it
closes all the three phases of the motor to the supply phases at a time. The stop push button
de-energizes the contactor and disconnects all the three phases to stop the motor.
In order to avoid excessive voltage drop in the supply line due to large starting current, a DOL
starter is generally used for motors that are rated below 5kW.

Starting Of Squirrel Cage Motors

Starting in-rush current in squirrel cage motors is controlled by applying reduced voltage to the
stator. These methods are sometimes called as reduced voltage methods for starting of
squirrel cage induction motors. For this purpose, following methods are used:

1. By using primary resistors

2. Autotransformer
3. Star-delta switches

1. Using Primary Resistors:

Obviously, the purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage and apply a reduced voltage
to the stator. Consider, the starting voltage is reduced by 50%. Then according to the Ohm's law
(V=I/Z), the starting current will also be reduced by the same percentage. From the torque
equation of a three phase induction motor, the starting torque is approximately proportional to
the square of the applied voltage. That means, if the applied voltage is 50% of the rated value,
the starting torque will be only 25% of its normal voltage value. This method is generally used
for a smooth starting of small induction motors. It is not recommended to use primary
resistors type of starting method for motors with high starting torque requirements.
Resistors are generally selected so that 70% of the rated voltage can be applied to the motor. At
the time of starting, full resistance is connected in the series with the stator winding and it is
gradually decreased as the motor speeds up. When the motor reaches an appropriate speed,
the resistances are disconnected from the circuit and the stator phases are directly connected to
the supply lines.

2. Auto-Transformers:
Auto-transformers are also known as auto-starters. They can be used for both star connected or
delta connected squirrel cage motors. It is basically a three phase step down transformer with
different taps provided that permit the user to start the motor at, say, 50%, 65% or 80% of line
voltage. With auto-transformer starting, the current drawn from supply line is always less than
the motor current by an amount equal to the transformation ratio. For example, when a motor is
started on a 65% tap, the applied voltage to the motor will be 65% of the line voltage and the
applied current will be 65% of the line voltage starting value, while the line current will be 65% of
65% (i.e. 42%) of the line voltage starting value. This difference between the line current and
the motor current is due to transformer action. The internal connections of an auto-starter are as
shown in the figure. At starting, switch is at "start" position, and a reduced voltage (which is
selected using a tap) is applied across the stator. When the motor gathers an appropriate
speed, say upto 80% of its rated speed, the auto-transformer automatically gets disconnected
from the circuit as the switch goes to "run" position.
The switch changing the connection from start to run position may be air-break (small motors) or
oil-immersed (large motors) type. There are also provisions for no-voltage and overload, with
time delay circuits on an autostarter.

3. Star-Delta Starter:
This method is used in the motors, which are designed to run on delta connected stator. A two
way switch is used to connect the stator winding in star while starting and in delta while running
at normal speed. When the stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor
will be reduced by a factor 1/(sqrt. 3) of that would be for delta connected winding. The starting
torque will 1/3 times that it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a star-delta starter is
equivalent to an auto-transformer of ratio 1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.
Starting Of Slip-Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are started with full line voltage, as external resistance can be easily added in
the rotor circuit with the help of slip-rings. A star connected rheostat is connected in series with
the rotor via slip-rings as shown in the fig. Introducing resistance in rotor current will decrease
the starting current in rotor (and, hence, in stator). Also, it improves power factor and the torque
is increased. The connected rheostat may be hand-operated or automatic.
As, introduction of additional resistance in rotor improves the starting torque, slip-ring motors
can be started on load.
The external resistance introduced is only for starting purposes, and is gradually cut out as the
motor gathers the speed.

Constant V/F Control Of Induction Motor

This is the most popular method for controlling the speed of an induction motor. As in above
method, if the supply frequency is reduced keeping the rated supply voltage, the air gap flux will
tend to saturate. This will cause excessive stator current and distortion of the stator flux wave.
Therefore, the stator voltage should also be reduced in proportional to the frequency so as to
maintain the air-gap flux constant. The magnitude of the stator flux is proportional to the ratio of
the stator voltage and the frequency. Hence, if the ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant,
the flux remains constant. Also, by keeping V/F constant, the developed torque remains
approximately constant. This method gives higher run-time efficiency. Therefore, majority of AC
speed drives employ constant V/F method (or variable voltage, variable frequency method) for
the speed control. Along with wide range of speed control, this method also offers 'soft start'
capability.

Construction Of AC Generator (Alternator)

 Salient pole type alternator

Main parts of the alternator, obviously, consists of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other
machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is
stationary.

Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for
magnetic flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is
made up of lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy current
losses.

Why Armature Winding Is Stationary In An Alternator?

 At high voltages, it easier to insulate stationary armature winding, which may be as
high as 30 kV or more.
 The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature.
Whereas, for a rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher
voltages, also the sparking at the brush surface will occur.
 Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc voltage can be transferred
safely.
 The armature winding can be braced well, so as to prevent deformation caused by
the high centrifugal force.
Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:
(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type
1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators. Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the
 figure above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called
salient poles), bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to
minimize the eddy current losses. Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in
diameters and short in axial length.
2. Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially
in turbo alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder
havingg slots along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
The DC suppy is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings and and brushes
arrangement.

Connecting an alternator in grid is called as synchronization of alternator, read more

about it at the link.

Each DC machine can act as a generator or a motor. Hence, this classification is valid
for both: DC generators and DC motors. DC machines are usually classified on the
basis of their field excitation method. This makes two broad categories of dc
machines; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.

 Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field

winding is supplied from a separate power source. That means the field winding is
electrically separated from the armature circuit. Separately excited DC
generators are not commonly used because they are relatively expensive due to
the requirement of an additional power source or circuitry. They are used in
laboratories for research work, for accurate speed control of DC motors with Ward-
Leonard system and in few other applications where self-excited DC generators are
unsatisfactory. In this type, the stator field flux may also be provided with the help of
permanent magnets (such as in permanent magnet DC motors). PMDC (permanant
magnet DC) motors are popularly used in small toys, e.g. a toy car.
 Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and armature winding are
interconnected in various ways to achieve a wide range of performance
characteristics (for example, field winding in series or parallel with the armature
winding).
In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current
produced by themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due
to the residual magnetism. So, initially, current induces in the armature conductors
of a dc generator only due to the residual magnetism. The field flux gradually
increases as the induced current starts flowing through the field winding.

Self-excited machines can be further classified as –

 Series wound dc machines – In this type, field winding is connected in series
with the armature winding. Therefore, the field winding carries whole of the load
current (armature current). That is why series winding is designed with few turns
of thick wire and the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).
 Shunt wound dc machines – Here, field winding is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field winding.
Shunt winding is made with a large number of turns and the resistance is kept
 very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes only small current which is less than 5% of
the rated armature current.
 Compound wound dc machines – In this type, there are two sets of field
winding. One is connected in series and the other is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. Compound wound machines are further divided as -
 Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature
winding
 Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the combination
of series field winding and armature winding

Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as

E = Eb + IaRa and hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf Eb = 0. Hence, armature current at the
moment of starting can be given as Ia = E / Ra. In practical DC machines, armature resistance is
basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the armature
during starting. This current is large enough to damage the armature circuit.
Due to this excessive starting current -
 1. the fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement
may get damaged.
2. very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to the armature
current), and this high starting torque may cause huge centrifugal force which may throw off
the armature winding.
3. other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.
A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia. Hence, building
up the back emf slowly causing the level of high starting current maintained for quite some time.
This may cause severe damage. To avoid this, a suitable DC motor starter must be used. Very
small dc motors, however, may be started directly by connecting them to the supply with the
help of a contactor or a switch. It does not result in any harm because they gather speed quickly
due to small rotor inertia. In this case, the large starting current will die down quickly because of
the fast rise in the back emf.

DC Motor Starters
To avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting
current. So, a DC motor is started by using a starter. There are various types of dc motor
starters, such as 3 point starter, 4 point starter, no-load release coil starter, thyristor controller
starter etc.
The basic concept behind every DC motor starter is adding external resistance to the armature
winding during starting.
From the followings, 3 point starters and 4 point starters are used for starting shunt wound
motors and compound wound motors.

3 Point Starter

The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown

in the figure.
When the connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When
the lever touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and the
armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. During starting, full
resistance is added in series with the armature winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the
resistance is gradually is cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position
6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets directly connected
across the supply. The electromagnet 'E' (no voltage coil) holds the lever at this position. This
electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage.
It can be seen that, when the arm is moved from the position 1 to the last position, the starter
resistance gets added in series with the field winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is
very small as compared to the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may be
negligible. However, to overcome this drawback a brass or copper arc may be employed within
a 3 point starter which makes a connection between the moving arm and the field winding, as
shown in the figure of 4 point starter below.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release electromagnet'
D gets activated, which short-circuits electromagnet E and, hence, releases the lever and the
motor is turned off.

4 Point Starter

The main difference between a 3 point

starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil (electromagnet E) is not connected in
series with the field coil. The field winding gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever
moves touching the brass arc (the arc below the resistance studs). The no voltage coil (or Hold-
on coil) is connected with a current limiting resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any
change of current in the shunt field does not affect the current through hold-on coil at all. This
means, electromagnetic pull of the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does
not unnecessarily restore the lever to the off position. A 4 point starter is used where field
current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat for the purpose of operating the motor
above rated speed by reducing the field current.
DC Series Motor Starter

Construction of DC series motor starters is

very basic as shown in the figure. The start arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor.
Thus, maximum resistance is connected in series with the armature during starting and then
gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This starter is sometimes also called
as a 2 point starter.

Motor Efficiency
Motors are defined by levels of efficiency per kW rating and the number of poles. The efficiency is
expressed at both full load and 3/4 load and labels must appear on the motor.

Motors included in the scheme are defined as totally enclosed fan ventilated (normally IP 54 or IP 55),
three phase AC, squirrel cage [[induction motor induction motors]] in the range of 1.1 to 90 kW, rated for
400 V, 50 Hz, S1 duty class standard design.

Efficiency values
For motors designed 380 to 400 V with efficiency values based on 400 V.

2 pole motor specified efficiencies (%) 4 pole motor specified efficiencies (%)

kW EFF1 EFF2 EFF3 kW EFF1 EFF2 EFF3

1.1 >= 82.8 >= 76.2 < 76.2 >= 1.1 83.8 >= 76.2 < 76.2

1.5 >= 84.1 >= 78.5 < 78.5 >= 1.5 85 >= 78.5 < 78.5

2.2 >= 85.6 >= 81 < 81 >= 2.2 86.4 >= 81 < 81

3 >= 86.7 >= 82.6 < 82.6 >= 3 87.4 >= 82.6 < 82.6

4 >= 87.6 >= 84.2 < 84.2 >= 4 88.3 >= 84.2 < 84.2

5.5 >= 88.6 >= 85.7 < 85.7 >= 5.5 89.2 >= 85.7 < 85.7

7.5 >= 89.5 >= 87 < 87 >= 7.5 90.1 >= 87 < 87

11 >= 90.5 >= 88.4 < 88.4 >= 11 91 >= 88.4 <8 8.4

15 >= 91.3 >= 89.4 < 89.4 >= 15 91.8 >= 89.4 < 89.4

18.5 >= 91.8 >= 90 < 90 >= 18.5 92.2 >= 90 < 90

22 >= 92.2 >= 90.5 < 90.5 >= 22 92.6 >= 90.5 < 90.5

30 >= 92.9 >= 91.4 < 91.4 >= 30 93.2 >= 91.4 < 91.4

37 >= 93.3 >= 92 < 92 >= 37 93.6 >= 92 < 92

45 >= 93.7 >= 92.5 < 92.5 >= 45 93.9 >= 92.5 < 92.5

55 >= 94 >= 93 < 93 >= 55 94.2 >= 93 < 93

75 >= 94.6 >= 93.6 < 93.6 >= 75 94.7 >= 93.6 < 93.6

90 >= 95 >= 93.9 < 93.9 >= 90 95 >=9 3.9 < 93.9

IEC 60034 Efficiency Limits

IEC 60034 Efficiency LimitsIEC 60034-30 defines three efficiency classes for of single speed, three phase,
cage induction motors.
IE1 - Standard efficiency (efficiency levels roughly equivalent to EFF2)

IE2 - High efficiency (efficiency levels roughly equivalent to EFF1, identical to EPAct in USA)

IE3 - Premium efficiency (identical to "NEMA

Premium" in the USA)
IEC 60034-30 covers almost all motors, with the notable exceptions of motors made solely for converter
operation and motors completely integrated into a machine (and which cannot be tested separately) .

IEC 60034 Efficiency Limits

Efficiency limit values IEC 60034-30; 2008

Output IE1 - Standard Efficiency IE2 - High Efficiency IE3 - Premium Efficiency
kw
2 pole 4 pole 6 pole 2 pole 4 pole 6 pole 2 pole 4 pole 6 pole

0.75 72.1 72.1 70.0 77.4 79.6 75.9 80.7 82.5 78.9

1.1 75.0 75.0 72.9 79.6 81.4 78.1 82.7 84.1 81.0

1.5 77.2 77.2 75.2 81.3 82.8 79.8 84.2 85.3 82.5

2.2 79.7 79.7 77.7 83.2 84.3 81.8 85.9 86.7 84.3

3 81.5 81.5 79.7 84.6 85.5 83.3 87.1 87.7 85.6

4 83.1 83.1 81.4 85.8 86.6 84.6 88.1 88.6 86.8

5.5 84.7 84.7 83.1 87.0 87.7 86.0 89.2 89.6 88.0

7.5 86.0 86.0 84.7 88.1 88.7 87.2 90.1 90.4 89.1
11 87.6 87.6 86.4 89.4 89.8 88.7 91.2 91.4 90.3

15 88.7 88.7 87.7 90.3 90.6 89.7 91.9 92.1 91.2

18.5 89.3 89.3 88.6 90.9 91.2 90.4 92.4 92.6 91.7

22 89.9 89.9 89.2 91.3 91.6 90.9 92.7 93.0 92.2

30 90.7 90.7 90.2 92.0 92.3 91.7 93.3 93.6 92.9

37 91.2 91.2 90.8 92.5 92.7 92.2 93.7 93.9 93.3

45 91.7 91.7 91.4 92.9 93.1 92.7 94.0 94.2 93.7

55 92.1 92.1 91.9 93.2 93.5 93.1 94.3 94.6 94.1

75 92.7 92.7 92.6 93.8 94.0 93.7 94.7 95.0 94.6

90 93.0 93.0 92.9 94.1 94.2 94.0 95.0 95.2 94.9

110 93.3 93.3 93.3 94.3 94.5 94.3 95.2 95.4 95.1

132 93.5 93.5 93.5 94.6 94.7 94.6 95.4 95.6 95.4

160 93.7 93.8 93.8 94.8 94.9 94.8 95.6 95.8 95.6

200 94.0 94.0 94.0 95.0 95.1 95.0 95.8 96.0 95.8

250 94.0 94.0 94.0 95.0 95.1 95.0 95.8 96.0 95.8

315 94.0 94.0 94.0 95.0 95.1 95.0 95.8 96.0 95.8

355 94.0 94.0 94.0 95.0 95.1 95.0 95.8 96.0 95.8

375 94.0 94.0 94.0 95.0 95.1 95.0 95.8 96.0 95.8

Motor Insulation
Three classes of insulation are in common use (with 'F' being the most common):

 class B - with a maximum operating temperature of 130 oC

 class F - with a maximum operating temperature of 155 oC
 class H - with a maximum operating temperature of 180 oC
The image (which is form an ABB catalogue for their low voltage performance motors), shows how
temperature rise is distributed across the insulation.

Typically motors are designed for a maximum ambient temperature of 40 oC.

The difference between the average winding temperature and any hot spot is limited and it is usual to
allow a 10 oC margin for class 'B' and 'F' insulation and a 15 oC margin for class 'H'.
Considering the ambient temperature and hot spot allowance gives the maximum temperature rise within
which the motor must be designed to operate (105 oC for class 'F' for example).
When specifying (buying) a motor there are a couple of options. An insulation class could be specified
and the motor specified as designed to run within that class. Alternatively the motor could be specified for
an insulation class, but be design to run at a low class (for example insulation class 'F', temperature rise
'B').