Introduction to

Physical
Oceanography

GEORGE L. MELLOR
Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey

AlP
ffi.~ Springer
 Contents
Preface
]x

Acknowledgments
xiii
Chapter 1 THE OCEANS

1.1 Geography 1
1.2 Ocean Properties
3
1.3 Climate and the Oceans 8
Image 011 ('O\'er: 1.4 Socio-Economic Importance of the Oceans 11
The Gulf Stream is abollt 27" C (-80" F) in this sea surface tcmperture image of the Western North
Atlantic during the first week of JUlle 1984, This image is based on data from NOAA-7 Advanced Chapter 2 BASIC EQUATIONS
Very High Resolution Radiometer (AYHRR) infrared observations, analyzed at the Rosellstiel 14
School's Remote Sensing laboratory. Wanner hues denote warmer tempcralUres.
2.1 Spherical Earth and the ~ - Plane 14
Reprinted with permission by O. Brown, R. Evans, and M. Carle, University of Miama Rosensticl 2.2 Continuity (or Conservation of Mass) Equation 16
School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, Florida. 2.3 Lagrangian Derivatives and Eulerian Derivatives 19
2.4 Momentum Equation 21
2.5 Heat and Salt Transport Equations 25
2.6 Constitutive Relations 26
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 2.7 Turbulence
Mellor, G. L
28
2.8 Approximations and Simplifications of the Equations
Introduction to physical oceanography I George L Mellor.
of Motion
p. Cill. 29
Includes bibliographical rcference~ and index. 2.9 Fluid Statics
34
ISBN 1-56396-210-1 (pbk.)
I. Oceanography. I. Title. Chapter 3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT THE
GCI50.5.M45 1996 96-8478 AIR·SEA INTERFACE
551.46-dc20 CIP 41
3.1 Solar Radiation
41
Printed on acid-free paper. 3.2 Air-Sea Heat Balance 43
3.3 Salinity Balance 48
3.4 Momentum Balance
[) 1996 Springer-Verlag New York. Inc. 50
All rights reserved. This work Illay not be translated or copied in \vhole or in part without the
written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, lnc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New Chapter 4 GEOSTROPHIC FLOW
55
York. NY 10010, USA). except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly
analy.~is. U~e in cOllnection with any form or information stornge and retrieval, electronic
4.1 Geostrophic Balance
adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter 55
4.2 Them]al Wind Equations
developed is forbidden. 57
The usc of general descriptive nallle~. trade names. trademarks. etc., in thi~ publication. C\'en if 4.3 Sverdrup's Relation
58
the former arc not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that sllch na1l1e~. as understood 4.4 Barotropic Flow
by the Trade Marks and Merch,1ndi~e Marb Act, Illay nccordingly be used freely by' anyone.
59
Chapter 5 PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYERS
Printed and bound by United Book Press. Inc., Baltimore. MD. 65
Printed in the United States or America.
5.1 Basic Boundary Layer Equations 65
98765432 5.2 Atmospheric BoundalY Layer 67
5.3 Ocean SUiface Boundary Layer 70
ISBN 1-56396-210- I Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidel berg SPIN 10652605

v
vi Contents Contents vii

5.4 Ocean Bottom Boundary Layer 72 Chapter II ASTRONOMICAL TIDES 196

5.5 Matching Atmospheric and Ocean Boundary Layers 72
5.6 Ekman Transport 75 11.1 Combined Gravitational and Centrifugal Force
5.7 Wind-Mixed Layer and the Thermocline 76 Potential 196
5.8 Seasonal Variations of the Thermocline 80 11.2 Equilibrium Tide 200
11.3 Tidal Observations and Analyses 206
Chapter 6 BAROTROPIC OCEAN CIRCULATION 84

6.1 Ekman Pumping 84 Chapter 12 VORTICITY 213

6.2 Ii. Flat Bottomed Ocean Basin with a Simple Zonal
Wind Stress 89 12.1 Vorticity, a Definition 213
6.3 Western Boundary Current 94 12.2 Vector Conventions, Identities and Theorems 214
6.4 Vertical Flow Structure of the Flat-Bottomed Basin 102 12.3 Velocity Obtained from Vorticity 216
12.4 Vorticity Transport for a Frictionless Fluid 219
Chapter 7 BAROCLINIC OCEANIC FLOWS 109 12.5 Approximations 220

7.1 Pressure Gradients 109 Appendices 227

7.2 Density, Salinity, Temperature Relations III
7.3 Geostrophic Velocities from Temperature and Appendix A: Alternate Derivation of the Lagrangian-
Salinity Fields 118 Eulerian Relation 227
7.4 Geostrophic Structures 125 Appendix B: Derivation of the Absolute Acceleration in a
Rotating Coordinate System 229
Chapter 8 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF A Appendix C: Perturbation Analysis of the Surface Wave
BAROCLINIC OCEAN WITH BOTTOM Equations 234
TOPOGRAPHY 136 Appendix D: The Method of Matched Asymptotic Expansions
Applied to a Barotropic Ocean 238
8.1 Governing Equations for Arbitrary Wind Stress, Appendix E: Dimensions, Conversion Factors, and Property
Density and Bottom Topography 136 Values 244
8.2 Flat Bottomed Ocean 140
8.3 Variable Boltom Topography 142 References 247
8.4 Primitive Equation, Numerical Ocean Models 144
Recommended Books 253
Chapter 9 SURFACE GRAVITY WAVES 147
Index 255
9.1 Ocean Surface Waves 147
9.2 Wind Driven Waves 160
9.3 Shallow Water Flow Directly Approximated from
the Equations of Motion 161
9.4 Realistic Basins and Tides 173

Chapter 10 INERTIAL MOTIONS 179

10.1 Non-Wavelike, Oscillatory Motion 179

10.2 Unsteady, Ocean Surface Boundary Layers 180
10.3 Poincare Waves 183
10.4 Kelvin Waves 187
10.5 Geostrophic Adjustment 193
 Preface
This book began as a set of notes for a course I taught in Introductory
Physical Oceanography. The book is mathematical in the sense that partial
derivatives are llsed as a medium of communication. Otherwise, it is an
introductory text. The book would profit from more descriptive text (I have often
recommended that students buy one of the many excellent oceanography "picture
books" which contain satellite photographs, charts and other useful information),
and greater inclusion of observational data would be beneficiaL But then the book
would be long and require more time than I have to expend. The course has been
taught to some junior undergraduate students but mostly to seniors in physics and
engineering and first~year graduate students from Princeton's Program in
Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. For some students, Chapter 2 may be difficult
and instmctors may need to expand on that chapter. The graduate students have had
widely varying backgrounds; rarely had they had a course in Physical
Oceanography. They were all equipped with mathematics of varying degree, and
some had taken engineering fluid dynamics courses. After my course and a similar
one in Meteorology, they went on to more advanced courses and have books by
Adrian Gill and Joe Pedlosky on their shelves.

An attempt has been made to keep the main text free of ponderous
derivation; that is, I wished to make it an oceanography text, not a fundamental
fluid dynamics text. Nevertheless, the reader will find numerous Appendices which
somewhat assuage my conscience for resorting to analytical shortcuts in the main
text. An example arc Appendices on the relationship between Lagrangian and
Eulerian variables and on the Corio/is acceleration. Another example is the
Appendix on the Method of Matched Assymptotic Expansions as applied to the
Gulf Stream; I wanted its inclusion because the method is the modern and
systematic way of looking at bOllnd(uy layer problems and the Gulf Stream and the
other western boundary currents are certainly dramatic boundary layers. The
Appendices may be of interest to the inquiring student.

My conscience dictates that one should stan with the basic equations of
motion in integral form. These are more general than their differential counterparts

IX
x Preface
and I have found that recourse to the integral equations are often the way to the
solution of knotty conceptual or analytical difficulties. However, in order to get
directly to oceanography, a full treatment of the integral (material and control
volume) equations is missing; a new Appendix summarizing the integral equations
may be in a future edition.
The book stops short of delving into internal waves and planetary Rossby
waves. Sometimes, under favorable conditions, I have included these subjects at the
end of the course, but at Princeton, they are generally handled in the next, more
advanced courses. Some instructors might object to the postponement of a
relatively complete treatment of vorticity to the end of the book (although vorticity
is brought into discussion in earlier chapters, somewhat piecemeal). This is a
pedagogical thing. I believe that beginning students need to deal with velocity and
pressure, and get a conceptual feel for these properties before (mathematically)
eliminating pressure in favor of vorticity. Nevertheless, depending on the class
makeup, there is nothing wrong with an instructor dictating that Chapter 12 be
attacked earlier in the game. Conversely, the book is constructed so that chapters
can be deleted from the course content in favor of other topics. For example, my
colleague, Jorge Sarmiento, when he teaches the course, adds material on
geochemistry and ocean tracers and eliminates wave and tidal theory.
People who know me also know that I have an interest in turbulence
transport processes and they may be disappointed that there are only qualitative but,
I hope, honest references to turbulence. The subject is important, but I did not want
to inflict this on senior and first-year graduate students. If I later add a chapter on
the subject of turbulence, it may do no harm and may be useful to relatively
advanced scientists and aspiring oceanographers. Some people will also know that
I do numerical ocean modeling, a field which is an offshoot of atmospheric
modeling. Although this book is not about numerical modeling, readers will
discern that it is in the back of my"mind since the equations of motion and their
boundary conditions are laid down in Chapters 2 and 3 as if one were poised to set
up a numerical model. In a sense the book is a bit of a fraud, since we never do just
solve the equations straight out - a feat which does require a numerical model- but
just gnaw away at the problem bit by bit without, I hope, losing sight of the fact that
Preface xi
all of our results derive from a small set of equations. Thus, the book provides
background information primarily to develop understanding of physical
oceanographic processes and secondarily for modeling in case some readers have a
propensity for that artful vocation.
Some problems are made available at the end of each chapter. I believe the
students like doing the problems, but they often need help in finding the solutions
in the most direct way.
Research in atmospheres and oceans using numerical models is the
province of The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA)
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, a government laboratory which has
afforded me computer resources but, more importantly, scientific contacts and
people contacts that have greatly enhanced my professional and personal life at
Princeton University. I am also indebted to students, staff scientists and faculty
colleagues of Princeton's Program in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences for much
of my education in the field of physical oceanography. I note here that Dr. Joseph
Smagorinky is partly responsible for my transition - from another interesting
career path - to the field of oceanography; I am grateful for this and for knowing
Joe, a great scientist, administrator and a straight shooter.
I have enjoyed writing the original notes. Finishing the book entailed quite a
bit of nitty gritty work. Never mind. Whatever proceeds derive from the book's sale
will be invested in a sailboat in which Ginny Mellor, friends and I will cruise over
the waters of the ocean. Even if we do not sail far from the east coast of the U.S.,
we will know that the same waters will have inhabited the Mediterranean, the
Baltic, the Indian Ocean, etc., etc., etc.
George Mellor
Princeton, New Jersey
 Chapter 1
The Oceans
This book focllses on the physical oceanography of the earth's oceans and
smaller water bodies and neglects their chemistry, biology and geology. The
reason is partly pedagogical; both students and teachers understand the need to
limit studies of earth - or any other intellectual discipline - to bite-sized morsels.

It is readily recognized that the oceans are connected to the atmosphere at

the air-sea interface and to the land through rivers and estuaries. Moreover, the
land masses and ocean basins are the results of dynamic geologic processes with
associated time scales of hundreds of millions of years and involve the entire solid
sphere, not just its surface. Physical Oceanography is, therefore, a discipline
closely allied with Meteorology and Geology. Also related is Hydrology, a cross-
discipline devoted to the change of phase and transport of water, an essential
ingredient of atmospheric and oceanic weather and climate and an essential
ingredient of life on this planet.

1.1 GEOGRAPHY

A mercator projection of the earth is displayed in Figure I-I and polar

projections are seen in Figure 1-2. One has to resort to various projections to
translate information concerning a spherical earth to a two-dimensional, flat page.
To define location on the surface of the earth, one conventionally refers to
latitudinal position in the northern hemisphere, for example, as ¢ = 45°N
whereas, in the sOllthern hemisphere, ¢ = 45°5. Also one refers to a point in the
eastern hemisphere, for example, as A. = 90 0 E whereas, in the western hemisphere
A. = 90 W. The meridian, A. = 0°, passes through Greenwhich, England and the
0

meridian, A. = 180 0
E = 180 0 W, is the international date line. The earth's surface is
comprised of the continents: Eurasia, Africa, North and South America,
Antarctica, Greenland and Australia and the oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the

I
i",
2 Chapter 1
Figure 1-1. A Mercador projection of the earth's surface. It is distorted in the sense that
the graphical distance corresponding to an incremental degree of longitude is constant
instead of decreasing poleward as it does on the spherical earth. The graphical distance
between a degree of latitude is varied so that it is proportional to longitudinal distance
instead of being constant (1 degree of latitude = 60 nautical miles). From NCAR graphiCS
routines.
0
180 0 E 180 E
=180 Ow =180 Ow
Figure '-2. A polar projection of the earth's surlace out to 60 0 N and 600 S for the north
and south polar regions respectively. The 0 0 meridian intersects Greenwhich, England
whereas the 1800 meridian is the international date line. From NCAR graphics routines.
The Oceans 3
Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the mostly ice covered, Arctic Ocean. The
first three bodies of water are connected by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
which circles the ice-covered Antarctic continent and mixes waters of one ocean
with another. Interspersed among these giant, geologic entities are numerous
islands, seas, bays, lagoons, estuaries and rivers. In the northern hemisphere, 60%
of the earth's surface is covered by water; in the southern hemisphere, 80% is
covered by water.
Figure 1-3 depicts the major surface currents of the world ocean. This is
just a sketch. The magnitudes of the currents are not shown. Very approximate,
surface current streamlines are shown, those sensed by mariners of old and
verified by ships, current meters and hydrographic measurements of the more
modern genre. Aside from the Circumpolar Current, the more intense currents are
those on the western boundaries of the various ocean basins, Thus, in the North
Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf Stream is a much stronger current (maximum surface
velocities of about 2 m s·2) than the Canaries Current (maximum surface
velocities about 10 em s·2) and, in the North Pacific Ocean, the Kuroshio is much
stronger than the California Current. All of these currents are driven by density
gradients due to atmospherically driven surface fluxes of heat and salinity and by
surface wind stress (momentum flux); we shall learn more about these processes
in subsequent chapters.
1.2 OCEAN PROPERTIES
Figure 1-4 is a plot of surface temperature (OC) and surface salinity. The
units of the latter are in parts per thousand or, in virtually synonymous terms,
practical salinity units (psu). This is an annually averaged climatology by Levitus
and Boyer (1994) and Levitus et al. (1994) who compiled ship measurements
accumulated from 1905 to 1978 and performed analyses of some 4.6 million
temperature and salinity profile measurements throughout the world ocean.
Levitus' atlas also contains seasonal - spring, summer, fall, winter - averages of
temperature and salinity and other propelties such as oxygen and silicon.
4 Chapter 1 The Oceans 5

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I I Figure 1-4. Annually averaged surtace temperalures (upper panel) and salinities
z z (lower panel) of the World Ocean. The map has equal degree spacing for
2 ~ ~ longitude and latitude and, thus, longitude is distorted for the higher latiludes.
(after Levitus and Boyer, 1994).
6 Chapter I The Oceans 7

Figures 1-4 and 1-5 are latitude, depth plots of temperature and salinity,
averaged zonally, that is, averaged along circles of constant latitude. Also shown
LATITUDE
in Figure 1-6 are area averages of temperature and salinity as a function of depth
for the northern and southern hemispheres and for the globe.

From Figures 1-4 and 1-5 some simple conclusions can be drawn:

1. The surface temperatures decrease poleward in response to the decrease in

solar radiation flux from the equator to the poles.

2. The surface salinities also decrease poleward in response to a decrease in

evaporation from equator to poles. But notice the minimum zone just north of the
equator in Figure 1-4 (lower panel). There, one finds that the so-called

Temperature (0C) Salinity (psu)

o

LATITUDE 500

WOO
fl Globe

S. Her:n~:phere

N. Hemisphere
500

1000
500

WOO
:7
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SSOD 5500 5500

· 2 0 2 4 6 B 1012141818202224262830 34.034.234.4 34.6 34.8 35.0 35.2 35.4 35.6 35.8 36.0

Figure 1·5. Longitudinally (or zonally) averaged temperatures (upperpanels) Figure 1·6. The global, area averaged femperatures (left panel) and salinities (right
and salinities (lower panels) as a function of latitude and depfh. After Levltus et af panel). Mer Levitus and Boyer (1994) and Levitus et a/ (1994).
(1994).
 8 Chapter 1 The Oceans 9

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) provides an excess of precipitation over

evaporation. The excess precipitation is the result of rising air masses (the
equatorward portion of the atmospheric Hadley cell) and concomitant
condensation of atmospheric water vapor.

3. Bottom water temperatures are close to zero. Bottom water must therefore
be formed in the polar regions where temperatures are governed by the freezing
temperature of seawater, about -1.9 0 C. A detailed examination of Figure 1-5
indicates that deep waters are fonned near the edge of the Antarctic Continent;
intermediate waters derive from the Greenland Sea.

4. There is some mixing between warm surface water and cold bottom water.
However, this mixing must be very small in order that the bottom waters maintain
their near freezing temperatures. Estimates are that bottom waters require many 60W o 60E 120
hundreds of years to traverse the distance from their polar formation sites;
subsequently, they return to the surface in upwelling zones around the equator and Figure 1·7. The estimated net solar radiation input to the atmosphere, ocean and earth
elsewhere. system. After Campbell and Vonder Haar (1980). Units are W m -2.

5. Averaging properties in time or space, although useful for systematic

comprehension, tacitly obscures important temporal and spatial variability.

1,3 CLIMATE AND THE OCEANS 50 /

/

Some 400 million years ago, life emerged from the oceans which /
/
-50
continued to nuture human life over the last million years and now provides /
/

stability for climate and the hydrologic cycle. Figure 1-7 show estimates of the net -100 /
/
radiation energy input to the atmosphere-ocean system, the hydrosphere, whereas -150
/

Figure 1-8 gives the zonally averaged values. Since there is more heat input at the
equator than at the poles, the ocean and atmosphere must transport heat poleward.
This transport is shown in Figure 1-9 and is about evenly divided between the two
fluid masses. The atmosphere manages this transport with low heat capacity but
high velocities, the ocean with low velocities but high heat capacity.
Figure 1-8. The net, zonally averaged, radiational flux absorbed by the atmosphere and
the oceans . The dashed curve is the average flux for June, July and August. The thin
solid curve IS the average for December, January and February. The heavy curve is the
annual average and is also the zonal average of the values displayed in Figure 1-7. After
Campbell and Vander Haar (1980). Units are W m -2.

~...
'r(I'
10 Chapter 1 The Oceans 11

8
6
4
2
0
-2 ==!>
-4
-6
-8 80N
80S 60 40 20 o 20 40 60
Latitude
Figure 1-9. The estimated north-south heat transport due to the atmosphere and the Figure. 1-10. Global annual average of combined land-air and sea suriace temperature
oceans. About half of the transport is due to the oceans. After Campbell and Vander anomalies for each year from 1861 to 1993. Anomalies are the difference between the
year average and the average of the 1951-1980 base period. The continuous cUlve is the
Haar (1980). Unils are 10 15 W. result of a filter designed to suppress variations in time scales less than 10 years. Source:
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Reseach, UK. From NOAA Fifth Annual Climate
Assessment 1993 (1994).
Animal respiration consumes oxygen and creates carbon dioxide.
Through photosynthetic chemistry, plants reconvert the carbon dioxide to oxygen numerical models of the coupled ocean-atmosphere system. It is known that the
and carbon compounds; oceanic plants, phytoplankton, are major contributors to observed increase in C02 and the other greenhouse gases should produce
this fundamental biologic process. significant warming, all other factors remaining unchanged. But, the warming
signal, imbedded in naturally varying global temperatures, is weak; this could be
Global climate change is a current worldwide concern. A product of fossil ascribed to a compensating change in the atmospheric or oceanic circulation or
fuel combustion is increased carbon dioxide. Augmented by other gases of simply the oceanic heat capacity in action. Figure 1-10 demonstrates that the earth
anthropogenic origin, such as methane, these gases absorb outgoing long wave has warmed about I°C over the last one hundred years. In the early 1990s,
radiation and then emit back to the earth's surface; therefore, a higher surface however, there was some temporary cooling due to the Mt. Pinatubo eruption in
temperature is required to increase outgoing, long wave length radiation from the June, 1991 which injected aerosols into the upper atmosphere.
land and sea surfaces of the earth. This is the so-called greenhouse effect. The
net, outgoing long wave at the top of the atmosphere must balance the incoming, 1.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE OCEANS
short wave, solar radiation.
Aside from their important impact on climate, the oceans playa major role
The ocean is a major buffer in moderating seasonal and climate changes in in present day society and economics. More than half of the world's population
temperature. The heat capacity of the ocean is 104 times that of the atmosphere; live near the water's edge. The oceans and its estuaries supply means of
thus, the ocean cannot be ignored in climate studies. However, assessing the transportation for people and goods. About 90% of raw and manufactured
potential increase in global temperature is a task involving large and complex materials are transported over the ocean. This includes oil transportation which is
a benefit. But an oil spill also constitutes a significant hazard to coastal beaches
12 Chapter I The Oceans 13

and coastal biology. Much oil, of course, is derived from the bottom of the sea; PROBLEMS
the Gulf of Mexico, the Beaufort Sea and the North Sea are oil rich sites. Some
commercially useful minerals are also derived from the sea bottom and there is 1-1. Locate and identify the major oceans and continents in Figures 1-1 and
promise that sea bottom mining will accelerate when international agreements can 1-2,
be sorted out.
1-2, The so-called western boundary currents, where surface currents are of the
The world's fisheries have provided and are providing sustenance for order of 1-2 m s-I, are the Somali Current, Kuroshio Current, the Gulf Stream, the
humans. This rich resource is, however, under severe stress due to pollution and East Australian Current, the Brazil Current and the Agulhas Current. Locate these
overfishing. Biochemical dynamics and properties such as oxygen and carbon currents on Figure 1-3.
dioxide in the ocean are dependent on oceanic physical properties, temperature,
salinity and currents. 1-3, Speculate on the role of the Gulf Stream in the climate of Europe.

The oceans have been a disposal site for some of man's waste products
and, in this sense, are an economic asset. There is, of course, possible
environmental danger here, a fact which prompts politicians to declare "no ocean
dumping". However, there is a difference between dumping New York City
sludge in 50 to 100 m continental shelf water and dumping in the 5000 m abyssal
ocean. Further scientific study should reveal the extent to which ocean disposal
can be counted as a resource without serious environmental damage.
The oceans and the margins of the oceans provide important recreational
resources. Beaches are a luxury but are under the control of atmospheric and
oceanic weather. Beaches accrete sand and dunes due to wave action and wind
during calm conditions but can be eroded and sometimes destroyed during storms,
Recreational boating and fishing are enjoyed by many but also involve hazards
mitigated somewhat by Coast Guard safety regulations and search and rescue
methodology; knowledge of the surface currents is helpful in devising search
patterns.
1.. 4. a) In the northern hemisphere, why is it warmer in summer than in
winter?
b) The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and the Arctic and Antarctic
Circles are located in Figure 1-3. Describe the significance of these particular
latitudinal circles.
1-5, The deepest waters of the ocean are said to be derived from near surface
waters around Antarctica. Where do you see evidence of this in Chapter I?
1-6, If you already know some spherical geometry and some physics, see if you
can derive a mathematical relationship between the quantities plotted in Figures
1-8 and those in 1-9.

These are all good reasons to study physical oceanography. Another

reason is that it is fun to do so.
 Basic Equations 15

n
Chapter 2

Basic Equations
Figure 2·1 . Spherical coordinate system.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the equations of fluid dynamics. A point in space is specified by its radius, (,
Most of the od:'r equations and calculated results in thi s book will be derived from latitude ~,and longitude, J. .
these basic equations. Here, the equations will be derived rather intuitively.
Somewhat more rigorous derivations are provided in Appendices A and B.

2.1 SPHERICAL EARTH AND THE f3 - PLANE

coordinate system such that x is th e eastward coordinate; y is the northward
To obtain an accurate description of geophysical processes, equations should coordinate and z is the vertical coordinate. We denote the component of 211 (the
be written in sphe rical coordinates. Thus, as illustrated in Figure 2-1, the position of reason for including the factor, 2, will become clear later) nomlal to the earth's
a point is detemlined by specifying the radial distance from the earth's center, r, surface as I, = 2il sinl/). Iy will be the compo nent of 211 parallel to the earth's
latitude, 1/), and longitude, A.. Mathematically, the values of I/) range from -1< /2 su rface so that /y = 2il cosl/). The compone nt of 211 in the x-direction is zero.
(south pole) to 1< /2 (north pole) whereas the va lues of A. ran ge from - 1< to 1<. Later in this chapter, we will find that, for large scale processes,fy is not important
However one conventio nally refers to a mid-latitude point in the northern and we therefore simplify notation such thatl, " f.
hemi sp here, for example, as I/) = 45°N whereas, in the so uthern hemisphere, I/)
=45°S. Also one refers to a point in th e easte rn hemisp he re, for example, as A.
/ =/,
= 90 0
E whereas, in the western hemi sp here, A. = 90 0
W, The meridian, A. = 0°,
passes throu gh Greenwhich, England and the meridian, A. = 180 0 E = 180 0 W, is the
international date line. The earth's rotational vector, n, is aligned with the axis
,
through the poles (I/) =90 0 0
N, 90 S); its approx imate magnitude is il = 21<day-1 = ,
0.7272 x 10.4 so t, A Illore exact value which accou nts for the earth's yearly rotation
aro und the Still is 0,7292 x 10- 4 so t (see sec tion I 1.2); thu s, the first, easily
remembered approximation is a good one. '---------!----'--~ <P
<Po 11/2
(a)
Discussion of physical processes is simplified if one uses rectangular (b)
coordinates. Results will be qualitatively correct but quantitatively more or less
approximate depending on th e scale of the problem, Later, all concep ts and results Figure 2-2 (a ). IlIuSlralion of the /l-plane ap proxima tion where a local rectangular
coordinate is used in place of the more exact spherical coordinate system.
ca n be recast in sp herical coordinates to restore accuracy, As ske tched in Figure (b). Comparison of the approximation,j =10 + /ly (dashed line) andl = Ul sin ~
2-2a, we define, relative to some referen ce point on th e earth's surface, an x,y,z (solid line) .

14

II
iii'
16 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 17

Near some reference latitude, ¢o, the north-south variation of I can be approximated
by ,, au
u L1y LIz --...,, -1-~ (u + ax L1x) L1yLlz
1=10 + {3y (2-1)
; .... ' .. '~ - ~ --
V
where 10 = 2.Q sin¢o and {3 = (alliJy)o = ret({}fla¢)~o= re - 1 2.Q cos¢o. The z
earth 's radi~s is r e = 6371 km. Figure 2-2b illustrates the nature of the
approximation which is called the "beta plane approximation". For example, if we
let ¢o = 45°, thenlo = 1.03 x lOA s·1 and {3 = 1.61 x 10. 11 m- I s-I. Note that a {3-
plane model of an ocean, either analytical or numerical, if referenced to 450, would
provide a good approximation to I and alliJy at mid-latitudes, a poorer Figure 2-3. Schematic illustration of flow through the faces of a cube which are
approximation at the equator and would be unacceptable at the poles where {}fliJy normal to the x-axis.

= O.

2.2 CONTINUITY (OR CONSERVATION OF MASS) EQUATION Vector Notalion

We define
For oceans, and for some atmospheric problems, it is possible to assume
V =iu+jv+kw (2-3a)
(see Problem 2-6) constant fluid density insofar as it affects the mass flow balance.
and
This is the f!.D;~rt of the so-called Boussinesq approximati~n.' Consider a cubic
volume in space and let (u, v, w) = (eastward, northward, upward) velocity n
Y
• a .a
='-+J-+k-
a (2-3b)
components. Then, the net volume outflow through the x + LIx and x faces of the ax ay az
cube, as sketched in Figure 2-3 , is
where i, j, k are constant unit vectors in the x, y, z directions. Then use the
definition of a scalar or dot product

A'B=ABcos& (2-4)
Similarly, through the y and z faces we obtain «MiJy) L1xLlyLlz and (iJwllJz) L1xLlyLlz
respectively. Therefore, the net outflow through all six faces is where & is the included angle between the vectors A and B and A and B are the
vector magnitudes. Since, according to (2-4), i· i = I, i . j = 0, etc. and using the
au av aw)
( - + - + - L'..xl'>yM
definitions (2-3a, b), equation (2-2) may also be written as
ax ay az
and must be zero since, for constant density, the mass stored in the elemental v 'V " 0 (2-5)
volume, LI xLI yLl z, does not change. Therefore, we obtain
A useful integral form of (2-5) may be obtained with the help of Gauss' theorem
au dv dw (see Problem 2-13), otherwise known as the divergence theorem, which is
- + - + - =0 (2-2)
ax iJy az
 18 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 19

v Figure 2·4. Schematic of the flow
through the elemental area, dA, of
a control volume. n is defined as a
unit vector normal to the elemental
area and V • n is the flow velo0Hy
component normal to the
elemental area.
This simple expression states that the product of the flow area, A, and the velocity,
V, normal to the flow area is a constant along a stream tube. The constant, Q " A V,
is called the volumetric flow rate. The units of Q are length 3 time· 1. For example,
we will learn in Chapters 6 and 8 that the flow of the Gulf Stream is about 60 x
106 m 3 s·l. For comparison, the average flows in the Amazon and Mississippi
Rivers are 0.176 x 106 m3 s-l and 0.024 x 106 m 3 s-l respectively. The flow from
a typical kitchen faucet is about 10-3 m 3 s-l.

HJ V -V dV = #V' ndA where n is the unit vector no~al to the eirmental surface
area, dA, as interpreted in Figure 2-4. Thus the volume lI1tegral of (2-5) may be
written
(2-6)
This states that the component of V nonnal to each elemental area, when integrated
over the entire (denoted by the circle overlaying the double integral symbol) surface
of a control volume is zero. One can apply (2-6) to a rather special control volume,
called a stream tube. As sketched in Figure 2-5, the sides of the tube are, by
definition, everywhere tangent to the velocity vectors so that V • n = O. But on the
ends of the tube, by definition, Vl'n = - Vt and V2'n = V2. Therefore, equation (2-
6) may be interpreted as
2,3 LAGRANGIAN DERIVATIVES AND EULERIAN
DERIVATIVES
The Lagrangian derivative or, as it is sometimes called, the material
derivative, DPiDt, represents the time rate of change of a property, P, of a particle
(a small piece of fluid) of fixed identity and is illustrated in Figure 2-6. Thus, for
example, DTiDt = 0 is a statement that the temperature of a particle does not
change. DViDt = Flm states that the rate of change of the velocity of a particle is
equal to the force on the particle divided by the particle mass. It is somewhat
strange, but convention dictates, that the capital letter, "D", be an operator signifying
z

x
Figure 2·6. The trajectory of a particle. The
nomenclafure, oP/or, is the rate of change of a
property, P, of the particle.

Figure 2.5. A stream tube, a special control volume which yi~ldS a sim~le expression
of continuity. The sides are everywhere tangent t.o the veloclfy vector, the ends are
normal to the velocity vector. The sketch shows Cltcular ends, but the cross-sectional
area can have an arbitrary shape.
20 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 21

the nature of the variable on which it operates; that is, when we write DPlDt, we
signify that P is a function of time and particle identity where the latter is held fixed. y
On the other hand, in Fluid Dynamics, analysis is generally easier in tenns of field
or Eulerian properties, P(x,y,z,t). For example T(x,y,z,t) represents the temperature
of a particle instantaneously occupying a position, (x,y,z), at some time, t. If the
flow is "steady flow" then all particles occupying the position (x,y,z) will have the
same tempe-rature at all times; then, the function, T, does not depend on time; a way
of making the latter statement is to write T(x,y,z,t) ~ T(x,y,z). One can create steady
temperature fields by averaging transient temperature fields over a long time span.
~-------------+X
Figure 1-4 is an example.
Figure 2-7. Illustration of the relationship between the Lagrangian rate of change of
a fluid property and the Eulerian field description of the rate of change. The curved
A relationship between DPlDt, where P is taken to be a function of time lines represent contours of constant P (x,y).
and particle identity, and advective and tendency derivatives of P, where P ~

P(x,y,z,t) is
There are situations where the flow is or may be approximated as a steady
DP ap ap ap ap flow and where ap / at =O. On the other hand, studies of free surface waves, as in
=u-+v-+w--+ Chapter 9, intrinsically require inclusion of the tendency term.
Dt
............... ,
ax ()y az , at
~

Lagrangian advective tendency (2-7)

derivative derivative 2.4 MOMENTUM EQUATION

We explain (2-7) intuitively whereas a more mathematical derivation will be found Newton's Second Law of Motion, or simply, the momentum equation is an
in Appendix A. Thus, consider a steady, two-dimensional, Eulerian field, P(x,y), in equation which balances forces and accelerations. The detennination of the net
Figure 2-7; the contours of constant P will not change in time. Assume also that v pressure force and the viscous force on an elemental fluid cube is illustrated in
= 0 but u ;" O. The change in P of a particle traversing a distance, Llx = udt, is dP Figure 2-8. The net force due to pressure in the x-direction is
'" (a P/iJx)u dt. Or, dividing by dt and letting d t --7 0, we can write
ap
- -&~yM
DP ap ax
-~u-

Dt ax
whereas the net force due to viscous (or turbulent) stresses is
For v ;" 0 and w ;" 0, the two additional advective terms in equation (2-7) are
required. Now, if the field is unsteady; that is, if the contours of constant P in
Figure 2-7 have changed in the time interval, dt, then we have lap/at) dt as an
additional contribution to dP. Thus, the tendency term is included in (2-7) to
account for unsteady field effects. The first subscript on the stress symbol, ~, denotes the coordinate normal to the
face of the cube on which the stress acts. The second subscript denotes the direction
of the stress.
 Chapter 2
Basic Equations 23
22

where, as defined earlier, / = 2Q sin I/J and /y = 2Q cos I/J. The unprimed
pAxLlz (p + ~ Ax) AxLly velocity components, (u,v,w), and the unprimed operator, D( )lDt, are measured in
the relative (eanh fixed) coordinate system.

In Appendix B, one will find a full derivation of the CarioUs acceleration

z vector. For the present let us consider why the additional terms appear for the
simple case, = 0, u = 0, v;"O and I/J = 90° (near the poles). For this case, DulDt
W

Figure 2-8. The x-component 01 Ihe nel lorce on a Iluid cube due to pressure
stresses (upper left diagram) and viscous slresses (lower right diagram). For clarity,
viscous stresses on the faces normal to the y- coordinate are not shown.
= 0, but we now show that D'u'lDt = -Jv = - 2Q v. In Figure 2-9, it will be seen
that a particle velocity, v, causes a change in radial position, vLlt, of the particle and
therefore a change in tangential velocity, LI u' = - Q (y + vLl t.) + Q y = - Q vLl t.
Additionally, there will be a contribution to LI u' by virtue of the change in direction
of the relative velocity vector, v, as observed in absolute space; in Figure 2-9, a little
geometry indicates that this contribution is Llu' = - v LI 0 = - vQLlt. Thus, we

According to Newton's Second Law, the pressure and the viscous stresses have Llu'j LIt = - 2Q v = - /v as the CarioUs term for this simplified case. All

can be equated to the product of mass and acceleration in the x-direction which is other contributions can be explained - somewhat laboriously - in similar fashion.
Here we will merely list the results derived in Appendix B for the x, y and z -
D'u' components of the momentum equation
Po/',x~yM-­
Dt
DU ) a'P a~ a~ a~
where Po is the density (mass per volume) which, in oceanic applications, may be Po ( - - Jv+ / w = __ +-M.+~+-----1£ (2-8a)
Dt y ax ax Jy az
taken as a constant; this is the second part of the Boussinesq appr~tio.!!.
Equating force and acceleration terms we obtain
Po (
DV fi) _ap a~xy a~yy arzy
+ u ---+--+--+-- (2-8b)
Dt Jy ax Jy az
D' u' ap a~xx a~yx a~zx
P --=--+--+--+--
o Dt ax ax Jy az DW ) _ a'P a~ a~ a~
Po ( - - / u = P g,,- + -----E + -.E. +-----12 (2-8c)
Dt y az ax ay az
The primes on the velocity, u', and the operator, D'( )lDt, mean that these must be
observed in an "absolute" coordinate system fixed in the stars. If we wish to
In (2-8c) we have included the gravity body force implying that the z - coordinate is
observe velocity and the rate of change of velocity in the "relative" coordinate
parallel to the gravity vector; that is, g = (0,0, -g). The relative acceleration terms
system fixed in the earth, we must add the so-called CarioUs acceleration temlS to
may, according to (2-7), be written in tenns of Eulerian velocity functions as,
the relative acceleration, DulDt, to obtain the absolute acceleration,
Du au au au au
-=u-+v-+w-+- (2-9a)
D'u' Du Dt ax Jy az at
--=--/v+/ w
Dt Dt '
 f
1'1'

24 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 25

op / OZ = -pg where g = 9.8067 m s-2. If p = constant = Po, this hydrostatic

equation can be easily integrated to give p(x,y,z,t) = C(x,y,t) - Pogz; C must be
-fly -+ determined as a boundary condition on pressure. Flows where p = constant are
called barotropic flows.! Flows where p ¢ constant are called baroclinic flows.
The latter generally prevail in the Ocean although, for a systematic development of
understanding, we will, in the first part of this book, freely assume barotropicity.
Chapter 7 will begin the exploration of flows with variable density.

y' y' 2,5 HEAT AND SALT TRANSPORT EQUATIONS

Lx' Lx'
Figure 2·9 Kinematics of a rotating system for the special case where th~ .relative
Consider the heat transport Out of an elemental cube. If qx represents the
"flux" of heat such that qx LlyLlz is the heat transfer across a Lly LIz area element in
velocities u' = w = 0 but where v ~ O. The solid arrows are lhe relative velocities of a the x'plane, then (a qx la xLI x)LI yLl z is the net heat transfer across the x and
article as observed in the relative coordinate system, (x, y). The dash~d arrows are
rhe tangential velocities of rotation as observed In the absolute coordinate ~ys~emd x + LIx planes. Includin~ all six planes we obtain (a qx la x + a qy lay + a qzl a z)
(x',y). The left hand diagram shows the system at time, I: whereas the ng t an
diagram shows the system at 1+ L11. During the time Interval, 6/, the relative LI xLI yLl z as the net heat flow out of a L1xLlyLlz cube. This results in a negative
coordinate system has rotated through the angle, !lLlI, as observed In th? absolute rate of change of heat storage, Po Cp(De/Dt)LI xLI yLl z. Thus, we obtain
coordinate system and the particle has translated a distance,vLlI, In the y direction.
pC De =_(aq x + aqy + aqzJ
o P Dt ax ay az (2-10)
Dv dv dv dv dv
-=u-+v-+w-+- (2·9b)
Dt ax dy az at
where Cp is called the specific heat. For pure water, Cp = 1.0 cal gm-! K'! = 4186
Dw dw dw aw dw
(2·9c)
J kg-! K·!. e
is potential temperature. For the present, one can consider e to be
Dt =U ax +v dy +waz+ ar equivalent to the usual thermodynamic temperature, T; we will make a sharper
e
distinction between and T in Chapter 7.
Note that the density was approximated as a constant in deriving equation
(2·2). The density coefficients of the acceleration terms on the left of (2-8a,b,c) are
The transport of salt is governed by a similar equation. Thus,
also approximated as a constant. As previously noted, these approximations taken
collectively is the .Boussinesq approximation. However, the density coefficient of
(2-11 )
the gravity term in (2.8c) may not, in general, be taken as constant and, thus, it does
not have a subscript, o.
where S is the salinity measured in parts per thousand which is given the symbol,
It will later be seen that, in many situations, the terms in (2-8c) containing 0100. Thus, S = 35 0 100 represents a mixture of 35 grams of salt in I kilogram of
sea water·J~,jy,jz are the salinity fluxes.
velocity and viscous stress components are negligible compared to the vertical
pressure gradient and gravity term. Thus we obtain a hydrostatic balance, ~
1 A more general definition of a barotropic flow '$ a flow where densily is a unique function
of pressure.

l"
['4-1 [t-J
[t]
"
,
~llil A
2
('J lA,
dXil
-t dl
d><
26 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 27
.Nok: '(~ "j N'<\- tk
Note again that DelDt = uae/ax + vaeliJy + wa ela z + ae/Jt where e, 2au au av au aw
-+-
00..\r"~~
ax' iJy+ax' az ax Qul-- ~ "~o~f
on the right side, is an Eulerian function of space and time; a similar expression
au av
- + - 2 av av aw
may be written for S.
iJy ax' iJy' -+- (2-12)
az ay
au aw av aw aw ~ C~V\(k
2.6 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS -+- -+- 2
az ax' az iJy' az ~"" J"-ll
Consider, as in Figure 2-10, a fluid confined between infinite planes where Note that the stress matrix is a symmetric matrix. ~d
the lower plane is at rest and a stress is applied to the upper plane. It is found
experimentally (where an experimental approximation to "infinite planes" must be Heat flux is similarly related to gradients of temperature. Thus,
cleverly devised) that ~zx ~ Ulh or ~zx = J1(a ula z) where J1 is the viscosity. A Fourier's Law is
material which behaves in this way is called a Newtonian fluid. Other rheological
(2-13)
fluids can have much more complicated constitutive relations. Fortunately, most
commonly encountered fluids including air and water are, to very good
Similarly Fick's Law is
approximation, Newtonian.

The Navier-Stokes relations account for flows more general than the
special case shown in Figure 2-10. They can be derived assuming linearity
between the stress and rate of strain components and by assuming that the fluid is
isotropic (as opposed to a crystal, for example, whose properties are directionally
dependent). The result is
= _ D (as as aSJ (2-14)
sax, ()y, az
As previously noted, the densities in equations (2-8a,b,c) may be taken as
constant except where it is the coefficient of the gravity constant. Therefore it is
convenient to divide every term by the density; for the viscous terms the density
may be absorbed into the viscosity. Therefore, the molecular momentum transport
of sea water may be characterized by the kinematic viscosity,

v '= l!:. = 1. 8 x 10-6 m 2 s-1

Po
z
Similarly, the heat diffusivity is
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\

Figure 2-10. A fluid contained between horizontally inlinite plates. The lower plate is
stationary whereas the upper plates translates with a constant velocity. On the left, a and the salinity diffusivity is
constant shear stress distribution is shown whereas, on the right, a linear velocity
distribution is shown.
11'1
III
28 Chapter 2
Note that equations (2-12), (2-13) and (2-14) represent the effects of
intermolecular forces and molecular fluctuations averaged over space and time
scales larger than molecular scales. The fact that a» D, - it is much easier to
diffuse heat than salt in the ocean - is responsible for physical processes called
double diffusion and salt fingering.
2.7 TURBULENCE
Fluid flows are generally turbulent when the acceleration terms in the
equations of motion are much larger than the viscous terms. A criterion for this is
that the Reynolds number, uoLlv, be large; U o is some measure of the velocity; L is
a length scale and v is the kinematic viscosity. For example, in a pipe flow, the
flow is laminar if the Reynolds number, based on the pipe diameter and mean
velocity, is less than 2000 and turbulent if greater than 4000. Reynolds numbers
7 Kolmogorov length scale, is still much larger than molecular scales. Solutions to
associated with geophysical flows are generally very large, on the order of 10 , and
the flows are invariably turbulent.
Although strictly applicable to laminar flows, equations (2-12), (2-13) and
(2-14) are also used to characterize the turbulence transport of momentum and
scalar quantities like heat and salinity. Turbulent fluctuations, in most geophysical
flows, dominate laminar, molecular transport which are due to fluctuations of
molecules. The random velocities of turbulent motions are much smaller than that
of molecules but the lengths of turbulent excursions are much larger (in an
atmospheric surface boundary layer, turbulence length scales are typically 100 to
1000 m) than, say, the mean free path of the molecules of a gas (the mean free path
of air at standard pressure and temperature is about 6 x 10-6 cm). The result of
these relative scales is that turbulent exchange generally dominates over molecular
exchange of momentum, temperature, salinity and other scalar properties. The
problem is that determination of the appropriate turbulence analogues for v, ex and
DS! which we now call "mixing coefficients" - Km for momentum and Kh for
temperature and salinity or any other scalar - is a rather uncertain art. Unlike
molecular diffusivities, Km and Kh are approximately equal.
Turbulence is associated with velocity shear gradients so that, for example,
Basic Equations 29
one finds high levels of turbulence and mixing (large K m and K h) in the surface
layers of the ocean where the shear layers are created by surface wind stress.
Enhanced turbulence and mixing is also very sensitive to unstable, vertical density
gradients where the density increases upward. In fact, such gradients are generally
very small in the ocean since, when they do appear, they readily disappear due to
enhanced mixing. On the other hand, for stable density gradients, where the density
decreases upward, turbulence is suppressed. The deeper oceanic regions are
generally stable (see Figures 1-5 and 1-6) so that mixing is quite small. Tidal
motions create velocity shear over the bottom, particularly in shallow water such as
in coastal and estuarine environments. The resulting mixing plays an important role
in the salinity intrusion in bays and rivers.
It should be noted that the complete, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations can
describe turbulent flows since the smallest length scale of turbulent motion, the
these equations can be solved numerically on large supercomputers but the machine
costs are very large even for simple flow problems. However, semi-empirical,
turbulence closure techniques have had some success in alleviating the problem
(Mellor and Yamada, 1982). In this book, we will not delve into these techniques
but we will develop some scaling arguments in Chapter 5 which take advantage of
the fact that values of Km and Kh are proportional to the product of a turbulence
length scale and a turbulence velocity scale which, in turn, are related to the
corresponding flow scales. ~ A,,:,,c, ,-J"~~_J. <-1
(to ..tL..
(2-A.l~· (2-r14) ~.fv{ ~:.- ~t, J<-l,,-tt.,\
2.8 APPROXIMATIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS OF THE
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
dLlL '-k L.» i-I- v ~
Consider a typical ocean sketched in Figure 2-11. Let H represent the
approximate ocean depth and L the approximate horizontal scale of an ocean.
Typically H ~ 4000m and L ~ 4000 km; these are rough numbers. Nevertheless,
3
the ratio, HIL ~ 10- , is a very small number; i.e., the ocean (and similarly the
atmosphere) is very shallow and, in view of the complexity of the fluid dynamic
equations of motion, it is worthwhile to inquire into possible simplification of the
equations on the basis of this geometrical fact; we will see if some of the terms in
~ II, L ~~ ~0r(
J..",~ u,,- \,J, .\(o.Aj 0 c"-'i c-C';'ol\
t,JiOc; i~l (.o~o,,,*.
 Basic Equations 31
30 Chapter 2

tenn.
z

"@""",,,t 'x
\\~},.,
-"---'"~~"""""-'--":7h"'I""t, 4{P' JI
au
at
au
ax
au
_+u-+v-+w-
()y
au
az
~'-;) =
-tv +t I ap +_1 a-rzx
__
Po ax Po az
+~~~ I ~
M ()y p(a":-
a;}
~~;tf~:A:tttm~:~:t~:t@tmm:@~'r.f;.#::::nnt:~g\@f.f,f~f;<~· -ro

L ,I
-L I PoH' :if o L'

1 '
In the above, we have further assumed that all stress components are of equal
Figure 2-11. An ocean basin. The vertical dimension is exaggerated by two or
order, -roo This is quite correct if the stresses are turbulent stresses; for molecular
more orders of magnitude.
stresses the procedure will hannlessly overestimate the importance of some

the equations of motion can be neglected. components. We have defined to as the characteristic time scale. Note that we do
not scale the pressure gradient term. Pressure must always be retained in the
Boundary Layer Approximation equations of motion; otherwise, the three velocity components can be detennined
independent of the continuity equation which, generally, could not then be satisfied.
Consider first the continuity equation. Let U o = O(u) represent the order of
horizontal velocities, u and v, whereas Wo will represent the order afthe vertical
The depth of the ocean is much less than its horizontal dimension.
velocity. Thus, in the continunity equation, Therefore, if we let HIL « I and neglect the cOlTesponding small terms we obtain
au
-+-+-=0
av aw (2-15)
approximately
ax ay az
au au au
-+u-+v-+w-
au
-tv _ I ap
----+---
1 ar" (2-16)
at ax ()y az Po ax Po az
the first two terms are O(uo/L) and the third term is O(wo/H) where we have
assumed that the inverse length scale of horizontal variations of u and v is O(I/L)
Similarly the y·component is obtained according to
and the scale of the vertical variation of w is O(I/H), the scales of motion being the
same as the basin scales. Therefore, an upper estimate of the scale of the vertical av av av av
-:;-+u-;-+v-+w-+ fU =_ ~ap +_1 ar
zy
(2-17)
velocity is ot oX ()y az Po ()y Po az

Now the z-component of the momentum equation may be scaled according

to
and relates to that fact that w must be small in a shallow basin relative to u and v,
a rather intuitive idea. The above represents an upper estimate since we may aw aw aw
aw
-+ u-+ v-+ w-
encounter cases where aw/o z ::::; O. at ax ay az

We next estimate the order of magnitude of each term in the x-component

of the momentum equation; the estimate is placed below each partial differential
 32 Chaprer 2 Basic Equations 33

where we further argue that, if the viscous stresses are important in (2-16) or An examination of the constitutive equations for HIL < < 1 reveals that
(2-17), they must be of order, Pou0 2 HIL. Retaining only the largest terms, the
above equation reduces to ~rzx, T zy ) = K
Po m
(auaz' azav) (2-21a,b)

=
We have also assumed that ro - l O(uoIL) or Oifo) whichever is larger. The
pressure can be obtained from the above equation from knowledge of the density
by integrating first with respect to z; then differentiating with respect to x or y for
insertion into (2-16) and (2-17) respectively. The scaling associated with the
integration and differentiation process is such that the quantities in the square
brackets are multiplied by HIL before insertion into (2-16) and (2-17); therefore,
these quantities can be neglected for small HIL and we finally have
ap
-=-pg (2-18)
az
"v This somewhat complicated analysis leading to (2-18) merely states that the vertical
, as
lz = -Khaz (2-23)
In the above scaling analyses, it may now be recognized that Hand L need
not be basin scales. The analyses may be generalized such that Ii and L are defined
as distances over which velocities change significantly in the vertical and horizontal
directions respectively. Thus, an oceanic eddy may have a horizontal scale of 100
km and a vertical scale of 500 m; H1L is still a small number. The same is true for
planetary boundaly layers discused in Chapter 5. 2
The Low Rossby Number Approximation

acceleration terms and viscous terms are unimportant in a thin layer.

The Rossby number is a non-dimensional number defined as

Equations (2-15), (2-16), (2-17) and (2-18) are the boundary layer 6Y~'(G"'h"'- o.L~t.."",) Ro '" uo/L!o .-r~ ~
2..J2 k ~
equations. Equation (2-18) is the hydrostatic equation which is applicable to flows C')( Co..-;c-G., ",~,t,,~) (' : ) n J.
" . . If C~L. LOJ 'f
with or without motion under the boundary layer approximation. It represents a where, once agam, Uo IS a scale charactenstlc of ocean velocities; L is a length scale,
major simplification since now the vertical distribution of pressure may be characteristic of horizontal variation of properties in the ocean andlo is the scale of
determined directly from knowledge of the density field_ the CorioUs parameter. For large scale, oceanic circulation, we have L _ 4000 km.
A typical velocity scale might be Uo -10 cm sol and fo -10- 4 sol. Thus, Ro -10-4, a
A similar simplication occurs for the heat equation and salinity transport rather small number. If one reviews the order of magnitude of terms in equations
equation. Thus (2-10) and (2-11) may be written (2-16) and (2-17), one sees that the ratio of the advective terms to the Coriolis
,--------- tenns is (uiIL)/(uofo) = Ro and therefore the advective terms can be neglected for
ae ae ae ae) aqz
PoC (-+u-+v-+w- = - - - (2-19) small Ro. Thus, one obtains
Pal ax dy az az 2 s· .
d'fr cI,enusts wh? do numerical ocean modeling recognize the need to reinstate the horizonlal
as as
-+u-+v-+w-=--
as as aj, (2-20)
I uS,lOn terms, m (2-16), (2-1,7) and in (2-19) and (2-20), However, this is a numerical need
resulting ~rom madequ3t,e h~f1zontal resolution (horizontal grid spacings which are too large),
ar ax dy az az Wh~n hon,zontal rcsolullon IS adequate, a now infrequent occurrence which will be assua ed
-~----------- b~ Improvm~ supercomputer technology, horizontal diffusion can be eliminated in accorda~ce
WIth our scaling results, <

L
 34 Chapter 2 Basic Eqllations 3S

dam gate or the hull of a ship are examples.

(2-24)

If the velocities are set to zero, equations (2-25a,b,c) reduce to

(2-25a)
dP =0 dP =0 dP =_pg (2-26a,b,c)
ax 'ay 'dZ
_iJv +!II = ___
I ap +_ a~z
I :..:.!L
/' (2-25b)
at Po ay Po az Next, write the difference in press ure, dp, betwee n any two points (x,y,z) and
(x + dx, y + dy, Z + dz), thu s,
pg =_ ap (2-25c)
az ap ap ap
as the complete approximate set of low Rossby number, dp = - dx+- dy+-dz
, hydros tat ic, dynamic ax ay az
equations. Note, that equations (2- 19) and (2-20) are unaffected by the low Rossby
Combining the above wilh (2-26a,b,c) yields
number approximation since th e Corio lis term never entered into these scalar
equations. dp = - p g dz (2-27)

".~.J piL-.I.. For the atm osphere, typical values for 11 0 are 10 m s- t. For L - 4000 km Note that dp is Ihe pressure increment between any IwO points in the fluid separated

V and!o - 10. 4 s- I again, we obtain Ro-I 0.2. For smaller, mesoscale phenomena, Ro
may be order one or greater. Thus, eq uati o ns (25a,b) are not as good an
by spatial increments, (dr, dy, dz) whereas, in (2-26c), dp is the pressure increment
between two points separated by a dislance (0, 0, m).
approximation as th ey are for th e ocean. Nevertheless, th e approxi mation is often
invoked for Ihe atmosphere. Atmospheric Pressllre

We wi ll see tha i oceani c currents are driven by wind stress acti ng through
th e vertical stress gradient terms in (2-25a,b) and by small varia ti ons in density,
in (2-25c) wherein one may sel p = Po + ap(x,y,z). Even th ough aplpo is a small
quantity, there may res ult currents on the order of a meter per second, typical of
currents, for example, in the Gu lf Stream.
Almost all of the dynamic eq uati ons derived in Ihis book emanate from
equa tions (2-24) and (2-25a,b,c).
2.9 FLUID STATICS
Standard atmospheric pressure is defined 10 be 1.0 133x 105 N m·2
p, = 1.0133 bar = 101 3.3 mb. The later unit, the millibar unit, is most common ly
used in Meteorology. Deviations in atmospheric pressure due to weather and
climate variability are of Ihe order of a few percent of slandard atmospheric
pressure or, say, plus or minus 10 mb. An ex treme event sllch as a hurricane can
produce low surface press ures arou nd 960 mb.
Figure 2-12 is a sc hemalic of a mercury barometer. Following a path
within the mercury fluid , equation (2-27) can be inlegrated from poinl I 10 point 2
so thatp2 - PI = Pllg g (Zl - Z2) . PI is at th e vapor press ure of mercury, a negligible
quantity, so thatpl = 0; P2 is the atmospheric pressure. The net resull is that

Fluid Statics, a subdisci pline of Fluid Mechanics, deals with pressure forces
Pallll = Pllg g II (2-28)
exerted on surfaces by fluids which are at rest. The press ure forces exerted on a
 36 ( Chapter 2 _._ I~
Basic Equations 37
IlV I~ ~ ) I./' C? - /l~1 ~ ~1
The density of mercury, PHg = 13.06 g cm· 3. For g = 980.7 em s·2, we obtaIn Palm a) What is aT/ax, aT / ay ?
= 13340 dyn cm· 3 h = 1.334 X 105 N m· 3 h = 1334.0 mb m· l h. In the marine b) What are the magnitude and direction of the horizontal gradient vector,
and aeronautical worlds, one often finds pressure reported in terms of "inches of VT =iaT/ax+jaT/()y ?
mercury". Thus, in order for a pilot to reset the airplane's altimeter, ground control c) Assume that DTlDt = 0 and w = O. What is aT/at if a current meter
might advise the pilot that the surface pressure is 30.12 [inches of mercury1even measures a constant velocity of (10 km/day, 10 km/day)?
though there is no mercury in the cockpit. Standard atmospheric pressure is, by the d) Why is this a good place to make measurements?

way, 29.90 inches.

2·2. Find an approximate relation between pressure (relative to atmospheric
pressure) and depth.
p=o Ans: P ". (10. 1 bar m· l ) z
G)
2·3, If u(x, t) = a x is the steady, Eulerian velocity field, find DulDt and
1
h
xp(X, t), the acceleration and position of a particle initially located at xp = X when t
Figure 2·12. Schematic of a =0.

I Pilim

®
barometer showing the height of
a mercury column, h.

2·4.
Ans: DulDt =a2x, xp

Calculate the deflection due to the CorioUs acceleration of a baseball

=X eat.

travelling a distance of 60 ft. at a speed of 50 mph. Letf= 10. 4 s·l. (Assume that
the velocity perturbations due to the Coriolis accelerations are small).
Ans: 0.03 in
What is the Rossby number for this problem?

PROBLEMS 2·5. On a planet (not in our solar system) rotating at a speed Q = 10. 2 s·l,
typical atmospheric (relative) velocities are 100 m s·l. Roughly, how big should
2.1. An array of thermisters measured the temperature field at 200 m as
the planet be before relative acceleration can be neglected in favor of Corio lis
sketched below.
acceleration.

32.4'N 2·6. For steady flow, the compressible form of the continuity equation is

a(pu) I ax + a(pv) I ()y + a(pw) I az = 0

32.0'N iL----L----'Y/
64.8'W 65.2"W
which can also be written

aul ax + iJv I ay+ iJw I az + p-l(uap I ax + yap I ()y+ wap I az) = 0

,I' ,
38 Chapter 2 Basic Equations 39

generalize this result to Archimedes' Principle which states that: the force of the
Do a scale analysis [u = O(uo), iJ( )/ iJx = O(l;-I), etc.] on this equation to show
fluid pressure on a submerged body is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
that, if 8p/p « I where 8p is the order of magnitude of changes in p, then the
last three terms in the above equation can be neglected. 2-13, To derive Gauss' theorem, first note that the following control volume
integral may be equated to a surface integral upon integration with respect to x.
2-7. If a two-dimensional velocity field has components u(x,y) = ax and v(x,y)
,
= by, where a and b are constants, find a relationship between a and b so that the
JJf ~~ dxdydz = Jf(u+ - u.)dydz
velocity field has zero horizontal divergence.

The subscripts, + and - denote values on the two bounding surfaces of the control
.2-8, The salinity in a cylindrical container of water is initially S(z,O) = So + SI
volume pierced by the x-coordinate at a common value of (x, z). Next, note that
x cos (miff) where So and S I are constants and H is the height of the container.
u + = V - i and u _= - V • i so that
a) Find S(z,l) .
.b') Themolecular diffllSivity is about 10- 5 cm2 s-I (at 100 C). How long
JJf ~~ dxdydz = #V idydz
does it take until 5 = So + (51/2) cos (mIH) if H = I m?
Ans: 2.2 years where the circle in the center of the double integral sign denotes the fact that we
,cj What is the answer to b) if H = 5000 m, a typical ocean basin depth. include the entire surface surrounding the control volume. By adding similarly
derived identities, we have
2-9. If A = 6 i + 2 j and B = 2 i - 2j, what is A'B? Determine a new
x - component of B so that the two vectors are orthogonaL JJf( ~~ + ~ + : )dxdYdZ = #V· (idydz + jdxdz + kdxdy)
;.10. The flow at location I in a horizontal pipe has a velocity of .05 m s-I and a To simplify nomenclature, let the volume element, dx dy dz = dV, and a surface
flow area of I m 2 What is the volumetric flow rate? area element, i dy dz + j dx dz + k dx dy = n dA where n = i nx + j ny + k nz is
(a) At another location 2 along the pipe, the flow area is 0.5 m2. What is the the unit vector nomlal to the area element. Then the above equation may be written
velocity? in the familiar form.
(b) Assuming steady and inviscid flow, what is the pressure change between JJfVVdV=#VndA
pipeiocations I and 2 if the fluid density is 1000 kg m- 3?
Make a sketch of all the steps in this derivation. Interpret "x, ny, nz and show that
2.11. Assuming two-dimensional flow (v = 0 and derivatives in the y-direction are nx2+ni+nz2 =1.
zero) and thatf = 0 , prove from the full equations of motion, (2-8), (2-9) and (2-
12), that the velocity profile shown in Figure 2-10 is linear. State any additional 2-14. The equation in the preceeding problem may be easily generalized so that
assumptions that may be needed.
JJfV. (PV)dV = #PV. ndA
2-12, A completely submerged, cylindrical buoy is anchored to the bottom of the where P is any scalar quantity. Using this equation and a combination of equations
ocean. Obtain an expression for the force of the ocean water on the buoy. Then (2-2) and (2-20), show that
40 Chapter 2
2-1S. The flow field at the Strait of Gibraltar may be modeled as a two-layer
flow sketched below. where QI is the inflow and Q2 is the outflow. The inflowing
Atlantic water has a salinity of 36.2 %0 whereas the outflowing Mediterranean Sea
12
water has a salinity of 38.4 %0. The surface area of the Sea is about 2.5 x 10
and about 1 m yr -I of fresh water is evaporated into the atmosphere. Ignoring
smaller contributions of fresh water from small rivers and the Black Sea, solve for
QI and Q2·
Chapter 3
Boundary Conditions at the Air-Sea
Interface
2
m In this chapter we present ocean surface information. The oceans are driven
by internal density gradients resulting from surface heat and salinity fluxes and by
surface wind stress. These fluxes provide boundary conditions for equations
(2-19), (2-20), (2-24) and (2-25a,b,c) so that they may be solved. At.!l!~a
~ the boundary conditions are simple and amount to stipulating that the
velocity is zero (the "no-slip condition"); heat flux is zero (the actual geothermal
heat flux is not zero, but it is very small, r?OUl O.05~n the average).
3.1 SOLAR RADIATION
The atmosphere and ocean system, the hydrosphere is driven by the
radiation of electromagnetic energy from the sun. We will shortly focus on the
oceanic system. First, however, it is instructive to discuss the overall radiation
budgets of the sun and the earth as illustrated in Figure 3-1.
To a fair degree of accuracy, radiation from complicated surfaces such as
the surfaces of the sun or earth may be approximated as radiation from an ideal
"black body" such that
1= cfT4
where (J = 5.67 x 10- 8 W m- 2 K-4 is the SteJan-Boltzman constant. For a
given surface temperature in degrees Kelvin one can compute the irradiance or
radiation flux in W m-2 . Refer to Figure 3-1 where, on the left is shown the solar
radiation flux in the vicinity of eallh.t We now make a simple calculation:
1 The solar flux at the sun's surface is 1370 W m- 2 (distance from the sun)2/(sun's radius)2 =
6.4 x 10 7 W m- 2 ; since T = (1/(5)1/4 the solar temperature is about 1500 K. '1.
41
'i'

42 Chapter 3 Boundary Conditions at the Air-Sea Intelface 43

(infrared) radiation. Of the total short wave, solar radiation incident on the top of the
shortwave solar atmosphere (the atmosphere, of course, has no definitive "top", but above 100km

..•
radiation flux
the atmospheric effect on solar radiation is negligible) some radiation is reflected
back into space and some is absorbed by the atmosphere only to be readmitted
.. 1370 ~2 again as long wave radiation; the remainder is incident on the ocean or land surface
• of which a small portion, 10 - 12% on average, is reflected back. The net short
• wave radiation which crosses the sea surface has been labelled Rs in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-1. "Iustration of the radiation balance between the sun, earth and outer The short wave radiation that is absorbed by atmospheric gases and liquid
space. water (cloud) is emitted again as long wave radiation. Some of this radiation may
be absorbed and reemitted many times after which it either exits to space or is
[s = solar flux in the vicinity of eal1h = 1370 W m- 2
incident on the sea surface. And, the sea surface itself radiates long wave radiation.
10 = average flux incident on the earth's surface = 1370 W m- 2
In Figure 3-2, the net, long wave radiation that crosses the sea surface has been
x (nR2)f(4nR2) = the solar constant = 342 W m-l
labelled RL. The sum of short wave and long wave radiation is balanced by sensible
heat and latent heat fluxes as discussed in the next section.
The above calculation recognizes that the earth's disc, whose area isn:R2,
intercepts the solar radiation but that this radiation is averaged over time and over
3.2 AIR-SEA HEAT BALANCE
the surface of the earth whose area is 4:rR2. This incident solar radiation must, on
average, be reradiated back to space. Thus,
At the air-sea interface, there exists a heat balance among radiation, sensible
4 (turbulent and molecular exchange) heat transfer and latent heat transfer
(1- a)lo = aTe
(evaporative cooling). With reference to Figure 3-3 we define:
where alo is the amount of solar radiation reflected directly back into space and
Rs + RL = Net radiation into the ocean
(1 - a) 10 is absorbed by either the earth's atmosphere, the land surface or the ocean
E = eva"Poration rate
surface. An average value of the albedo is a= 0.3. If we insert the previously
L = latent heat of evaporation = 585 cal gm- 1 at 20 e 0

determined values for (J and 10 , we obtain Te = 255 K = -18°C as the average

qa sensible heat flux, sea surface to atmosphere
equilibrium temperature of the earth. Note that this temperature is well below the
qo = sensible heat flux, ocean to sea surface
earth's average surface temperature; the earth's atmosphere plays a role in raising
the average sllrface temperature whereas the atmosphere and oceans distribute the lt is conventional to assign a po?itive value to qa or qo for heat flowing in
equator-to-pole imbalance of incoming radiation. the positive direction (increasing z). Next, we invent a vertically thin control
volume (enclosed by the dashed lines in Figure 3-3), thin enough so that interior
If one considers the distribution of electromagnetic radiation as a function of
wave length, one learns that solar radiation is predominantly short wave length
(ultraviolet) radiation. The back radiation from the earth is long wave length
44 Chapter 3 Boundary Conditions at the Air-Sea Interface 45

Incident Short .
~i~L
Reflected Short Emitted Long Wave qa EL
Wave Irradiance
342
Wave Irradiance
103
Irradiance
j _L air
- -- - - -

_-II-4_- Topol _ _
the Atmosphere
f
qo

~
sea

r---------,
1 Absorption 1-1- - - 82 _
r--------,
Emission 1
L ________ J
-----------,
1 1
Figure 3-3. Illustration of a thin Interlacial layer (bounded by dashed lines) and the
various fluxes involved in the surface heat balance.
Reflected
21
____N...v-......;IJ-..-~---- Land or Ocean
surface .",...........---~~-" measureable. The object of (3-1) is. of course, to determine the oceanic surface heat
flux, qo. From equation (2-22), one obtains
157
RS = Net short wave RL = Net long wave Sensible +
radiation absorbed by radiation emitted by Latent Heat (3-2)
the surface = 157 W m- 2 the surface = 52 W m- 2 = 105 W m- 2

Figure 3-2. Schematic 01 the complicated processes by which solar radiation finally
enters the ocean surface. At the ~arth's surface, the difference between the short
and long wave radiation. 105 W m' , is balanced by sensible and latent heat transfer
(shaded arrow); the lalter is primarily due to atmospheric turbulence transport. All 01
the values in this figure are averages over the entIre surface of the earth and over
time.
energy storage is negligible. The net flux of energy through the surfaces of the
control volume enclosing the sea surface must balance the energy required to
convert liquid water to water vapor. Thus,
(3-1)
In the above, we have omitted the cooling or heating effect of precipitation; this is
generally a small effect although the local effect of an intense rain, for example, is
where (deldz)_erepresents the oceanic temperature gradient a small distance below
the sea surface at z = -e and does provide the surface boundary conditions for the
combined equations (2-19) and (2-22). Kh is an empirically determined turbulence
exchange coefficient. Note that the value of qo averaged over the ocean surface is nil
as represented in Figure 3-2. Locally, however, qo varies greatly as will be seen
shortly.
Using a worldwide collection of ship observations and semi-empirical
methods which include estimates of reflection, absorption and emission as
functions of cloud cover and water vapor content, Budyko (1974) was the first to
calculate the heat budgets of the world ocean. A most recent calculation from a
larger data set than was accessible to Budyko is provided by da Silva et al. (1994).
The net short wave and long wave radiation, R, + RL, that crosses the sea surface
are shown in Figure 3-4a.
46 Chapter 3 Boundary Conditions at the Air-Sea lnteiface 47

60'

30,

EQ

60S

90S I
30E BOE 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W BOW 30W 0 30E BOE 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W BOW 30W 0 30E
CONTOUR FRml 20 TO 220 BY 20 CONTOUR FROM 20 TO 200 BY 20

2
Figure 3.4., Radiation ftux at the earth's surtace, Rs + RL, The units are W m- , After Figure 3·4c, Latent heat flux. EL The units are W m- 2, After da Silva et aJ (1994),
da Silva et aJ (1994),

30W 30E BOE 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W BOW 30W 0 30E
30E: BOE 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W
CONTOUR FROM -200 TO 120 ny 20
CONTOl;R FRO}.I --5 TO 55 DY 5

Ftgure 3.4b. Sensibte heat flux trom the eal1h's surface into the atmosphere, qa, The Figure 3·4d, Net heat flux through the ocean surtace, . qQ' The units are W m-2,
units are W m- 2 , After da Silva et aJ (1994), After da Silva et aJ (1994).
48 Chapter 3 Boulldary COllditiolls at the Air-Sea Interface 49

The atmospheric se nsible heat flux, which can be described by an equation

similar to (3-2) evaluated at z = + e, is provided in Figure 3-4b through formulas
e p
0

_1_ air
l
which we shaB di scuss below. Similarly, the latent heat flux is represented in
Figure 3-4c. It will be seen that the latent heat flux is a considerably more powerful 1 0
- =
sea
process than is sensible heat flux in removing heat from the ocean. The net flux mo
into the ocean, -qo, is obtained in Figure 3-4d according to equation (3-1). Using
Figure 3-4a, ~, d, the reader might find it instructive to verify this balance for a
few geographical locations. With considerably more effort one could verify that the
area integral, If qo r/cos¢ d¢ d)" = 0, where the limits of integration are devised Figure 3-5. Mass flow balance across th e ocean s urface.
so as to exclude land surface. Over climatological rime periods (da Silva et al. used
shipboard observations which spanned the years 1945 to 1989) the world ocean
neither cools nor warms. However, over longer time periods, cooling or warming
(E+ p) x 0 + Iho So = j, ~ - 1 .\ ::: - ':' , .'\,
can occur as it did, say, before and after the last glaciation, about 20,000 years ago. \J ~ ...
:::. " 1~l'"I(, - G _~
The zero is the salinity of fresh water whereas So is the ocean surface salinity andjs
The simplest, albeit approximate, description of the surface heat balance is is the diffusional salt flux at the surface. Combining Ihe above eq uations yields
that the net surface irradi ation (Figure 3-4a) is mostly balanced locally by latent heat
flux (Figure 3-4c). The residual heat flux (Figure 3-4d), warming in the lower " . ( as)
(E-P)So =-), = K h - (3-3)
latitudes and cooling in the hi gher latitiudes, mu st be balanced by the poleward az z=-£
transport of heat by ocean currents. Thus, as discussed in Chapter I, the ocean
plays an important role in climate. It is in fact very nearly on equal tenns with the
A factor, I - So, in (3-3) has been replaced by unity si nce So;: 36 0100 =.036.
Note that no sig nificant amount of salt ac tuaBy crosses the air-sea boundary2.
atmosphere in redistributing the uneven, equator-to-poleward, net solar irradiation
However, the surface salt concentratio n or th e su rface sa linit y is either
to the atmosphere-ocean system.
increased (E> p) or decreased (E< p) by virture of fresh wa ler being subtracted
fro m or added 10 the surface waler. Fig ure 3-6 is an es timale of E- P compiled
3.3 SALINITY BALANCE
by da Silva et al. (1 994). Evapora tion dominates in th e sub-tropi cs whereas
Consider once again a thin inlerfaciallayer in Figure 3-5. A vertical balance precipitation dominates in the middle latitudes and along the eq uator; the maximum
of fresh water flow is
, in E- P actu all y Occurs jusl north of the equator in the Inter-Tropi cal Convergence
'r ' ~
Zo ne (!TCZ) whe re moi st air converges ho ri zo ntal1 y and th en ri ses
-E+P+lho(1-So)=O ""' - \"'.~. = - 1<1, - ;:: +1' causing conden sation and precipitation. About.,20% of the water evapora ted at th e
. . OT -:>:) \1 0. 2(, +(t~ '; ) :i! ocean surface is returned directly to the ocean through precipitati on. The rem ainder
where P is the precipitation rate and ';', is Ihe vo lume flux of sea water to the sea
surface. The units of these fluxes are volume time- l area- I. The factor, (1 - So) ,
excludes the salt from the sea water. A salt balance is 2Sa Jt crystal s arc, how~ver, cn.trained in the atmosphere. While it is an unimporta nt amount
from .~ salt balancc p~nH of VICW, th e crysta ls playa ro le in th e atmosphere as rai n droplet
nuclell .
50 Chapter 3 Boundary Conditions at the Air·Sea Intelface 51

30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0 30E
30W 0 30E
CONTOUR FROl.f --2000 TO 2000 BY 500
CONTOUR FROM -.1 TO .16 BY .02

Figure 3·6. Mean annual values 01 E- P in mm per year. From da Silva et 8/

(1994). Figure. 3-7a. Th,e annual mean, zonal stress component. Positive values are
westerhes. The units are N m- 2. After da Silva et 8/ (1994).

is precipitated over land, absorbed by the ground, transported through and over the
ground and eventually returned to the ocean through estuarine runoff. These
processes foml the core of the science of Hydrology.

3.4 MOMENTUM BALANCE

Across the air-sea interface, the shear stress is continuous. Thus if ('rax, 'fay)
is the surface wind stress and (-rox , 'foy) is the surface ocean stress, then

(3-4a)

(3-4b)

30W 0 30E
In Figure 3-7 are plots of the annual mean wind stress over the global ocean. One CONTOUR FROM -.08 TO .08 BY .02

Figure a·7b. The annual mean, meridional stress component. Positive values are
southerhes. The units are N m- 2. After da Silva et 8/ (1994).
"

Chapter 3 Boundary Conditions at the Air-Sea Inte/face 53

52

sees the mid-latitude westerlies and subtropical trade winds in both hemispheres. and Cq are, in principal, dependent on molecular propenies active in very thin layers
The zonal component is larger that the meridional component. Not shown are the at the air-sea interface. Thus, Ctdiffers from Crand Cq ,
fact that Ylinler stresses are stronger than in summer. Along the Atlantic coast of
the United States, there is a familiar shift of winds from winter northwesterlies to
summer southwesterlies. More dramatic are winter to summer monsoonal changes
in the Indian Ocean resulting from cooling and warming over the large, Siberian
PROBLEMS
land mass.

Bulk Aerodynamic Formulas 3-1. Mars is SO% more distance from the sun than is Earth and its albedo is
O.IS. What is the equilibrium temperature of Mars?
. f
E stlmates a qa,
E'
an d (~'ax, ~)
'ay are made using bulk aerodynamic
coefficients. Thus, 3-2. In the main text, the simple calculation of the earth's equilibrium
(3-Sa,b)
temperature of -18 0 C did not take into account the earth's atmosphere. Therefore,
as a step toward reality, interpose an atmospheric "slab" between the sun and the
(3-6) (solid and liquid) earth such that the atmosphere does not absorb or reflect short
wave radiation but absorbs all of the earth's long wave radiation and reradiates
(3-7) isotropically. The short wave albedo will remain at 0.3. Calculate a new
equilibrium temperature for the atmosphere and the eanh.
Ans: -18 0 C for the atmosphere; 300 C for the eanh's surface_
where pa and Cp are the density and specific heat of air, UIO = iUlO + jVlO is the
air velocity vector at 10 m above the sea surface and Tlo and qlo are the air
3-3. From the latent heat flux information in Figure 3-4c, estimate the yearly and
temperature and specific humidity (mass of water vapor/mass of air) at the 10 m
spatially averaged evaporation over the oceans. Express the result as a mass flux or
height. Ts is the sea surface temperature and qs is the saturated specific humidity
volume flux.
evaluated at the sea surface temperature (see Problem 3-6). Typical values of
Ans: About I.S m yr -I
specific humidity are 5 gm kg- I = 5 x 10-3

The non-dimensional, empirical bulk coefficients, C t, Cr and Cq , are 3-4, Estimate the surface wind stress produced by an easterly wind of 10 m s-l.
known to depend on ocean surface wave conditions (see Problems S-9 and S-lO)
and the stability of the air. Very approximate values for average winds and sea 3-5. Suppose there is an average (Ts - T,) = (sea surface temperature - rainwater
states are, however, C t = O.OOIS and Cr = Cq = 0.0010. It is important to note temperature) of 10 °C . What is the effective cooling rate due to the average rain
that C t does not depend on molecular propenies, a characteristic of turbulent flows value of Problem 3-3?
over~rough (w~;Yls~~~~eric;-r~Sistransfered to the sea via pressure Ans: -2 W m- 2
stress acting on sloping wave surfaces. On the other hand, since the equation for Why is this value so small compared to values in Figure 3-4c?
temperature and humidity do not contain pressure as an independent variable, Cr
I'

54 Chapter 3

3-6. An empirical relation (based on the Clausius-Clapeyron t)h/(eorOO4

Y) Plr2oTv)ides
. . _
the saturauon, water vapor partIal pressure, es - 10
(.7859+.03477T l+. mb. Chapter 4
A general relation between specific humidity and partial pressure, e, is
q = (0.622e I p)/(l- 0.378e I p) where P is the atmospheric pressur~. Suppos~ the
sea surface temperature is 200e, the air temperature is 17 0e and the wmd velocity IS
Geostrophic Flow
10 m sol. Estimate the sensible heat flux, the evaporation rate and the latent heat
flux.
The purpose of this chapter is to study the physical consequences of the
geostrophic approximation and then the further consequences of the barotropic
3-7. If the short wave radiation on the ocean surface is 100 W m-2 and the other
approximation. Throughout this chapter, steady flow is stipulated.
conditions are those given in Problem 3-6,
(a) detemline the net heat flux through the ocean surface.
4.1 GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE
(b) For a mixing coefficient at the surface of K = .02 m 2 sol, determine the
temperature slope at the surface.
It will develop in subsequent discussion that the viscous tenns in (2-25a,b)
are generally small except in relatively thin surface layers. In the ocean, the top 20-
100 m are influenced by the viscous terms and in the atmosphere, the bottom 500-
2000 m are similarly affected. Furthermore, it is often possible to assume steady
flow so that, away from surface layers,

(tosJ-." Vt '<..
I Jp
1 Jp
-fv=---, lu=---
te VLJ Po Jx
~----------------
Po Jy
(4-1a, b)

Flows that are approximated by (4-la,b) are called "geostrophic" flows where the
Cariolis acceleration tenns are simply balanced by the pressure gradients. In Figure
4-1 we illustrate contours of constant pressure for an anticyclonic (clockwise
velocity field) pressure system. If we approximate (4-la,b) with finite difference
expressions, we determine velocities at point A where u = 0 and
v", (poIrl(PI - P2) I III and point B where u'" - (polr l (P2 - PI) / /!'y and
v = O. If PI > P2, denoting a pressure high, the flow is clockwise; this is called
anticyclonic flow in the northern hemisphere. If PI < P2. denoting a pressure low,
then the flow is counter-clockwise and cyclonic.

Equations (4-la, b) may be written in an intuitively simple way if we define

local streamline coordinates, sand n, illustrated in Figure 4-2a. Thus we can write

55
 Geoslrophic Flow 57

Figure 4·2a. Streamline coordinales Figure 4·2b. The sine and cosine
and cos wherein sand n are local of the flow angle, e, are vlV and ulV
coordinates, equal parallel and respectively.
perpendicular to the velocity vector
Geometry will show that cos e
~ (iJxias)n = (Oytan)s and that
sin e = (ayaS)n = - (Uxtan)s.

Figure 4·1 An anticyclonic (clockwise velocity field) pressure system. The cl~sed
contours ar~ contours of constant pressure where PI > P2. A and Bare pomts were also be written vectorially as V . V'h P = 0; this is a simple statement of the fact that
aplay ~ 0 and aplax ~ 0 respectively. the velocity vector is perpendicular to the pressure gradient and parallel to contours
of constant p, a rather counter intuitive result.

ap = ap(ax) + ap(Oy) =pofv(,::)-pofu(~)=o Equation (4-2b) allows one to estimate the velocity magnitude from
as ax as n Oy as n V V knowledge of the pressure fields. To see how (4-2b) works in a practical situation,
we use a portion of a weather map for Feb. 26, 1974 in the New York City to
(iJx/as)n = ulV, (Oy/as)n = vlV as shown in Figure
using (4-1a,b) and the fact that
Washington, D.C. area as sketched in Figure 4-3. For this region,f = 2!2 sin I/! =
4-2a,b. Similarly, one can show that (iJx/an), = -vlV, (Oy/an), =ulV so that 4
.94 x 10- sol, LIn = 400 mi = 644 km. Also LIp = - 0.23 in Hg = 7.75 mb
whereas Pa =.00123 g cm-3. With these numbers we obtain the geostrophic wind,
V = (Paf)-! LIp/LIn = 10.4 m s'! = 20.2 knots. The wind is northwesterly or
equivalently, southeastward.
Since u2 + v2 = VZ. we have finally

a;,-:-; f 3 ap = p (4-2a,b)
4.2 THERMAL WIND EQUATIONS

\--_._-------
as ' an '
If (4-la) and (4-1b) are differentiated with respect to z and then (2-25c) is
Equation (4-2a) is a statement of the fact that pressure is constant on a streamli~e. used to eliminate J2p/iJxaz and J2p/Oyaz, one obtains
This could also be noted directly from (4-1a,b) since uiJp/iJx + viJp/Oy = 0, which
may, if we define the horizontal gradient operator, V'h ( ) = i (a( )/ax + j (.)/Oy,
fl
58 Chapter 4
Geostrophic Flow
S9

we obtain Sverdrup's relation

v • NYC
(4-5a)

DC Now, note that JjIJx = 0 and define f3 '" JjIJy. Therefore, Sverdrup's relation may
also be written
Figure 4-3. A portion ot a weather map showing
the suriace pressure contours over the New York
City, Washington D.C. area; the latitude is about.
40 oN. The contour lines of constant pressure are In
(4-5b)
units of inches of mercury.
The term, JwIJz, may be interpreted as the rate of vertical extension of a water
column which, according to (4-5b), is directly related to the northward velocity
component. Later, in Chapter 6, we will see that (4-5b) is an important constraint
in determining the general circulation of the ocean. Then in Chapter 12. we will
·JL.<.-~J .~ g Jp f Ju = JL Jp (4-3a,b)
describe (4-5b) as a vorticity conservation equation.

lfv"i flt'h ""\ \ f Jz =_-_Po_Jx_'_ _J_Z_ _P_o_Jy--l 4.4 BAROTROPIC FLOW

These equations, with their roots in Meteorology, are called the thermal wind
equations. They tell us immediately that, if the density field is horizontally The term, barotropic, generally applies to a condition where the fluid
homogeneous, then Jv/Jz = Ju/Jz = 0, and, therefore u and v are not dependent density is a function of pressure only. Here we will be a bit more restrictive and
on z but may be dependent on x and y. Conversely, where there exist horizontal require that p = Po = constant. With reference to Figure 4-4, we now integrate the
gradients in density, there also exist vertical gradients in u and v. In the oceans, hydrostatic equation
except for the smallest motion scales, flows are quite well approximated by (4-
Jp
la,b) and therefore adhere to equations (4-3a,b). -=-p g (4-6)
Jz °
4.3 SVERDRUP'S RELATION using the boundary condition, p = atmospheric pressure =Pa at z ~ 1). The result
is
I, An interesting and simple relation can be obtained from equations (4-la, b). P = Pa + Pog[ 1)(x,y) - z] (4-7)
Thus we form
J J I (J
2
P- J2--
P )_ where 1) ~ 1) (x.y) is the sea surface elevation. Neglecting variations in Pat the
--(ju)+-(jv)=-- -- -0
Jx Jy Po JxJy JyJx important result emerges that JpIJx = Pog J1)IJx and JpIJy = Pog J1l1Jy so that
(4-1a,b) may be written

Using continuity
(4-4) 1 For stationary at.mospheric pressure, this amounts only to notational simplification since we
could. always defme a ~ew elevation, 1), so that Pogi}::: Pog1}(x,y) + P (x,y) without
changlOg the subsequent discussion. a
60 Chapter 4 Geostrophic Flow 61

z = 0
t
H(x, y)

Figure 4.4. The surtace, Z = 0, represents the geoid; th~t is, a surtace everywhf~e
perpendicular to the gravity vector. The sea surface elevation, 71, IS measured relat e
to the geoid.

C') ,cwl>p. ~=(""')~ aT) aT)

"CO ,.,i y- -fv =-g-;;-, Iu =-g-;;- (4·8a,b) Figure 4·5, Illustrating the relation wlu = ·aHlax at the bottom of the ocean for the
- ~ "'- uX uy case where aHlay = O. Variations in sea surtace slope may be neglected relative to
the much larger variations in depth.
d-!o "' (Y-.) G.) .
Since T) = T)(x,y), we again learn that u and v and, accordmg to (4·5a), d.wlaz must
be independent of z, Then (4·5a) may be intergrated so that

I w(x,y, T) - w(x,y,-H) = u d.f + v d.f (4·9)

H ax ay or rearranging, we also can write

. at the ocean b0 tt om. Of cour,

where z = • H IS "'I:>"
se up VA = 0, but we nevertheless (4-10)
retain the ternl and the symmetry of the right side, We now determine geometric
relations for w(x,y, T)) and w(x,y,·H) according to
Equation (4-10) may also be written vectorially aslY..:.. V h rjiH) ~ where V h( )
aT) aT) "i iJ( )/dx + j iJ( )I()y is the horizontal gradient operator. Thus, the velocity vector
w(T)=u-+v-
ax ay is perpendicular to the gradient offI H and therefore parallel to contours of constant
aH aH flH as illustrated in Figure 4-6.
w(-H)=-u--v-
ax ay

The relation, wlu = . aHldx, for the case where aHI()y =, °

is illustrated in Figure
Taylor-Proudmall Columlls

4-5, It may be shown that the sea surface slope is much smaller than typical
bottom slopes so that the contribution of w(x,y, T) to equation (4-9) may be
neglected in comparison with w(x,y,·H)2 Thus,
2 all/ax = 0(4000 111/4000 kill) = 0(10. 3) whereas for "0 =0(10 em s·l) and!o =0(10-4 s-l)
we obtain from (4·8a, b) that ,1l)ldX = O(/o"olg) = 0(10. 6).
Taylor (1923) performed experiments in a rotating tank of water in which a
small cylinder is towed across the bottom of the tank at a constant velocity relative
to the tank as illustrated in Figure 4·7, The Rossby number for this experiment is
made to be small; i.e., the translating velocity is small compared to the product of
the rotational velocity and the cylinder diameter. Then assuming barotropic,
geostrophic flow, u and v do not vary in the vertical (the so-called
62 Chapter 4 Geostrophic Flow 63

Undoubtedly Taylor's laboratory observations are at work in the oceans

Figure 4-6. Barotropic and geostrophic
flow over a basin where both f and H
are functions of the horizontal space
coordinates.
although sufficiently dense current meter observations are not available to provide
positive identification. In the atmosphere, satellite photographs, together with flow
trajectories marked by clouds, have revealed the existence of Taylor columns over
islands.

Flow over Ihe Middle Atlalllic Ridge

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge represents an important geological process. Crustal

Taylar-Praudman theorem). Note that the experiment can be viewed in a
coordinate system relative to the cylinder so that the flow is a steady flow in the
relative system. Thus. the relative velocity normal to the lateral side of the cylinder.
which is nil, must also prevail in the fluid above the cylinder, i.e., the fluid above
the cylinder appears to be an extension of the solid cylinder itself, a rather counter
intuitive happening. Also, for this experiment.! = 2Q = constant so that the flow
follows contours of constant H as required by equation (4- 10).
fluid moves as if solid ~.__+-_
extension of cylinder
material is upwelled along the north-south ridge at a location which roughly bisects
the Atlantic ocean. This results in sea floor spreading so that Europe and Africa and
North and South America grow further apart at the rate of about I cm per year.
Although important geologically, we neglect these motions and, for example,
assume that the bottom topography is invariant. Further, the Middle Atlantic Ridge
is idealized as a north-south ridge such that aH/Jy = O. However. f = fa + f3y.
Therefore, the flow is as sketched in Figure 4-8 and follows contours of constant
f/H.

X
- u //(x)

~
_:I~'
--.~

view looking down from the top. ___~

-'
,
:
,
,'
,... I
,

,, ,
streamlines relative to tank. ,,
y : : contours of
tI
~~tfll/
:-- ____ : -
---"X I --.... :

------~~ -~------

Figure 4-7. Taylo,'s experiment. A small cylinder is towed. across the bottom 01 a
larger. rotating cylindrical tank. The fluid above the small cylinder acts almost as If It
were a solid extension of the cylinder.
Figure 4-8. The flow over an idealized Mid-Atlantic ridge if the flow were barotropic
and geostrophic. The upper diagram is a vertical transect of the flow whereas the
lower diagram is a horizontal view of the same flow.
 r
64 Chapter 4

Chapter 5
PROBLEMS

4·1. For an ocean at rest. prove that the ocean surface is nom}al to the gravity
vector. Assume constant density.
Planetary Boundary Layers

4·2. For a barotropic, geostrophic. oceanic flow, leI the sea surface elevation In this chapter, we derive and develop understanding of oceanic and
vary according to atmospheric boundary layers wherein the vertical stress divergence term is
important. Thus we add detail to the dynamic part of the air· sea interaction

where A is a constant. processes discussed in Chapter 2.

a) Find the horizontal velocities, u(x,y,z) and v(x,y,z). Sketch the

streamlines. At the air·sea interface, there are boundary layers in both the atmosphere
and the ocean which are subject to strong turbulent mixing and where the
b) Find w(x,y,z), first for the case where the CarioUs parameter,f = constant
and, second, wheref = f(y). Let w(x,y,·H) = 0 whereas, possibly, w(x,y,1)) ;<0. turbulence and the turbulence exchange coefficients are much higher than outside of
these regions. A typical situation is sketched in Figure 5·1. The velocity and length
4·3. Repeat Problem 4·2. for scales of the oceanic surface layer are considerably smaller than the corresponding
atmospheric boundary layer scales for reasons related to the disparity in density of
the two media. Typically. the height of the atmospheric boundary layer is of the
order of 1000 m whereas in the ocean it is more like 50 m. A typical atmospheric

4·4. The geostrophic balance equations are velocity is 5 m s·l whereas, in the ocean. a typical value is 10 cm S·l.

5.1 BASIC BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

We will continue to assume low Rossby number, steady and barotropic

From a scale analysis where ap;()x = O(op/L) and op/p« I, show that variations flow but we must include the viscous or turbulence momentum exchange tenns.
in p can be neglected in deriving Sverdrup's relation. Therefore, leaving in the turbulence stress terms but not the tendency terms, we
write equations (2-25a,b) as
4·5. For a geostrophic, barotropic flow, show that contours of constantf/H are
I ap +_1 a~"
-fv = __ I ap I a~,y
everywhere parallel to contours of constant sea surface elevation. fu=---+--- (5-1a,b)
Po ax Po ar • Po iJy Po az

Because the flow is barotropic, (Jp/ax and (Jp/iJy are constant in the vertical. It is
convenient to define geostrophic velocities,

65

.:,'
 r
66 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 67

In the real turbulent world, K varies with respect to z (see Problem 5-9). However,
I
1--- U ag
to understand the nature of the problem and also to obtain approximate profile
shapes we will assume that K is a constant (and much greater than v, the molecular

z
1--- kinematic viscosity).

I Ua
S.2 ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER
1------ The boundary conditions for the atmospheric boundary layer are

u = v =0, at z =0 (S-6a,b)
Figure 5-1. A schematic of the atmospheric and
and oceanic boundary layers. The velocity and
length scales of the ocean relative to the u ~U
g'
v-vas
g,
Z--1oo
(S-6c,d)
atmosphere are, in reality, much smaller than
shown here.
Equations (S-6a,b) are the no-slip conditions, an empirical fluid dynamic postulate
which states that a viscous fluid in contact with a solid surface (or, in fact another
fluid) will have the same velocity as the solid surface (or fluid). If the atmospheric
-fv ~---
1 ap fu
1 ap
,,--- boundary layer is matched to a moving ocean surface, the atmospheric surface
(S-2a,b)
g - Po ax' g Po Jy
velocity is not exactly zero as stated in (S-6a,b). However, it is generally small
so that (5-1 a,b) become relative to atmospheric geostrophic velocities so that (S-6a,b) is a fairly good
approximation. Equation (S-6c,d) states that, as z increases indefinitely, the velocity
-fv=-fv +.!....ar" fu = fUg + - -ar-zy 1
(S-3a,b) approaches the geostrophic velocity. (It will be seen momentarily that one need
g Po az ' Po az only state that the velocity is bounded as z --> ~.)

At the upper edge of the atmospheric or lower edge of the oceanic boundary layer, Solutions to (5-Sa, b) are u = ug + eo' (A cos, + B sin0 and v = Vg
we will shortly see that fzx and fzy and their vertical gradients vanish so that it = ug + e -, (B cos, - A sin0 where ,,, z'; f / 2K which may be verified by direct
and v = vg. Now, to obtain detailed profiles we repeat (2-21a,b) substitution. In view of (S-6c,d), we have discarded other possible solutions
containing e+( Finally, one can evaluate A and B, using (S-6a,b) and obtain
(S-4a,b)

where we lise the symbol K = Km to represent a turbulence momentum exchange

coefficient or an eddy viscosity. Thus, (5-3a,b) may be written (S-7b)

-a ( au) a( Jv)
az K -dZ + fv =fv,g -az K -az - fu =- fU g (S-5a,b)
'\~J:;~ 1-
k(N~-l
~ 1J~Lj
 68 Chapter 5
Plan etary Boundary Layers

Another way of finding solutions to (5-5a, b) is with the help of complex notation. t
v
In Figure 5-2, we plot three views of the Ekman velocity profile for a southwesterly
geostrophic wind. It will be noted that one can interpret the "edge" of the boundary
layer, z = Ii, above which viscous effects are inSignificant, as some number large
enough so that exp(-li~f/(2K») is, say, two orders of magnitude less the unity.2
It is of interest to obtain the surface shear stress exerted by the wind on a land or
/"'
sea surface. Thus,
,~
I
-(rox,roy)=K (au-a '-aiJv) U
'" --~--~--~__L-~ (
~
Ii Z Z 1=0
Z Ug
,,
Note the use of the atmospheric density, Pa, rather than the ocean density, Po. Now

I
insert (7a,b) into the above to obtain the wind stress response, (!ox, roy) to the
geostrophic velocity forcing, (lIg, vg ) according to .
~

,,
Ftgure 5-2.
atmospheric
Three projections or the
Ekman spiral lor a
southwesterty, geostropic wind . The
schematic also illustrates a bottom
oceanic boundary tayer. The plot or u
(5-8a,b) versus v is sometimes called a velocity
U
hodograph . Note that at z = 0, the
vertical gradient 01 U is nil and 'fox z: 0.
For the illustration of Figure 5-2, where ug = vg , the shear stress exerted by the
wind on the surface is nonhward. Notice that the geostrophic wind vector is aligned
450 clockwise to the surface stress vector. For turbulent planeta,y boundary layers,
[nleraclion oflhe Upper A lmosphere lVilh Ihe Surface Boundary Layer
the angle is somewhat greater than 200 due to the fact that turbulence mixing
coefficients, K, are nOi constant with respect to z.
Figure 5-3 illu strates a high (anticyclonic) and a low (cyclonic) pressure
system together with boundary layer, veloci ty vectors near the surface of the eanh.
The geostrophic velocity near the Outer edge of the boundary layer is parallel to the
pressure isobars. Near the surface, the boundary flow is convergent to the center of
the low pressure region resu lting in the low level penetration of boundary layer
1 Define the complex variables, h =u+iv, IIg =u!+ivg and (= z{fl2K)1/2 , Thus, (5 -5a, b) ma y
2
be,written hta(l· 2;11 =,' 2;"g. Try II = Aer~ + hg where A is arbitrary. Thus ,2 = 2; =
a fluid and uplifting of air; in the real atmosphere, riSing air is associated wi th
2e /2 . Then, , =± 21/2 efTf/ 4 = ± 21!2(cos(n/4) + j si n(rr/4» = ± ( I + j ). Di scard the +
lTr
condensation, clouds and precipitation. Conversely, upper atmospheric dry air
solution so that the !inal solution is bounded as ,~oo, Then, II = A e -{ e-it; + l!g. The no-
slip condition , h(O) =0, is smisfied if A = -11 8 , The fina l solution is Ii = hg{l _ e-~ -e-i~). The
descends into regions of high pressure. However, a full understanding of high and
real and imaginery pariS are (5·7a) and (S-7b) respec tively. low pressure systems cannot be broached in the context of the barotropic
approximation .
2 Whelher we choose Iwo orthree orders of magnitudc is nOt 100 significant. Thus, for c' {
= 0.01, (= 4.6; fore·' = 0.001, (= 6.9.
 r
70 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 71

whereas, in deeper water, the velocity asymptotes to the geostrophic velocity,

(S-9c,d)

Solutions to (S-Sa,b) are Ug + e\ (A cos, + B sin I;> and Vg + e\ (B cos ,- A sin I;>
where ,= z.Jf /2K, Because of the boundary conditions, (S-9c,d), we have
discarded the solutions containing e'\. Thus, evaluating A and Busing (5-9a,b),
we obtain

U
e\ [r. nr
= u g + Iv1 ...ill. sm (, +-)+~cos(' +-) n] (S-lOa)
Figure 5-3, A high and low atmospheric pressure system with attendant suriace vKf Po 4 Po 4
boundary layers, convergent into the low pressure region and divergent out of the
high pressure region.
i [
-r n roy n]
v=Vg+ Iv1 _...ill.cos('+-)+-sin(,+-) (5-lOb)
vKf Po 4 Po 4
5,3 OCEAN SURFACE BOUNDARY LAYER

The ocean surface boundary layer is sometimes called the Ekman layer; the v - Vg
velocity structure due to an imposed wind stress was first analyzed by Ekman
(190S). The surface boundary layer is also called the mixed layer since temperature
and salinity are often observed to be uniform at the smface, thus fully mixed. The
fact that velocity or momentum (and biochemical constituents) are not mixed while
temperature and salinity are well mixed is easily understood and is the subject of
Problem S-8.
N

The analysis of the velocity structure of ocean surface layers proceeds in

z
the same manner as the atmospheric case. Equations (S-Sa,b) apply equally well
and the definition (S-2a,b) is also applicable. The pressure gradients relate to surface t------
elevation gradients so we could equivalently state that f(ug,-vg)
U - ug
= -8 (arvJy, aT)/ax).

The boundary conditions differ from those of the atmospheric boundary

Figure 5,4, Three projections of the ocean surtace layer
layer. First, the surface shear stress is imposed on the sea surface by the wind, so for an imposed northward wind stress.
that
K(aU Jv) I
=-(rox roy) (S-9a,b)
az ' az '=0 Po '
I I

72 Chaprer 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 73

A sketch of U - Ug and v - Vg is shown in Figure 5-4 for the case, Tox = O.

5.4 OCEAN BOTTOM BOUNDARY LAYER

A description of the ocean bottom layer is identical to that of the

atmospheric boundary layer and is provided by equation (5-7a,b) and (5-8a,b) and
Figure 5- 2. However, in (5-8a, b), substitute the ocean density, Po, in place of the
atmospheric velocities
atmospheric density, Po and replace (Tax, Toy) with (THx' THy). relative to ocean surface
velocity
The bottom boundary layer plays a role in shallow water where the bottom
stress is often an imponant pan of the vertically integrated momentum balance. In ocean surface velocity
deep water, the bottom stress is generally small . However, some new research by
Mellor and Wang (1996) suggests th at the role of the bottom boundary layer may
subsurface ocean
be profound; the fact that geostrophic velocities are generall y small in deep water is
gcostrophic velocity
associated with the boundary layer's maintenence of intermediate depth, horizontal
density gradients which compensate surface elevation gradients such that, at depth,
pressure gradient and velocities are small .

5.5 MATCHING ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEAN BOUNDARY

Figure 5·5. The combined velocily hodographs lor the almospheric and oceanic,
LAYERS sunace Ekman layers. The almospheric ve locily vectors should be scaled up by
about a factor at ten. The diagram is drawn tor a sunace stress, Tax = 0, Toy" 0,
but the diagram can be rotated for other sunace stress components .
In Figure 5-5 we combine the velocity component plots (the hodographs)
of the atmospheric boundary layer and the ocean surface boundary layer. The 2 = 1'0
,, TO- (5- 12a,b)
atmospheric pressure system determines the atmospheric geostrophic velocities Po
which in tum determine the wind surface stress through equation (5-8a,b). ~

.the air-sea interface the horizontal stress vector is cont~ Thus, the magnitude where UTa and it,D are the so·called friction velocities, and Po and Po the density of
of the stress is also continuous such that air and water respectively. The point is that (5-11) and (5- 12a,b) combine to give

'fa = 'fo (5-11 ) U ro =[Po / Po 1' !2 uTO =0.035u m (5-13)

The surface atmospheric and oceanic shear stresses are Ta and To respectively. Thus the friction velocity of the water side of the air-sea interface is much less than
Next, define the air side and this is due entirely to the difference in densities of the two media.

I
II
74 Chapter 5
r Planetary Boundary Layers 75

Real geophysical boundary layers are governed by turbulent momentum

exchange. For turbulent flows, it is known that the level or scale of the turbulent
exchange coefficient, K, is related to properties of the flow field itself. Thus, if we
assume that K does not vary in the vertical (an assumption that will lead to some
error), then we expect on dimensional grounds that
(5-14)
I 5.6 EKMAN TRANSPORT
I An important property of Ekman layers is that the vertically integrated
velocity is simply related to the surface stress. We will find this to be a useful
I property in succeeding chapters. Consider the ocean surface layer and integrate
I
(5-3a,b) from z = - 0 (where 0 is large enough so that the rzx(-o) and rzy(-O) are
very small) to z = 0 and obtain

where 0 is the boundary layer height and the empirical factor, 0.01, is that which
(5-16a,b)
will yield a determination of 0 close to observation. Thus, with reference to
(5-7a,b) or (5-IOa,b), if we set exp(-0/-J2K / f);: 0.01, we obtain 0 ;: 4.6
x -J2K / f . Then, using (14), we obtain where (rox , roy) is the surface wind stress and the vertically integrated Ekman
transport is given by
(5-15)
(5-17a,b)

which is close to observational data. By combining (S-lOa,b), (5-14) and (5-15), it

may be shown that U - ug and v - Vg are proportional to Ur. (see Problem 5-4). The same result, with considerably more effort, can be obtained by integrating
Equations (5-14), (5-15) and the comments of this paragraph apply to both (5-lOa,b). Notice that the sketch in Figure 5-4 has been drawn such that rox and
atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers. Sy = O.

Now a typical value of the surface shear stress, ra = ro is I dyn cm- 2. For Knowledge of the detailed Ekman velocity profiles is useful but, for many
the air side of the air-sea interface, we obtain Ura = (raJ Pa)1I2 ~ 30 em s·l purposes, (5-16a,b) is all one needs to know about Ekman surface transport. It will
whereas, for the water side, Uro = (roJpo)1/2~ I em s-l. From (5-15) and forf~ be seen from (5-16a,b) that the surface transport vector, S '" iS x + jSy is at
10- 4 s-l, we obtain 00 = 1200 m and 00 = 40 m which are the typical thicknesses ~ -'" .....
of the atmosphere and ocean surface layers. Co ~ 'Go-t7'~~:-J
While (5-15) led to reasonable estimates of both layer thicknesses and
s"''''''''''-
while the scaling is qualitatively correct, the same expression used in (5-7a,b) or in
(5-lOa,b) would yield velocities which are somewhat low. This is related to the fact
Figure 5-6. The surtace
that K is not constant in the vertical but decreases significantly near the surface such Ekman transport is at right
that K;: OAur/lzl for small values of z. In fact, the latter expression if matched to s angles to the wind stress.
(5-14) and then used with (5-5a,b) would yield quite realistic turbulent boundary
layer profiles (see Problem 5-9).
76 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 77

right angles to the surface wind stress, TO" i 1"ox + j 1"oy,3 as illustrated in Figure
z
5·6. wind stress
• K
5.7 WIND· MIXED LAYER AND THE THERMOCLINE

Before proceeding to an investigation of thermohaline driven currents, we

first wish to examine the vertical temperature structure of the ocean. The
temperature and salinity in the upper 30·100 m is very nearly uniform due to the
turbulent mixing created by the surface winds; it is therefore often called the mixed
layer. The situation is idealized in Figure 5·7, where the mixing coefficient or eddy
diffusivity, K, is much larger than it is in the thermocline below the mixed layer.
The abrupt transition from the mixed layer value to the thermocline value is actually
an observed feature of the ocean (and atmosphere) since mixing is very much
affected by density stratification. A measure of stratification is the Richardson
number,
Figure .5·7. Schematic vertical distributions of temperature, e, (left panel) and eddy
dlffuslvlty, K, (right panel) in the wind driven surtace layer. Region 1 is highly
turbulent due to wind driven velocity shear and supports a large eddy diffusivity
Region 2, below the surtace layer, is statically stable and has a very small diffusivity ..
(5·18)

values of K below the oceanic mixed layer where positive values of Ri range in the

The density gradient is almost equal to the in situ density gradient; see section 7.2 thousands are thought to result from episodic breaking of internal waves; however,
for an exact definition of aNaz.For Ri < 0 the flow is unstable and turbulent this phenomena is not well understood.

mixing intensifies; as Ri becomes more negative, the mixing coefficient, K,

increases. Neutral flow corresponds to Ri = O. In the range, Ri = 0 to a critical We now wish to consider a simplified model of the mixed layer and
value of Ri, thought to be 0.20 to 0.25, turbulent mixing is significant. Above the thermocline applicable to upwelling regions of the ocean. To greatly simplify the
critical value, turbulent mixing and values of K are very small. The very small problem, we aSSume horizontal homogeneity; aelax = aelay = 0 and
stationarity, aeldr = O. Therefore equations (2·18) and (2·21.) become
ae a ( ae)
w-=- K- (5·19)
az az az
where K = Kh. To further simplify the mathematics let w = constant. And K is
taken to be a constant value which is, however, different in the two regions depicted
3 The cross-product convention is not formally introduced until Chapter 12. However, using
the convention, one can express (5-16a, b) as S = - J- 1 k XTo where k is a unit vector in the in Figure 5·7. Then a solution to (5·19) is
z-direction.
78 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 79

(5-20) e2 = Qt exp w(, + 8); ,<-8 (5-23a)

IV K2
where
To determine e = el, the solu tion for the upper mixed layer where K=Kt,
stipulate the sea surface temperature, es, and surface heat flux, Po Cp Qo, where Qo (5-23b)
'" K I (aet!lJz)z=O is the so-called "kinematic heat flux" the use of which simplifies
the ensuing an~lys is . (Note th at the dimensional units of the kinematic heat flux is Thus, equa tion (5-22) provides th e temperature distribution for region I and
the product of velocity and temperature.) The constants, A and B in (5-20) may be (5-23a, b) is the distribution for region 2.
detennined and we obtain
The following statements and conclusions may now be made:
(5-21)
i) From Figure 3-4d, estimate qo '" Po CpQo = 30 W m- 2 for regions
for the upper mixed layer where K = K t · where the heat flux into the ocean is positive (qo is negative) indicative also of the
fact there is upwelling; thus, Qo = 8 x /0-6 °C m sot. We also let es ~ 20°.
In the region, 0 >, > -8, the ternl, IV,/Kt, will be shown to be very small e
Assuming the quantity, Qo8/(K t s ) is small (as will be verified below) in equa ti on
so that, after expanding the exponential function 4, the above expression simplifies (25), we obtain w = 4 X 10.5 cm s-t = 4 cm day-t o
to
e1 = e S
+ Qo'.
K '
0 >, >-8 (5-22) ii) An estimate of Kt may be obtained from (5- 14) assuming a wind
1 stress of 4 dy n cm · 2 or UT = 2 cm s- I and also, 8 = 50 m; this yie lds
KI = 100 cm 2 s·t. We th erefore obtain Q o 8/(Ktes) = 2 x 10-3, a small value as
In fact (5-22) is a solution to a(KI ael/a,)/a, = O. This is important si nce the
was assumed in i). Related to this is the small temperature drop across the mixed
assumption, IV = co nstant, is, per se, a particularly poor assumption in the upper
mixed layer; at the surface, for example, w::=: O. This does not matter si nce we have
layer since, from (5-22), es - e t (-0) = 0.04°C; i.e., the mixed layer mixes out
temperature differences due to the effect of the wind creating a (relatively) large KI.
just found that diffusion dominates vertical advection near the surface.

iii) We now obtain w8/Kt = 10-3 a small number as was assumed in

To detennine the temperature profile below th e mixed layer we require that
going from (5-21) to (5-22).
the temperature and heat flux be continuous across z ::;;; * o. Thu s, at z = - OJ set el
= e2 and Qt '" K t (ael/a,) = K2 (aB2 fa,). Note also that Qt = Qo . Furthermore,
iv) From Figure 1-6, thermocline temperature profiles are approx imated
let e2 - 0 as ,-> -=. Actually, oceanic bOllom temperatures are closer to 2°C;
by (5-23) if we let K')/w = 500 m; thu s, e/es decreases
by e- t at, = - 500 m as
however, all temperatures in thi s analysis may be taken relative to the bottom
2
approximately observed. We then obtain K2 = 2 cm s- t as the mixing coefficient in
temperature. Together with (5-22), the solution is,
the thennocline. For the real ocean, even this small va lue may be too large.
80 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 81

Thus, if upwelling is the dominant advective component as assumed in PROBLEMS

equation (5-19), we have deduced a rough estimate of the upwelling velocity, the
knowledge that the mixed layer mixing coefficient is large and the thermocline
mixing coefficient is small; both are difficult quantities to measure directly. It is
also of interest to note that, using the deduced vertical velocity, it would ta!,e a little-
less than 100 years for a particle to ascend from, say, z = -1000 m to the surface.
Below z = - 1000 m, one would presume that the vertical velocities are much lower
than obtained in i); the "age" of bottom water, for example, is thought to be of the
order of 1000 years as determined by carbon-14 radioactive decay measurements.
5-1. Find numerical values for the geostrophic wind velocity far from the
surface and for the sea surface velocity when the surface stress is (~ox ..roy) = (I, 0)
dyn cm- 2 and drtldX = drtldy = O. Assume barotropic flow and the empirical
relation, K = .OO4~ol(pj) obtained by combining (5-14) and (5-15).
5-2. For the parameters of Problem 5-1, find the ratio of vi K and thus the
reason why v, the molecular kinematic viscosity, can be neglected.

5.8 SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF THE THERMOCLINE 5-3. Suppose that we measure a steady, ocean surface speed of 10 em s-1 and a
wind stress of 1 dyn cm-2. Assume that the water density, p = 1.0 gm cm-3, and
The upper thermocline undergoes yearly structural variations as the Coriolis parameter f = 10- 4 s-I. What is the value of the coefficient of eddy
demonstrated in Figure 5-8. One sees that, during spring and summer (left panel), viscosity in cgs and mks units?
net heat flux into the ocean surface creates a stable surface layer such that
penetration of wind induced turbulence and mixing is inhibited. During the fall and 5-4. From (5-7a,b) write expressions for U - ug and v - Vg as functions of u, =
winter cooling season, the very unstable layer readily mixes down to a depth where, (~oIPo)1/2 = [( ~ox Ipo)2 + (~oy Ipo)2] 1/4, and tanO =~oy/~ox. Note that turbulent
finally, the turbulence is extinquished by a stable temperature and density gradient. boundary layer data is often presented in the form, (u - ug)lut and (v - vg)lu, as
functions of zflu, for 0 = O.

5-5_ Suppose the surface wind stress components, (~ox, ~oy), and oceanic
IDn I • YII 0
geostrophic velocities, (Ug, vg ), are variable functions of x and y. Does (5-lOa,b)
yield the correct solutions [u(x,y,z), v(x,y,z)]? Defend y.our conclusion.

50 5-6. Solve for the velocity distribution in an Ekman layer corresponding

to the boundary conditions ~zx (0) =0, <zy(O) = ~oy and <zx(-h) = ~,y(-h) =O.

5-7_ Why is the sail area on a sailboat much larger that the keel area? Estimate
the ratio of the sail area to the keel area. Assume that the ratio of the relative wind
velocity to the hull velocity is 4 and that the lift coefficients (if you don't know how
Figure 5-8. Typical annual variations of temperature stratification of the thermocline
based on vertical profile records taken on weather ship Papa (500 N,145 0 W) in 1956. that is defined, guess) of the sail and keel are equal.
(Dodimead et a/,1963) The Roman numerals denote months. From Dietrich et a/
(1978).
 82 Chapter 5 Planetary Boundary Layers 83

I
I 5-8, The ocean surface boundary layer is sometimes called the mixed layer
I
because temperature and salinity are observed to be nearly constant there; that is,
well mixed. On the other hand, the results of this chapter indicate that momentum
(velocity) is not well mixed. Let rzx = Koujoz and qzj(PoCp ) = KiJejoz,
assuming that the mixing coefficient for momentum is equal to that of temperature.
From a scale analysis, find the ratio of the surface boundary change of temperature
to that of veIocity in terms of the surface fluxes. Next, quantify that ratio with
typical values of wind stress, 1 dyn cm-2, and heat flux, 50 W m- 2, (see Figure
3-4d). Then for the ocean surface velocity found in Problem 5-1, find the
temperature difference across the mixed layer.

5-9. Close to the surface of the atmospheric boundary layer (within the first 10%
of the layer depth) rzx'" constant = ro' r zy = O. In this near surface region, it is
known that, for turbulent boundary layers, K = 1(UrZ where I( = 0.4 is von
Karman's constant and where u r ,,( ro / Po)l!2 Solve for u(z) subject to u = 0 at z
= zoo You will obtain the well known "law of the wall" for near surface, turbulent HI donJt know why I don't care about the hottom
of the ocean, but 1 don't."
boundary layers. Note that Zo is a "roughness parameter" which is an empirical
length scale so that u(z) is correct for z » zo; it accounts for the fact that the
Drawing by Saxon; © 1983 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
aforementioned formula for K fails at some small distance from the surface.

5-10, Presuming you were successful with Problem 5-9, adopt Charnock's
relation for the roughness parameter over an ocean surface, Zo :::; a g / u r • where g
is the gravity constant and a is an empirical constant thought to be about 0.014. The
formula acknowledges that roughness is created by wind induced surface waves so
that Zo must be some dimensionally consistent function of ur and g.
(a) Derive a formula for C r defined in (3-5a, b).
(b) Find C r for IVIOI = 5, 10 and 15 m sol [Note: the resultant formula for C r
will be transcendental, but a rapidly convergent iteration will solve the equation.]
 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 85

Chapter 6
dry dl1
-fvg=-gdx' tug = -g dy (6-4a,b)

Note again that u and v are functions of x,y and Z whereas 11, Ug and Vg are
Barotropic Ocean Circulation functions only of x and y, Below the Ekman layer, where (d~zx/ dZ, d~zyldZ)
=(0, 0), one can see from (6-2a,b) and (6-4a,b) that (u, v) =(Ug, vg), Figure 6-1 is
The purp'ose of this chapter is to develop solutions to the barotropic, low a sketch of the total velocity component, u, and the geostrosphic part, Ug.

Rossby number equations of motion for simple ocean basins. We will learn that the
open barotropic ocean is directly forced by wind stress curl and that a strong Now subtract (6-1) from (6-3) to obtain
current forms to satisfy continuity along the ocean's western boundary,
d d d
-(W-W )=--(U-U )--(v-v)
dZ g dX g dy g
6.1 EKMAN PUMPING

It will be seen that horizontal variations in surface wind stress can result in and integrate from Z =- 0 to Z =0 to obtain
horizontal variations in Ekman transport through equations (5-16a,b). This will
dSx _dS
w(x,y,O) - wg(x,y,O)- (w(x,y,-o)- wg(x,y,-O)} =__ _y
result in a vertical upwelling or downwelling velocity which, through Sverdrup's
dX dy
relation (4-5b), will create a northward velocity in the geostrophic water column
below the surface Ekman layer. where we use the definitions (5-17a,b), Below the Ekman layer at Z =-0, W =Wg
so that terms in curly brackets disappear. Furthermore, at the surface, the vertical
To understand the interaction of the surface Ekman layer and the velocity is zero; i.e., W (X, y, 0) = 0, Therefore
geostrophic velocity field below the Ekman layer, consider again the barotropic
equations of motion which include vertical momentum exchange (6-5a)

dU av dw (6-1) 5'''1\6
-+-+-=0 or using (5-1 ta,b)
dX dy dZ

Wg(X,y,O) = ~ (~OY)_~(~ox)::: c~ (.!;\(6-5b)

dry 1 d~,y
-fv=_gdry +_1 d~,x, fu=-g-+-- (6-2a,b) dX Pof dy Pof <! jof J
dX Po dZ dy Po dZ
Note that, shon of solving for detailed Ekman profiles and thus detailed variations
We now define the geostrophic velocity field according to of w(x, y, z), equation (6-5b) yields the value wg(x, y, 0) which is very nearly equal
to the total vertical velocity immediately below the Ekman layerl, Presuming

(6-3)
1 Note that iiwglih = constant so that. if Wg(x,y,-H) = 0, then Wg(x,y,z) = Wg(x,y,O) (I+zIH),
If w,e esllmate (j = 40 m and Ii = 4000 m, then w(x,y,-O) = 0,99 Wg (x,y,O) so that the actual
vertlC,at velocity below the Ekman layer is approximately equal to the geostrophic vertical
velocity at the surface.

84
86 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 87

bottom surface (see Figure 4-5). However, it is necessary to remark that, in (6-7),
we have neglected the deviation of the actual velocity from geostrophy due to the
bottom boundary layer; we do this in order to isolate the interaction processes of the
surface layer and the deeper water.

Combining (6-6) and (6-7) we obtain

(6-8)

and the flow scheme that emerges from (6-5) and (6-8) is as sketched in Figure 6-2
for the special case where a( v,H)/ ay = as,/ ay = O. Due to a horizontal variation
in wind stress (which creates Ekman transport divergence), upwelling is created
according to (6-5) which creates convergence in deeper water according to (6-8).
To (6-8) we add Sverdrup's relation, equation (4-/b), which, for barotropic flow
Figure 6-1. The geoslrophic velocity field. (Ug. Yg). ismathematically defined as equal may be written
to the actual velocity below the Ekman layer. The differences, U - Ug and w - Wg. are
due to Ekman layer. viscous efiects.
z
the surface stress is known, the Ekman pumping, Wg(x, y, 0), is then known from
(6-5b) and we now proceed to find the deep water response to this Ekman
pumping.

The flow is pumped up or down by the horizontal divergence or

convergence of the Ekman transport, aSxlax+aSylay, which is supplied by a
tttt ttt t tt tt
convergence or divergence of the deeper geostrophic flow. Thus integrate (6-3)
from z = -H to z = 0 so that

au av
-g H +-g H + wg(x,y,O)-wg(x,y,-H) = 0 (6-6)
ax ay ax A~
U g + aUg LU

We now let
(6-7)

that is, we assume that the geostrophic flow near the bottom is parallel to the Figure 6-2. The horizontal divergence of the surtace Ekman transport is balanced by
convergence of the deeper geostropic flow. The sketch is a special case where the
divergence or convergence in the y-direction is nil.
88 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 89

_ 1 w, (x,y,O) (6-9)
Then use (6-10) to obtain
v, - {3 H

Thus, from knowledge of Wg(x,y,O), we can immediately find Vg(x,y) from (6-9);
M ~(1...)+M a(/)_ a("1'Oy) a("1'ox) (6-13)
x ax H y ()y H - ax PoH - ()y PoH
then Ug(x,y) must be obtained as a solution to the first order, differential equation
(6-8). Problem (6-2) is a recommended exercise at this point. If we define M" i Mx + j My, (6-13) can be written vectorially so that
Vertically Integrated Equations (6-14)

Although there are two distinct flow regions, the surface Ekman region and
the deeper geostrophic region, we now blur this distinction by developing integral
equations, this in the interest of mathematical simplification. If we add (6-5a) and
(6-8) to eliminate Wg(x, y, 0) we obtain
(6-10)
and thus expresses a relation between the flow component perpendicular to lines of
constant flH and the wind stress curl, the right side of (6-13) or (6-14).
Conversely, in the absence of wind such that the flow is entirely geostrophic, (6-14)
is a statement that the flow is along contours of con stant flH; i.e., we would have
M . Vh (j1H)= 0 as was found in Chapter 4.

where we define the transport, (Mx, My), according to In Chapter 12, we will interpret (6-13) or (6-14) as a vorticity equation
where the left side of the equation is the advection of planetary potential vorticity,
M, "fo-H Udz = fO-H u,dz + S, , M, "fo-H v dz = fO-H v,dz + S, (6-11a,b) flH, and the wind stress curl on the right side is a source of vorticity. For ilie
present, the notation, curl, (To/PoH), can be taken as shorthand for the expression
and where we use the definitions (5-17a,b). It should now be remarked that (6-10) on the right side of (6-13).
could have been obtained directly from (6-1) or from the integral, continuity
equation (2-6). 6.2 A FLAT BOTTOMED OCEAN BASIN WITH A SIMPLE ZONAL
WIND STRESS
To obtain integral dynamic relations, integrate (6-2a,b) from z =-H to z =0
and obtain Let us examine the consequences of (6-13) for a flat-bottomed ocean where
aHlax =aHI()y = 0, iJ[lax = 0 and iJ[1()y" {3. Furthermore, a reasonable physical
(1) "1'oy
"1' fM =-gH-+-
(1)
-fMy =-gH-+-=,
ax Po x ()y Po
(6-12a, b) model for wind stress is a simple zonal stress (see Figure 3-7a, b) sllch that

To obtain another useful equation which eliminates 1)(x,y) from (6-12a,b), write (6-15)
and

a (fMx) a (fMy)_ a ("1'oy) a ("1'ox) (6-16)

ax H + ()y H - ax PoH - ay PoH
 90 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 91

Observed annual wind distributions and a schematic of the resulting ocean current 70 0 N Subpolar gyre

system are shown in Figure 6-3. Streamlines which are everywhere parallel to
60 0
M = i Mx + j My are also shown. In the "subtropical gyre" region, it will be seen
Westerly
that (6-16) predicts a southward transport of water and this is as illustrated in L 50 0 winds
a o Pacific
Figure 6-3 everywhere except along the western boundary. The reader may find it t X AI/anJie
40 0
interesting to digress at this point and dissect My, given by (6-16), into the surface
Ekman transport, Sy, and the deeper geostrophic transport, vgH, with the help of U 30 0
(5-16a), (6-5b) and (6-9). d
e 20 0

We now adopt the simple rectangular ocean basin of Figure 6-4 for analysis. winds N. Equatorial Current II

c=
100
Given a specific wind function, ~ox(y)' My is provided by (6-16). To find Mx we
--=::>
use the continuity equation (6-10) so that Eq Doldrums
C- Eq""ori,1
cOO""'C""'",--:-:>
Trade S. Eq uatoria\ Currenl
winds
20 0 S '-:-_-:-,.L--.l_~ __w
-2 ., 0 , 2

Integrating with respect to x yields Zonal wind stress, 't Ox ' in dyn em- 2

2 Figure 6·3. A schematic 01 wind distribution and the resulting current system. In the
Mx = ~ a2 (~ox )+F(Y) AtlantiC Ocean. the western boundary current is the Gulf Stream whereas in the
f3 ay Po Pacific, it is the Kuroshio Current. Adapted from Munk (1950). '

_5°~-1
where F(y) is an arbitrary function of y.
I;
[' 'f0)(
We now face a dilemma. Boundary conditions dictate that Mx =0 at x =0 -10
-20 -15
and at x = a; i.e., there should be no flow normal to both east and west coastlines.
Y f f f f f 0

~
Since F(y) is the only available free function, we will be able to satisfy the
boundary condition on only one coast. Armed with hindsight we choose to satisfy
the eastern boundary condition, M x(a, y) = O. Therefore, one obtains ---- / /

F(y) = -ar a (rox I Po)1 ai and

1 2
0 o a
0 X
(6-17)
Figure 6·4. A simple ocean basin. For the Atlantic ocean. the boundaries. x = 0 and
x = a, would roughly correspond to 75 0 W and 10 0 W whereas y = 0 and y = b would
correspond ,to :5°N ~nd 50 o N. Labels on the streamlines are values of the transport
A model wind field approximating a portion of that shown in Figure 6-3 is streamtunctlon In units of 10 6 m3 s-l. The solution is from equation (6-23) which is
deftclent In that the streamlines are not closed on the western boundary.

l,:
92 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 93

7r)' as sketched in Figure 6-5. Equation (6-2Ia) is a restatement that '¥ is constant on
"fox = -t"o cosb (6-18)
streamlines but (6-2Ib) contains the additional information that LlIf! is equal to the
volume flow rate, MLln, confined between streamlines labeled If! and If! + LlIf!.
and is plotted on the left side of Figure 6-4. Thus, if one uses (6-18) in (6-16) and
That If!(x,y) is so intimately related to flow rate stems from the fact that its very
(6-17), we have the solution
definition in (6-20a,b) automatically satisfies the continuity equation (6-10).

(6-19a,b)
Returning to our present problem and equations (6-16) and (6-20b), we
have

Stream Function alf! =-M =l~(1'ox)

ax Y f3 ()y Po
In Figure 6-4 we have drawn streamlines which are everywhere paranel to
the velocity vectors M_ It is, however, possible to develop a function which not Integration with respect to x yields
only describes the shape of the streamlines but is useful analytically in other ways.
Thus we define a stream function, '¥, such that
If! = l~( 1'ox Jx + F(y)
f3 ()y Po
M = _ ,ill' (6-20a,b)
Y ax
We now evaluate F(y) so that '¥ = 0 at x = a and therefore Mx = a'¥/()y = 0 at
Since M' 'IIh '¥ = Mx a'¥/ax + My a'¥/()y = 0, contours of constant '¥ are x = a. Therefore
everywhere parallel to M. Furthermore if we locally create a coordinate system,
(s, n), parallel and normal to M we can also show, as we did in the development of
If! = - a
I -
f3 ay
(1'..::m.
Po
J(x - a) (6-22)

equation (4-2a,b) that

or, in terms of our specific wind stress model of equation (6-18)
alf! = 0, alf! = M (6-2Ia,b)
as an (6-23)

Using (6-20a,b) one can obtain (6-19a,b) again from (6-23).

Figure 6-5. The volume flow
rate, M Lln, is bounded by the
streamlines labeled, tp and IJ'+
LI 'f' and equal to LI 'f'.
In Figure 6-4 each streamline is labeled with the value of '¥ obtained from
(6-23) for the typical values, 1'0 = 1 dyn cm- 2 , Po = I gm cm- 3 , f3 = 2 x 10-8
km- I s-I, a = 6000 km, b = 4000 km. The units of '¥ are m 3 S-I; the value, I xlO6
m 3 S-I, is commonly called a "Sverdrup". Therefore, this simple model yields a
total anticyclonic circulation of about 25 x 106 m3 s-I = 25 Sverdrups.
 94 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 95

6.3 WESTERN BOUNDARY CURRENT where R is an empirical constant. Alternatively, Munk (1950), in analogy to
(2-12), assumed that
It is noted again that (6-23) is deficient in that streamlines do not close on
the western boundary as they do in Figure 6-3 and as they do in the western dMx
2
dX '
boundaries of the world's oceans. In order to repair this deficiency, let us reexamine A (6-26)
the basic assumptions that have been made. First of all, in (6-12a,b), we have dM dMy dMy
- -x+ - - 2-
ignored bottom friction terms. Thus, upon integrating d~z/dz in (6-12a) from z = dX Jy' Jy
-H to z = 0, we could have obtained 'fox/Po - TJI.../Po where THx is the bottom
friction, and, similarly, ~o/Pa - ~HlPo in (6-12b). Bottom friction was indeed the where the lateral viscosity, A, must be empirically determined. Therefore, insert

dissipative ingredient in the famous paper by Stommel (1948) who first recognized (6-25) and (6-26) into (6-24a,b) and obtain

the need to introduce dissipation into the system to obtain closed streamlines.
(6-27a)
Another means of obtaining closed streamlines while at the same time
enforcing a no slip condition on the western boundary - the Gulf Stream docs
decrease in intensity near the shore - is to include lateral friction; this is an approach (6-27b)
introduced by Munk (1950). These are terms that were removed through the
ll.;J scaling analysis leading to equations (2-16) and (2-17) and, subsequently, (6-2a,b).
where the continuity equation (6-10) has been used to simplify the terms in the
~~rt Recall that the terms were eliminated due to the fact that the horizontal scale, L, for
square brackets. Once again we form JifMxlH)fJx + CXjMy/H)IJy, and obtain
U[?,!,~the variation of stress was assumed to be much greater than the vertical scale, H .
.ftu- ~<~However, it now appears that, near the western boundary, the horizontal scale is
~mall. Thus, we reinstate d~yx/dY + d~.u/dX in equation (6-2a) and d~)'/dY + MX~(.L)+M
dX H
~(.L)=~(..k)_~(
y dy H dX PoH
'ax)
dY PoH
d~,/dX in (6-2b). again integrate all terms from z = -H to z = 0 and obtain

- jM --g
_ H- ~"'' --+-'-'
dn+ - ~Hx dT" +--
dT,·x (6-24a) (6-28)
." dX Po Po dX dY

dl7 ~o)" ~H)" dT,)" dT)")"

jM, =-gH -+-' - - ' +--' +-'- (6-24b)
. dY Po Po dX dY

Flat Bottomed Ocea11

Stammel (1948) introduced a model for bottom friction such that For a flat bottomed ocean and a purely zonal wind, (6-28) simplifies to

(~lIx' 'lIy) = JM"M y) (6-25)

~o
96 Chapler6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 97

=_~(5M..)+R(aMy _ aMX)+A[a3~y + a3M~ _~_ a3~X]

We continue to use the simplified wind stress given by (6-15) so that the right side
f3 My of (6-33) is a function of y and not a function of X. We therefore assume a
iJy Po ax iJy ax axiJy iJyax iJy
solution of the form

It is again convenient to use the stream function defined by (6-20a,b). Thus, _

1i' = 7i1 aya('fop; ) F(x) (6-34)

where
d 2 F dF
£--2 +-=1 (6-35)
ax dx
Stommel's Model
The particular so!ution is simply x which may be added to the homogeneous
solution, A + Be-x/<. Then the boundary conditions, '¥(O,y) = '¥(l,y) = 0, determine
~Stommel included bottom friction in his model but not lateral friction so
that after we non-dimensionalize x and y ;ccording to
the constants, A and B, so that F = x- (1- e-XlE) / (1- e-I/E). For small £, this
result can be simplifissince e-1/E = O. In place of (34), we can therefore write
(x,y) 0: (x / a, y / a) (6-30)

(6-36a)
and set A = 0, equation (6-29) may be written

(6-31) Now note that a21J1/ay2 = order of 'fo/(Pof3) whereas a21J1/a;;2 = order of
£ -2 'fol(Po/3); the former term is therefore much smaller than the latter term as was
where assumed in obtaining (6-33).
R
eo:- (6-32)
af3 Equation (6-31) was simplified here in a somewhat ad hoc manner but, as
demonstrated in Appendix D, the same result can be obtained more systematically
For a given wind stress, it is possible to integrate (6-31) exactly and Stommel did
using the method of matched asymptotic expansions (van Dyke, 1964; Kevorkian
this. The resulting solution is algebraically complicated but may be simplified for a
and Cole, 1980). The method is often useful in Fluid Dynamics whenever one
flow morphology like the Gulf Stream where we shall see that e must be a small
encounters an equation where the coefficient of the highest derivative is small; i.e.,
number. For small e, we expect a rapid change of 1i' with respect to x near the
when one encounters a boundary layer problem. In Geophysical Fluid Dynamics,
western part of the basin, so that the product of the first term in the square brackets
we will see that the Gulf Stream is one of nature's more dramatic, boundary layer
of (6-31) and e is of the same order as other terms. Since we do not anticipate a
examples.
similarly rapid change with respect to y, the second term in the square brackets
should be much smaller than the first term. We therefore neglect this term - but
The streamlines from (6-36a) are plotted in Figure 6-6 together with the
will later check to verify its relative smallness - so that
northward transport for y = b!2 obtained from

(6-33)
 98 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 99

M =_\ a_(~Ox)[..!.e-x/e_\J (6-36b)

y afJ ay Po e E= 0.05

~ ! for the values e

= 0.050 and 0.025. We use the wind stress given by (6-\8) and the
values, ~o = I dyn cm· 2, fJ = 2 x 10. 8 km· l s·l, a = 6000 km and b = 4000 km.
In this figure and i~ (6-36b) notice how differentiation has increased the magnitude
of the velocities in the western boundary region by the factor, ,;-1; however, the
distance, over which the velocity is large, decreases by a factor, e, so that the total
y/b

flow in the western boundary remains constant as e varies.

o
o

Munk's Model
E= 0.025
Munk neglected bottom friction, but included lateral friction so that his
model equation was y/b

(6-37)

where now
(6-38) 40,---------------------,

is the small parameter. We simplify this equation in the same way as we £= 0.025
simplified equation (6-31); that is, retain only the highest derivative with respect
to x in the square brackets. Thus, £ = 0.050

(6-39)
o\(
o xla

The general solution technique is the same as that used before. However, this
equation is fourth order in x and one may satisfy more lateral boundary conditions.
Thus, we can set ljI(O,ji) = ljI(l,ji) = 0 as we did in the case of Stomme!'s model.
Additionally, we can stipulate no slie, My = 0, on the eastern and western
boundaries or, equivalently, aljl(O,ji) / ax = aljl(l,ji) / ax = O. The final result is
Figure 6-6. The two upper panels are Stommel's solutions lor e = .050 and .025
calculated from equations (6·36) and (6-18). The lowest panel is My at y = b!2
for the lwo values of e. The unils of Myare m2 s·'. Notice that the integral of M
with respecllo x is nil. y
 :<-

100 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 101

(6-40a) 1
I:: = 0.050
where

F( x-) =x- -!3x-+ 1--!33e slOT

- I +e -XI2{(1 -e ) cos- . -!3x}
ylb
2
+e{l_e(i-I)le} (6-40b)

and o
x=x/e (6-41) o
Some very small terms, of order ee- I/e have been neglected. Equation (6-40a, b)
is plotted in Figure 6-7 and also
I:: = 0.025
(6-42a)
ylb
where

F'(-)
x -1 1 -XI2{( --",,,e
- --e 2 (;3)' -!3x -!3x} -e(i-I)le
S1O--+£COS-- (6-42b)
e -!3 2 2
o
o
for e= .05 and .025. We again use (6-18) and the values, 1:0 = I dyne cm-2 ,
f3 = 2 x 10- 8 km-I s-I , a = 6000 km and b = 4000 km.
20 f\ I:: = 0,025
Both the Stommel and the Munk models allow streamlines to close on the
western boundary. The characters of the boundary layers are quite different,
however. As seen in the lower panels of Figures 6-6 and 6-7, Munk's model
!(~ 1::=0.050
allows for the imposition of a no-slip condition and includes an interesting offshore
O~~rj~~~============~
counter current.

Three-dimensional numerical models of a rectangular, flat bottomed basin o x/a

which include both bottom friction and lateral friction show that the former is
relatively negligible when reasonable values of R and A are used so it might be
presumed that the Munk physics prevails in the real ocean. The fallacy of this
resides in the fact that oceans are not flat. When the joint effect of bottom
Figure 6·7. The two upper panels are Munk's solutions for e = .050 and .025
calculated from equations (6·40a, b) and (6·41). The lowest panel is My at y = bl2
for the two values of e.
102 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 103

topography and baroclinicity are taken into account, as will be seen in Chapter 8,
s == 'fox (6-43)
then friction is not needed to obtain closed streamlines. A full understanding of this Y Pol
is still developing. Right or wrong, however, the SlOmmei and Munk models
The detailed surface velocities can be obtained from (5-lOa, b). The surface Ekman
represent an important stepping stone in Physical Oceanography and are only a part
pumping is
of the many contributions of these renowned oceanographers.
_ _ oSy
Wgo = wg(x,y,O) - - (6-44)
The Gulf Stream in the Nonh Atlantic Ocean, the Kuroshio Current in the oy
Pacific Ocean and the Brazil Current in the South Atlantic Ocean are all examples
Repeating (6-9) yields the deep geostrophic, nonh·south velocity
of western boundary currents which, more or less, are described by our highly
idealized model. For example, the Gulf Stream is a very narrow, about 100 km, _ I Wgo _ I oSy
v ------ (6-45)
intense northward current, returning water which had slowly journeyed to the south g f3 H f3H oy
over the broad eastern expanse of ocean. The Gulf Stream forms in the Caribbean
Next,we obtain the east-west geostrophic velocity
Sea, then flows through the Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida - where it is
often called the Florida Current - and then along the south Atlantic coast. It is only OUg _ avg Wg _ 1 oSy I 02Sy 1 oSy
50-100 km off the coast until Cape Hatteras where it abruptly veers into the deeper ox - - iJy - Ii - - H iJy - f3H oy2 - H oy
water of the Mid-Atlantic Bight after which it often meanders and sheds eddies on
2
either side. North of the Stream, warm anticyclonic eddies are prevalent while, in
=
1 0 (fSy )
the South, cold cyclonic eddies are the rule. More discussion of eddies and the f3H iJy2
Gulf Stream ensues in Chapters 7 and 8.
Notice that, in solving for avgfiJy from (6-45), we have accounted for the fact that
Of/ oy = f3. The above equation can now be integrated to obtain
6.4 VERTICAL FLOW STRUCTURE OF THE FLAT·BOTTOMED
BASIN
(6-46)

In section 6.1, we began with discussion of the three-dimensional structure

of a simple, barotropic flow comprised of the surface Ekman layer and the deeper
gostrophic flow. Then we obtained vertically integrated equations which, in sections
6.2 and 6.3, were applied to the flat-bottomed, wind driven basin; vertical structure
was lost from disclIssion. Now, we will return to an examination of the vertical
structure of the basin.
The surface Ekman layer transport is
where we have set ug = 0 at x = a. The solution is sketched in Figure 6-8 and the
solution equations are also included in the figure; the equation numbers correspond
to those in the text but have been specialized for a cosine, wind stress distribution
according to (6-18). The variation ofl(y) adds interest to the solution since it creates
different phasing of Wg and Vg with repect to y relative to the wind stress. In fact, to
good approximation, it may be shown that
104 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 105

shiftod. The result is that the phase shift is responsible for the western boundary
--b- -r--}--}--r--}--r- current water being exported out of the subtropical domain, 0 < y < b, and into the
:0 cos ~b
s, :=: p7 (43)

j j j I I Surfact sub-polar region to the north and Ihe tropics to the south. Thus, the splitting of the
y
","""
lAyer
Wgo =_ "0
pofb
['/tsin lL1'
b Gulf Stream into a northward bound North Atlantic Current (or Drift as it is labeled
tttttt + !J} cos rrJ')
f b
(44) in Figure 1-3) and southward bound Azores-Canaries Current are recognized

~++++++
features of the Atlantic Ocean. The southward penetration of a western boundary
current is less obvious in the observations but may be related to deeper flows.
These northward and southward penetrations of the western boundary current
flows must somehow be converted to Ekman surface flows to satisfy continuity.

We do not attempt further discussion of this since real ocean dynamics must
differ from the present dynamics. In the tropics.! is small- it is zero at the equator
- and the Rossby number is not small. In the sub-polar regions, the surface water is
cooled by exchange of heat with the atmosphere; deep return flows occur and
cannot be understood in the context of a barotropic model.
Westerll
Bou"dary
CUrrefIJ

Figure 6·8. The velocity structure of a wind driven, flat bottomed basin. The top
diagram shows the Ekman transport, confined to a thin surface layer. The resulting
Ekman pumping forces the deeper ocean portrayed in the lower diagram. The
horizontal shaded bars denote projections of a surface where Vg = O. The fact that PROBLEMS
f = fly) results in a phase shift of the interior flow relative to the western boundary
region. The equation numbers correspond to equations in the text which have been
specialized for a cosine wind distribution.
6·1. Derive equations (6-10) and (6·12a,b) directly from

so that the phase shift is b{3/ (rrf) and, for the numbers we have been using for f, {3 ou av Ow
-+-+-=0
and b, b{3/ (;if) =0.3. However, Ug does not have a phase shift with respect to the ox ()y oz
wind forcing. An important aspect is that the western boundary current also does
not have a phase shift since, in the boundary region, it must match (6-46) for small fu = _g 01] +-'Z..(~Oy)
x; we would also find this from (6-36a) or (6-40a, b) where
()y oz Po
U= Mx/H = H- 1olJl/oy and v = My/H = _H- 1olJl/ox. Note that, compared to Hint: you will find "Leibnitz Rule" useful
the intense western boundary layer transp0!1, the surface Ekman layer contributes a o fA('."
"0 f(x,y,z)dz =
fAOf oA oB
"Odz+ f(x,y,A)-:;-- f(x,y,B)-:;-
negligible amount of transport in the narrow western boundary region (x < ea) ox B(x,y) B ox ox ox
whereas, in the interior (eo < x < a), Sy accounts for the phase shift; i.e., My if one wishes to generalize for arbitrary bottom topography, H(x, y).
behaves like sin rry/b and Sy behaves like cos 7r)I/b so that vgH = My - Sy is phase
106 Chapter 6 Barotropic Ocean Circulation 107

6-2. The wind stress imposed on a barotropic ocean by a mesoscale cyclonic 6-5. Lake Ontario is long in the east-west direction. In the spring it is nearly
system is given by homogeneous in density. Examine the flow in the lake midway between its east
and west extremities. In the case of a southerly wind, sketch the u- profile such that
-Z:ox = -A Y exp(-r 2 I A2)
2 I A2) the average (or vertically integrated velocity) is zero which is a requirement if the
-Z:oy = -A x exp(-r
flow is steady and the ends of the basin are closed. For depth of 200 m and a
spacially invariant surface wind stress of I dyn cm- 2, solve for the velocity below
where r2 = x~ + y2. A and A are constants and f3 = (}flay = constant. H =constant
the Ekman layer. Let! = 10- 4 s-l
is the ocean depth.
a) Find the Ekman transpOlt.
b) Find the vertical velocity. w{x,y,z), below the Ekman layer. 6-6. Consider a basin driven by a wind
c) Find the northward velocity, v{x,y,z) below the Ekman layer.
d) Indicate how you would find the westward velocity, u{x,y,z) below the
Ekman layer. where ji = ylb and x = x/a. Using Stommel's transport model, impose the boundary
For (b), (c) and (d), assume geostrophy. condition, ljI{O,ji) = ljI(I, ji) = 0, ljI(X,O) and ljI{ x, 5/6) = O. Note that the latter
northerly boundary condition does not coincide with the wind stress maximum.
First guess at the expected streamline pattern and sketch the pattern. A difficult
6-3. The Pacific Ocean has been treated by Munk and Carrier (1950) as a constant challenge is to obtain an analytical solution for the boundary layer along the
depth. triangular basin as sketched below. Sketch transport streamlines and then northern edge of the basin. [Hints: Expect a series solution. Some solutions to
solve for ljI (JljIJy '" M x, JljIlJx '" . My) in regions away from lateral boundary
o2lj11oi +oljllox=O are e{kY cos(2kx-..jkY) and e{kY sin(2kx-..jkY) where
layers. Let the surface wind stress be given by (-Z:ox, -Z:oy) = -Z:o(- cos ylb, 0).
k is any constant.]
Y

b~ y =2b(' -xla) 6-7. For the parameters of the previous problem determine the upwelling or
downwelling along the northern edge of the basin.
y = 2bxla

6-8 Assuming the real Gulf Stream is about 100 km wide, roughly estimate the
a x empirical constants, R and A for the Stommel and MUlik models; first, evaluate x at
the edge of the Stream from (6-36a) and (6-42b) respectively

6-4. Obtain an equation for the stream function and for the surface elevation of a 6-9. From the vertically averaged equations of Stommel obtain the "energy
rectangular basin with no f3 effect and where -Z:ox = - -Z:o cos (nylb) and -Z:oy = O. equation"
 108 Chapter 6

Chapter 7
where the left-hand side represents work input due to sulface wind stress. Explain
why the "dissipation" integral on the right side is nearly independent of
Baroclinic Oceanic Flows
Stammel's bottom friction constant, R.
Thus far, we have only considered constant density, wind driven oceans.
However, the effect of horizontal gradients of density is an important mechanism in
driving ocean currents. Variations in density are directly related to variations in
temperature and salinity and pressure.

The purpose of this chapter is to develop understanding of the effects of

density variation on oceanic flows. Horizontal variations in density result in vertical
variations in horizontal pressure gradients. Consequently, horizontal currents,
unlike inviscid barotropic flows, may vary in the vertical; these are called baroclinic
flows.

7.1 PRESSURE GRADIENTS

Consider the hydrostatic, pressure gradient equation (2-25c). If we integrate

iiI this equation with respect to z, we obtain

p(X,y,Z) = Pa + Jz~ p'gdz' (7 -I a)

where p(x,y,T/l = Pa(x,y) is the atmospheric pressure, and 77 = 77(x,y) is the surface
elevation. p' = p(x,y,z') is the density and z' is a dummy variable of integration.
All of the properties in (7-la) can also be functions of time. However, in this
chapter, only steady flows are considered. We can also write this equation as

(7-lb)

When p = constant = Po, one sees immediately that we revert to the barotropic
case. For simplicity, we will consider Pa to be a constant although some storms can
produce significant atmospheric pressure gradients from an oceanic point of view.

109
 110 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 111

Note that the upper limit on the integral in (7-lb), 7), may replaced with a zero with 7,2 DENSITY, SALINITY, TEMPERATURE RELATIONS
very little loss in accuracy.
Density is a function of salinity, temperature and pressure; the function
To obtain an estimate of the pressure at some depth, one can neglect the expressing this relationship is called the equation of state. We begin with a
integral term in (7-lb) and let Po '" 1025 kg 01- 3 and g = 9.807 01 s·2 so that discussion of the first two properties.
p = 10052 N 01- 3 (7) - z) = 0.1005 bar 01. 1 (11 - z). Thus, a meter of water
corresponds closely to a decibar and, for example, a pressure sensor, lowered into Salhlity, A Conserved Property
the water and registering 1000 decibars, means that the sensor is approximately at a
depth of 1000 m. However, we shall shortly see that the integral term in (7-lb) The salinity of sea water relates to a number of chemicals dissolved in pure
cannot be neglected when we deal with real oceans and when we wish to determine water. Table 7-1 is a table of compounds which, when dissolved in pure water,
pressure gradients for insertion into the momentum equations of motion. Two would comprise a salinity of 35 0100 ; that is, for the solution represented by Table
pressure fields are sketched in Figure 7-1. The first field corresponds to the case 7.1
where p is a constant (or, more generally, where p is a function of z only). In this
case, the horizontal pressure gradients, Caplax, (JpliJy) = PogC(J7)I(Jx, (J7)liJy) are
S= 35gm of salts ,,35 0 I00
1000 gm of seawater
functions of x and y and not functions of z as seen in Figure 7-1 a. For steady
geostrophic flow, this means, according to C4-la,b), that the horizontal velocities are where the symbol" 0100" is read as "parts per thousand". The relative distribution
I; also independent of z. However, when p = pCx,y,z), the horizontal pressure of the various salts throughout the entire ocean is remarkably constant despite the
gradients and horizontal velocities are functions of x,y and z as illustrated in Figure fact that the total salinity does vary due to estuarine, freshwater inflow, precipitation
7-lb. and loss of freshwater through surface evaporation,

b __
Table 7~1. Distribution of salts in seawater when S = 35 0/00 ,

.;:,Slirface ~ M.l!>.>
_ x -::::::::~_ _
NaGI 23.83 9
MgGI2 5.05
P = constant Na2So4 3.98
CaG! 1.12
KGI .67
NaHG03 .195
KBr .097
H3 B0 3 .026
SrC1 .024
Ca) Cb) NaF .QQ1
Total salts 35.00 9
H2 O l&i..QQ
Seawater 1000.00 9
Figure 7-1. Illustration of : (a) A barotropic field where p = p(z) and, consequently,
aplax, aplay = functions of x and y. (b) A barocllnic field where p = p(x, y, z) and,
consequently, aplax, aplay = functions of x, y and z.
112 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 113

In the past, temperature and salinity were measured from a ship deck by
lowering so-called Nansen bottles into the ocean on a cable. The amount of cable
payed out determined the depth and therefore the pressure. After the cable had been
fully deployed, a "messenger" or weight was released from the deck to slide down
the cable and impact the top most Nansen bottle. The impact released a clamp
which caused the bottle to flip vertically and also released another messenger which
would encouhter the next bottle on the cable and so on. Each inverted Nansen
bottle would then fill with seawater and a cleverly designed mercury-in-glass
thermometer would lock in the temperature reading. After the bottles were hauled
to the surface, the temperature at depth could be read and the captured seawater
could be analyzed for salinity and other properties such as oxygen and silicates. In
the case of salinity, the total chloride is measured by chemical titration with silver
iodide. Then an empirical relation
0
S = 1.8050 Cl +0.030 / 00
provides the salinity. This relation relies on the fact that the mass proportionalities
of the different salts in the ocean are very nearly constants.
In more recent times, continuous profiles of temperature, salinity and
pressure have been obtained with a CTD or conductivity-temperature-depth device.
The properties are measured electrically and the data transmitted to the surface
electrically. As a result of deliberations and research by an international panel on
oceanographic tables and standards (UNESCO 1981,1982) a new "practical salinity
scale" and an equation of state were determined. It was first noted that absolute
salinity, defined as the ratio of mass of dissolved material in seawater to the mass
of seawater cannot be measured directly. The practical salinity is defined in terms
of its electrical conductivity relative to a prescibed standard; it is given the units,
"pSU" for IIpractical salinity units". However, for most purposes, one can presume
that the new unit, psu, and the older unit, 01 00 , are synonymous.
salinity, as it advects around the ocean. Equation (2-11) states this fact; without
diffusion, DSlDt = O.
Insitu Temperature and Potential Temperature
In situ temperature, T, is the standard thermodynamic property. Two
bodies, in thermal contact but otherwise insulated from the environment, will
transfer heat between themselves until they reach a common equilibrium
temperature, T.
A parcel of seawater will increase its temperature if it advects vertically due
to adiabatic compression where the adjective, adiabatic, refers to the fact that heat
tranfer by turbulence diffusion (followed by conduction on small eddy scales) is
nil. Thus DTlDt .. 0 even if a flow is adiabatic. For this reason, we define the
quantity, potential temperature, e, which is the temperature a parcel at depth would
attain if it were adiabatically advected to the surface. By definition and in accordance
with (2-10) we have DelDt = 0 in the absence of heat diffusion. An empirical
equation relating e and T, according to Bryden (1973), is
e = T - (0.36504xlO- 4 + 0.83198xI0-5 T - 0.54065xlO-7 T2+0A0274xlO-9 :(3) p
- (0.17439xlO- 5 - 0.29778xlO- 7 n (S - 35.0) p
+ OA1057xlO- 1O (S - 35.0) p2
- (0.89309xlO- 8 - 0.31628xlO- 9 T + 0.21987xI0-ll T2) p2
- (-0.16056xlO- 12 +O.50484xlO- 14 T) p3 (7-2)
Notice that e =T when p = O. The main conclusion to obtain from (7-2) and
subsequent property formulas are that they are very complex. A practical way of
using them is to create a computer subroutine which in the case of (7-2) provides
the output value,e, for input values, S, T and p. Figure 7-2 is a graph of T - e for
S = 35 psu (solid lines) and for S = 37 psu (dashed lines) and a few values of e
obtained from (7-2) by iteration.

An Equation of State for Density

Salinity is a conserved property in the sense that, in the absence of
diffusion, a parcel of water will contain the same amount of salt and have the same
An empirical formula for p(S, e, p) is
 I,

114 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 115

o where c is another empirical quantity related to the speed of sound and defined
according to

c = 1449.1 + .00821 p + 4.55 e- .045 &- + 1.34 (S - 35.0) (7-4c)

P (db) In the above, e is potential temperature in DC; S is salinity in psu and p is pressure
in decibars relative to atmospheric pressure (about 10 decibars). Recall that a
decibar very nearly corresponds to I m of seawater. The density, p, is in units of
kg m- 3. Notice that, at the ocean surface, p = 0 and Pp = 0; therefore, pee,s, 0) =
po(e, S).

Equation (7-4a), is the standard UNESCO formula (UNESCO,1982).

-9000 ,, However, the pressure dependent part, given by (7-4b, c), is a simplication of the
,
original UNESCO prescription for Pp which is considerably more complicated.
-1000°0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
T-8 (OC) Nevertheless, the present version is sufficiently accurate (Mellor, 1991) and it has
the advantage that it deals with potential temperature, for which equations (2-10)
and (2-19) apply, rather than in situ temperature. Calculated values from equations
Figure 7-2. The difference between in situ temperature ~md potentiat temperature (7-2), (7-3) and (7-4) are tabulated in Appendix E.
as a function of pressure and potential temperature obtained lrom equation (7-2).
The pressure in decibars (db) is very nearly equal to the depth In meters (m). The
solid lines are for S = 35 psu, the dashed lines for S = 37 psu.
Because the first two digits representing Po are always I and 0 and are not
significant dynamically, it is conventional to define a sigma theta function,
ao(S, e) such that
p(S,e,p) = Po(S, e) + pp(s,e,p) (7-3)
(7-5)
where the potential density is
A plot of (YO , obtained from (7-4a) and (7-5) is provided in Figure 7-3.
PO = 999.842594 + 6.793952xlO-2 e- 9.095290xI0· 3 &- Notice that, for S < 25 psu, there is a density minimum with respect to temperature.
+ 1.001685xlO-4 fJ3 - 1.120083xlO-6
fJ4 + 6.536332xlO-9 es Throughout the world ocean, S varies in the range, 33 psu < S < 38 psu and
+ (0.824493 - 4.0899xlO- e+ 7.6438xlO· 5 &- - 8.2467xlO-7 fJ3
3 e
potential temperature in the range, _2° < < 28°C. Therefore ao is a monotonic
+ 5.3875xI0-9 fJ4) S + (-5.72466xlO- 3 + 1.0227x10- 4 e function of Sand 8; i.e., there are no minima or maxima. This is in contrast to
_ 1.6546xlO-6 e2) Sl.5 ,: 4.8314xlO-4 S2 (7-4a) freshwater (S = 0) where ao has a maximum at 4DC. This partially
and
Pp = 1.0xl04 P c 2 (1.- 0.20 p c·2) (7-4b)

Iii
i
l.t .'.
116 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 117

For p = 0, (Jt = 138.

Static Stability
e 25
(OC) The static stability is defined as p-1ap/az. In the absence of motion, if
aPiaz < 0, the fluid is stable; if aPiaz > 0, the fluid is unstable and turbulent
mixing will occur. If velocity gradients exist, more complicated criteria exist as
15
discussed in section 5.7. The density gradient determining the static stability, as
shown by stability analysis, is not exactly the in situ density gradient but is
10
ap ap as ap ae
-=--+-- (7-6a)
az as az ae az
5 5
--- --- -- 28
e and
-- -- --- where the density on the right-hand side should be taken as a function of S,
p. The density gradient used for the static stability excludes the term,
°0~~~~5--l-11~O--L-11~5--~-~-~-~l-~-~ __~~__~~__~~0
" 20 25 30 35 40
(apjap)(apjaz) which would be included if one wished to determine the in situ
S (pSU)
density gradient, apjaz. Physically, one excludes the change in density a particle
undergoes by an adiabatic change in depth and pressure; it is only non-adiabatic
Figure 7-3. Sigma theta (kg m· 3 ) as a lunction of salinity and potential temperature.
The dashed line denotes minimum density for constant salinity. The lower boundary vertical differences that are important to stability.
given by e = .054 S is the locus of phase change to ice.

It may be shown that the square of the speed of sound in seawater, c;, is
explains why freshwater lakes freeze in the wintertime more readily than does given by ap/ ap. Since Sand e. are held constant in this differentiation, c; may be
seawater; the cold but less dense freshwater at the surface does not mix downward determined by differentiating (7 -4b, c). Also, it is easy to show from the above
whereas the cold but denser seawater mixes with deeper water and therefore slows discussion that
the surface water progression toward the freezing temperature. Note that the
freezing point for freshwater (S = 0) is DoC, by definition of the Celsius scale. At ap ap
---+-
pg
(7-6b)
35 psu, the freezing point is - 1.9 0 e. az - az cJ
where we have used the hydrostatic relation, (2-26).
Although we have chosen to primarily deal with potential temperature rather
than in situ temperature, data is generally reported in terms of the latter. Thus, if we A Simplificatio1t
consider peS, T, p) again, one can define a sigma-t function such that

Equation (7-3) can, to a fair degree of approximation, be further simplified

p(S,T,p) = 1000 kg m- 3 + (Jt(S,T,p)
according to
 118 Chapler 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 119

.046p the track. Figure 7-4 is a map of the East Coast of the United States and includes a
p(S,e,p) =Pe(S,e) + Po 1000 bar (7-7a)
major portion of the Gulf Stream. A transect of hydrographic stations from
Fuglisler (1960) is also shown. These stations are unique in that they cross the
where Po = 1.025 gm cm· 3 = 1025 kg m· 3. Assuming hydrostatic equilibrium we
Gulf Stream immediately after Cape Hatteras where the Stream departs from its
also establish an approximate pressure depth relation according to P" - Pogz so that
entrapment by isobaths. Hydrographic sections of potential temperature, salinity
.046 z and density are shown in Figure 7-5. The geostrophic velocity, nonnal to the
p(S,e,z) =Pe(S,e)-po-4- (7-7b)
10m section is also determined. We now proceed to demonstrate how the geostrophic
'I velocity is calculated.
'Ii Thus at a depth of 10,000 m, density is increased by about 5% and sigma theta by
I
over 100%. Under this approximation, the depth dependence is not important since, Assuming geostrophy, write
if we form
(7-8)
p(x,y,z) = Po + J,ry Po gdz' - J,ry CPoz'gdz'
1]'[
II
In the above equations, Po is a constant. An equivalent notation is
, I'
I' ; "Po IO IO
+ Pog{ I) - z) + z (Po - po) gdz' - CPoz'gdz'
z
aDo aDo
I, where C = 0.046 x 10.4 m- I , then we see that ()pliJx and ()Play do not include the
jv=----
ax ax
(7-9a)

last tenn. It is, of course, these horizontal pressure gradients which drive the ocean
ii currents. Thus, for the remainder of discussion on baroclinic flow, we will neglect
where D = Do + Do is the "dynamic depth" and is here defined! according to
!
the depth or pressure dependence of density and, henceforth, let P = Pe (S, e). In (7-9b)
: I
I
an example discussed below, the error due to this approximation will be evaluated.
Do =-grp'-PO dz' (7-9c)
Another good approximation, consistent with (7-6a) and (7-7b) is that z Po
ap/az =apo/az. Thus. the potential density function can be used to determine
If we let Po = 1000 kg nr 3 then (7-9b) can also be written
horizontal density gradients which, as will be seen, drive horizontal motions and
vertical density gradients which govern vertical mixing.
(7-10)
7.3 GEOSTROPHIC VELOCITIES FROM TEMPERATURE AND
SALINITY FIELDS
1 Alternately onc can define D 8 = it
(a' - a o) dp' w~cr.c a = p-1 (S, T, ~) is the .spec,ific
An oceanographic observational strategy is to measure temperature and volume and ao is a reference speCIfic vblumc. Within the hydrostatic apprOXImation,
however, the two determinations are vinually equivalent since dp ='-Po g dz. One can identify
salinity as a function of depth at more or less equally spaced intervals along a ship's
DIg as the displacement of a surface of constant pressure.
tract. This series of hydrographic stations can be composited to form a field of
data, T(x, z) and Sex. z), where the coordinate system is aligned so that x is along
120 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 121

Figure 7·4. The Easl Coasl 01 the United States. Depth contours have an interval of
1000 m; the exception is the heavy contour denoting tho 200 m isobath and marking
the outer edge of the continental shelf. The climatological path of the Gulf Stream
axis is denoted by the heavy dashed line. The solid arrows represent near surface
flows, 0 . 1000 m; the open arrows are deep water flows. The arrows are labelled with
very approximate transports in units of Sverdrups. The surtace part of the nearly
barotropic slope water flow north of the Stream is entrained into the Stream; the
deeper part becomes the western boundary undercurrent south of the Stream.
A transect of hydrographic stations were obtained by the R.V. Atlantis
(Fuglister, 1960) in June 1955. The transect extends from 36'35'N, 74'26'W (Sta.
5295) to 35'09'N, 71'0'W (Sta. 5305) and is shown as the short heavy line. The Figure 7·5. Temperature, salinity and density and the calculated geostrophic
geostrophic velocity profiles between the stations, 5298 and 5299, are calculated in velocities on a section across the Gulf Stream defined in Figure 7-4. The units of
Table 7-2. Velocities along the entire transect are represented in Figure 7-5. velocity are m s·1; the contour interval for the positive northward velocities (solid lines)
are 0.2 m s·1 whereas it is 0.05 m s·1 for the negative southward velocities (dashed
lines).
122 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 123

Data from Atlantis stations 5298 and 5299, located in Figure 7-4 near the
center of the Gulf Stream, are tabulated in Table 7-2. A calculation of 0'0 is made
from equation (7-4a) - a short FORTRAN program of the equation was used - and
a numerical solution to (7-10) may be obtained from Do(z + LIz) ~ Dtt.z) - 10-3
g 0.5 [O'e{z + LIz) + 0'0 (z)] LIz; one starts with Dtt.O) ~ 0 and then proceeds to
calculate Do successively for each depth increment. We next obtain Vrel ~ - /·1
LlxD6iLlx. The quantities, g ~ 9.807 m s-2,f~ .86 x 10- 4 s-1 and Llx ~ 28.06 km
are used in the calculation. The variable, Vrel, refers to the fact it is the velocity
relative to the surface velocity.
Note that dI)/dx or aDo/dx is an unknown quantitity. If there is knowledge
of the velocity at one depth, from a single current meter, for example, then Vrel can
be adjusted to conform to that value and v is known for all z. However, there are
hydrographic measurements all over the world but generally nol in conjunction
with a current meter measurement. It is an old art in oceanography to try to deduce
(De/ant 1941) or guess a reference surface of zero velocity. From the
point of view of determining total integrated velocity (total transport) the process is
an uncertain art since a small error integrated over large depths can be significant.
However, to obtain surface velocities and elevation, gradients. it is a useful
procedure. Thus, in Table 7-2, set z ~ - 1500 m as the reference surface of zero
velocity and add -/-1 aDo/dx ~ 1.95 m S-l to Vrel to obtain the estimated velocity,
v. This also corresponds to al)/dx ~ 1.6 m/100 km. A calculation (not shown) has
also been performed using the full pressure dependent relations, (7-3) and
(7-4a,b,c) instead of polS, (9). We then obtain a surface velocity, 2.10 m s-l,
instead of 1.95 m sot in Table 7-2. The calculation of geostrophic velocities
displayed in Figure 7-5 was also performed using the full pressure dependent
equation of state. Also the velocity was set to zero at the bottom.
There now exists some hope that satellites can measure sea surface
elevation with sufficient precision so that the need to assume a reference surface of
zero velocity may be eliminated in the future. Another procedure to avoid guessing
at a reference surface will be found in Chapter 8.

Table 7·2. Geostrophic velocity calculation between Atlantis station 5298 (39 0 23' N, The total Gulf Stream transport due to geostrophic flow may be determined
73°73' W) and station 5299 (36015' N, 73029' W). by evaluating profiles between all of the stations, 5295 to 5305 and then integrating
these profiles in the horizontal cross-stream direction. A rough estimate2 is obtained
by noting that the profile in Table 7-2 integrates to give My '" llOO m2 s-l From
Station 5298 Station 5299
-z B S 0, B S 0, V
the plot of Figure 7-5, approximate the slopes of density and therefore My to be
"8 "8 vre/
m 'C psu kg m· 3 m2 $-1 m $-1 m 5- 1 constant for a distance of distance of 75 km. Therefore the total transport is about
0 26.00 36.21 23.95 0.00 26.60 36.06 23.65 0.00 0.00 1.95
25 24.89 36.41 24.44 5.93 25.79 36.18 23.99 5.84 -0.04 1.91 1100 x 75000 m 3 s-l '" 83 x 106 m 3 s·1 ~ 83 Sv. The same approximating
50 22.99 36.43 25.02 12.00 23.79 36.56 24.89 11.83 -0.07 1.88
75 21.19 36.36 25.48 18.19 22.98 26.61 25.16 17.97 ·0.09 1.86
procedure yieldS a total change in sea level across the Gulf Stream of
100 19.18 36.36 26.02 24.50 22.98 36.62 25.37 24.16 -0.14 1.81 (1.6 m/1000 km) x 75 km'" 1.2 m.
150 16.78 36.05 26.38 37.34 19.97 36.62 26.01 36.76 -0.24 1.70
200 13.87 35.80 26.83 50.39 18.46 36.56 26.35 49.69 ·0.33 1.62
300 10.76 35.40 27.13 76.85 17.85 36.46 26.43 75.48 ·0.57 1.38
400 8.56 35.14 27.30 103.54 17.53 36.42 26.48 101.42 ·0.88 1.07 Other detem1inations of Gulf Stream transport arrive at a value of about is
500 7.15 35.08 27.46 130.39 13.13 35.70 26.91 127.60 ·1.16 0.79
600 5.55 35.03 27.63 157.41 11.02 35.41 27.09 154.08 ·1.38 0.57
800 4.73 35.00 27.71 211.68 8.11 35.15 27.37 207.49 ·1.74 0.21
1000 4.02 34.98 27.77 266.08 4.82 35.03 27.72 261.52 -1.89 0.06
1200 3.81 34.98 27.79 320.57 4.40 35.02 27.76 315.93 -1.92 0.03
1500 3.58 34.97 27.81 402.35 3.78 34.98 27.79 397.65 -1.95 t- 0.00
2000 3.24 34.96 27.83 538.76 3.04 34.97 27.86 534.09 -1.93 0.01 2 Making a "back of the envelope" estimates is a very good habit to nurture. It is a check
against computer programming errors and it builds intuition.
124 Chapler 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 125

2.2 velocities instead of zero, we obtain the result shown in Figure 7-6. A numerical
0
summation of total transport (out to an offshore distance of 250 km) reveals a value
of 105 Sv for the northeast flowing Stream - a somewhat high value - and 22 Sv
500 for the southwest flowing WBUC.
D
E
P 1000 The picture that emerges from research and observations is that, north of
T
H Cape Hatteras, there is a nearly barotropic southeast flow of about 40 Sv carrying
some waters from the Labrador Current. The top half of this slope water flow turns
1500
eastward at Cape Hatteras and is entrained into the Gulf Stream. The bottom half,
the WBUC, flows under the Gulf Stream at Hatteras and proceeds east of the
2000
Bahamas and southward into the southern ocean. See section 8.4 for more
discussion of this flow structure.
2500

7.4 GEOSTROPHIC STRUCTURES

~ 100 1$1 I'O~ 2$D ~

DISTANCE (kml
Figure 7·6. The geostrophic velocity calculation of Figure 7·5 repeated. This time,
the velocity at the bottom is southward at 0.09 m 5- 1 .
In this chapter, we have associated temperature, salinity and pressure with
density and then density variations with geostrophic velocities. We next ignore the
thermodynamic relationships and discuss the geostrophic consequences of some
idealized density structures.

A Simple Fron/al Model

30 Sv at the Straits of Florida and about 65 Sv off Cape Hatteras. The implication
that, between the Straits of Florida and Cape Hatteras, the Gulf Stream has A simple two-layer model of a front may be constructed as a region of
entrained about 35 Sv. constant density, Po + i5p, where Po and i5p are constants, immersed in a
homogeneous ocean of density Po. This is illustrated in Figure 7-7 where the
Wes/em Boundary Under Curren/
surface separating the frontal water from the rest of the ocean is given by z = - hex).
It is known that there exists a Western Boundary Under Current (WBUC) Formally we have
which, roughly, flows southward along the 2000 to 4000 m isobaths shown in
Po + i5p; x> 0, z < -hex)
Figure 7·4. It has been observed in great detail east of the Bahama Islands (Lee el p= { (7·11)
Po; otherwise
al. 1995). Richardson (1977) placed current meters on the bottom near Cape
Hatteras. An approximate summary of his work is that there is about a 9 em s·l
Equation (7-8) can be used to calculate the velocity, but we first simplify the
current along the bottom between the 1500 to 4000 m isobaths. If we redo the
equation by replacing the upper limit of the integral with the value, 0, (see Problem
calculation of the geostrophic velocity shown in Figure 7-5 and use these bottom
 126 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 127

g (1) = _1...(op gh) (7.14b)

ax ax p,

Note that the integral on the right side of (7-14a) is zero when z < . h. However,
when z > ·h, the integral is (oplpo) g(z+h) so that

_gOpah; x>O, z>-h

fv = Po ax (7-15)
{
0; otherwise

Therefore, v is either zero below and westward of the front or a constant with
respect to z above the front.

We now stipulate a specific h(x) for the frontal shape

. ,
(7-16)
Figure 7·7. An idealized front separating two regions of constant but differing
density. The lower plot IS the vertically Integrated, transport as a function of the This, together with (7·14b), yields
cross-front coordmate, x.

(7-17a)
7-1) so that
(1)
/v=g-+-I
a 0 '
P -Po gdz' (7 -12)
ax ax z Po where we have set 1) = 0 at x = O. From (7-15)

For simplicity, we stipulate that v = 0 for large negative z; call it z = . zoo Therefore, (7-17b)

(7-13) for z >. h(x), x > 0 and zero otherwise. Since the transport, My = v h, we obtain

Subtraction of (7-12) from (7-13) yields (7-17c)

a
fv=-- 5' P'-P
__0 gdz' (7 -14a) which is plotted in Figure 7-7. Notation that h, 1) and My equal zero for x < 0 has
ax -'0 Po
been omitted in the above equations. Notice that, for the Gulf Stream, op is a
Using (7-11), we obtain from (7-13) negative quantity so that the flow is northward. We leave, as an exercise, the
problem of obtaining the Gulf Stream total transport as a function of ho, Aand
 ~ A<-£..ie-.: ~ I
128 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 129
Chapler 7
dftw~" k(xle. \l.e~ ~

goplpo. to estimate these values from Figure 7-5 and to obtain a numerical value z
for the transport. An independent estimate of),. will be found in Chapter 12 where it
is identified as the internal Rossby radius of deformation.

Witte-Margulies Equation

Refer to Figure 7-8 which is a sketch of the most simple frontal geometry
that one can imagine. If we redo the above analysis but add a constant velocity. Vt.
to the entire field (along with a Constant surface slope to effect geostrophic balance).
then equation (7-15) can be modified so that Figure 7·8. A simple fiat surtace front for which the Witte-Margulies equation applies.

describing equation in cylindrical coordinates is

where VI and V2 refer to the regions labeled in Figure 7-8. The Wille-Margulies a + f0 .l......1!...dz·
Iv = g...!l a' (7 -19)
equation is a special case of the above equation where h = x lanrp and where rp is ar ' Po ar
the angle at which the front intersects the surface. Thus. we have
where v is the circumferential velocity and r is the radial coordinate whose origin
is the center of the edd y 3 If we assume a reference level of zero velocity at
(7-18)
z = - ZOI then
o= (1) + fO ;( ap'dz' (7-20a)
Baroclinic Eddies ar -z, Po ar

As illustrated in Figure 7-9. the Gulf Stream is actually quite unsteady and so that (7 -19) may be written
is observed to meander and to shed eddies or rings. Note that eddies are
omnipresent in the world ocean. The word "ring" is assigned to eddies whose (7-20b)
geneses are so-called baroclinic instabilities (Gill 1982. p.556) of the Gulf Stream
front. North of the stream. warm anticyclonic eddies. sometimes called warm core Suppose we stipulate a density disuibution such that
rings. are formed at the rate of about 5 per year whereas. south of the Stream. an
equal number of cool. cyclonic eddies or cold core rings are formed. Both kinds of p = I(z) + i5p e'·'I" e'lb (7-21)
rings migrate slowly to the west. at about 4 km day-I and are reentrained into the
Gulf Stream.
3 This is a good place to note that one can include an agcostrophic effect by including a
centrifugal term. Thus substitutefv + V 21Y = fv(1+vlfr) in place of the len side of (7-19). Note
If an eddy. after it has formed. is assumed to be axisymetric and steady. the that the qmmlity, vl/r is a Rossby number; values arc about 10- 1 for typical Gulf Stream rings.
 130 Chapter 7 Baroclinic Oceanic Flows 131

8p b r
[v=2g- - - (7-22)
Po A A
SLOPE WATER
If 8p is negative corresponding to relatively warm core water, the flow is
anticyclonic as illustrated in Figure 7-10. The sea surface elevation, obtained by
Cold inserting (7-21) in (7-20a), is also shown on the left-hand diagram of Figure 7-10.
Core
Ring
SARGASSO SEA
Figure 7-11 is the result of an ambitious observational program (Richardson
.,'"
.E
et al. 1978) which mapped the Gulf Stream, nine cold core, cyclonic rings and three
warm core, anticyclonic rings. The upper panel are contours of the depth of the 15 0
isothermal surface. North of the Stream, the average depth is less 100 m; south of
the Stream, the average depth is around 700 m. These average values are
punctuated by the rings; in the North, the central ring depth is about 400 to 500 m;
in the South, the central depth is 100 to 500 m depending on the strength of the
ring.
SLOPE WATER

SARGASSO SEA r
z

Figure 7-9. The evolution of COld core and warm core rings. The rings begin as
unstable meanders. Warm core rings trap warm, Sargasso Sea water into its core
whereas cold core rings trap cold slope water.

which is a simple but sensible analytic [ann for an axisymmetric density anomaly.
If 2olb» 1, the vertical exponential dies off sufficiently fast so that 20 in (7-20a,b)
may be replaced by =, thus simplifying the final result. Equation (7-21) may be
inserted into (7-20b). After differentiating P with respect to r and integrating with
respect to z, one obtains Figure 7-10. A warm anticyclonic eddy_ The left-hand figure illustrates a vertical
section of the density field; the heavy contour is the surface elevation. The right-hand
figure illustrates the velocity field in a horizontal plane.
 132 Chapter 7 Baroclil/ic Oceanic Flows 133

PROBLEMS

7·1. The upper limit on the integral in equation (7-1b) is the sea surface
elevation, 1). Show that substitution of 0 in place of 1) represents a valid
approximation whereas this is not true of equation (7 -Ia).

7-2, If a parcel of seawater whose in situ temperature is 10 0C and salinity is 35

psu descends adiabatically from 2000 m to 6000 m, estimate its potential
termperature and in situ temperature at 6000 m.

7-3. It is often convenient analytically to work with a simple, linear equation of

state in the form of

where, let liS say, eo = 10 0 C and So = 35 psu. From Figure 7·3 or Appendix E,
provide an estimate for Po, a and p.

7-4. Is it possible to mix two water masses and obtain a water mass that is
denser than both original water masses? Explain.

7-5. Assume a two layer fluid with a northern flow in the upper layer of 19.6
em s·I, no flow in the lower layer, a density difference of 0.002 gm CI11"3 between
layers, and the latitude is 43.3°N.
a) Draw a schematic of this setup.
b) What is the east-west slope of the interface?
c) What is the east· west sea surface slope?
OISTANC( (X""

7-6. An ocean current is approximated by

u :;:: 0, v = voe -(x- XJ2 / A ezl B
Figure 7·11. Upper panel: the depth, in hundreds of meters, of the 150 isothermal
surface, showing the Gulf Stream, nine cyclonic rings and three anticyclonic rings. where Vo, x o• A and B are constants.
The contours are based on data obtained between March 16 and July 91975. Lower a) Find an expression for the density field, p(x,y,z), and sea slIrface
panet: A temperature section through the Gulf Stream and two cyclonic (cold core)
rings south of the Stream. The section is a "dog·leg" from 36 0 N, 75 0 W to elevation, 1)(x,y), assuming geostrophy. You may use the following definition;
35 0 N,70 0 W and then to 37°N,65 0 W. From Richardson et a/ (1978).
I I'I,
134 Chapler 7 Barociinic Oceanic Flows 13S

e/f(x) " -
2 IXe',> d~ Atlantis Station 5306 530S
{Tio 34°53'N, 70 o I6'W 34°IS'N, 6so47'W

,em) T(OC) S(%o) T S

The error function, erf(x), may be found tabulaled in math tables where it is seen
that erf(~) ; I. Determine an analytical expression for elj(x) va lid for small x. 0 22. t 36.57 21.9 36.47
40 20.9 36.57 21.3 36.48
Make a sketch of erflx). 90 18,8 36.56 20,1 36.59
b) Make a sketch of contours of cons tant v and p. 180 18.3 36.52 18.5 36,53
270 18,0 36.49 18.2 36,53
450 17,1 36.34 17.8 36.48
540 15.9 36. 14 17.0 36.31
'·7. Determine the geoslroph ic ve loci ty field and surface eleva ti on associated 750 12,0 35.50 13,4 35.74
with a cylindrical pool of water as sketched below. Po and 8p are consta nt s. 1000 7,0 35, 10 7.3 35, 14
2000 3.8 34.98 3.7 34.98
3000 3,0 34.95 2.9 34,94
4000 2.4 34.90 2.4 34.91
4800 2.3 34.90 2,3 34,91
4890 Bouom
a

7-10. For a strait modeled below, we approximate surfaces of cons tant <JO
(U,v) = 0 according to
·b

z;- <JO (x+a)

<JOo

whe re and a are constants. Let v ,; 0 on th e boltom where, ; H. Solve for

7-8. Characterize a "main" thermocline by p; Po (I - be'/A) where Po and A; vlx,z) and l1Ix) ,
constan ts bu t b ; b(x,y). z
a) For zero sea surface slope and atmospheric pres sure, Pal show that
P; Pa - Pog I' + bA I I _e zlA) }
b) Show that /I; f- I gA obJ()x (I - e,/A), v; -f- t gA obliJy (I_ e'/A)
c) If (/I,v) - 0 as' -> -~, solve for the sea surface slope, Repeat a) and b),
d) If oblox ; 0, obliJy ; ,003/ 1000 km, A ; 1000 m.!; - 10- 4 s- I, find
numerical values for It and v at the sea surface.

7-11. In the ocea n, two homogeneous bodies of water flow geostrophically in the
7-9. Find the current profile perpendic ul ar to a line drawn between Atlantis
same direc lion with veloci ti es of 40 Col s· 1 and 20 Col s· 1 respectively. The faster
sta ti ons 5306 and 5308. The effort is greatly facilitated by a computer code for
water has a density of 1,025 g cm· 3. The slower has a density of 1,030 g cm· 3.
equations (7-2), (7-3) and (7-4a, b),
Relalive 10 the horizonlal, find the ang le of Ihe interface between Ihe bodies.

, "
 General Circulation of a Barodinic Ocean with Bottom Topography 137

Chapter 8
Ekman velocity
General Circulation of a Baroclinic Ocean thernl-olHltlcle velocity

with Bottom Topography

In this chapter, we remove some of the simplifications invoked in
Chapter 6 for the flow in an ocean basin. No longer will the wind stress be
required to be zonal and solely a function of the meridional coordinate. The bottom
will ultimately not be flat and density will turn out to be an important - even
bottom velocity
dominant - driving force for oceanic currents.

8.1 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR ARBITRARY WIND

STRESS, DENSITY AND BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY
Figure 6-1. Decomposition 01 the transport into parts associated with the Ekman
layer ttow, the thermohatine tlow and the bottom tlow.
The x-momentum equation which includes horizontal density gradients and
vertical stress divergence is
Now, using Leibnitz Rule (see Problem 6-1), (8-1 b) may also be written
-tv ~ -g dry _ t~'!:. dz' + _1 dTu (8-la)
dX Z dX l Po dZ -tv ~ -g dry _ .i.Jo b dz + b(-H) dH
dX dX - H dX
where we have defined b" g(p -Pol/Po I and b' ~ b(x,y,z')_ Equation (8-1a) can +.i.Jz
dX -/I
bdz'_b(_H)dH
dX
be written equivalently as
1 d1:
+ - - zx
-
_tv ~ -g dry _ JO db dz +
Jz db' dz' +
_1_ d1: zx
(8-1 b)
Po dZ
dX -H dX -H dX Po dZ
'----v---' ~
bottom 'velocity thermohaline velocity Ekman velocity where it will be seen that the be-H) dH/dX component of the bottom velocity cancels
a similar component of the thermocline velocity. After canceling these terms,
where we have labeled various components of the velocity profile sketched in integrate the above equation from z = - H to z = 0 and obtain
Figure 8-1. Note that the bottom (or abyssal) velocity, v(x,y,-H), is given by the
first two terms on Ihe right of (8-1b) since the third term vanishes at z ~ -H and we _ fM ~ -Ii aPB + d</J + 1:ox (8-2a)
will assume that the effect of the viscous terms at the bottom is negligible.
Y dX dX Po

and, similarly
1 It is also conventional to define the buoyancy as b == g(po - p)lpo but I like gradients of b
to have the same sign as gradients of p.
136
138 ChapterS General Circulation of a Baroclinic Ocean with Bottom Topography 139

Baroclinicity and Bottom Relief" term by Sarkisyan and Ivanov (1971) who also
(8-2b) shortened the label to the Jebar term. It should now be noted that the Jebar term
where we define vanishes for a flat bottom ocean even if the flow is baroclinic in which case the \7
transport is not effected by horizontal density gradients. Baroclinic velocity profiles V
(8-3a) will certainly differ from barotropic profiles, but the vertical integrals of velocity"
will be the same. Real oceans are, of course, not flat and the Jebar term is
and d";l, important as first established by Sarkisyan and Ivanov (1971) and by Holland
<P" J":-W;;fo b'dz' = -fo zb dz (8-3b) (1973).
~H z -H

The last identity in (8-3b) is obtained by integration by parts 2 The variable, PoPs,
is the bottom pressure and Po<P is the potential energy.
To (8-2a,b) we add the vertically integrated continuity equation
(8-4)
Equation (8-4) and (8-5) can be used as the basis of numerical ocean
calculations if bottom friction (Stommel's model) or lateral viscous terms (Munk's
model) are added so that boundary conditions can be applied on all boundaries
including the western boundary. Alternately, (8-5) may be applied directly with the
tacit knowledge, gleaned from Chapter 6, that we expecl that streamlines will close
on the eastern boundary. We will here examine the later procedure.

Now Txo, Tyo can be determined climatologically from ship wind reports First write (8-5) as
[and equations such as (3-5a,b)] and <P can be determined from hydrographic
stations. However, 1) and thus Ps are unknown. We eliminate Ps by forming (8-6)
iJ(jM,jH)liJx+ o(jMylH)I0; and using (8-4) to obtain
where

(8-5) D " right side of equation (8 - 5)

In Figure 8-2 we define a coordinate system which is parallel and normal to

contours of constantflH. Thus (8-6) may be written
We note that (8-5) is similar to (6-13) except now the first two terms on the right
have been added. These have collectively been called the "Joint Effect of (8-7)

2 Thus, where Mry is the component of M normal to theflH contour. Finally we define a

fo {f'
-11 -1/
j(Z')dz'}dz = Izf'
-1/
j(Z')dz'lo -
-1/
fO
-1/
zj(z)dz =-fo
-H
zj(z)dz
140 Chapter 8 General Circulation of a Baroclinic Ocean with BOllom Topography 141

Figure 8·2. A coordinate system defined parallel and normal to contours of constant
planetary potential vorticity. flH. The heavy arrow is the transport vector. M;
components parallel and normal to M are labeled M~ and M, in the main text.

stream function
d'¥
-=-M (8·8a,b)
as ry

so that (8·4) is satisfied (if written in the S. 1) coordinate system, (8-4) would read
aM~,(1) + aM" as = 0). Then (8·7) may be written

a'¥ D
--a[ = - auI H)j(1) (8·9)

Presuming D and aUIH)ja~re known, (8·9) may be integrated

numerically (the partial derivative is replaced by 11 '¥1110 along f' H
"characteristics" starting with the value '¥ = 0 at the eastern boundary. When '¥
has been calculated on all characteristics, contours of constant '¥ may then be
established.

8.2 FLAT BOTTOMED OCEAN

For constant bottom topography, contours of constant flH coincide with

lines of constant fly) so that (8·9) may be written

a'¥ _ I (arxo aryo

a;-fj ay-a;-
J--{3-
_ F(x,y)
(8·10)
 III
I; I 142 Chapter 8 General Circulation of a Baroclinic Ocean with Bottom Topography 143
Ii
where we take f3 ,,2f/2y. Note that the terms involving <P in (8-5) are missing
because gradients of H are zero. The integration proceeds from the eastern
boundary starting with 'f' = 0 along the zonal coordinate until 'f' is determined at
all interior points. This is the same problem we solved analytically in Chapter 6,
where we adopted a simple wind model such that F (x, y)= Fly) and f3 was taken
as constant.
I '

For a flat bottomed world ocean, Welander (1959) has performed the 40'
numerical integration of (8-10) shown in Figure 8-3 using observed winds to find
F(x, y) (he also cast the problem in a latitude, longitude coordinate system). Note
that if the flow were barotropic the horizontal velocity components would be
invariant with depth; if baroclinic, they would not. Either way, the same total
i transport is obtained for a given wind stress curl distribution. Since there is no
II dissipation in (8-10), the streamlines all terminate at the western boundary. The
I
I heavy lines are added to show western boundary currents that must exist to satisfy
, , continuity.
, ,
,

8.3 VARIABLE BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY LL--!-:-----;::.:-----;0.----;;,.----;".:--~20~.

O'80'W 70' 60' 50'
-1010"-(0'
A calculation which includes the Jebar term has been performed by Mellor,
Figure 8·4. The transport stream function derived for the North Atlantic from
Keto and Mechoso (1982). First, the winds were obtained from ship reports (more climatological surface willd stress and subsurtace denSity fields (After Mellor et af
recently these data have been collected, analyzed and are available as machine 1982).
,'
! readable data under the rubric, Comprehensive Ocean Data Set or COADS) and
analyzed by Hellerman (1967; see also Hellerman and Rosenstein 1983). Second,
The first observation one can make about Figure 8-4 is that it is more
density was obtained from an early version of the world ocean hydrographic atlas
realistic compared to the simpie models of Chapter 6 and the flat bottom calculation
compiled and analyzed by LevinlS (1982) and the integral, <P, defined in (8-3b)
of Welander; it contains a Gulf Stream with greater transport, a cyclonic gyre
was obtained by numerical integration on a 10 by 10 grid as a function of latitude
northwest of the Stream and a cyclonic subpolar gyre. The second observation is
and longitude. The quantity, D, from the right side of (8-5) and then the right side
that the streamlines are closed on the western boundary. The latter is a surprising
of (8-9) was obtained. Finally, (8-9) was numerically integrated along contours of
finding in view of the Stommel and Munk models which required dissipation to
constantffH and the constant of integration was established so that 'f' was zero on
obtain closed streamlines. There is no dissipation in the diagnostic calculation
the eastern boundary. The resulting Stream function is shown in Figure 8-4 for the
described here. What has happened is that the density field, a product of the
North Atlantic Ocean. More details, including the breakdown of the flow into the
equation of state and the temperature and salinity equations of motion conspire to
portions defined in Figure 8-1, will be found in the Mellor et al. paper.
provide the correct balance in the momentum equations (and vorticity equation; see
 144 Chapler8
Chapter 12) in the western boundary region through the Jebar terms. There is yet
: II
no theory as to why or how this happens. There is solid evidence from numerical
models (Holland, 1973) that the Munk lateral viscosity effect would prevail in the
western boundary region over Slammers bottom friction if both are included in the
case of a flat bottomed ocean. However, the real ocean is decidedly not flat. We
have studied flat bottomed ocean models because they are useful in building
analytical tools and understanding, but they are not very realistic.
In Figure 8-4, the anticyclonic gyre south of the Gulf Stream is known as
the subtropical gyre or the Sargasso Gyre since it encloses the so-called Sargasso
Sea. Not appreciated before the 1980's was the existance of the cyclonic gyre north
I,
of the Gulf Stream (Mellor el al., 1982; Richardson, 1985; Hogg el al., 1986)
which is thought to be of the order of 40 Sv; the reduced value, 20 to 25 Sv, in
Figure 8-4 is mostly due to the smoothing in the temperature and salinity data that
was necessarily associated with the Levilus analysis. This cyclonic, recirculation
! I
gyre was little known before the 1980's because its surface currents were small; in
i
I
other words it tends to be a barotropic flow. Nevertheless, the gyre is now thought
to play an impDltant role in the separation of the Gulf Stream at Cape Hatteras as in
Figures 7-4 and 8-4.
8.4 PRIMITIVE EQUATION, NUMERICAL OCEAN MODELS
This is a large topic; the following paragraphs are merely a salute in
passing.
The model discussed in section 8.3 is termed a diagnostic model; density
fields are obtained from data and then current fields and sea surface elevation can be
calculated. Prognostic models are meant to calculate temperature and salinity and
thus, via the equation of state, the density field.
The prognostic, primitive equations are (2-15), (2-16), (2-17), (2-18),
(2-19) and (2-20) which can be cast in finite difference, algebraic fDlm (see section
9.4) such that, at preset grid points, the tendencies of velocity, temperature and
General Circulation of a Baroclinic Ocean wilh Bottom Topography 145
salinity can be evaluated and then these properties may be advanced in time. There
must also be provided empirical rules to relate momentum, heat and salinity fluxes,
due to unresolved turbulent motions, to the larger scale field properties resolved by
the numerical grid. The equations are called primitive to distinquish them from
simplified equation sets - the quasi-geostrophic equations are an example - which
offer numerical advantages but generally sacrifice some dynamics and some
realism. Properties must be represented at widely spaced grid points, the spacing is
dependent on available computer resources, the extent of ule region to be modeled
and the time of integration. As of 1995, results of a IO-year integration of a global
model with 1/20 latitude and longitude grid spacing have been published by
Semtner and Chervin (1992) based on a model by Bryan and Cox (1968, 1972).
Observations and considerable empiricism are needed to provide surface stress and
heat and salinity surface forcing. On the other hand, coupled atmosphere, ocean
climate models with much cruder, 40 grid resolution have been integrated for one
thousand years (Manabe and Stouffer 1994). Though encouraging, it is quite clear
that improved resolution associated with improving computer technology are
needed to provide more realistic numerical simulations. One can, and must for
many purposes, sacrifice large spatial coverage in favor of limited regions. Good
grid resolution can be provided, but then one must generally cope with the need to
provide open boundary conditions.
Numerical atmospheric models have been in existence for many years and
now, with the help of data assimmilation of data from ground stations, radiosondes
and other sources, provide your friendly TV meteorologist with three to five day
forecasts which - despite skeptics to the contrary - become increasingly reliable as
model physics and resolution are improved. Atmospheric modelers have an
advantage over oceanic modelers; except for hurricanes, tornadoes and similar
small-scale phenomena, atmospheric scales are larger than oceanic scales. Recall
that the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio is somewhat less than 100 km wide; the
atmospheric jet stream is about 1000 km wide. Furthermore, the need to resolve the
continental margins are an additional oceanic modeling challenge. Nevertheless,
there is now considerable effort around the world aimed at providing regional
nowcast/forecast information for oceanic (or lake) properties lIsing numerical
146 Chapter 8

models, driven by wind stress and fluxes from atmospheric models. (One such
project is the East Coast Ocean Forecast System project, a cooperative effort
involving the National Ocean Services, the National Meteorological Center and
Princeton University.) The final product is improved by data assimilation of
satellite, Advanced Very High Resolution Radar (A VHRR) sea surface temperature
measurements and radar altimetric, sea surface height measurements. Other data
sources are in the offing.
PROBLEMS
8.1. Estimate the width of the Gulf Stream from Figures 7-11 and 8-4. Why are
the two estimates different?
8·2. For the density field represented by equations (7·11) and (7·16), obtain
<1J(x) as defined by (8·3b). Suppose H = H(x). Obtain a solution from equation (8-
4) and (8·5). Stipulate zero wind stress.
8.3. Rationalize the result obtained in Problem 8-2 with that given by equation
(7-17c).
8.4. In a small enough region dominated by changes in bottom topography,
H(x, y), it should be valid to neglect changes in the CarioUs parameter,f. Assuming
this to be so and stipulating no wind stress, show that equation (8-5) reduces to
f'P - <P = F(H)
Chapter 9
Surface Gravity Waves
Thus far we have concentrated our attention on steady ocean flows.
However, ocean currents are hardly ever steady. It is implied, therefore, that we
have been studying velocities averaged over long times. In this chapter we deal with
unsteady flows which are characterized by scales larger than turbulence scales and
are generally wave-like in that disturbances propagate with a well defined wave
speed. We further specialize to surface gravity waves where a time dependent
surface elevation is a prominent aspect of the flow. Surface waves exist due to a
discontinuous change in density between the atmosphere and the ocean. Another
type of ocean motion, internal gravity waves, which is not covered in this book,
exists in the thermocline and are due to gradual changes in ocean density.
9.1 OCEAN SURFACE WAVES
To the obseIY'er of oceans or any large body of water, ocean surface waves
are fascinating and the most overt manifestation of unsteady ocean motion. Short
wave length motion is a large Rossby number problem and, as we will see, the
vertical velocity components may be comparable to the horizontal velocity
components so that the hydrostatic approximation may no longer be valid. Thus,
we must return to equations (2-2) and (2-8a,b) and write
(9-1)

8·S. Make a simple two-layer model of the flow near Cape Hatteras, similar to au au
-+u-+w-=---
au I ap (9·2a)
that sketched in Figure 7-7, such that H=H(x). Sketch appropriate contours of <P at ax az Po ax
and 'P.
Ow Ow aw lap
-+u-+w-=----g (9-2b)
at ax az Po az
where now CorioUs terms have been neglected which implies that the relevant

147
148 Chapter 9 SWface Gravity Waves 149

Rossby number is large; we return to this point latter. We also take the density to z
be constant and neglect viscous terms; ocean waves are weakly dissipative which w
can be demonstrated by reintroducing viscous temls into the analysis a posteriori. x
We also stipulate that the flow is two-dimensional; short ocean waves are nearly
two-dimensional and we align the x, z coordinate system to correspond to the plane
of motion. This means that all derivatives with respect to y are zero and the velocity w=Q
component, v, is zero. The principal new ingredient is the right side of (9-2b); in
oLier words, the flow is not hydrostatically constrained.
I
The pressure may be eliminated by differentiating (9-2a) with respect to z,
Figure 9·1. Illustration of the free suriace and bottom boundary conditions equation.
(9-2b) with respect to x and then subtracting the second result from the first. After
rearranging, we obtain

ata(au
az - dw) az - dw)
ax +u ata (au az - dw)
ax +waza (au ax + (au dw)(au dw) =0 the two unknowns, u and w. It is possible to reduce this to one equation for a
ax +a; az -a; stream function by stipulating u=a'lliaz, w = - atpldx which automatically satisfies
X equation (9·1), or a potential function
or, using (9-1) to eliminate the fourth term, we have

DO)y (9·5a, b)
-=0 (9-3a)
Dt
where we define which satisfies (9-4). Use of the potential function is a bit more convenient when
dealing with free surface boundary condition. Therefore we stipulate (9·5a, b)! and
0)=---
au dw (9-3b) insert the expressions into (9·1) to obtain Lap/ace's equation
y az ax
which is the vorticity component normal to the x, z plane. A full discussion of (9-6)
vorticity is postponed to Chapter 12. However, in (9-3a) we have derived the
governing equation for that component of the vorticity normal to the plane of the Equation (9-6) is directly useful in solving for flows bounded by solid
flow. If, at some initial time, the velocity field is everywhere zero then O)y is surfaces. For example, since the velocity normal to a solid surface is zero, al/!idn is
initially zero. Then according to (9-3a) also equal to zero if we take n to be a local coordinate normal to the solid surface.

au dw
.=---=0
Figure 9-1 is a sketch of a propagating wave. The bottom is a solid surface, so that
0)
Y az ax (9-4) w= al/!/ az = 0 at the bottom. (Note that since we have excluded viscous terms,
there is no way to enforce a no· slip condition on u.)
for all time thereafter. Thus, equations (9-2a,b) have been replaced by the much
simpler equation (9-4) which, together with equation (9-1), are two equations for
1 So that, of all possible velocity fields, [u(x, z, t), w(x. z ,t)], we allow only a subset of fields
that are related to a scalar, ¢, according to (9·5a. b),
ISO Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 151

The surface ooundary condition for the wave problem is more complicated. where ¢ = ¢ (x,z,t) unless specifically stated to the contrary. Now specialize (9-7)
At the surface, which is moving, we need to require that the pressure is the for z = 1) and set p(x, '),t) = constant atmospheric pressure = poB, equation (9-7),
atmospheric pressure which, here, we take to be constant. Thus we must return to may be written
(9-2a,b) to develop a boundary condition involving pressure. To this end, multiply
1 2 2
(9-2a) by d.x and (9-2b) by dz and add to give ¢,(x, 1),t) + '2[¢x(x, 1),t) + ¢z (x, 1),t)] + g1)(x,t) = 0 (9-9)

a· a(u')
-(ud.x+wdz)+- au a(w')
- d.x+w-d.x+u-dz+- - dz aw Equation (9-9) relates the surface elevation to the velocity field through the velocity
at ax 2 az ax az 2 potential, ¢. Another surface boundary condition is w(x,1),t) = D1)/D/ = u(x,1),t)1)x
p + 1),. To understand the two parts of this kinematic boundary condition, consider
=_J..(a d.x+ ap dz)-g dz
p, ax az steady flow; then will = 1)x as illustrated in Figure 9-1. If the surface had zero slope,
then w = 1), repesents the contribution due to the unsteady, rate of change of the
Using (9-4) and (9-5a,b) we can write elevation. Therefore, introducing the potential function we have

¢z(x, 1),/) = ¢x(x, 1),t) 1)x (x,t) + 1),(x,t) (9-10)

Finally at the bottom we impose the boltom boundary condition

since, in general, d! = (atlax) d.x + (atlaz)dz where! may be ¢' u2 , w2 or p. We
¢z(x,-H,t) = 0 (9-11)
now integrate from some point (x o , zo) to any other point (x, z) and obtain
Bernoulli's equation in the form Except for the need to stipulate initial and lateral boundary conditions, equations
(9-8) to (9-11) complete the problem statement for irrotational waves.
(9-7)

where B = B (x o, zo, t) =Bo(l) is equal to the quantities on the left evaluated at
(xo, zo). Since an arbitrary function of time added to ¢ does not change the velocity
field according to (9-5a,b), it is possible to consider B to be an absolute constant,
including the value, zero, without loss in generality. B is called the Bernoulli
constant.
Is it very convenient at this point to adopt subscript notation such that, for
example, ¢x" a¢/ax; then it will be seen that we can neatly emphasize the
functional dependence of the various dependent variables. Thus, (9-6) becomes
The equations are difficult to solve since the boundary condition given by
(9-9) and (9-10) are nonlinear. In applied physics, the first step of an inquiry into
the nature of such problems is to examine the corresponding linear problem. Thus,
we assume that there is no average motion and that the wave amplitude is small
relative to the wave length. As shown formally in Appendix C, this means that the
non-linear terms in (9-9) and (9-10) are smaller than the linear terms. This allows
us to write (9-9) as
MX,Q,/) + g1)(x,t) = Q (9-12)
and (9-10) as

(9-8) ¢z(X,Q,t) = 1),(x,I) (9-\3)

152 Chapler 9 SWfaee Gravity Waves 153

Aside from neglecting the obviously non-linear terms in (9-9) and (9-10) we have 2
also approximated ¢,(x, 1],1) = ¢,(X,O,I) + ¢,,(X,O,I)1] + ... f: ¢,(X,O,I) which also
co
represents neglect of non-linear terms. Similarly, ¢,(x, 1], I) has been approximated (g/H)ll2
by ¢,(x, 0, I).

Now solutions to equation (9-8) are e± kz sin kx and e± k, cos kx which

may be verified by insertion. Consider, the first set of solutions and write

o 2 3 4 5
kH

Insert the above equation in (9-11) and obtain

-2k11
A 2 = AIe

Therefore

(9-14)

where A .. AI. One can easily check that ¢, =Oat z =-H. Using (9-12) we can
solve for 1]. Thus, o
kH
g1] =-A' (t)[1 + e-2k11 )]sin kx (9-15)
Figure 9-2. The top figure is the non-dimensional dispersion relation, roCk) according
to (9-17). The bottom figu,e are plots of non-dimensional phase and group velocity
where A' '" dA/dt. Finally insert (9-14) and (9-15) in the remaining equation according to (9-24).
(9-13) to obtain

Solutions in the Form of Standing Waves

(9-16)

where we define Insert A(t) inlo (9-14) to obtain

2 _ H i _e- kH
w =gk kH kH gktanhkH (9-17) ¢ = [i' + e-k(z+2H)](0] sin WI + 02 coswt)sinkx
e +e (9-18)
+ (I,] sin WI + bt cosWl)coskx)
Equation (9-17) for w(k) is called·a dispersion relation for surface gravity waves
and is plotted in Figure 9-2 along with other quantities to be discussed. The solution Terms corresponding to the cos kx solutions have been added. Summarizing,
to (9-16) is equations (9-18), where wand k are constrained by (9-17), are solutions to (9-8),
A(t) = al sinwt+q cos WI (9-11), (9-12) and (9-13) for arbitrary 0], 02, bl, b2 and "wave number" k. They
are in a form convenient to the solution of basin problems where one generally
,4tJI ,j,!,..A,A lOG '+PJ .J.-i'o.N\ ,-,''><'" J <....L-U\...iJ "'-1.;1.",) \...'-""" ~ y-''/
17
(O<.""~) ((oJ ~ (0<) hv. cp.)
~~
0 Co.t C 0-, (<><,J 0>-'
"
154 Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 155

encounters standing waves as discussed below. Conversion between various fonns IV = </lz. and the surface elevation, 17 = - </l,(x,O,l)/g, may be recovered from either
of solution are facilitated by use of the so called sum-difference, trigonometric (9-18), (9-20) or (9-21).
identities
For illustrative purposes, let a = 0 in (9-21). Thus we obtain the equation
sin(a ± Jl) = sin acosJl ± cosasinJl (9-19a)
for a right running, progressive wave in the form
cos(a ±Jl) = cosacosJl +sin asinJl (9-19b)
</l = b[i' + e -k(z+2H)}cos(kx - ())() (9-22a)
from which other useful relations may be derived. Thus,

2 sin a cosJl = sin(a + Jl) + sin(a - Jl) (9-19c) From (9-12) we obtain
bw -2kH.
2 sin a sinJl = -cos(a + Jl) + cos(a - Jl) (9-19d) 1] = --[I + e Jsm(kx - wI) (9-22b)
g
2 cosa cosJl = cos(a + Jl) +cos(a - Jl) (9-1ge) Of more simply
1] = 1]0 sin(kx - ())() (9-22c)
It is then possible to arrange (9-18) in a number of ways. For example, if we let
at = -a sin 1;, a2 = a cos 1;, bt = - b sin ~ and b2 = b cos ~,the use of (9-19) in where 170 == - b ill [1 + e- 2kH ]/g is the wave elevation amplitude. For a given value
(9-18) allows one to obtain alternate forms for standing waves, such as of 170 and k, w is obtained from (9-17) and, therefore, the wave is determined for
all time; a propagating wave is sketched in Figure 9-3. Note that we can write
</l = [e kz + e-k(z+211)](acos( Wt + 1;) sin kx + b cos( Wt + ~ )cos kx} (9-20)
sin (kx - wz) = sin k(x - et) where c =" wk is the phase speed. If e", k(x - ct), then
wherein there are arbitrary amplitudes, a and b, and arbitrary phase angles, I; and ~.
any phase point, e = constant, travels to the right with the velocity, d.rldt = c.
Using (19a,b) again, the cosine functions may be converted to sine functions by
A summary of nomenclature associated with waves of all kinds is as
setting the phases, I; = ~ = n12. follows:

Henceforth, we will mostly exclude phase angles with the understanding A '" wave length
that they can always be added to Wt; adding or subtracting phase angles is k == wave number = 2n fA
tantamount to redefining the origin of time. T '" period
w '" frequency= 2 ;r!T
Solutions in/he Form of Progressive Waves c '" phase speed = w Ik = 'Afr
cg '" group velocity = dwdk = c + k dc/dk
Solutions in the form of progressive waves may be obtained from (9-18)
by specializing the constants and using (9-19); for example,
Physically, one generally identifies properties of oscillatory behavior in terms of
</l = liz + e-k(z+211)](acos(kx + ())() + b cos(kx - Wt)} (9-21) wave length and period. And, in fact, (9-22c), for example, can be written as
1] = 1]0 sin(2nx/A - 2m/T) = 1]0sin[2n(x - ct)/A]. Obviously the alternative use
Depending on lateral and initial boundary conditions, either (9-18) or (9-21)
of wave number, k, and frequency, OJ, is a convenience.
may be chosen as the most convenient form. Note again that the velocities, u = </lx,
156 Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 157

1)
f- cLlt--l I·
211
15k -I
x

~ A
--1
Figure 9·3. A sketch of equation (9·22c) at time = I (heavy line) and at 1+ L11 (tight
line). Here the phase speed is measured by the speed of a wave crest but any other
wave feature would do. Figure 9·4. The result of adding two equal amplitude waves whose wave numbers
are ko + ok and ko . ok. The heavy line is a plot of equation (23) representing a
The physical idea behind the group velocity, defined above, requires some wave traveling with a phase velocity. c whose amplitude is modulated by a wave (light
line) approximately traveling at the group velocity. Cg.
discussion. Consider the superposition of two waves of the same amplitude but
whose wave number and frequency differ by the small amount, 20k and 2 ow.
Thus we have c = dw _ .!. W
g - dk - 2k
[I + e 4kH
2kH _e-2kH
] (9-24)

1) = 1)0 sin[(ko + ok)x - (wo + OW)I] + 1)0 sin[(ko - ok)x - (wo - ow)t]
is plotted in Figure 9-2. It is beyond the scope of this treatment but it can be shown
Next use (9-19a) and obtain that, by adding together many waves in a Fourier synthesis, one can create any
wave form. In Figure 9-5 we follow the evolution of two wave packets, both of
which begin with the shape at the left of the diagram. Case (a) is for small kH and,
since c :; cg :; constant, all of the component waves travel at the same speed so that
or
the shape of the wave is preserved. In case (b), for larger kH, the component
(9-23) waves travel at different speeds; i.e., the waves disperse and the wave shape
becomes distorted.
Therefore, as sketched in Figure 9-4, the result of adding two waves whose wave
numbers and frequencies differ by a small amount is equivalent to the product of a Short or Deep Water Waves: kH» I; W = (gk) 1/2
carrier wave defined by ko and Co and a modulating wave or envelope wave with a
smaller wave number ok (and larger wave length 2n/ok) and a propagation For short waves or deep water waves, kH =2nH/A is large. Whereas, in a
velocity,oOJlOk. The group velocity is defined as cg " dOJldk so that it will be seen fit of mathematical purity, we have stated that the deep water approximation works
in the present example that the modulating wave travels with a velocity for kH »1, we can see from'" Figure 9-2 that kH > 3 should suffice. The
approximately equal to the group velocity. The group velocity is obtained from (9- dispersion relation, W = (gk)1!2, may be obtained from (9-17) in the limit of large
17) by differentiation. The result kH. Also, if we just consider right running waves, equation (9-22a) for kH » I
may be written tP =-( 1)og/Wliz cos(kx - wt) and we repeat (9-22c)
 158 Chapter 9 SUlfaee Gravity Waves 159

ilMoU. ,tlkL 1 lJf = (11oro/k)iZ sin(kx - rot); see Problem 9-4]. Note that the flow imports water
(a) to the leading edge of the wave crest and exports water from the trailing edge. Thus,
the wave propagates to the right.

(b) We now note that (9-25a, b, c) also apply to left running waves if we
simply allow ro to be a negative quantity; the basic dispersion relation is not
\.Tv violated since it involves the square of ro.
Figure 9-5. The wave packet at the lelt travels to the right at the group velocity.
(a) kH is small. c. Cg' constant and the wave does not disperse. (b) kH is large, c·
Since deep water waves are dispersive and e = c(k), they are more
Cg2 and the the wave packet disperses.
complicated to deal with analytically than are non-dispersive waves such as shallow
water waves.

11 = 110 sin(kx - WI) (9-25a)

LOllg or Shallow Water Waves: kH« 1; ro = (gH)1/2 k

The velocity field, u = </Ix, W = </Iz is given by

For shallow water waves the problem simplifies considerably. First the
k2
u = 11oro e sin(kx - rot), w = -11oro /z cos(kx - WI) (9-25b, c) depth factor ekz + e- k(z+2H) in (9-22a) limits to the constant 2 as kH and therefore
kz approaches zero. It may therefore be absorbed in the amplitude constant. Thus
where, furthermore, since ro = (gk)1/2, we obtain the phase speed, C'" ro/k = 'we have </I = -(11og / ro)cos(kx- rot)and
(g/k)1/2. The group velocity is given by eg '" dro/dk = (g/k) 1/2 /2 = c/2. At a given
instant in time, the wave and the instantaneous streamlines will look as sketched in 11 = 110 sin(kx - rot) (9-26a)
Figure 9-6 [the stream function, obtained from (9-25b,c) is
u= 1108 sin (kx - WI) (9-26b)
e

- --x where c = ro/k = (gH)1/2 and is therefore constant; the waves are non-dispersive.
Also eg = dro/dk = c = (gHJl/2

Figure 9-7 is a sketch of a shallow water wave at an instant in time. Note

that the horizontal velocity does not vary with respect to z. The vertical velocity is
small and of order kH. The fact that the phase speed and, therefore, the group
velocity, are independent of the wave number simplifies problems considerably.
We have already stated, with reference to Figure 9-5, that the shape of a wave
Figure 9·6. A sketch of the instantaneous surface elevation and streamlines for the
right running progressive wave of equation (9·258, b, c).
 I
,

,f
I
160 Chapter 9 Stuface Gravity Waves 161
il
I
WIND
In,,, ",,,; 11 ,,,,,,, I, II;" J 1,11"1,, ,,7,1 1, J II

Figure 9-7. A right running. shallow water. progressive wave from equations (9· I
26a, b). The horizontal velocity has no z dependence.

t? 3 h
packet does not change since all the individual waves which comprise the packet O.5m

travel at the same speed. Later, we will demonstrate this mathematically.

9.2 WIND DRIVEN WAVES
This section is assigned a major heading to emphasize that the topic is large
and important. It is the topic of books; for example, see Phillips (1977) and
Hasselman et at (1994). Here we briefly sample the field.
Atmospheric winds over the ocean surface can drive waves of both long
and short wave lengths. When winds arise after a period of calm, short wave length
wind waves will quickly develop. The wind velocity relative to the phase speed of
the waves create net pressure forces which build the waves and impart momentum
in the direction of the relative wind velocity. The waves playa direct role in
providing a rough surface which feeds back to the process of creating surface wind
stress. Under a constant wind, a spectrum of short waves build in time until
saturation occurs. There still does not exist an accepted, detailed, theoretical
description of these processes. Nevertheless, semi-empirical wave models do exist
which deal with wave energy, energy input due to wind stress, energy dissipation
due to wave breaking and redistribution of energy between waves of different
frequency and phase speed. And despite the complexity of wind waves, it is
generally assumed that the linear wave theory provides the correct frequency, wave
length and wave speed relationships.
Figure 9-8 illustrates the behavior of waves responding to an offshore wind
where the wave height (defined in the figure caption), H1{3, is plotted as a function
t = Ih
t=0
o
o 24 km
Distance Offshore
Figure 9·8. The upper panel depicts wind btowing offshore. The alternating solid and
dashed lines indicate wave crests and troughs; the spacing is not to scale. In the
lower panel is the wave height of a 10 knot wind as a function of the amount of the
time of sustained wind and distance offshore. H1/3 is the significant wave height or
the average height of the third largest waves.
of the distance offshore often referred to as "fetch". On the same plot, the effect of
wind duration is also displayed. For the ~illustrated 10 knot wind, the waves do
not grow spatially or temporally at an offshore distance of 24 krn and a duration of
3 h; then they are equilibrium, open ocean waves. More generally, wave properties
are a function of wind speed, duration, fetch and angle of the wind relative to the
shoreline. In addition, waves created at one location can propagate, often over long
distances, to other locations.
9.3 SHALLOW WATER FLOW DIRECTLY APPROXIMATED
FROM THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
It is instructive to return to the differential equations and simplify them for
the case, kH« 1, which is tantamount to saying that the vertical scale, H, is much
less than the horizontal scale, k· 1 Thus, the scale analyses leading to equations
(2-24) and (2-25a,b,c) still prevail; i.e., importantly, the flow is hydrostatic and
162 Chapter 9 SWfaee Gravity Waves 163

(9-27) Open Channel Steady Flow

We neglect the viscous tenus and, until Chapter 10, the CarioUs tenus. We also For steady flow, solutions of (9-29) and (9-31), even though they are
recall the vorticity definition, roy "au/dz - dw/dx. However, from scale analysis, nonlinear, are readily accessible since u and 1) are functions of x only. Thus, the
du/dz = O(uo/H) whereas dw/dx = O(uoH/L2) so that roy '" du/dz. If the flow is integral of (9-31) is
initially irrotational, then roy = 0 thereafter according to (9-3a) so that au/()z = 0; i.e.,
u =u(x,t) and is independent of z. All of these simplifications lead to the following u(H + 1)) = Q (9-32)

set of shallow water wave equations

where Q is the transport and is constant. Similarly, (9-29) integrates to

(9-28) u2
-+g1)=B (9-33)
2
du du (1)
-+u-=-g- (9-29) where B is the Bernoulli constant. Thus, if H(x) is prescribed and u and 1) are
dt dx dx
known at some point in the flow path so that Q and B can be evaluated, then u(x)
with boundary conditions and 1)(x) can be determined elsewhere by simultaneous solution of the two, purely
(9-30a) algebraic equations (9-32) and (9-33). These solutions behave quite differently
depending on whether u < c and the flow is subcritical or u > e and the flow is
dH supercritical where e " [g(H + 1))]112 is the non-linear, shallow water, wave speed.
w(-H)=-u- (9-30b)
dx The Froude number, F '" u/e, is, therefore, an important governing parameter. An
example of these flows is shown in Figure 9-9.
The vertical velocity may be eliminated by integrating (9-28) from z = -H to z = 1)
to obtain A dramatic phenomena can occur when channel flow js supercritical; i.e.
depending on the downstream boundary condition, the flow can experience an
'1 du
-dz + w(1)) - we-H) = 0
J-H dx
abrupt hydraulic jump as sketched in Figure 9-10. The flow in the jump itself is

Next, use equations (9-30a, b) and obtain

---
u<c
(1) d U=C
-+-[u(H + 1))] = 0 (9-31)

-rii"""--~:':"
dt dx

The governing equations are now reduced to (9-29) and (9-31). They are,
nevertheless, non-linear and, generally difficult to solve analytically, although senn-
analytical means (method of characteristics) are helpful. Numerical solutions are
.
Figure 9-9. Open channel flow as it responds to variations in boltom depth, Hex).
easy to obtain. The upstream flow is subcritical and the downstream flow is supercritical.
164 Chapter 9 Sulface Gravity Waves 165

-------
u<c Aside from neglecting the non·linear terms in (9·29) and (9·31), we now
specialize to a flat bottomed basin so that these equations simplify to
u>c

••
...
<..;>
<.:;>

777777777777777777777777777777777777 0° -- and
H au
ax
+ aT/ =0
at
(9·34)

Figure 9·10. A' hydraulic jump can occur abruptly when the upstream flow is au al)
supercritical. Mean kinetic energy is converted to turbulent energy which then decays -+g-=O (9·35)
due to viscous dissipation. at ax

By differentiating (9·34) with respect to t and (9·35) with respect to x and

highly dissipative and. whereas the simple statement of continuity. (9·32). applies
subtracting the two results we obtain
through the jump. (9·33) is no longer valid and must be replaced by a momentum
jump condition. 2 Hydraulic jumps can be observed in small streams; a classic case
(9·36a)
is the flow downstrean of a dam spillway.

Unsteady hydraulic jumps occur in nature and are sometimes called bores. or by reversing the order of differentiation we obtain

(The hydraulic jump equations. derived for steady flow. apply if all velocities are
shifted so that the resulting velocity of the jump itself is zero). For example, the (9·36b)
tidal range in the Bay of Fundy is so large, about 15 m, that flood tide is initiated by
where
an incoming bore represented by about a 10 em jump in surface elevation. This is
not a large jump relative to the water depth (the local Froude number is near unity)
c '" (gH)1I2 (9·37)
and can actually be handled by linear theory to good approximation.
Equations (9·36a) and (9·36b) are prototypical wave equations which differ from
Unsteady Linear Shallow Water Wave Theory (l7/H« 1) Lap/ace's equation [e.g., equation (9·6)] only by virture of the negative sign but,
nevertheless, manifest different kinds of solutions and physical phenomena. Some
Linear theory evolves by neglecting I) relative to H in (9·31) and by solutions to (9·36a) are
neglecting the non· linear terms, uaulax in (9·29). It may be shown that both
approximations are valid for small l)olH. Tidal motions in the ocean generally T/ = T/, cos (b: - rot) (9·38a)
conform to this criterion. Tn shallow embayments and estuaries, non-linear effects
and, using (9·35)
are often but not always small.

u = gl), cos (b: - rot) (9·38b)

c

2 It may be shown that g(lI+ry)2(2. + u2(II+ry) is constant across the jump and replaces (9· where c = rolk and of course the phase speed given by (9·37) is a constant. We
33), Since the jump occurs over a short distance, H is also constant.
166 Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 167

have, in fact recovered the shallow water wave solutions valid for kH «
obtained earlierin this chapter. The difference is that we have made the shallow
'1 = 0

~~,,~,,~~
water approximation at the level of the governing equations rather than at the level
of the more general solution.

Standing Waves in a Basin

L
A solution'to (9-36a) in the form of standing waves is
Figure 9-11. Examples 01 the two types of boundary conditions at x = L.
1) = a coskx coswt (9-39a)

From (9-35) we obtain For an open ended basin where 1)(L,t) = 0

u=a~sinkx sino.n (9-39b)
H
(9-42)
We choose the cos kx solutions for 1) and the corresponding sin kx solutions for u
since it is our intention to immediately obtain solutions for basins which are closed In a real basin, the natural modes can be excited by wind or a disturbance at
at one end; i.e., u = 0 at x = O. The latter is satisfied by (9-39b) independently of k the mouth of the basin resulting in a free oscillation or seiche which will continue
or a. Two cases are sketched in Figure 9-11, one with both ends closed and one until friction, perhaps in the form of bottom friction 4, dissipates the motion.
with one end open to a larger basin where 1) = O. Frictional terms have not been introduced in equation (9-35) so that the motion
continues forever.
For a closed basin where u = 0 at x = L, we must have sin kL = 0;
therefore kL = n7r where n = 1,2, ... Therefore, solutions are We now note that solutions for arbitrary initial conditions can be obtained
by summation of the different modes such that
(9-40a)

(9-40b) 1)= LCos knx (An sin u1nl + Bncoswnt) (9-43a)

n==l

and where
(9-41 ) (9-43b)

The functions cos knX are the natural modes, the free modes or the eigenfunctions 3 where we have added the cos Wn t solutions to (9-43a,b) to allow quite general
and COn are the natural frequencies or eigenvalues. initial conditions. Thus, setting t = 0,

3 Eigen means unique in German and refers La the fact that unique or singllla~ solutions satisfy
the differential equations and the boundary condition. For example. a solution for any value 4 A simple way of introducing bollom friction is to add a term, -Ku, to the right side of
of kn other than those given by (9-41) satisfies the differential equations but not the boundary equation (9·35) where K is a consL<!nt. The reader is invited to determine how (9-40a, b) is
conditions and is therefore not an eigenfunction. modified.
168 Chapler 9 Surface Gravity Waves 169

1)(X, 0) = I Bn cosknx, U(X,O)=- ~f Ansinknx (9-46b)

n=l n=l

Now multiply these equations by cos kmX and sin kmX and integrate from x = 0 to Sketches derived from (9-46a, b) are in Figure 9-12; each sketch is for a different,
x = L to obtain the Fourier coefficients, non-dimensional basin length, wfLI c. The upper curves correspond to
cos W fl = 1 and the lower curves to cos W f I = -1. The velocity arrows at the
Bn = -2'fL1)(X,O)cosknxdx, c
-An 2fLu(x,O)smknxdx
= -- . (9-44a, b) mouth of the basin (x = L) correspond to flood tide when the basin is filling or ebb
L 0 H L 0
tide when the basin is emptying. A condition of resonance is attained when the
a result that takes advantage of the fact that integrals of products of cosines and denominators of (9-46a,b), coskfL, equals 0 and the elevations and velocities are
sines over the interval x = 0 to L are nil (they are orthogonal) unless the products infinite; the first reasonance condition corresponds to the first natural frequency,
are squares of cosines or sines for the same knx. For any initial conditions, WfL I c = rr 12. The most important tide, the M2 tide, has a period of 12.42 hours

1)(x,O) and u(x,O), An and Bn can be obtained from (9-44a, b) and the solution is and therefore wf= 2rr (12.42 x 3600 s)·1 = 1.41 X 10. 4 s·l. Suppose the depth of
obtained for I > 0 from (9-43a, b). the basin is 10 m, then c = {iii =' 10 m S·I. In this case a basin about 110 km
long would be in resonance. If friction were added to (9-35), velocities and
Simple Basills Forced 01 all Opell Elld elevations would remain bounded but would nevertheless be large.

Suppose that, at the open end of a basin, the sea elevation is forced by open
ocean tides. Then instead of 1)(L,I) = 0 we have
1)(L, I) = 1)0 coswfl (9-45)
where wf is the forcing frequency. We therefore seek solutions to (9-36a)
containing sinwl so that this boundary condition can be matched. By substituting
At some point within the basin, 1)(1) and U(I) would appear as sketched in
Figure 9-13. It is immediately noted that real tides in real basins which include
effects of variable bottom topography, CarioUs acceleration, friction, nonlinearities
and three-dimensional effects can depart significantly from the simple solutions
given here. For example, the times of zero velocity, i.e., slack water before flood or
slack water before ebb, do not always coincide with the time of low water (low
tide) or time of high waler (high tide).

Rallge alld Phase Represellialioll

into (9-36a), one sees that it does satisfy the differential equation providing that
k" kf = wf I c. Now evaluate busing (9-45); the final result is Tidal information is often represented according to

(9-47)
(9-46a)

where A(x) is the tidal range and '(x) is the phase. If one expands (9-47) according
whereas the velocity, obtained from (9-34) or (9-35), is
to (9-19b) and equates the coefficients of the time dependent sinusoidal functions to
those of (9-46a), one can solve for
170 Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 171

~ '--::.;;.?' ,.r::::::........ ~
27]0 1) I .1
HlghTI e
'd

!ELL «1
t Low Tide I
c
11

L- ~
I
Flood Tide
I Ebb Tide
!...-::===:"""""I
I
• r

.!!!J..f = 0.9--
,. Figure 9·13. Illustration of surface elevation and velocity at some point within a
simple open ended basin. The relative times 01 low and high tide and ebb and flood
c 2 • • tide in real rivers and estuaries will differ from that above due to bathymetric
variations and frictional effects.

,. coskfX
(9-48)
-2- RESONANCE A=27]o ' 'sinJ"=O
:>'
coskfL

where the straight vertical lines denote absolute values. If we restrain Sso that
0,;; S';; 2,., then Sis either 0 (or, equivalently, 2rr) or rr. Figure 9-14 illustrates this
1.1 ~ result for a basin where kfL = 2,.. Real basins which account for the effects of
variable bottom topography, friction, nonlinearities and Coriolis acceleration do not
display such simple behavior. For example, the phase is generally not
discontinuous and can have any value between 0 and 2,.. Oftentimes, the phase
is expressed in temlS of degrees or time, S(x) / OJf . 5 More discussion on real tides
follows in Chapters 10 and II.

A General Solution/or Constant Phase Velocity

o

Quite generally, a solution of (9-36a) is

1) =/,(S,), S, "x-ct
Figure 9·12. The elevation response of a basin to forcing at the open end according
to equation (9·46a). The two curves in each diagram represent the envelope of the
elevation oscillations. Where wILle = rr./2, resonance occurs such that, for an inviscid
flow, the elevation and velocity fields are infinite. The arrows are the velocities at the
open end (the mouth). 5 For example, in Eldridge's Tide and Pilol Book one can find that high lide at Yonkers, NY is
1 hr and 10 min before high tide at the reference station, Baltery Park, NY.
172 Chapter 9 SUiface Gravity Waves 173

Figure 9-15 might also be a sketch of a Tsunami (a Japanese word for a

long progressive wave) which are initiated by submarine earthquakes. In April
1--------- 2It 1946, a Tsunami reached Hawaii after a heavy quake in the Aleutian Trench. The
,,
travel time and distance were 4.6 hours and 3606 km respectively. According to
I
,, - Green (1946) the travel time very nearly coincides with J~606km c-lds where c is
,- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - ~,

:~-,!./
the local shallow water wave speed, [gH(s)jI/2, and s is here taken normal to the
wave front. The wave amplitude increased as it reached shallow water and exceeded
0--- x very destructive peaks of 10 m on exposed coastal sections of the Hawaiian chain.

Figure 9·14. Range and phase representation 01 tidal characteristics lor the case of In general, right running and left running waves are solutions to (9-34) and
equation (9·46a) for kfL = 2rr. Real tidal basins with friction, variable topography and (9·35) or (9-36a,b). Therefore we can write
Corio lis effects do not have contour lines across channels where the range is zero or
where the phase changes discontinuously.
(9-49a)

where h('ll is an arbitrary function of ". To see this, note first that where '1 ., x· ct and '2 .,x + ct. From (9-34) or (9·35) we then obtain
aryl a x = f; a'J ax = f' where fi" dfIl a'l' Furthermore a'ry/ ax' = f;' and,
similarly, a'ry/at' = c'f;'. Thusfl('I) is a solution to (9-36a). This is a direct
consequence of the fact that any shallow water wave fom) can progress to the right
without changing shape. An example of a progressive wave is shown in Figure By stipulating u(x, 0) and ry(x, 0) one can solve forfl = [ry(x,O) + (H/c)u(x,0)]/2
9-15, illustrating the simple fact that if one knows the shape of the wave at time, t, andh = [ry(x,O) - (Hlc) u(x,0)]/2 for 'I = '2 = x. The solution is known thereafter
and knows that it is progressing to the right, then one knows the shape at all other subject to spatial boundary conditions.
times.
9.4 REALISTIC BASINS AI':l) TIDES
7)(X,I)

L~_
For realistic application to embaxments such as Long Island Sound, the Bay
of Fundy, Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, equations (9-34) and (9-35) are too
• x
simple; they neglect wind" bottom topography, bottom friction, Coriolis
7)(x, I + Llt)
acceleration, advective acceleratIon and velocities and variations in the y - direction.

L-----------------~~~.~x Therefore, return to equations (2-1S), (2-16) and (2·17) which may be vertically
averaged and obtain

(9-50)
Figure 9·15. A progressive wave where the phase and the group velocities are
constants. Thus. if, at time = I, 7) =!1 Ix - CIJ. then at t + ilt, 'I =/1 Ix - c(t+Llt)].
174 Chapter 9 Surface Gravity Waves 175

duD du 2 D duvD d1)

- - + - - + - - - ! vD =-gD-+'I" - '1"/" (9-5la)
dt dx iJy dx ox x

avD duvD av 2 D d1)

--+--+--+!uD=-gD-+'I" -'I"H (9-51 b)
dt dx dy dy oy Y

where all velocii[(;s are vertical averages. D ;: H(x ,y) + 1)(x, y, t) is th e water
column de pth , ('I"ox, 'l"oy) the imposed surface wind stress and ('I"Hx, 'l"Hy) th e
bottom fricri on which may be set equal to Cd(U 2 + U2)112(U,V) where Cd is a bottom
drag coeffi cient. Generally, horizontal diffu sion terms are added as in section 6.3.
Although th ese equations still neglect density driven c urre nts and other three-
dime nsional effects , th ey nevertheless seem to be capa ble of fairly accurate
predictions of tidal elevations and, to a lesser ex tent, of tidal c urre nts.

Next the equations are "finite differe nced"; for example, the term, iX,IID)/dx,
in equation (9-50) is replaced by [u (x + LIx) D(x + LIx) - u(x - LIx) D(x - LIx)] /(2L1x) ,
all evaluated at time t and at a point (x, y). The tende ncy teml, dn/CIt, is replaced by
[1)(1 + LIt) - 1) (t - Llt)]/(2L1t) evaluated at a point (x, y). All other terms and
equations (9-49a, b) are treated similarl y and th e result is a se t of algebraic
equations for 1)(t + LIt) , u(t + LIt) and v(t + LIt) in terms of quantities at the previous
times, t and t - LIt. The values of 1], It and v may therefore be updated into the future
on a computatio n grid of incremental values of x and y.

Figure 9- 16 is a numeri cal solution of the tid al flows in Chesapeake Bay

obtained by Blumberg (1977) on a di gital computer. For this calc ulation the surface
wind stress was set equal to zero and th e bottom friction term, Cd. was set to th e
value, 0.0025. At the mouth of the Bay the elevation is forced si nusoidally with the
semi -diurnal, M2, tid e with a period of 12.42 hours and a tidal ran ge of 80 Col .

Freshwater infl ow at small tributari es were mass flux boundary conditions; the
nonlinear advec tive terms and the average flow of water against bottom friction are
responsible for th e fact that the average sea level is hi ghest at th e head of the Bay.
Figure 9-16. A numeri cal sol uti on ollhe M2 tide in Cheseapeake Bay. The solid
lines are su rt ace elevati on above mean low water at th e mouth of fh e Bay. The
arrows are vertically averaged velocities .
176 Chapler 9 Surface GravilY Waves 177

PROBLEMS X,Z are Lagrangian position coordinates].

9.1. Show that the nonlinear teons are unimportant in the boundary conditions
for irrotational waves if k1)o « 1 where 1)0 is the amplitude of the surface
displacement.
9·7. Consider a simple shallow bay open at its western end. The surface
elevation at x = L is 1) = 1)0 sin W[I where Wr is a tidal forcing frequency. Find
1)(x,1) in the region°< x < L. Under what conditions is very large?
1)(0,1)

9·8. At I = 0, u = ° and = = constant for x > °whereas =

1) 1)0 1) -1)0 for
9.2. The surface elevation associated with a progressive wave may be written x < 0. The phase speed is constant.
1) =1)0 cos (10: - rot). (a) Solve and sketch u and 1) for I > 0.
(a) For a deep water wave find the velocity field as a function of x, z, I and the b) Solve for the reflected wave due to a wall placed at a location, x = L.
parameters 1)0, k, w.
(b) Repeat a) for a shallow water wave. 9·9. Obtain the standing wave solutions for a closed basin with bottom friction,
(c) For a wave with a period of 5 sec in a basin whose depth is 1000 m, modeled so that ,Mdl + g (1)/dx = -Ku.
find the wave length, phase speed and group velocity for (a). Verify that the wave
is indeed a deep water wave. 9·10. Obtain the solution for a wave system in a basin forced at x = L so that
1)(L,1) =1)0 sin Wt I. At x = 0, a barrier is placed and modeled according to u(O, I)
9·3, You are at your favorite beach and observe the arrival of a train of waves °
+ C1)(O,I) = where C is a resistance constant. The barrier at x = °
is porous so
originated by a far-away, offshore stoml. At first the waves have a 12 s period. that, for example, when 1) < 0, u(O, I) > 0.

----;t=
The next day, you decide to go back to the beach and you observe waves with a 8 s
1)(L, I)
period. Estimate when the offshore stoon started and its offshore distance.

9·4. Find the stream function (u" dlf//dz, w" -dlf//dx) from (9-25b) and '-"~
(9-25c) which is plotted in Figure 9-6. , x=o
""""",
L
9·5. Using very sensitive pressure instruments located on the bottom, one can
measure wave spectra. Derive the following equation (from linear theory) used to
relate the bottom pressure, pC;!:, y, -H, I) to the surface elevation, 1)(x,y, I). 9·11. In Chapter II, we will see that the most imponant tidal constituent has a
period of 12.42 h. Show that it propagates as a shallow water wave.
e- kH
p(x,y,-H,t) =2g Po1)(x,y,l) -2kH +constant
I+e
9·12. Consider a simple wave in shallow water where the bottom topography is

9·6. Within the linearized approximation, show that particle motions due to given by H = H(x). Derive the following wave equation.
passage of a single progressive deep water are circular orbits whose radius is 1)oekz
where 1)0 is the amplitude of the surface displacement.
[Note: Consistent with linear theory is the fact that dX/dl =U, dl/dl =v where
178 Chapter 9

where c2 : gH. For dH ldx = cons tan t and values of th e parameter, H - t(dH ldx)
which is small relative to the local wave num ber, find an approx imate (WKBJ) Chapter 10
so luti o n for 1)( x, t ). [Hint : Assume a so lution in th e form, I) =
A(x) exp[i (L(x)-Wl)] where the local wave number is defined to be dLldx and
Inertial Motions
=(-I) til. Neglec t small terms. Eq uate real and imaginary tenllS to zero.]

The Coriolis terms in conjunction with the tendency terms in the

9-13_ Conside( a wave syste m, other th an a surface wave sys te m, where the
momentum equations are responsible for inertial oscillations. These effects can be
dispersion relation is sketched below. On a similar sketch of ~k), include a sketch
clearly demonstrated by considering th e barotropic, inviscid, low Rossby number
of the phase velocity, c(k), and gro up velocity, cg(k). Do you think it possible that
equations
th e group velocity can be opposite to th e phase ve locity?

au_fv=-g(1) iJv
-+Iu= -g-
(1)
(10-1a, b)
at ax' at ay

10_1 NON-WAVELIKE, OSCILLATORY MOTION

We temporarily stipul ate iJ1)liJx, iJ1)liJy to be constants, independe nt of x and

k
y, so th at the velocity components are also independ ent of x and y. Then, solutions
to (IO- Ia,b) are

9.14. One can calculate a nonlinear effect using linear results. Thus, Stokes u=ug+A coslt+Bsinlt, v=vg-Asinlt+B cos It (10-2a, b)
transport is defined accordi ng to th e integral
where (Ug,V g) '" I- t g (-at)/iJy, at)/iJx) is the geostrophic velocity and A and B are
'1
1- 1/
it tlz arbitrary constants. It will be see n that the velocity vector is a constant plus a vector
of constant scalar mag nitude rotating cou nter clockwise with the inertial frequency,
where the overbar signifies a time average over a tidal cycle. 1= 2Q sint/>. If one denotes (x, y) as the position of a particle of fixed identity, and
a) Evaluate the transport for shallow wate r waves such as (9-26a, b). therefore, a Lagrangian variable, th en (l0-2a, b) may be written
b) Evaluate the transport for deep water waves suc h as (9-25a, b).
ox
- = ug +A coslt,
Dy . r
- =vg- A Sill ) ! (1O-3a,b)
Stokes drift is the local net motion of a particle as a function of z. For a) evaluate the Dt Dt
drift and explain physically what is happening. For b) the determination is more
difficult but doable. where we have set the initial conditi ons so that B = O. We then obtain

- A. r _ A
x=ugf+- S1l1 J t, y=Vgt+- coslt (10-4a, b)
I I
The anticyclonic particle moti ons according to (lO-4a,b) are sketc hed in Figure

179
180 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 181
o I 2 3 4 !I<M

The solution of (l0-5a,b), (l0-6a,b) and (l0-7a,b) for an impulsive wind stress
such that 't'ox = Toy =0 for t < ° and 'Tax;::::; 0, 'Toy = constant for t > ° was
obtained by Fredholm and was reported by Ekman (1905), The solution is
complicated and we only cite the results graphically in Figure 10-2, We shall
discuss this solution further, but first we develop a simpler expression for the
Ekman transport. Thus, if (l0-5a, b) is integrated from some depth, z = -8, where
the stress is nil, to the surface, z = 0, we obtain

dS X
dt
_/
SY = ~ox , (1O-8a,b)
Po
after defining

Figure 10-1. Left panel; A trajectory calculated from equations (10-4a,b) which (lO-9a,b)
describe a "prolate cycloid". Right panel: Internal currents superimposed on a
translatory motion as observed in the Baltic Sea by Gustafson and Kullenberg
(1933), The figure presents a progressive vector diagram of stationary current data
over a week's time interval (From Sverdrup et al.,1942). J z=o
3

10-1 together with observations made in the Baltic Sea by Gustafson and
15
Kullenberg (1933).

10,2 UNSTEADY, OCEAN SURFACE BOUNDARY LAYERS

The observed motions depicted in Figure 10-1 must have been initiated by
v,
wind stress. If we now return to the viscous equations of Chapter 5, we have
V- •
dUdt _tv = -hI.r g + ~(K
dZ
dU),
dZ
Jvdt + Iu = lug + ~(K
dZ
Jv)
dZ
(l0-5a, b)
~---------------------r'

f z =0.50
which allow LIS to inquire into the nature of the response of the velocity field to
unsteady, surface wind stress forcing. Thus, the boundary conditions are

(
K ~u ,K
aZ
0:)
uZ 2=0
= (~ox(t), ~Oy(t)) (10-6a,b)
9
and
Figure 10·2, Hodographs showing the development of an Ekman layer in response
(lO-7a,b)
to an impulsive wind stress. The time is in inertial hours and D = J[~2K / f in this
solution.
 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 183
182

as in Chapter 5. Again suppose that rox = roy = a for t < a and rox = 0, roy = 5
constant for t> O. The particular solution is (5 x, 5y ) = (roy/p/, 0) and, of course, is
the steady Ekman transport solution. Assume an additional homogeneous solution
for (I 0-8a) such that ~oy

-r pi
5x =...!!1..+ Acos/t+ Bsin/t
/ Po/ o
o
where A and B are arbitrary and roy is the constant wind stress for t > O.
Substituting this equation into (l0-8b) yields
Figure 10-3. The unsteady behavior of the Ekman transport after an impulsive
5 y =-Asin/t+Bcos/t application of a constant surface wind stress.

We now determine A and B from the initial conditions that 5x = 5y = a at t = O. the flow was stable and K = O. This cutoff process occurs at approximately
The solution is z = -30 m. This prevents the oscillating component from deepening and, in fact, the
oscillating part of the velocity profile becomes vertically constant and behaves
roy -rov nearly like a solid slab of fluid oscillating on a frictionless surface.
5x = - ( 1 - cos/t), 5 = ---'.L si n /t (10- lOa, b)
Po/ y Po/
10.3 POINCARE WAVES
which is sketched in Figure 10-3. Thus we have a steady component, (5 x, 5y ) =
(-roy fpo/, 0) plus an oscillating component.
Now the restriction that the elevation gradients in (la-la, b) be constants is
removed. And, to these equations, we add the continuity equation in the fOrlm,
We now return to the more detailed vertically dependent solution in Figure
10-2 of which (5 x , 5y) in Figure 10-3 are integrals. In Figure 10-2 it would appear
that the oscillatory part vanishes for long time whereas in Figure 10-3, it does not.
H(au + iJv)+ ary = a (la-II)
ax ay al
Resolution of this dilemma resides in the fact that, as time marches on, the
oscillatory pall of the velocity solution decreases in amplitude but penetrates deeper so that here we deal with deep water waves where II = u(x, y, I) and v = v(x, y, I) .
and deeper into the water column slIch that the velocity integrals do not vanish and Furthermore, we stipulate that H = constant and specialize to an / - plane so that
the amplitudes of the oscillating pans of (5 x, 5y ), stay constant. f3= O. Equations (la-la, b) and (10-11) are three equations for three unknowns.
The following is a prescription to eliminate II and v: Take derivatives of all temlS in
A numerical solution of the impulsive wind problem, equations (1O-5a, b), (10-1 a) with respect to x and in (10-1 b) with respect to y and then add the resulting
(l0-6a, b) and (10-7a, b), by Mellor and Durbin (1975) is shown in Figure 10-4 equations to obtain
(Here. 'fox was impulsively increased instead of 'fay- However, one solution can be
transfOimed into the other by coordinate rotation.) In this solution, a model for K (l0-12a)
was included such that it was dependent on Richardson number. When Rj > 0.20,
,t

184 Chapter 10 Inertial MOlions 185

horizontal divergence, au/ax + dv/ ay, and the venical component of vonicity, OJ, "
dv/ aX - au/ay (see Chapter 12). Now eliminate the diverge nce ternlS in (10-12.)
u
and (10- 12b) usi ng ( 10-11 ) and obtai n

o=t (l0- 13a)

and

(l0-13b)
-50ml-- ---!-+- -+ -- ---j

(In Chapter 12, eq uation (lO-l3b) is recogni zed as a linearized version of

conserva tio n of potential vortic it y.) A first integral o f (l0-13b) is
(dv/aX - auf ay) - f1) / H = 0 where a time independent function, F(x, y), could be
on the right side but has been se t to zero. Thu s, we res trict attention to un steady
_100m,L - --"----'-,- - ---',L - - --d
10oC
flows; a steady flow can always be added at a later stage. Finally, lise thi s result to
eliminate the vonicity in (10- 13a) to obtain

la) Ib) (10-14)

Figure 10-4. la) The response at u.v and Sx.Sy 10 the sudden application of a
constant wind stress. The model for K{z,t) was strongly influenced by temperature
such that K . 0 below Ihe deplh where the Richardson number was greater than
abou t 0.20 . Ib) The temperature profile showi ng the evolution of a mixed layer. The
point where e decreases rapidly to zero coi ncides with sharp positive temperature
gradients.
where we defin e co " @' Notice th at, forf = 0, (10-14) is similar to equation
(9-36a); a difference is that we ha ve generali zed to allow wave motion in the y-
direction as well as the x-direction. The more significant difference is th e addi tion of
the third term on the left of (10-14) which distinquishes it as the equation governing
Poincare waves.

A traveling wave solution to (10- 14) is

Next, take deri vatives of (lO-la) wi th respect to y and (10-1b) with respect to x and
subtract the results to obtain I) = 1)0 cas e, fI " mx + Iy- Wt (10-15)

where m and' are directional wave Ilumbers 1 and (J) is a frequency. Equation
(1O-12b) (10- 15) is a solution, however, only if we co nstrain the wave numbers and the

Aside from the ten11S involving surface elevation, equations (10-12a, b) include the l One can write mx + Iy =k.x ror a shorthand notation where we derine k = im + j/ . Nolice
Ihal k = V( k . x) is Ihe vector wave number normal 10 the pha se surraces. mx + ky = conswnt.
186 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 187

v (1O-19-a, b)

where now ti = kx - Wt w/c;

and uo " g1] o k. Figure 10-5 is a sketch of the
current ellipse at a fixed location for [/w = 0.5.

One can recover the oscillatory portions of equations (l0-2a, b) for B = 0,

by letting k -) a so that w -) [ representing horizontally homogeneous,
oscillatory motions; the whole ocean rotates with a constant frequency.! Obviously
such motions are only approximately found in nature as evident in Figure 10-1.
Figure 10-5. The velocity as a function of time and at a fixed location for a
progressive wave travelling in the positive x-direction. For this example, f / til = 0.5.
10.4 KEL YIN W AYES
frequencies according to the dispersion relation
There exists another class of solutions to (1O-1a, b) and (10-11) and
(10-16)
therefore to (10-14). This class is unique in that either u or v is everywhere zero.
There are different ways of finding this solution. A simple way is to set v = a in
where k 2 "m 2 + 12 The phase speed, C" w/k, and group velocity, cg "dw/dk,
(l0-1a,b) and (10-11) to obtain
are
au a1]
(10-17a, b) -=-g- (l0-20a, b)
at ax'
The velocity field may be obtained from (10-1a, b) using (10-15). The result is (l0-20e)

(l0-1Sa) Now eliminate 1] in (1O-20a) and (lO-20e) to obtain

v flo 2 (jmsinti+wlcosti)
w -[
(l0-1Sb) (1O-21a)

where, familiarly, c 2 =gH. Next, eliminate 1] in (l0-20a) and (l0-20b) so that

For [ = 0, (10-15), (10-16), (10-17 a, b) and (1 0-18a, b) are the same results as
those obtained in Chapter 9 for shallow water waves except that, there, we had
k = i k (thus, m = k and I = 0) whereas, here, we allow a little more generality in the (l0-21b)
direction of wave propagation. On the other hand, one can always rotate the
coordinate system so that propagation is in the x-direction such that I = O. Then Notice that 00-2Ia) is the same as (9-36b) for which a quite general solution was
(1O-1Sa, b) can be written found in the form of equation (9-47b). So here it easy to see that a solution to
188 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 189

(10-21 a) is 11= Y(y) F(x ± et). Substitution of this eq uation into (10-21 b) allows and eastern boundaries derive from (l0-23c). Figure 10-6 depicts the cyclonic

one to detennine YCy) so that propagation of trapped Kelvin waves around a sq uare basin. An approximation
allows this result to be ex tended to more realistically shaped coastlines. Relatively

11= e1)o exp(±..L)F(X± et), v=0 (l0-22a, b) sharp corners in the basin require special treatment but do not obviate the direction
H elf of propagation (Taylor, 1921; see also Gill, 1982, p.384).

1) = ±1)0 exp(±..L)F(X ± et) (1O-22c)

/' elf Real coastlines do not have fl at bottoms with an abrupt coas tal wall. The
inclusion of variable topography generally require partial or full numerical solution
is the final solution to th e original equations, (IO-Ia, b) and (10-11). The elevation
of th e governing equations. Coas tal trapped waves which include th e effec t of
has been obtained from (l0-20c). Similar sol utions may be found for the u = 0
variable topography are some times called continental shelf waves.
case and are

At thi s point, we direct auention to the repeated appearance of the factor, elf
v = e1)o exp(f~)F(Y ± et), U =0 (1O-23a, b)
H elf which has the dimensions of length and is called th e Fossby radius of defoI111atioll.!"

='1' 110 exp(f~)F(Y±

the term, radius of deformation, havin g been give n by Rossby (1937, 1938). It
1) et) (l0-23c)
elf repeatedly appears in problems involving gravitational restoring forces and the
CorioUs acceleration. If the scale of a problem is small co mpared to elf, then th e
Note that, as in Chapter 9, the functions, F(x ± et) or F(Y ± et) co uld be simple Corio Us effects are unimportant. Thi s is readily see n in ( 10- 17a, b) where, if k -t is
progressive waves where, for example, F(x - et) =cosk(x - et) or waves of any mllch less than el/, the Coriolis effect may be neglected. The same is true with
fonn which travel at th e constant phase specd, e =.jiH. Kelvin waves. On sOllthern bOllndaries, where y « el/, then the CorioUs effect is
unimportant.
Coas/al Trapped Wave s
y = ar-----------~~--------__,

It may be shown that wind forcing of barotropic motion and the excitation
of elevatio n disturbances predominate in the shallow coastal ocean. To first
approximation, these waves propagate as Kelvin waves, But only those waves that
decay offshore are acceptable; the exponen ti ally increasing solutions must be set to
zero. Thus, on soulhern boundaries, one selects

I) = -1)0 exp( - Ylle) F(l,- et)

from (lO-22c) whereas on northern boundaries

1) = 1)0 exp((y - a)f Ie) F(x + et) y = 0 '--- - -- '-"--- - ------'

Figure 10-6. Illu str ation of coastal trapped waves propagating cyclonically around a
and x = a is the locat ion of the northern boundary. Similar selections for westem rectangular basin.
190 Chapter IO Inertial Motions 191

ChQ1l1lei Flow which is in the standing wave form closest to (9-36b). Finally, obtain 1/ from
(l0-20e)
In Chapter 9, we dealt with channel flow for f = O. Now we wish to obtain
solutions for arbitrary f, but which nevertheless asymptote to the case of standing 1/(x y I) = E. Wf I e [{e-Yfle + e(Y-W)fle}coskxcos WI
" 2 1- e Wfle
waves in a channel closed at one end asf --> 0, i.e., the solution given by (9-39a,b). (l0-24b)
We develop correspondence in the sense that the velocity averaged across the + {e-Yf Ie - e(y-W)f Ie }sinkxsin WI]
channel width, W; be the same solution as (9-39a, b). To this end, consider the sum
of two solutions derived from (lO-22a, b); these solutions include v = 0 and, The first y-dependent, exponential functions in the curly brackets in (1O-24a) are
therefore, there is zero flow normal to the channel walls at y = 0 and y = W. Thus, symmetrical about the channel centerline; the second are anti symmetrical. This
second portion of the solution prevents a no-flow condition from being locally
U(x,y,t) = Ae -yf Ie cosk(x - et) + Be yfle cosk(x + et) satisfied at x = 0 and a more complicated local solution must be sought. A good
guess is that the present solution needs to be amended when xfle < 0(1) and that
A and B are constants. Now determine u;: W -1 f;U dy so that (1O-24a, b) should be approximately correct for xfle > 0(1). The reader should
verify that (l0-24a,b) asymptotes to (9-36a, b) as Wfle --> 0 in which case the
second portion of the solution vanishes. In all this discussion, the Rossby radius,
elf, plays a prominent role.
Set B so that the coefficients of the two cosine functions are equal in which case
In Figure 10-7, we display plots of amplitude and phase of elevation from
cos k(x - et) - cos k(x·t et) = 2 sinkx sin WI; finally set A so that the final coefficient
(1O-24b) recast in the form of
conforms to (9-39b) and obtain
1//a = A(x,y)cos(WI+ (x,y)) (10-25)
u = ~[cosk(x - et) - cosk(x + et)] = a-"-sin kxsin WI
2H H
for small, intermediate and large values of Wfle. Notice that Figure 9-14 is the
Using A and B obtained above (not displayed), the original equation for u(x,y,t) limiting solution for solutions in Figure 10-7 as Wffe --> O. Tidal motions generally
may be written conform to intermediate values of Wfle. Thus, if, roughly, we let W = 4000 km,f =
10-4 s-l, e = 200 m s·l, then Wfle = 2. For this and similar values, one observes
ac W e-yfle e(y-W)fle ] near circular amplitude pattenlS and near radial phase patterns about an amplitude
u(x,y,t) = _-.1. wf I cosk(x - et) - wf Ie cosk(x + et)
2H e [ 1- e e 1- e node in Figure 10-7. This is known as an amphidromic system and the nodal point,
a singular point with zero amplitude and undefined phase, the amphidromic point.
which is in the Kelvin wave format. Alternately, Looking ahead to Figure 11-6, such patterns are seen to be characteristic of tidal
elevations.
U(x y t) = ~ Wf I e [{e-Yfle + e(Y-W)fle}sinkxsinwt
" 2Hl_e Wfle
(l0-24a)
+ {e -yf Ie - e(Y-W)! Ie }COSkxCOS wtJ
192 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 193

1.0
1~O
,, \,te/2,,, ,,, 1.0 I
10.5 GEOSTROPHIC ADJUSTMENT

"~,'
J
I

~
,,
\

'" '
,
\

III
\\111
"

I
I '\I, ,, ", ,,
'" HIli
\:,
,
The picture of ocean dynamics that emerges from observations and theory
2.
\I
\~I:/
~I
•,, .. ..
h'"
\~;~I
J

. _Q. - - I
o,
is that there are localized, major ocean currents plus ubiquitous waves of many
y/W : 2n .
r 0
... --0-- ,. . • ---i---- ,.,
:0'· .
2. , Wfle = 0.5
I,,'~' 2,
~.,"
q
,, 1, ',,'1\' different species traveling around the various ocean basins. The major CUlTents are
, , ,
'" , ,
f 11'11 \ f 11'11
I /1\ ,
nearly in geostrophic balance, but not exactly so else there would be no temporal
, ( nti ,, I/~ , (:
00
:'I
,\0 I I I \
I
8 n
0 I
I I
I 3~2\
I \
1.0 :

2n
change. The intriguing thought experiment emerged in the enquiring mind of
Rossby (1937, 1938): what would happen if a geostrophic imbalance were initially

~
1.0
established? Figure 10·8 depicts the simplest situation one can imagine in the upper
panel; the elevation is displaced at x = 0 but the velocity is nil such that
2,'
Wfle = 1.0 = v(x,y,t) = 0
y/W ,
!.. 2n 1)(x,y,O) = 1)osgn(x), u(x,y,t)
0
q 2.

where sgn(x) = I for x> 0 and -I for x < O. The problem for t > 0 is governed by
(l0-13a, b) but is two-dimensional so that partial derivatives with respect to yare
0 0 2n
niL In any event, a solution will involve complicated wave transients (Gill 1982,
1.0
, p.196); the waves will propagate disturbances and energy away from the origin, x =
,
1.0_'
O. Eventually, steady state will be restored. One can skip from the initial state to the
2. ?,
y/W:- ~rc ___ . . Wjle = 2.0 final steady state by integrating (lO-13b) from t =0 to t == so that
q 2.

1.0 ----,,,
'.0
Jv
ax H
f
H 0
f
---1)=--1) sgn(x)

0 n 2n
0
1.0 where v = vex, =), 1) = 1)(X, =). Now combine with (I 0-13a), simplified for steady
:: 13~!2: ::: li~2:!::
state, to obtain

Wfle = 4.0
y/W

where A "..JiJH /f is the Rossby radius of deformation. The solution is

o o
kx v = g170 e-lxl/4 (10-27)
fA
Figure 10·7. Amplitude (solid lines) and phase (dashed lines) plots of equation
(10-24b) recasf in the form of (10-25) for WfIC~ 0,5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0, The contour The geostrophically balanced solution is sketched in Figure 10·8.
interval for the amplitude is 0.2; for the phase, It IS n14.
194 Chapter 10 Inertial Motions 195

It is a stretch of the imagination from this problem to the real ocean. 10-2. The unsteady transport equations for the surface Ekman layer are
Nevertheless, one finds that the Rossby radius is the scale of prominent oceanic
features. For example, the size of Gulf Stream eddies is of the order of a few asx fS y = 'fox.
Tt-
internal Rossby radii where further baroclinic analysis will show that, using a two-
layer approximation, the internal Rossby radius is ?" ~p;;lopgH If; op is the
where (fox, foy ) is Ihe surface wind Slress. When I < 0, let fox; conslant,
density difference qf Ihe IwO layers. foy ; 0 and let the flow be sleady. If, for I > 0, the wind Slaps, find Sx (I) and
Sy (I).

ry (x, 0)
10-3. Consider a wind impulsively blowing over an oceanic surface; fox (I) ; 0,
foy (t) ; 0 when I < 0 and fox (I) ; 0, fay (I) ; conSlant ; fo when I > O. The
ocean is characterized by a viscosily V ;Vo where 0 > z > - h and v ; 0 where
1 xlA -h > z. Prove that the resultanl mali on is II - (foylfh) (- cos fl) + lIt(z),
v - (foyifh) sinfl +Vt (z) for 0> z > - h as I ..,~; i.e., the unsleady componenl is
unifonn in this upper region.

10-4. Sketch o;(k), c(k) and cg(k) according 10 (10- 16).

10-5. Explain how and why equations (10-3a, b) and (1O-18a,b) are different.

10-6. In sec lions 10.3 and lOA, we specialized 10 an f-plane where {3 ;{}f/(}Y
Figure 10-8. The initial elevation in the upper panel plus zero velocity are th e initial
; O. However, near the equalor, f; {3y. Find Kelvin wave solutions to replace
conditions. The lower panel shows the geostrophically balanced elevation and the v-
component of velocity after a long time. (lO-22a, b, c) for equatorial waves.

PROBLEMS

10-1. The period for an inertial mOlion was observed to be 12 hours and an array
of current meters measured the velocity field to be approximalely horizontally
homogeneous. AI 12:00 noon, Ihe current was 10 cm s-I, eastward.
a) Whal is Ihe velocity field at 3 pm, 6 pm, 9 pm and midnighl?
b) At what lalitude were Ihe observations taken?
 Astronomical Tides 197

Chapter 11

Astronomical Tides
L-----'-j-- - R
m
The tides are forced by combined grav itationa l and centri fugal forces of the Moon
earth-moon and the eanh-sun systems. The net force on an oceanic particle is small Earth
but can nevertheless give ri se to surface elevations which range from near zero to
th e order of te n meters depending on geograp hi cal locati o n. T idal c urren ts are Figure 11-1. Evaluation 01 th e lorce on a particle on th e surt ace 01 the earth due
usuall y small but in some rivers and bays there are tidally- induced currents of the to th e moon's gravitational attraction. The force per unit mass, fQ , has a magnitude,
rMm s-2, and is directed along th e line, denoted by its distance. s, connecting Ihe
order of meters per second. The subject is complica ted but the goal in this chapter particle location and Ihe center of the moon.
is to develop understa ndi ng of the underlying physics and conseq ue nces of
astronomical tidal forcing. position. O ne can resolve thi s force in th e rand e directions purely from
geome try. However, it will prove simpler in the long run to define a force potential,
11.1 COM BINED GRA VITATIONAL AND CENTRIFUGAL Xg, such tha t VXg = -fg or ax glaS = fMm s·2. Integra tion yields Xg = - YMms·t
FORCE POTENTIAL + Cor

yMm
In Chapter 9, we discussed tid al flows driven by tidal forcing at th e Xg = 2 2 t/2 +C
boundary which mi ght, for example, be conn ected with the ope n ocea n. To (Rm -2rRmcosO+r )

detenni ne tid al flows for th e open ocea n, one needs to detennine the gravi tational
where C is an arbitrary constant. The force componen t in the rand edirections are
force exerted on ocean parti cles by the moon and the sun. We will first consider the
earth-moon sys tem, but th e analysis for the eal1h-sun system is nearly the same.

In Figure 11 - 1 we illustrate the geome try of the ea rth a nd moo n where we

determine th e forces relative to a line conn ec ting the cen ters of both bodies. First we gI aX yMm( Rm sin e)
f g0 =r- -
ae- 2
note that the gravi ty force law applied to a particle on the surface of th e ear th per (Rm - 2 Rmcos 0 +r)2 3/2

unit mass is
The reader ca n check the fact Ih at fg = fig? + fgrr J' (l.
fg = yMm s-2, s "r Rm 2 - 2r Rm cos e+ r 2) t/2
Now the gravita ti onal forces are balanced by the centrifugal force I of the
s is th e distan ce separating the particle and the center of th e moon. Mm is the mass
of the moon and y is the grav itati onal constant. T he gravi tati onal force vector, fg, A fictitious force in the 0' A/embert sense equal to th e mass tim es the cen tri fuga l
acceleration due La circular motion aro und a cCiller of rotation. The centrifugal forcc is
acts in the direction of the line connecting the moon center and the pat1icle direc tcd ou tward from lhe cen ter and must be balanced by a (rea l) centr ipetal force directed
inward.

196
 198 Chapter II Astronomical Tides 199

earth and moon rotating about a common axis, For reasons described in Figure The net potential is therefore
~t " 11-2, the result of th e combined eanh and moon rotations is that the centrifugal
~.~ force per unit mass is a constant on every particle, given by wn?Rl and acts in a
"'~hf~~ constant direction parallel to the line between centers. Furtherm~re, th e total
.1"''-';'. . :>centnfugal force on the ea nh is balanced by the total gravitational force so that
r· t""".t.
),v.,(. ,-", ,(."l ~
I.
/' {j)~R,M, = yM,Mm / R,;,
where <. " rlRm. For r = a, the earth's radius, <.= 0.0166 and is small. One can
therefore expand the expression in powers of <. to obtain
JL. <.X')(ON '"' 'l" Ie,..
Q.volv, and similarly for the moon, (II-I)
"\ T·" ';\."~ ~ .r
where terms of order £3 have been neglected and where we have set C to remove
Therefore one obtains RtlR2 = MilliMe and (j),}Rt = yMmIRn,z. Then it is simple
a tem1 which is independent of rand e. (Forces are gradients of the potential
geometry to show that
function and are not affected by addition of a constant to the potential function.)
The horizontal force can now be obtained and is
/
,8 7m
= - yMm sin e
/e=_!ax =-3~r cos esine (11-2)
A potential func tion can be defined such that ifcr,!ce)= ' (aXelar, r" aXela&) after rae Rm
which one finds that
A similar result can be obtained for the earth- sun system if we substitute Rs
x _ rcose
c - ytv1m~ and Ms. the distance between th e eanh and the sun and the mass of the sun, for Rm
on
and Mm . The quantity, r = a, is the earth 's radius in both cases so that th e ratio of
Mm/R~ to Ms/R§ is also the ratio of th e force exerted by th e moon on an earthly
2
00111 RI particle to the force exened by the sun . From Table II - I, one can determine the
'\
e wm ratio, (M m IM sHR sIR m )3, to be about 2.1 so that the moon is th e more important
£......_ --'.
\1 -0 - -RIIl- - - -E) tide forcing agent.

Earth

,j'- R2- T Table 11-1. Some important values related to tide producing forces.

The earth's mean radius = a = 6365 km

The mean distance between the th e centers of the earth and the moon
= Rm = 3.84 x \05 krn
The mean distance between the centers of the earth and the sun
FIgure 11·2. Evaluation of th e centrifugal force on a particle on th e suriace of the = Rs = 1.49 x t0 8 km
earth as the produ ct of particle mass and two additive components of acceleration, The mass of the sun = Ms = 1.99 1 x 1030 kg
vm x "m x R1 and vm x "m x r. The term, vm x "m x r is excluded from the present The mass of the earth = Me = 5.99 x 1024 kg
analysis; it can, however, be included with the earth's gravitational attractive force The mass of the moon = M m = 7.38 x 1022 kg
(see Appendix B) which is balanced by the internal stresses in the solid earth and in The gravitational cons tant - r - 6.67 x 10- 11 m3 kg- l S·2
th e oceans .
.i '1:/.,0,> "Y I'-<~I(", ... "i~."" e« cwl>.,J.(" e;f1,.J,'\
i -' 01» .1,'"", " " e,~J .1 ",.(.
-I&. ~l.. .,{. M>""~ of 1.& e. --<i~ Q.N'X ./k..., -l" ~ ....."" r 3,.{, e""- \It
j~" ," J.t L Ii,., ~'''' "'1 ~.{" W-t,'\. ' ("" o\;...~\,,,.~, 'II ,\., !L> (;N-~"-\
-'\;o(" I, c~ ". ", ,(, 0. ~ . 1, j/(., A.. \~"",," I, A' '.~"~ ;.>-"\
 200 Chapter 11 Astronomical Tides 201

11.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM TIDE

The nel horizontal body force mU SI be balanced by sea surface elevalion

gradien ts. Thus on an eart h wi th no coastal boundaries and ass uming the fluid
envelope is free to flow over the spinning earth with no friction, then we would
have
/

Figure 11·3. The arrows represent the tangential component of th e tid al force
so that
whereas th e radial distance separating the two ellipses is the equilibrium tide; the
shaded region represent negative values. Both quantities are evaluated on th e
(11-3)
earth 's surface and are unique functions of 8, the solid angle between a li ne
connecting earth and moon cen ters and a line be tween th e earth's center and a
su riace particle. Note that there are two maxima arising from th e fact that a cons tan t
and, Ihus, Ihe eq uilibrium lidal elevalion is relaled direclly 10 Ihe lidal pOlential. ce ntrifugal force is subtracted from unequal gravitational forces on points closest and
furthest from the moon.

w1- \!.I.~,.;..Jl<.. In Figure 11-3, we skelch bOlh Ihe horizonlal force and Ihe eq uilibrium
Fall
ui.f(, ",\ elevalion. NOle Ihal Ihere are IwO maxima in Ihe eq uili brium elevalion, one closer
.1 \ . ,~J~an d one f urther f rom the moon.
:>t II~\

Figure 11 -4 shows a skelch of Ihe su n-earth-moon syslem. A solar day is 2.

27 .32 d
the time req uired for the earth to rotate one revolution relative to the line connecting ;>,0
Ihe cenlers of Ihe earth and su n and Iherefore prov ides Ihe basis for our lime
keeping slandards. The solar day, or simply day, is divided into 24 hours and so
on 10 minules and seconds. The angular velocilY associaled wil h Ihis period is wr=
Winter ': 0V -----
2rr i
365.24 d
Summer

2rr /24 hr.

The earth rolales arou nd Ihe sun wil h an ang ular veloci lY of wh ~
2rr1365.242 d. The period, 365.242 d, is a lropical year. Since Ihe ang ular velocilY,
(Or. is a relative veloci ty; the absol ute ve locity of th e earth 's rotation is wr + (J)h ;
for example if Ihe eanh were slalionary relalive to Ihe line belween Ihe cenlers of Ihe
earth and sun so that ror = 0, then the earth would rotate about its axis at the same
rale as Ihal of Ihe eanh orbiling Ihe sun, who
In order for (II - I) 10 be useful for eanh dwellers, we need to tranfonn Ihe
Spring
Figure 11-4. A plan view ollhe ecliplic, a plane Ihal includes Ihe sun and Ihe earlh'S
orbit. The earth is shown for the four seasons wherein the small crosses represent
the northern hemisphere pole ; they are off ce nt er since the earth 's axis is tilt ed
relative to a normal to th e eclipti c by 23.5 0 . Th e numbers shown are th e angular
ve locities of th e earth around th e sun and th e angular veloci ty of the moon around
th e earth as viewed by an observer in an abso lute coordi nate system fi xed in th e
stars. NOl shown is the lacI Ih at the earth also rotates with a relative angular velocity
of 2.124 hr: that is, a fixed meridian inlersects the line connecting th e centers of Ihe
sun and earth every 24 hours .
202 Chapcer J J Astronomical Tides 203

defined in Figure 11·5.

For the moment let us assume that 0 is zero and focus attention on the
angle, wMc +.1.. As viewed from above the northern hemi sphere, the spin of the
eanh is counter clockwise whereas, by convention, longitude increases eastward -
also counter clockwi se. The angular velocity, wM, is the rate at which a meridian,
say, the Greenwhich meridian, intersects the sublunar point, the point on the earth's
surface which intersects the line connecting earth and moon centers. If the moon
did orbit the earth such that the sublunar point was fixed, th en wM = wr . But,
accounting for the moon' s motion. we have (J)M;:: (J)r - (CtJs - OJh) where the third
tenn converts the absolute angular velocity of the moon, ws , 10 a relative angular
velocity. The resulting period, TM, may be obtained from

Figure 11·5. The geomelry of Ihe earth and moon syslem. The ecliplic plane
conlains Ihe sun (nol shown) and Ihe earth's orbi!. The shaded area is Ihe earth's
equalorial plane . The earth's axis, aboul which Ihe earth spins al art angular velocily so that TM = 24.84 hr. We will fi nd that the dominant tidal constituent, the M2
of 2n/24 hr relalive 10 Ihe sun, is lilled by 23.5 0 rei alive 10 a normal 10 Ihe ecllpllc.
We show the syste m in a near su mmer configuration such that the earth 's northern tide, is provided by the third term in (11·4) where a factor of 2 multiplies the
hemi sph ere is tilt ed toward th e sun . We show the moon in its new moon and full angular velocity; this increases the angular velocity and decreases the period of the
moon localions separaled by 29.53/2 days of orbilal molion . The moon's declinalion,
0, is the angle betwe en the line connecting th e earth and moon ce nters and the M2 tide to 12.42 hr.
earth's equalorial plane.
A very significant complication evolves from the fact that 8 is not a
constant. As the moon orbits the earth at an (absolute) angular velocity, ws, 8 also
angle, e, 10 lalilllde, 4J, and 10ngilude,.1.. A sphericallrigonometric relation which
changes accordingl y, as seen in Figure 11 ·5, such that
serves this purpose is

cose=sin 4J sin 8+cos 4J cos 8 cos (WMt+.1.) Table 11·2. Basic astronomical frequencies,
Description Symbol Freque ncy Period
(5-1 )
Afler squaring cos e, inserting into ( i I- I) and rearrangi ng one obtains Earth's spin rotation "'< 0.72722 x 10-4 24 hr
Moon's orbital rolalion "'5 0.26617 x 10-5 27.32158 d
Earth's orbi tal rotation "'h 0.t 99 11 x 10-6 365.2422 d
+ 3 sin 24J sin 28 COS(WM c +.1.) (11·4) Moon's nodal precession "' N -0.0695 x 10-7 18.613 yr
Variation of Moon's perig ee "' p 0.22505 x to· 7 8.861 yr
+ 3 cos 2 rp cos 28 cos 2(wMc +.1.)
Vari ation of earth's perihelion oops 0.96 x 10-11 20,940 yr

where D "y Mmr2/(4 R",3). Th e moon's declination angle, 8, is introduced as

204 Chaprer II Astronomical Tides 205

Tabl,e d11 b·3. A 1~~uJatjo n of th.e more importanllidal constituents. Th e frequency is

w + h W t y+ comblnmg
obtalne
N
the baSIC frequencies from Table 11 ·2 Thu
.
-
5, W - t oot +
2 ~abre and the b~~ ~/q~Cn~i~~ ~~~ ~~t:~e i~' ;a~e ~'l~i/S are integers defined in this
Therefore, in (11-4), we mu s t . dea l with fac tors like cos 0 =
cos2[00 cos(w,r + aJl . The way this is handled is to expand in a Fourier series Symbol t 5 h N P ps w pe riod amplitud e,K Description
(10- 45- 1) (m)
such that Semidiurnal tides
2 -2 2 1.4052 12.42 1 hr 0.24233 Main lunar
cos2 0 =I an cos[ll(w, r + a)l 2 1.4544 12.000 hr 0. 11 28 4 Main solar
nodd=O 2 -3 2 1.3785 12.66 hr 0.0 4640 Elliptical lunar
K2 2 2 1.4584 11.97 hr
sin 20 = I bn cos[ll(w, r + a)l
Diurnal tides
0.03070 Soli-lunar

neVin = 1
0.7292 23.93 hr 0. 141 56 Soli-lunar

and where sin 2 0 = 1 - cos2 0. When these relations are int rodu ced into (11-4),
-2 0.6759 25.82 hr 0. 1005 1 Main lunar
0 .7252 24.07 hr 0 .0468 4 Main solar
there appear a splattering of new frequenci es, IlW, which, by converting products
-3 0 .6496 26.87 hr 0.04684 Elliplicallunar
into sum-difference components (see 9-19c, d, e), yield a series of tidal constituents
Long period tides
whose frequencies are comprised of multiples of the frequencies, Wt, W, and Wh o
Mf 2 0 .05 32 13.66 d 0 .04 174 Lunar fortnighly
Mm -1 0 .026 4 27.55 d 0 .02203 Monthly lunar
There are further complication s. The amplitude, 00 , also varies around
23.50, the inclination of the earth's spin axis to the ecliptic, between the values S5a 2 0.00398 182.62 d 0.0 1945 Semiannual
solar
18.50 and 28.50 due to th e fact th at the lunar node, the intersecti on of the plane of
Sa 0.00199 365.24 d 0 .0032 Annual Solar
the moon' s orbit to the equatorial plane, precesses around a normal to the ecliptic
with a period of 18.6 years. Finally, th e elliptical orbits of th e sun and the moon are
slightly eccentric sllch that the perigee, the point o n the moo n's orbit closest to the more importan t cons tituents, those with the greatest amplitude, are listed in Table
earth and th e perihelion, the point on the earth' s orbit closest to th e sun, varies with 11 -3.
periods of 8.86 1 years and 20,940 years respectively. A summary of the basic
frequencies is in Table 11-2. A final expression for the equilibrium tidal elevation is

All of the above discussion has been directed at lunar forcing, appropriate
since it more important than solar forcing. However, the same analysis applies to
the sun . And it is simpler since th e angle, 0, fo r th e sun is nil. +sin2ql IK j cOS[(W/ + Xj +J.) ( 11-5)
j

All of th ese consideration s present a very large tri go nometric and +(1-3 Sin2ql)IKk COS(Wkl+Xk)
organizational problem which has been tackled by Doodson (1921) and Schureman k

(1940) . D oodso ll compiled a listing of some 366 tid al constituents. Some of the
 Chapter J J Astronomical Tides 207
206
g'"
where i is the index of the semidiurnaltides, j the index of diurnal tides and k the ~
index of the long period tides. The amplitude, K, of th e more important tides are

~
listed in Table 11-3. Referen ce to Schurema n (1940) or Schwiderski (1980) will
yield formulas for th e phases, X·

The equilibrium elevation, derived from (11-5) may be inserted into the
~
. _ c:
/'
equations of motion. For example, in equations (9-5 l a, b), replace 1] with 1] -1]eq'
1;,
~~
~'"
These equations can be solved numerically for each tidal conStillient and resulls for '" -. ~
.~\l)

all the consti tuen ts can be summed 10 obtain a;g>

~ "''''
"'~
0..'
( 11-6) 8
w
'E",1!
n 1;, ",-
~
"''E
Figure 11 -6 illustrates the resuit of a numerical calc ulati on of the co-range ~'"
».,;
.c~

(half amplitude), show n by dashed lines, and phase, show n by solid lines, for the 1;, -"
~2
0",
global M2 tide by Accad and Pekaris ( 1978). There have appeared many other
3 _'"
E .2
caiculations of tides in the literallire. For smalle r regio ns where grid resolution is ~ .g"'~a3
sufficient, th ese calculations can be quile acc urate. Theoreti cally, some error is "''''
E~
,,~
C:c:
introduced by exclusion of non-linear interactions; th e error could probably be ~ "'.-
Eal
eliminated by solving for all important co nstitu e nts simulta neo usly and the n ei"
analyzing the results as described in th e next sec ti on. g -'"
alE
-'"
~~~
o'O~
u=(l)
11.3 TIDAL OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSES § ",oE
'0(1):.=
.~>..c
N.c '"
::;c:"
Whereas, numerical tide calculations are relatively new, tid al elevations have Q) !: .S
been measured by tide gauges at coastal stations for hundreds of years. Figure 11-7 "'2'"
f-",'"
to (I)~
.,:.";'2
illustrates tidal time series at four locations on the globe. Since the frequencies of
the differelll tidal consitue nts are known with grea t accuracy, it is possible to invert
. '" '"
r"'",

~
"'",
5,~'O
equation ( 11 -6) in a least sq uares, irregular Foltrier type analysis and obtain U::£~
amplillide and phases of th e constillients as presented in Table 11 -4. The M2 tide, a
semidiurnal tide, is the dominant tide throughout th e world si nce its tidal potential
forcing is largest. However, the cases in Figure 11 -7 were selected to show places ~ k
where diurnal const ituents arc important.

The ratio of the sum of the K 1 and 01 amp lillides 10 th at of the M2 and S2
208 Chapter II Astronomical Tides 209

amplitudes provide an index of the relati ve import ance of the d iurnal tides. Where
the diurnal tides are no t important - the tides at Immingham are an exa mple - it
may be show n that the combination of M2 and S2 tides provide a beat frequency
correspondin g to Sprin g Tides (large amplitude) or Neap Tides (small amplitude).
As plo tted in Figure II-S, consider th e simple ad dit io n of M2 and S2 tid es,
weighted th ree to one to approximate Immingham,
/'
3co s Wlt + cos W2 t =2cos Wit + 2 COS[ ; (Wl + lU2)t} Os[;(lU l - W2) tJ ( 11-7)

if7YT1ingham : semdiurnol form I K, to,

Mz t S • 0.11
where WI is the M2 frequ ency with a peri od of 12.42 hr and W2 is th e S2 z
i~2 3'4 5 6 '7 '8'9 JO'riri '2 ' ,~ i ,~i,!i,t i ,~j,b ',~i£~ ' i2' 2nJ4'is' iSi'b' is' i9'iAJ'3J '1
frequency wilh a period of 12.00 hr. It ca n be sho wn th at (WI - W2) /2 has a 00 5 « 0 • N J

period of 29.53 days, the lunar month. Not by accident, this corres po nds to the
interval betwee n full moo ns, when th e moon and the sun are lined up to impose a
large, coopera ti ve grav itati onal attrac ti on o n ocean partic1es. Similarly, the
combination of K t and 0 1 tides provides a combined freque ncy with a 24.S4 hr
period. This together with the M2 tides provides a di urnal inequalit y as may be seen
in th e Immingham ti me series in Figure I 1-7. All of th e odd shapes in Figu re 11 -7
resuIt from a combinati on of th e diffe rent tidal co nstitu en ts for specific amplitudes
and phases.

Tab le 11-4. Harmonic tid al co nstants of th e four harbors wh ose tid al elevations are
shown in Figu re 1t -7.
Manito : mired, predominantly diurnal form 1<,+ 0,
• Mzt5z"z.'5
Period Forci ng Immi gham San Francisco Ma nilla Dosan
Tide
Amp (U.K.) (U.S.A.) (Phitippines) (Vietnam)

12.42 100.0 16 10 223 3300 54 305 0 20 113° 4

M2
12.00 46.6 2100 73 334 0 12 338 0 7 140 0 3
S2
N2 12.66 19. 1 141 0 45 303 0 12 29 10 4 1000
K2 11.97 12.7 2 12 0 18 328 0 4 325 0 2 1400

58.4 279 0 15 1060 37 3200 30 9 10 72 Do-$on : diurnal fonn. 1<,' 0, "6.9

Kl 23.93 Mz· Sz
25.83 41.5 120 0 16 89 0 23 279 0 28 35 0 70
01 , , II . . . . " , , , .. ' " ' , , , , , , , , , , , , , • II ' , , , , , , " , , • , , , , , , , , , , , . . .. '

24.07 19.3 257 0 6 104° 12 3170 9 9 10 24

PI

Figure 11-7. Tid al curves during March, 1936. From Ge rm an Tid e Tables. Vol II,
Berlin (1 939). Aller Defanl (1958).
210 Astronomical Tides Astronomical Tides 2H

spring H·4. Su ppose th ere was no moon. How many tidal eonslituents would there be?
tide
4 ~--~ n("o ---~TITI~--------~~
1I· S. If the moo n's orbi t aro un d the ea rth lay in the ecli ptic and th e earth 's
2 rotational vec tor were normal to the eclip tic. how many tida l constituents would

Sea there be?

Level
o

·2 11·6. Assumin g the M2 tide is dominant everywhere in th e Atl antic Ocean, when
is hi gh tide in Ne w York City wh en hi gh tid e is at 10:30 pm in Southampton. See
Figure 11 ·6.
lime in days

Figure 11.8. The resull of a si mpl e combinatio n of an M2 and an 52 tide provi ded ~y 11·7. Demonst rate th at a combination of the KI and 0 1 tides provide Ihe di urnal
(11 .7) The signal modulati on has a pe riod of 29.53 d, the luna r month . Max ima a d inequality for the M2 tide.
minima co rrespondi ng to Spring a nd Nea p Tides are sepa rated by 29.53/2 days.

PROBL EMS
H.I. To begin unders tandin g tid al motion , consider th e one·dimensional fl ow in
an infinitely long, eas t-west channel filled with water 10 a dep th H . A hori zontal
body force is imposed in the east-west direction.
11·8. Show n below is a four-yea r record from a tide gauge a t Alt antic City, NJ.
The di urn al and semidiurnal tida l consitue nts have been fi ltered o ut of the record .
The remainder is prim aril y the coas tal response to wind stress over th e continen tal
shelf. The smoo th curve is obtained by fi rst averaging the days of each month, then
averag ing the same months of th e fo ur-year record; the result displays an annual
and semiannual signal. However, the Ssa and Sa tidal forcing are quite weak (see K
in Table 11 -3). Ca n you resolve Ihis appare nt cont radic tion?

where p is the dens it y of wa ter. Ix is fo rce per unit volume. G, ko, ())o are

constants.
a) What is the wave length , period and phase speed of the body force? Elevation
1m)

b) Detemli ne a differential equation for the velocity ,,(x,t).

c) Solve for u(x, t)

11.2. Repeat Proble m 11 · 1 but for a closed basin where " = 0 at x = 0 and
x = L.

11.3. In eq uation ( 11 -4), identi fy terms associa ted with th e semidiurn al tides, the
d iurnal tides and the long period tides.
"" "'" 1991
212 Chap ter 11

Chapter 12
ror example, the moon's
rda"hon exact ly mafches
..the fime if +a~e5 -1-0 Vorticity
orbjJ -the £arfh ,.. +hU5,
the same side alwaJS Vortic ity is a physical property wh ic h can replace pressure in th e
description of fluid dynam ic processes. Once understood and assim ilated into
faces us"' one's int uiti on, vorticity can be a powerful tool for the und ers tandin g and
analytical description of physical processes. Many of the equations and processes
already discussed in this book can be ide ntified as vorticity balance equations.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe vo rticity and its role in fluid dynamics
and physical oceanography.

12,1 VORTICITY, A DEFINITION

We will find it useful to rely on vector algebra and calculu s more th an

previously. Thus, th e definition of vortici ty is
Explaining why Mickey's ears never move relaUve to his head .
(American Scientist, Vol. 64, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1996.)
w ,,'l x u (I2-la)
or

,
IWJ+ JW
, aax .ayaz
a a) x ('1l~ +Jv+
. + k w, == ('I- + J- + k - . k)
w (12-lb)

The cross product is defined accord ing to A x D = C where A and D are any
vectors but C is defined as a vector whose magnitude is A B sin e and whose
direction is perpendicular to both A and D; eis the angle included between A and
B as sketched in Figure 12- 1. This definition, when applied to the unit vectors,
yield i x i =j x j =k x k =0 since sin e = O. On the other hand, i x j = k, j xk
= i, k x i = j whereas j x i = - k, k x j = - i, i x k = - j . If we apply th ese rules to
the right side of (12-1 b) and separate out the components of i , j and k, then

Wz
av au
=--- (I2-2a, b, c)
ax ay
2 13
 Chapler 12 Vorticity 215
214

c tJ.u

Ftgure 12·2. A physical interpretation of

vorticity. It may be related to the average
Figure 12·1. The cross product convention, rotation of two instantaneously
C = A x B. C is normal to both A and B and its tJ.v perpendicular fluid lines.
B
magnitude, C ~ ICI. is equal to A B sin O.

A physical interpretation of the z·component of vorticity is provided in Figure

JJV x V ' 11 dA = f V . dr (12·7)

12.2. Thus ro, := the sum of the rotations of twO instantaneously perpendicular
where dA is an elemental area and 11 is its unit nonnal vector as illu strated in
fluid lines := tJ.v/ tJ.x - tJ.1I/ tJ.y. In the limit as tJ.x and tJ.y approach zero, equation
Figure 12·3. The component of V x V 110rmal to the elemental area, is then
(12·2c) is obtai ned.
integrated over a finite area to form the left side of the equation. The right side
involves d r = i dx + j dy + k dz, a line vector element. Recall that V x V = '" is
12.2 VECTOR CONVENTIONS, ID ENTITIES AND THEOREMS
the vorticity. Stokes theorem states th at the area integrated normal component of
the vonicity is eq ual to the product of the velocity component parallel to dr and
There are a number of vector relations that ease the discussion of vorticity
Idrl, integrated around a circuit enclosing the area. The resuiting, line integral is
(and other physical variables). Some of these are:
called the circulation.
(1 2·3)
According to (12·3), the very definition of vortici ty as the curl of a vector
(12·4) leads to fact that it is divergenceless; that is V . '" = 0 and , in thi s sense, behaves

v x W x V = V · VW- W · VV +W(V· V)- V(V· W ) (12·5)

'"
V . V V ="1 (V . V/2) + (V x V) x V (12·6)

where W and V are vector functions of x, y and z; ¢ is a scalar function and V is

V
th e gradien t operat or. A ll of th ese vector identities can be derived, somewhat
labo riously, by in serting th e long hand ve rsion of th e gradient operator,
ox oy
i 0 ( ) / + j o( ) / + ko( ) / oz.,
in place of V and performing the unit vector
operations such as i . i = I, i· j = 0, i x i = 0, i x j = k, etc.

Figure 12·3. Vectors which participale in Stokes' theorem.

Another useful equation, called Stokes theorem. is
216 Chapter 12 Vorticity 217

much like velocity. Thus, the divergence theorem yields #"" n dA= 0 and one
A two-dimensional flow whose only non-zero component of vorticity is Wz may
be visualized as infinitely long, invariant vortex tubes normal to the flow plane.
can visualize continuoLis vortex tubes in the same way as stream tubes were
Such a flow is sometimes called planar flow.
visualized in Figure 2·5.

12.3 VELOCITY OBTAINED FROM VORTICITY Axisymmetric Plal/ar Flow Arolll/d a Vortex

For this ' cusion we deal with planar flow such that all derivatives with Axisymmetric planar flow may be represented by (12·8) where, however,
respect to z are zero and also w = O. It is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates V, = 0 and Ve = V ft.r). Now, consider a circular region wherein OJ, = constant
as sketched in Figure 12·4. There are two ways of deriving the appropriate = OJo and outside of which OJ, = 0 or
formula. One way is to write the velocity vector and gradient operator in
r < '0
cylindrical coordinates llsing unit vectors which change direction as a function of (12-9)
e. A second way is to apply Stokes' theorem around the area element r LIe Llr.
r> '0
Thus, One can integrate (12·9). For r < r o. V 0 = OJorl2 whereas, for r > r0, rV 0 =
constant. If the velocities are matched at , = '0

( 12-10)

If we divide by the area, rLle Llr, and let Llr ~ LI e4 0, we obtain This vorticity and flow configuration is sketched in Figure 12·5. Now the integral
of the vorticity over the area, nr~, is simply r= nr6OJo. Furthermore, using
I d I dV, (12·8)
OJ =--(rVo)--- (12-10) for r > roo we obtain Ve= r/(2nr). Or, conversely, r= 2nr Vo isjust the
, r dr r de
circlliation around any circuit enclosing the vorticity. This is an application of
Stokes' theorem specialized for a single vortex.

A point vortex is a flow associated with infinite vorticity such that r =

constant as ro 40; the relation, V 0 = r 1(2n,.), then applies everywhere except at
r = 0 (where it is undefined; for example, one obtains opposite velocity

Figure 12-5. The flow field associaled

with the vortiCity distribution given by
equation (12·9). The vorticily is
Ftgure 12·4. A cylindrical coordinale system . The lefl·hand sketch shows Ihe everywhere zero except in the shaded
coordinates and the velocity components. The nght-hand sketch Illustrates an elemental region, r < '0. The circles represent
area, (LIe L\r. The line elements al rand r + Mare rM and (r + M)M respectively. The streamlines.
line elemenls al 0 and 0 +60 are bolh equal 10 M .
218 Chapler 12 VorticilY 219

vectors at f) ; 0 and at f); n as r -) 0). To (12·11), one can add any irrotational flow vector which satisfies the
continuity equation. The laner can be created in any number of ways: It can be the
A more general expression for velocity as a fun cti on of vorticity may be gradient of a scalar function, u ; "V ¢; according to (12·4), suc h a flow is indeed
derived as follows: The incremental velocit y, dYe at a location X" (x, y), induced irrotati onal, but the function must also satisfy "V'¢; 0 to be divergenceless. It
by th e vorticity, w, at xo " (xo, Yo), is given by dYe (x) ; dA (xo)w,(x o)/(2n r) and could be u ; -k x "V 'I' where 'I' is another scalar function (a stteamfunction) and

dV,(x) ; O. Some ,geometry, with the help of Figure 12-6, leads to therefore satisfies continuity but it must also satisfy "V 2 '1'; 0 to be irro tational.
Using (12·11), it can be created by vorticity external to a specified region of
du(x); w,(x o ) dA(x o ) (j sinf) - i cosf) interest so that, inside the region, the velocity is irrotational.
2nr
w,(xo)dA(x o ) k X(x-x o) Biol·Savarl Equatioll
2nr r
where r " \x - xo\. For a more general two-dimensional flow,we simply add up Finally, without derivation, we cite the th ree·dimensional Biol·Sayart
th e contributions at x due to the vortici ty at X O° equation.

I ff w,(x ) k x (x-x
2 o) dA(x o )
u(x); - o
(12- 11 ) I fffW (Xo)X(x-x o) dV(x
U(X);_ ) (12-12)
2n r 4n r3 0

where th e integ ration is taken over all (xo, Yo) space. Note th at velocity fields where dV is a volume element surroundi ng the point, Xo; (x o , Yo, zo). It may be
defined by (II, v) ; (d'l' I dY, - d'l' I dX) and obtai ned from (12-11) ca n be shown shown that u( x, y), given by (12-12), satisfies "V x u ; wand "V, u; O. Equation
to satisfy "V 2 '1'; -w,. (12· 11 ) may be derived from (12·12) for w(xo) ; k w,(xo, Yo)·

12.4 VORTICITY TRANSPORT FOR A FRICTIONLESS FLUID

du
If W is known everywhere in an incompressible world where "V. u ; 0,

(X,y) then the velocity field can be recovered from (12·12). We now specialize to a
friction less fluid in order to simplify discussion while developing the equations
which allow one to solve for the vortici ty. Thus according to equations (2·8) and
(2·9),
du + u . "V U + f x u ; - - I "V p + -P g
-
dt Po Po

where f; j/y + kf. Now equation (12·6) can be invoked so that

Figure 12·6. IlIu sl rali on 01 the velocity, du al x = (x, yl, induced by vorticity at Xo = (xo,
Yol.
dU
-+"V - (p + -V2) +(w+f)X u ; -
P g (12-13)
dl Po 2 Po
220 Chapter 12 Vorticity 221

O(uo/L), then the dominant term involving velocities is I,au/m so that, to lowest
See Problem 12-1 for further discussion of (12-13) which is sometimes call order, (12-15) can be written
Lamb's equation or when further specialized, (see Problems 12-1 and 12-2)
Bernoulli's equation. (12-16a)

Now take the curl of (12-13). Since V x V (P/Po + V2(2) = 0 according to where 1"1, . We leave it to the reader to evaluate each term in (12-15) and check
(12-4) and since ~x (00 + t) x u = u • V(w + t) - (00 + t). V u, according to the above result. Similarly, they-component of (12-14) can be evaluated and the
(12-5), we have result is
aw
-+u'V(w+f)- (w+f) 'Vu =-gxVP-
at , '----v----'
lav (12-16b)
stretching Po
'----y-----'
az
D(w +'f)/ Dt and buoyancy (12-14)
twisting terms production
Equations (12-16a,b) are the thermal wind equations previously derived in
section 4.2.
The first two terms in (12-14) can be identified as the material or Lagrangian
derivative of the total vortiCity, 00 + f; 00 is the relative vorticity and f, the CorioUs We now turn to the z-component of (12-14) which can be written
parameter, is also called the planetary vorticity. The third term relates to the
distortion of vorticity due to gradients in the velocity field. The fourth term on the
(12-18)
right side of (12-14) represents a source or sink of vorticity due to the interaction
of gravity and density gradients.
After performing a scale analysis, the leading term on the right is liJw/m. To
12.5 APPROXIMATIONS balance this term, we examine all terms making up the left side and identify
viJj/ay = O(uaf/L) as the largest term assuming all other parts are O(ui/V)
In Chapter 2 we examined the consequences of low Rossby number flow wherein D /Dt = O(uo/L) and ill, = O(uo/L). Therefore, we obtain
where Ro" uo/(Llo)« 1 and the shallow water approximation, H/L «I. We
now do the same for equation (12-14). First, the equation for the x-component of vf3=I-
aw (12-19)
az
(12-14) can be written
where f3" af/ay. Equation (12-18) is Sverdrup's relation, previously derived in
D( )_( ) au ( ) au ( ) au g ap
-D illx + Ix - illx + Ix -a + illy + Iy -a + ill, + I, -a - - - a (12-15) section 4.3.
t x y z Po x

Now, repeat the scale analysis undertaken in Chapter 2. noting that Ix = 0(/0) The point made here is that equations (12-16a, b) and (12-19) are all part
(actually.!x = 0 but leave it in the equation to retain symmetry).!y = 0(/0), I, = of the vorticity transport equation in the limit of small Rossby number and small
0(/0). illx = OO'o/H), Wy = O(lIo/H), ill, = O(uo/L), a lax = O(IIL), a lay = O(IIL), vertical length scale relative to the horizontal length scale.
a laz = O(l/H), u = O(uo), v = O(lto) and IV = O(uoH/L). If also we let D /Dt =
222 Chapter 12 Vorticity 223

Not-so-Iow Rossby Nttmber Flows Thus, the relative vorticity plus the planetary vorticity, all divided by h, the
vertical distance separating adjacent particles is a Lagrangian constant; i.e., a
We now consider flows where D( )/Dt = 0(/0)' Additionally we focus on constant while following a particle, an attractive way of writing (12-20)1 Thus,
the z-component of (12- 14) which is (12-IS). The shallow water approximation is the relative vorticity plus the variations of ill, + f along a particle path are due to
retained so that iJw / iJx = iJw / iJy = O(H / L)iJw / iJz; therefore, (12-IS) can be variations of h resulting from the vertical water column being stretched or
simplified to compressed.
/ D iJw
-(ill, + f) =(ill, + f)-=;- (12-20)
Dt vZ
Equation (12-22) can be applied to the simple model of the front in section
7.4. Equation (7-17a) was assumed, without theoretical foundation, as the frontal
This equation can be simplified further. To see this consult Figure 12-7 where we
shape from which (7-17b, c) was derived. Now assume that water in the frontal
visualize two streamsurfaces separated by a vertical distance, h. The Lagrangian
region, was transported from water in the interior ocean at the same latitude so
change in h is given by Dh!Dt = w(z+h) - w(,), or, equivalently
that f is the same [see Veron is (19SI) for an extension of this development] but

(12-21)
where velocities are low and ill, can be neglected. Thus

Now ChvliJz can be eliminated from (12-20) to yield

2..-[ill' +
Dt h
fJ = 0 (12-22)
Within the front ill, = iJv/ iJx so that

iJv = f(~-I) (12-23)

)V +Lnv iJx ho

t -I Now see that (7-16) and (7-17b) satisfy (12-23) exactly so long as

(12-24a, b)

Figure 12-7. Sketch of streamsurfaces separated by a distance h. The vertical velocity
ow /
difference between z and z + ..::1z is !l.w -= h (Jz .
In Figure 7-5, one can, with some imagination, approximate the Gulf
Stream as a two-layer front in which case op/Po" - 0.001 and ho " 1000 m.
With the appropriate value of g and f, one finds that Cj " 3.0 m s·l and A" 35
km, not a bad prediction for the frontal shape.

1 Equation (12-22) is an approximation to Ertel's equation. Th e reader is referred to an excellent

derivation by Muller ( \995) .
224 Chapter 12 Vorticity 225

~M'
Were we to pursue the study of unsteady stratified flows, we would learn
that, for our simple two-layer model, Cj is the wave speed of baroclinic
disturbances and I.. is the internal Rossby radius of deformation.

Vorticily Balallce Requirellle1lt of a Westem Boulldary Current cur1z t o '"

_ Cltox = ,c--..,I
~ ax
ay
We return 'to discussion of the MUllk, barotropic ocean circulation model
of Chapter 6. However, very nearly the same kind of discussion could apply to the
Stommel model. Thus, recall (6-28) for R = 0, H = constant and retain only
= negative
"",I
highest derivative with respect 10 X of the lateral viscous terms and write

Figure 12-8, The second derivative of a2My / ax 2 is negative on both boundaries of an

(12-25) ocean basin. Therefore, a strong current on the western side is required to cancel out the
negative wind stress curl in equation (12-26).

This is a vorticity equation. It can be derived from a Sverdrup's balance, (12-18),

boundary produces vorticity of the opposite sign. This confomlS to observations
by vertical integration after which surface Ekman transport is incorporated and
of the world ocean where, as discussed in Chapter I, strong ocean currents are
lateral friction is added. Note that, outside of any friction layer, the flow is
only found on the western margins of ocean basins; an exception is the Antarctic
southward since in mid· latitudes, curl z TO is negative.
Circumpolar Current.

We now ask if the return flow in the friction layer can be on the western or
eastern side. Therefore, integrate (12-26) from x = 0 on the west 10 X = a on the
eastern side of the basin to obtain

PROBLEMS
(12-26)
12-1. Bernal/IIi's equation, for steady, incompressible, irrotational flow and
where f= 0, is from equation (12-13)
where we assert the fact that the integrated north-south transport of planetary
vorticity is zero. Figure 12-8 is a sketch showing that a boundary layer on the V2
B "J!.. + - + gz = everywhere constant
western boundary can produce positive vorticity to balance the negative wind Po 2
stress vorticity input to the system whereas a boundary layer on the eastern
The third term derives from the fact that g = - g Vz.
a) Consider the flow in a channel sketched below where A2 " AI' Derive
an expression for (P2 - Pl)fpoVZ as a funclion of A IfA2.
226 Chapler 12

b) Let the channel be deployed vertically. Repeat a). Notice that Appendix A
hydrostatic balance is taken into account.
c) Presume that there is a small amout of vorticity, (l)zl, at the duct
Alternate Derivation of the Lagrangian
entrance. Estimate roz2.
2
Eulerian Relation
--------------+--
Equation 2·7, DP I DI = uap I ax + vap lay + wap I az + ap I ai, was
derived intuitively. For those readers who prefer a more mathematical derivation,
the following is offered:
12.2. Show that B =constant along a streamline for steady, incompressible flow
even if '" or r", O. B is defined in Prob. 12·1. Generalize for p '" constant in the Let (x, y, z) represent fixed space coordinates and
gravity term assuming u' Vp = O.
P = P(x,y, Z,I) (A·I)
12.3. Consider the two cases sketched below. Case (a) depicts two vortices of the
be an Eulerian function describing a property at some point in space and time. On
same sign; in case (h), they are of opposite sign. Assume the region of nOll-zero
the other hand, let
vorticity is confined to the shaded circle which is indefinitely small. For f =
P = P(X,Y,Z,I) (A·2)
constant, describe the motion.

r(!;
II
1~
II
represent a Lagrangian function whereby P is a function of particle identity and
time. Here we identify the particle by its location IX, Y, Z) at I = a as sketched in
I,
Figure A·1. One such property is, of course, the particle position
i(!;
I,

'~ x = x(X,Y,Z,t), Y = yeX,Y,Z,I), z = z(X,Y,Z,I) (A·3a,b,c)

(a) (b)

By inverting (A·3a, b, c) we have

12.4. Consider the same vortices as in Problem 12·3. How is the flow modified on
a {3. plane? X = X(X,y,z,I), Y = Y(X,y,z,I), Z = Z(x,y,z,l) (A·4a,b,c)

12-5. Detennine the velocity field associated with a semi-infinite strip such that i.e., given a position in space and the time, we should be able to solve for the
particle identity from (A-4a,b,c).
0, y> a I 2
Now combining (A-I) and (A-3a,b,c) we have
w=w(y)= w o ' a/2>y>-aI2

1
0, -a12 > y ji = i'[X(X,Y,Z,I), ji(X,Y,Z,I), z(X,Y,Z,I)] (A-S)

Note that the result of letting a-"> 0 while (ill = constant is called a vortex sheet.
227
228 Appendix A

Appendix B
Z
Derivation of the Absolute Acceleration in
a Rotating Coordinate System
In Figure B-1, we illustrate a relative coordinate system rotating with an
angular velocity, n; kf.?, relative to an absolute coordinate system; the latter is
I> 0 denoted by primes. Now define:

D(' )/Dt " rate of change of C·) as measured in a relative coordinate

system.
D'(' )/Dt" rate of change of (.) as measured in the absolute coordinate
Figure A·1. The coordinates, X, y, z, are fixed in space whereas X, Y, Z are fixed in system.
the materiat votume denoted by the shaded region .
V "iu + jv + kw ; the velocity in the relative coordinate system.
V'" i'u ' + j'v ' + k'w' ; velocity in the absolute coordinate system.
and therefore, from the chain rule, we can determine the time rate of change of P
while following a particle. Thus
Now note that the unit vectors are defined so that Diml ; Djml ; Dkml

af> aft ax af> ay af> ai af>

; 0 and D'i'IDI; D'j' ml; D'k'/DI; O. However, D'i/DI ¢ 0 for example. Then
- ; - - + -- + - - + - it is easy to show that
al ax al ay al az al al

or D'i _ f.? .
Oi- ,J
af> aft _ aft _ aft _ aft and
-;-u+-v+-w+- (A-6)
al ax ay az al

where u; aX/aI, etc. is the velocity of a particle of fixed identity, "(X,Y,Z,I) .

One now defines aPjal" DP/DI. Furthermore, we can also write u(x,y,z,l) For arbitrary n, a straight forward extension is that
; " [X(X,y,z,I), Y(x,y,z,tJ, Z(x,y,z,l)] etc. so that
(B-Ia,b,c)

DP aft. aft. aft. aft

-;-u+-v+-w+-
DI ax ay az al For a vector, a ; i ax + j ay + k az, defined in the relative system, its rate of change
as observed in the absolute system is
which is the rate of change of P of a particle instantaneously occupying a position
(x,y,z) at time I.
229
230 AppendixB Derivation o/the Absoillte Acceleration in a Rotating Coordinate System 231

z'

Figure B·2. The position vector of a

particle in absolute space is denoted
Figure B·1. The I', j' unit vectors are by R + r where R is the position
fixed in the absolute coordinate system vector of the origin of the relative
whereas the I, j are fixed in the relative coordinate system and r is the
system. However, as observed in the position vector of the particle in the
absolute system, I, j change direction. relative coordinate system.
x'

D' a , D' ax ' D' a, D' a, D'i D' j D' k

- - = ' - - + J - - + k - - + a -+a -+a - - (B·2)
Dt Dt Dt Dt x Dt Y Dt 'Dt Now determine the absolute acceleration and again use (B-3) to obtain

Now, the rate of change of a scalar quantity (a number) does not depend on D'V' D'V D'
= +-(Dxr)
the coordinate system, i.e., D'axlDt = Dax/Dt, etc. Therefore using (B·la,b,c) we Dt Dt Dt

obtain DV D
= -+DxV +-(Dxr)+DxD x r
Dt Dt
x a (B·3)
Since DrlDt = V and DQlDt = 0, we obtain

Let us now obtain the relationship between the absolute and relative velocities, V' D'V' DV
= + 2D x V + D x D x r (B-5)
and V. First, we note that V is the velocity of a particle whose position in the Dt Dt
absolute relative Coriolis centrifugal
relative coordinate system is, as sketched in Figure B·2, given by acceleration acceleration acceleration acceleration

r=ix+jy+kz (B-4)
We excluded the contribution of the acceleration of the center of earth's position, R,
in the above derivation simply to focus on the rotational terms. Inclusion would add
Temporarily, assume that the relative system does not translate relative to the
R/
the term, d 2 dt 2 to the right side of (B-5) whose main component is the
absolute system (dR/dt = 0). Then according to (B-3)
centrifugal acceleration of the earth around the sun. In the equations of motion this
is largely balanced by the mutual gravitational attraction between the sun and earthly
particles. Small local imbalances, however, create tide producing forces as
discussed in Chapter 11.
or

V=V+D x r
232 Appendix B Derivation of the Absolute Acceleration in a Rotating Coordinate System 233

o
The Centrifugal Acceleralion

When applied to the earth, the centrifugal acceleration term in (B-5) is

e,
usually combined with the earth's gravity vector, ge, such that .

g =ge + U x (U x r) r ·,J.~ 1
~ _~
t-- ~ ~;::::: ((?1AJf
(B-6) Eqr-----~~~-4 Figure 9-4. Definition of unit
vectors in the northward and
vertical directions.
is the "effective" gravity vector. The direction of the centrifugal acceleration is
normal to 0 and the earth's axis. Thus, the situation is as illustrated in Figure B-3
where te is the earth's radius and", is latitude. For Q = .73 X 10. 4 sec· 1 and te
= 6371 km we obtain Q2 re = .047 m s·2 whereas g =9.807 m s·2 so that the
correction is not great and is, in fact, greatly exaggerated in Figure B-3. Note that northward and vertical directions, ex, ey , e, (= e A, e¢lr in spherical coordinates),
the surface of the sea, if it were not in motion, would be normal to g. The solid as in Figure B-4, then 20= fez + !y e y wheref=2 Q sin <I> and!y = 2 Q cos "'.
earth has flattened at the poles so that, on average, the land surface is also normal to Also V = u ex +v ey+w ez. Then using ex x ex= 0, ex x ey = ez. etc. we obtain
g. The reference surface around the entire earth, everywhere normal to g, is called
(B-7)
the .&,oid.
which provide the components cited in equations (2-8a,b,c).
Componenls of Ihe Coriolis Acceleration

If at a certain point on the earth we define unit vectors in the westward

Il.z

Figure B-3. Schematic of the

Eq f-----j-"--"-"---l Eq vertorial addition of the earth's
gravity vector and centripetal
acceleration vector.
 Perturbation Analysis of the Surface Wave Equations 235

where <t> and 7) are all functions of x and t; these dependencies have been omitted
Appendix C to simplify notation.

Perturbation Analysis of the Surface Wave Henceforth, we asume that e is a small number; that is, the wave amplitude
Equations is assumed smaller than the wave length. We next expand'" and 7) according to

(C-5)
Imagine that, in equations (9-8) to (9-11), there are tildes superposed on
every variable. We then wish to non-dimensionalize these dimensional variables on 7) = 7)0 + £7), + 0(£') (C-6)
the following scales:
Furthermore, for use in the boundary conditions (C-2) and (C-3), one can
L = horizontal scale of disturbance (e.g. wavelength) expand tfJ,(7)) in a Taylor series around z = O. Dimensionally, this means that
E = amplitude scale ¢(i) = ¢(O) + ¢,(O)i) + ¢,,(0)i)2 12+ . .. Non-dimensionally, using the
T = time scale = (L/g)t!2 foregoing definitions, we have
Uo = velocity scale = E IT
We therefore define (C-7)

To evaluate tfJ,(7)), we use (C-7) and then (C-5) and (C-6) to obtain
¢ '" uoL'"
x",Lx
"', (7) = "', (0) + £"'" (0)7)0 + 0(£2)
z",Lz
i '" T t = "'0,(0) + £"'1,(0)
(C-8)
H",LH

i) '" E7)
£ '" EI L
The O(e2 ) terms could be evaluated, but laziness induces a limit to one correction
Then (9-8) to (9-11) may be written
beyond the linear result. Similar expansions are obtained for "'x(7)) and "',(7)). If
",,,,,(z) + ",,,(z) = 0 (C-l) we insert (C-5), (C-6), (C-8) and the expansions for "'x(7)) and "',(7)) into (C-l),
(C-2), (C-3) and (C-4) we obtain
(C-2)

(C-3)

"'z(-H) = 0 (C-4)

234
236 Appelldix C Perturbation Allalysis of the SlIrface Wave EqllOtiolls 237

is the non-dimensional dispersion relation. The right sides of (C-lOb) and (C-IOc)
¢Oz (0) - 1]0, + t:[ ¢'z (0) - 1]" + ¢o" (0) 1]0 - ¢ox(O)1]ox 1+ O(e2 ) = 0 can be evaluated so that, after using (9-19d),
2
¢o,(- H) + e¢,,(-H)+ O(e ) =0
Now let e ~ 0 in the above relations to obtain (C-lOb')

(C-9a) and
¢Oxx(Z)+ ¢o,,(Z) = 0
(C-IOc')
(C-9b)

¢Oz (0) - 1)0, = 0 (C-9c) A solution to (C-IOa), (C-lOb'),and (C-lOc') is

¢o,(-H) = 0 (C-9d)
(C-12a, b, c)

To obtain the next higher order equation set, subt rac t (C-9a, b, c, d) from
the previous set of equations, divide by e and let e ~ 0 again. The result is
¢txx(Z)+ ¢I,,(z) =0
so that, to first order, only the elevation is altered, not the potential or velocity
components. If now we insert (C-II b) and (C-12b) into (C-6) and restore the
(C-lOa) dimensional quantities. we obtain,

¢Ir (0)+ 1]1 = -¢01Z (0)1]0

¢6x(0) +
2
¢6, (0) (C-lOb)
(C-13)

(C-!Oc)
Figure C-I is a plot of (C-13) wherein the wave shape is distorted from a pure
¢,,(-H) = 0 (C-IOd) sinusoid as iik increases and tends to make the wave shape more realistic. For a
more complete treatment of surface waves, the reader is referred to Phillips (1977)
The ri ght hand side of (C-IOb, c) are known from the sol utions to (C-9., b, c,d). and Leblond and Mysak (1978).

A NOli-linear SOllliioll for a Deep Water, Progressive Wave

,, ,-
,, ' ,,
To illustrate a solution, simplify somewhat 10 • deep water wave wherein
H = ~. Then a solution to (C-9a, b, c, d) is
0 4.
¢o = a-sin
i' e, 1]0 = acose, e", kx - (J)t (C-Ila, b, c)
(J)

and t
(J)2 =k (C-l1d)
FIgure C-l. Solulions from equalion (C-13). The solid and dashed lines are lor iik
o and 0.4 respeclively.
 The Method of Matched Asymptotic Expallsiolls Applied to a Barotropic Ocean 239

Solulion, <P I(X,y), and so on, each additional correclion represe nling an improved
approximation to the exact solution .
Appendix D
Now substilute (D-3) inlo (D-I). Since we require Ihe resulling equalion 10
The Method of Matched Asymptotic be valid for arbilrary £, Ihen for alllerms mulliplied by tfl and £1 we oblain

Expansions Applied to a Barotropic Ocean

a<po = F(
ax y,) a<P1 = 0 (D-4a, b)
/ ax
The Melhod of Malched Asymplolic Expansions (MMAE) or singular
perturbalion Iheory is a 1001 Ihal can oflen be used 10 solve boundary layer like respeclively. We could, of course, similarly oblain equalions for <P 2, <P 3, elc. [f
problems in Fluid Dynamics. For a full Irealmenl of Ihe melhod, Ihe reader is we again salisfy Ihe eaSlem boundary condilion, (D-2c), we oblain
referred 10 Kerorkian and Cole (1981). Here we speciali ze 10 the solulion of Ihe
<Po = (x - 1)F(y), <PI = 0 (D-5a, b)
barotropic ocean circulalion problem of Chapler 6 where we encounlered a
Iheorelical weSlern boundary region akin to Ihe Gulf Slream and the Kuroshio. In
In Ihis particular problem, Ihe firsl order correclion , £ <P I, is nil. ([n facl, Ihe firsl
Chapler 6, we employed a ralher ad hoc approximalion. [n Ihis Appendix, we will
non- zero IeI'm is £3 <P 3, a facl which Ihe reader may wish 10 verify.)
find Ihat, 10 lowesl order, Ihe approximalion is valid. To find sucessive corrections,
however, it would eventually fail and Ihe more sophislicaled analysis is needed.
The outer solution still does not sa ti sfy th e western boundary conditions at
x =O. We Ihen suspecl Ihe presence of a Ihin, boundary layer wherein one or
We repeat equation (6-37) for easy reference,
more of Ihe higher order derivalive are important. Therefore, rescale i so thaI

(D-I) (D-6)

where II is unknown . Equalion (D- I) may be rewrillen as

where we leI F(y) '" Irl a(~oxlpo) lay' The boundary condilions are
4 4 4
a -'f'+ 2 £ 2" a 'f' +£ 4n -
- a -'f'- £ 3n - 3 -
a 'f'
- - £ 4n- 3F (Y ) (D-7)
'f'(O ,y) = 0, ~; (O,y) = 0 (D-2a, b) 0·4
ox 0·20'2
ox oy 0·4
oy 0 -
ux .

where all lernlS have been mulliplied by £4n - 3 so Ihal Ihe coefficient of Ihe highesl
and
derivalive is tfl. We now nOle Ihal, II mUSI be grealer Iha n or equal 10 I so Ihat
'f'(l,y) =0, ~; (l,y) =0 (D-2c, d)
e3n · 3 remains bounded as e ---t O. However, if II is greater than 1 th en we would
4
relain only a 'f'1 ax4 = 0 which would lead 10 a polynomial solulion which could
The MMAE procedure is firsl to seek an "ouler SolUlion" in Ihe form not be matched to the ouler solution. Experience will show that we need to retain at

(D-3) least two lernlS 10 oblain a boundary layer like Solulion. Thus we sel n = I and

where il is assumed Ihal <P = <Po will approximale 'f', Ihe exac t solulion. II is
further aSSlImed that we can correct the zero ord er solution, lp 0, using the first order

238
240 Appendix D The Method of Matched Asymptotic Expansions Applied to a Barotropic Ocean 241

(0-8)
Now, we set xm = e l/2 (for concreteness; in fact, any exponent greater than and °
less than I would do) and, therefore, xm = e- I12 _ Now let e ~ 0 so Ihat,
simultaneously, in! -) 0 as im -) 00. We, therefore. obtain
Now, it is apparent that an "inner solution" to (0-8) can be obtained as a series
Ipo(x,y) - lpo(O,y) = -F(y), x ~ ~ (D-lla)
solution
(0-9)
(D-Ilb)
,r
Insertion of (0-9) into (D-8) yields
where we have used (D-5a,b). The solutions of (D-lOa,b) subject to (D-2a, b) and
4 ' '
a 'I'lL a'l'O =
~ ax
° (D-lOa) (D-Ila,b) are

, -/2 ..J3x
'1'0 =-F(y)[I - e- x (cos - + Msin~)]
I ..J3' (D-12a)
(D-IOb) 2 '13 2

(D-12b)
for the terms multiplied by tfJ ande l respectively. We note that, the correction
solution, Ip t. incorporates the flTst order term on the right side of (0-8) whic~ had
been neglected in the zero order solution . We plot (D-5a) and (D-12a) in Figure 0-1. For a given value of e, one
could use (D-12a) up to a value of xm where the exponential term is sufficiently
Matching Conditions: Boundary conditions for (D-lOa,b) at X = ° are supplied small; then the solution can be continued from a matching value of im ::;: xm e to
by (D-2a,b). To obtain boundary conditions for x» 0 we match Ip to Ip at
some x which is large in terms of X but small in terms of x as e ~ 0. This can be
1.0 0
achieved by matching at, say X = xm and, therefore, x=
xmle. For small xm .2
0

assume that Ip is analytic so that Ip(xm,y) = Ip(O,y)+ xm Ipx(O,Y) . Thus, we let O.

0.2
ylb

D
Ipo (0, y) + xm IpOx (O,y) + ... 0.4
+e'l'1 (O,y) + ... 0.5
0.6
=lpo (xm,Y) + elpl (xm,Y) + ... 0.8

and xm ;: :; e im so that

IpO(O,y) + e(Xm IpOx(O,y) + Ipt (O,y»)

Figure 0 -1. The funclion, '1'0 , on Ihe lefl and IpO on the right.
242 AppendixD The Method of Marched Asymptotic Expansions Applied to a Barotropic Ocean 243

X= I using (D-5a). As £ decreases, the matching value of xm may be increased Eastern Boundary Layer
and the match between the solutions would improve.
It will now be noted that (D-14) satisfies 'P(l,ji) = 0 but not 'Px(l,ji) = 0,
A better way of obtaining a composite solution is by simple addition of OP the no slip condition on the eastern boundary. To satisfy this boundary condition
and OP. However, then we must subtract the common asymptote; otherwise the we "stretch" the region near x = 1 by setting x = (x-l)/£ and letting
asymptotic part would be counted twice. (Try it, using Figure D-I as a guide.) A 'P(x,ji) = 'Po(x,y)+£'P,(x,y)+ .... We then obtain equations for 'fro, 'fr"
rule to avoid this is identical in form to (0-1 Oa,b) but, in place of (D-ll a,b), we obtain 'fro - .po(l,y)
= 0 and 'fr, - .p, (l,ji) + X.pOi(l,y) for x..., -=. After finding solutions and
Composite
[ Solution
1= [ Inner Outer
1 -[ Common
Asymptote
satisfying the boundary conditions, we find that 'fro = 0 and
Solution Solution j
'fr1 = F(y)(x + 1- e \ Combining £'fr, with (D-14) and subtracting the common
asymptote results in the term, - £{exp «x-l)Ie)}; when added to the other terms
or in our case
inside the square bracket of equation (D-14) and after differentiation, it will be seen

'P = OP(x,ji) + OP(x,ji) - [ o¥< =,ji) or op(O,ji) 1, x=x/£ (O-13a, b) that 'Px(l,y)= O.

Thus, combine op 0 (recall that 'fr 1 = 0) with oj> 0 + £ 1 op 1 and subtract the
common asymptote and obtain

,
+£ x-e
[
-'</2 2 .
{3sm--
{3x]
2

+ (x -I)
+I-ci

The first two teI1ns are the inner solution; the third is the outer solution and the last
term is the common asymptote. The equation simplifies algebraically so that

'P=F(y) x-l+e- x
[ -/2{.J3f
cos--+ 1-2£
2
. .J3f}]
{3 sm-
2
- (D-14)

which is unifolTIlly valid in 0 < x < a with an error of order, £2,

 Dimensions, Conversion Factors, and Property Values 245

MASS (M)
Appendix E I kilogram (kg) ; 1000 grams (gm)
I kg = 2_20462 pound mass (Ibm) = 0_068522 slug
I slug = 32.17398 Ibm = 14.5939 kg
Dimensions, Conversion Factors, and FORCE (MLT-2)
Property Values
I newton (N) = I kg m s-2
/'
I dyne (dyn) ; I gm em 5- 2
I N = I x 105 dynes (dyn) = 0.22481 pound force (lbl)
TIME (T) I dyn = 2.2481 x 1O- 6 1bf
I Ibf; 4.4482 N
I minute (min) = 60 seconds (s)
I hour (hr) = 60 min = 3600 s
I day (d) =24 hr = 86400 s PRESSURE (FL-2)
I year (y r )= 365.25 d
I dyn cm-2 = 10-1 N m-2 = 10- 1 Pascal (Pa)
LENGTH (L) I Pa = I N m- 2 ; 10 dyn cm- 2
I bar = 105 N m- 2
I meter (m) = 100 centimeters (em)
I mb = 10-3 bar; 102 N n,.2
I kilometer (km) = \03 m
I inch (in) = 2.54 em
I m =39.37 in = 3.281 feet (ft) WORK & ENERGY (FL)
I statute mile (mi) = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
I nauti cal mile = 6000 ft = 1.1 36 mi = 1.829 km
I joule (J) = I watt-sec = I newlon meIer = I x lO7 ergs = I vol I-coulomb
VELOCITY (LT-t ) = 0.738 ft-Ibf = 9.48 x 10- 4 Btu = 2_778 x 10- 7 kW-hr
I calorie (cal) = 4.186 J = 0.003968 British Ihermal unit (Btu)
1m s- I = 2.2369 mi hr -I I kw-hr ; 3413 Btu =2.655 x 106 ft-lbf = 1.341 hp-hr
Imi hr-I = 1.4667 ft s-I = 0.8690 knot s = 1.6093 km hr -I = 0.447041 m s- I I electron volt (ev) = 1.60210 x 10- 19 J
I knot = 1 nautical mi Ill' -I = 1.1508 mi Itr -I = 0.51477 m 5- 1
POWER (FLT-I )
ANGLE
I v.:att (W) = I J s- I; 1.341 x 10-3 hp = 0.0569 Btu min-I = 0.738 ft- Ibf s-I
1 radian (rad)= 360o/21l= 57.29578 degrees I kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W = 1.340 hp
1 degree = 60 min = 0.01745 rad I hp = 550 ft-Ibf s- I = 746 W ; 0.707 Btu s-I
I min = 60 5 = 2.90888 x 10-4 rad I langley (ly) min-I = 0.697 kW m-2
1 steradian (sr) = 0.079577 total solid angle
TEMPERATURE
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND FREQUENCY (T- I)
oC = K - 273. 15
1 OF; 1.8 0C + 32.0
I rad = 0.1592 rev
5- 1 5- 1 =9.549 rpm = 57 .296 deg 5-
1 cps; I hertz = 21l rad 5- 1

244
246 Appendix E

PROPERTIES OF AIR 3 References

Density at 200C, zero humidity and atmospheric pressure ~ 1.2 1 kg m-
Specific Heat ~ 1006 J kg- I K-I Accad, Y. and C.P. Pekeris, 1978: Solution of the tidal equations for the
Molecular kinemalic viscosily ~ 14.8 x 10- m s-I
6 2 M2 and S2 tides in the world oceans from a knowledge of the tidal
potential alone. Phi/os. Trans. R. Soc .. A, 190,235-266.
Molecular heat diffusivity ~ 20.8 x 10-6 m s- I
2

Blumberg, A.F. , 1977: Numerical tidal model of Chesapeake Bay. J. Hydra. Div., Proc.
PROPERTIES O F'S EAWAT ER ASCE, 103, 1-10.

~ 1026.95 kg m-
3
Density at 35 psu, 100C and at mospheric pressure Boyer, T., and S. Levitus, 1994: QualilY Control and Processing of
Hislorical Oceanographic Temperature, Salinity, and Oxygen Data. NOAA Technical
Specific Heat ~ 3986 J kg-I K-I
2 Report NESDIS 81, 1-64.
Molecular kinematic viscosity ~ 1.8 x 10.6 m s-I
2
Molecular heat diffusivity ~ 1.3 x 10-7 m s- I Bryan, K., and M. D. Cox, 1968: A nonlinear model of an ocean driven by wi nd and
2 diffemtial heating: Parts 1 and 11. J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 945-978.
Molecular salt diffusivity ~ 0.74 x 10-9 m s- I
Bryan, K., and M_ D. Cox, 1972: The circ ulati on of the world ocean: A
The following tab le contains values of pressure, p, (decibars), salinity, S, (PSU;' numerical study. 1. A homogeneous model. J. Phy. Oceanog., 2, 3 19-335.
temperature, T, (OC), potential temperature, e, (OC) and density, p -1000. , (kg m- )
4) S e Mellor (1991) fo r a full Bryden , H_L., 1973: New polynomials for th ermal expans ion, adiabatic
obtained from eq ua tio ns (7-2), (7-3) an d (7 - . e temperature gradient and pOlentiallemperature of sea water. Deep-Sea Res., 20, 401-
. . I ' I ' to the UNESCO formulas. 408.
discussion of these equations mcludmg t lelf re anon
Budyko, M. I., 1974: Climate and Li/e. J. V. Mieghem, A. L. Hales, Eds., International t~
T e p - 1000 P S T e p - 1000 Geophysics Series, Vol. 18, Academic Press, 508 pp.
p S £,..0",. 1.0.
O. 29.722
O.
O.
35.
35 .
o.
4.
0.00
<1. 00
28. 106
27 . 7 86
O.
O.
37.
37. ,. 0. 00
4 .00 29.378
28.846
Campbell, G.G., and T. H. Vonder Haar, 1980: Climatology of radiation budget
measurements from satellites. Atm. Sci. Paper No. 323, Dept. Atmos. Sci., Colorado
8. 8.00 27.27 4 O. 37 . 8. 8 . 00
O. 35.
26.590 O. 37. 12 . 12 . 00 28 . 144 State University, 74 pp.
O. 35. 12. 12. 00
I •. 16.00 21.288
O. 35. I •. 1 6.00 25 .748 O. 37.
26.290
20 . 20.00 24 . 763 O. 37. 20 . 20. 00
O. 35.
23 . 643 O. 37. 2'. 2 4. 00 2 5 . 158 Cox, M. D. , 1975 : A baroclinic numerica l model of Ihe world ocean:
O. 35 . 24. 2 4.0 0
28 . 28 . 00 23 . 902 preliminary results. Numerical Models 0/ Ocean Circulation, 107- 120.
35. 28 . 28.00 22 . 391 O. 37 .
O. 37. O. -0.05 34.416
35. O. -0.05 32 . 818 10 00 .
1 000. 37. 4. 3.92 33.969
1000. 35. 4. 3.92 32.393 1 000 .
8. 1.89 33.348 Da Silva, A. M., C. C. You ng, and S. Levitu s, 1994: Atl as of surface
8. 7.89 31. 191 1 000 . 37.
1000 . 35.
37. 12. 11 . 86 32.569 marine dala 1994, Volume 1: Algorithms and procedures, NOAA Atlas NESD IS 6,
1 00 0. 35 . 12. 11.81 31. 029 10 0 0.
39 . 010
2000. 35. O. - 0 . 11 37 .4 21 2000. 37. O. -0 .11
38. 4 64
U.S. Departmem o/Commerce, NOAA, NESD IS.
35. 4. 3.83 36 .903 2000 . 37. 4. 3.83
2000. 8. 7.71 3 1.1 51
8. 1 . 78 36 . 2 1 5 2000. 3 7.
2000. 35. -0.29 41.904 Da Silva, A. M., C. C. Young, and S. Levitu s, 1994: Alias of surface
O. -0,28 46.351 4 000. 37 . O.
4000. 35.
35. 4. 3 . 61 45.642 40 00 . 37. 4. 3 . 60 41.115 marine data 1994, Volume 3: Anomalies of heat and momentum flu xes, NOAA Atlas
4 000 . -0 . 52 56 . 4 3 0
6000. 35. O. -0.5 1 5 4 .902 6000. 37 . O.
5 5. 53 3 NESDIS 8, U.S. Departmellt 0/ Commerce, NOAA, NESDIS.
<- 3.32
6000.
10000.
35 .
35.
••
O.
3.3 4
-1 .10
5 4.0 26
70 . 965
6000 .
10000.
37.
37. O. -1. 1 2 12.446

4. 2,68 69.790 1 0000 . 37. <- 2.6 6 7 1. 2 52 Da Silva, A. M., C. C. Young, and S. LevilllS, 1994 : Atlas of surface
10000. 35.
marine data 1994, Volume 4: Amomalies of fresh water fluxes, NOAA Atlas NESDIS 9,
U.S. Department oj Commerce, NOAA , NESD IS.

247
 References 249
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oceans. The Atmosphere .and the Sea in Motion Science. Edited by B. Bolin, The
Rockefeller InstItute Press In assoc. with Oxford Univ. Press.

Richardson, P. L., 1977: On the crossover between the gulf stream and the western
boundary undercurrent. Deep-Sea Res., 24, 139-159.

Richardson, P.L., R. E. Cheney, and L. V. Worthington, 1978: A census of Gulf Stream

rings. J. Geophys. Res., 83, 6136-6144.

Richardson, P. L., 1985: Average velocity and transport of the gulf stream near 55W. J.
Mar. Res., 43, 83-111.

Rossby, C. G., 1937: On the mutual adjustment of pressure and velocity distributions in
certain simple current systems. I. J. Mar. Res., 1, 15-28.

Rossby, C. G., 1938: On the mutual adjustment of pressure and velocity distributions in
certain simple current systems. II. J. Mar. Res., 2, 239-263.

Sarkisyan, A. S., and F. F. Ivanov, 1971: The combined effect of baroclinicity and
bottom topography as an important factor in the dynamics of ocean currentsJzvestia
Acad. Sci., USSR, Atmos. and Oceanic Phys., 1, 173-188.

Semtner A. J., Jr., and R. M. Chervin, 1992: Ocean general circulation from a global
eddy-resolving model. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 5493-5550.

Schureman, P., 1940: Manual of harmonic analysis and prediction of

tides. Special Publication No. 98, U.S. Gov't Print. Office, Washington, DC.

Stommel, H., 1948: The westward intensification of wind-driven ocean currents. Trans.,
Am. Geophys. Union 29, 202-206.

Sverdrup, H. U., and W. H. Munk, 1947: Wind, sea and swell: Theory of relations for
forecasting. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Publication 301,44 pp.
 Recommended Books

Bascom, W., 1964: Waves and Beaches. Anchor, Double Day, 267 pp.

Batchelor, G. K., 1967: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Cambridge University

Press, 615 pp.

Bjerknes, V., et. ai, 1933: Physikalische Hydrodynamik. Springer, 797 pp.

Brown, J., A. Colling, D. Park, J. Phillips, D. Rothery and J. Wright, 1989:

Seawater: Its Composition, Properties and Behavior. Pergamon Press, 165 pp.

Brown, J., A. Colling, D. Park, J. Phillips, D. Rothery and J. Wright, 1989: The
Ocean Basins: Their Structure and Evolution, Pergamon Press, 171 pp.

Csanady, G. T., 1982: Circulation in the Coastal Oceans. Reidel, 274 pp.

Defant, A., 1961: Physical Oceanography. Vols. I and II Pergamon Press, 1319 pp.

Dietrich, G., K. Kalle, W. Krauss and G. Siedler, 1980: Oceanography. John

Wiley & Sons, 626 pp.

Doodson, A. T. and H. D. Warburg, 1941: Admiralty Manual of Tides. His

Majesty's Stationary Office. 270 pp.

Gill, A., 1982: Atmosphere - Ocean Dynamics. Academic Press, 662 pp.

Godin, G., 1972: The Analysis of Tides. University of Toronto Press, 264 pp.

Gross, M. and Grant, 1982: Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Third Ed.
Prentice-Hall, 498 pp.

Hinze, J. 0., 1975: Turbulence. Second Ed. McGraw Hill,790 pp.

Kinsman, B., 1965: Wind Waves, their Generation and Propagation on the Ocean
SUrface. Prentice-Hall, 676 pp.

LeBlond, P. H. and L. A. Mysak, 1978: Waves in the Ocean. Elsevier Scientific

Publishing Co., 602 pp.

Neumann, G. and W. J. Pierson, 1966: Principles of Physical

Oceanography. Prentice-Hall, 545 pp.

Pedlosky, J., 1979: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. Springer Verlag, 624 pp.

Phillips, O. M., 1977: The Dynamics of the Upper Ocean. Cambridge University
Press, 336 pp.

253
254 Recommended Books
Pickard. O. L. and W. J. Emery. 1982: Descriptive Physical Oceanography.
Fourth Ed. Pergamon Press. 249 pp.
A Bottom boundary layer. 72
Pond. S. and O. L. Pickard. 1983: Introductory Dynamical Oceanography. Second
Ed. Pergaman Press. 329 pp. Absolute acceleration. 232
Absolute coordinate system. 24. 230
Stommel. H .• 1965: The Gulf Stream. Second Ed. University of California Press.
Adiabatic. 113
248pp. /'
Advective derivative. 20
Sverdrup. H.Y .• M.Y. Johnson and R.H. Fleming. 1961 : The Oceans. Their Aerodynamic coefficients. 52
Physics. Chemistry and Biology. Prentice-Hall. 1060 pp.
Air-sea interface. 41
Tennekes. H. and J. L. Lumley. 1972: A First Course in Turbulence . The MIT Albedo. 42
Press. 300 pp. Amphidromic point. 191
Thurman. H.Y .• 1991: 11IIroductory Oceanography. MacMillan Publishing Co .• 526 Amphidromic system. 191
pp. Annual mean. meridional stress. 51
Turner. J. S .• 1973: Buoyancy Effects in Fluids . Cambridge University Annual mean, zonal stress, 51
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. 3
Press. 367 pp.
Antarctica. 13
Warren. B. A. and C. Wunsch. 1981: Evolution of Physical Oceanography. The
MIT Press. 623 pp. Anticyclonic motion. 55. 69
Archimedes' Principle. 38
Astronomical frequencies. 203
Astronomical tides. 196
Atmospheric boundary layer. 67
Atmospheric pressure. 35
Axisymmetric planar flow around a
vortex. 217
B Coastal response to wind stress. 211
Baroclinic flows. 25
Barometer. 36
Barotropic flow. 25. 59
Bernoulli's equation 150.220.225
Beta effect. 16
Beta plane. 14
Biot-Savan equation. 219
Black body. 41
255
Index
Bottom drag. 174
Bottom flow. 137
Bottom friction. 96
Bottom pressure. 138
Boundary currents. 141
Boundary layer approximation. 30 - 33
Boundary layer equations 32. 65
Boussinesq approximation. 24
Bulk aerody namic formulas. 52
Buoyancy production. 220
C
Cape Hatteras. 119
Carbon-14. 80
Centrifugal acceleration. 232
Centrifugal force, 197. 198
Channel flow. 190
Chemical titration. 112
Clausius-Clapeyron theory. 54
Climatology. 3
Closed basin. 166
COADS.142
Coastal trapped waves. 188
Common asymptote. 243
Components of the Coriolis acceleration.
233
Composite solution. 243
Compressibility. 16. 17.37
Conservation of potential vorticity. 185
Conserved property. 112
...
256 Index Index 257

Continents, I Equation of state, 112, 113 Gravitational constant, 196 J

Continuity equation, 37 Equatorial waves, 195 Gravity vector, 233 Jebar, 139, 142
Control volume, 43 Equilibrium temperature of the earth, 42 Greenhouse effect, \0
Coriolis acceleration, 232 Equilibrium tide 200, 202, 205 Greenhouse gases, II K
Cross product, 213 Error function, 134 Greenwhich, England, 14 Kelvin waves, 187
Cyclonic motion, 55, 69 , / Ertel's theorem, 223 Group velocity, 155, 156, 158 Kinematic heat flux, 78
Eulerian functions, 37, 227 Gulf Stream, 102, \07, 119, 131 Kinematic viscosity, 27
D Eulerian properties, 20 Gulf Stream axis, 120 Kolmogorov length scale, 29
Data assimmilation, 145 Gulf Stream transport, 123 Kuroshio Current, 3, 13
Deep water waves, 157 F
Density of Mercury, 36 Fick's Law, 27 H L
Density stratification, 76 Finite differencing, 174 Hadley Cell, 8 Lagrangian derivative, 20
Diagnostic model, 144 Flat bottomed ocean, 95 Heat diffusivity, 27 Lagrangian function, 227
Diffussivity,27 Flood tide, 169 Heat transport, 25 Lagrangian-Eulerian relations, 227
Dimensions, conversion Factors, 245 Florida Current, \02 Hodographs, 74, 181 Lamb's equation, 220
Dispersion relation, 152 Fluid statics, 34 Homogeneous solution, 182 Laminar flows, 28
Diumal inequality, 208, 211 Forcing frequency, 168 Horizontal gradient operator, 56 Laplace's equation, 165
Diurnal tides, 206 Fourier's Law, 27 Horizontal eli vergence, 185 Latent heat flux, 47
Divergence theorem, 17 Frequency, 155 Horizontal grid spacings, 33 Lateral viscosity, 95
Friction velocity, 73 Hydraulic jump, 163 Leibnitz rule, 105, 137
E Frontal model, 125 Hydrographic stations, 118 Long wave length, 42
Eanh's equatorial plane, 202 Froude number, 163 Hydrostatic approximation, 147 Low Rossby number approximation, 33
Earth's equilibrium temperature, 53 Hydrostatic balance, 24 Low Rossby number flow, 220
East Coast of the United States, 120 G Hydrostatic equation, 32 Low Rossby number, hydrostatic,
Eastern boundary layer, 244 Gauss' theorem, 17, 39 dynamic equations, 34
Ebb tide, 169 Geoid,60 I Lunar declination, 202
Ecliptic plane, 201, 202 Geostophic adjustment, 193 Inertial oscillations, 179
Eigenfunctions, 166 Geostrophic balance, 55 Inner solution, 241 , 243 M
Eigenvalues, 166 Geostrophic structures, 125 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone M2 tide, 203
EkInan layer, 68, 69, 70, 75, 84,137, Geostrophic velocities, 118, 124 (ITCZ), 8, 49 M2 frequency, 208
181 Geothermal heat flux, 41 Internal Rossby radius of defornlation, Matched asymptotic expansions, 97
Ekman pumping, 84, 86 Global climate change, 10 128,194,224 Mean free path, 28
Ekman transport, 75 Gravitational and centrifugal force Irrotational flow, 221 Mercador projection, 2
Electromagnetic radiation, 42 potential, 196
 Index Index 259
258

Poincare waves, 183 191,193 Stream function, 92, 149

Method Of Matched Asymptotic
Point vortex, 217 Rotating coordinate system, 230 Stream tube, 18,216
Expansions, 239
Potential density, 114 Roughness parameter, 82 Streamline coordinates 55, 57
Middle Atlantic Ridge, 63
Potential energy, 138 Streamlines, 92
Mixed Layer, 76, 78
Potential function, 149 S Stresses, 21
Mixing coefficients, 28
Potential temperature, 25, 113 S2 frequency, 208 Surface wind stress, 50
Models, 144
Practical salinity scale, 112 Salinity diffusivity, 27 Sverdrup's relation, 58, 59, 221
Momentum equation, 21,' 23
Precipitation, 48 Salinity fluxes, 25, 49
Munk's Model, 98
Pressure gradients, 109 Salinity, a conserved propeny, 111 T
Pressure stresses, 22 Seasonal variations of the thermocline, 80 Taylor-Proudman columns, 61
N
Pressure system, 55 Semidiurnal tides, 206 Temperature, 114
Nansen bottles, 112
Primitive equations, 144 Sensible heat flux from the earth's Tendency, 20
Navier-Stokes equations, 26, 29
Prognostic models, 144 surface, 46 Thermal wind equations, 58, 221
Net heat flux through the ocean surface,
Progressive vector diagram, 180 Shallow water waves, 159, 162, 165-174 Thermocline, 76
47
Progressive wave, 154, 155 Shon wave length, 42 Thennodynamic, 113
Newton's Second Law of Motion, 21
Prolate cycloid, 180 Sigma theta, 115 Thermodynamic temperature, 25
Newtonian fluid, 26
Properties Of Air, 247 Slack water, 169 Thennohaline flow, 137
No-slip, 98
Properties Of Seawater, 247 Solar day, 200 Thicknesses of atmosphere and ocean
Nonlinear solution for a deep water wave,
Property values, 245 Solar flux, 41, 42 surface layers, 74
237
Solar radiation, 41 Tidal constituents, 204, 205, 208
Solar temperature, 41 Tidal forCing frequency, 177
a R
Radiation, 43 Specific humidity, 52 Tidal observations, 206
Oceans, 1
Radiation energy input to the atmosphere- Ssa and Sa tidal forcing, 211 Transport, 88
Open channel steady flow, 163
ocean, 8 Stable density gradients, 29 Tropical year, 200
Open ended basin, 167
Radiation flux at the earth's surface, 44, Standard atmospheric pressure, 36 Tsunami, 173
Oscillatory motion, 179
46 Standing Waves, 153, 166 Turbulence, 28
Outer solution, 243
Resonance, 169 Static stability, 117 Turbulence length scales, 28
Relative acceleration, 232 Stefan-Boltzman constant, 41 Turbulence exchange coefficients, 74
P
Relative coordinate system, 24, 230 Stream function, 92
Period, 155
Relative vorticity, 220 Stretching and twisting terms, 220 U
Penurbation analysis, 235
Reynolds number, 28 Stokes drift, 178 UNESCO, 115
Phase speed, 155
Richardson number, 77, 184 Stokes transport, 178 Unsteady, Ocean Surface Boundary
Phase velocity, 171
Rings, 130, 131 Stommel's model, 96 Layers, 180
Planetary potential vorticity, 89
Rossby radius of defonn ation, 128, 189, Strait of Gibraltar, 40 Upwelling, 80
Planetary vorticity, 220
260 Index

V W
Vertical component of vorticity, 185 Wave equations, 165
Vertical density gradients, 29 Wave length, 155
Vector relations, 214 Wave number, 155
Viscous, 21 Wave packet, 158
Viscous stresses, 21, 22 Western Boundary Current, 13,94,224
Viscosity, 26 Western Boundary Undercurrent, 124
Von Karman's constant, 82 Wind-driven waves, 160
Vortex sheet, 226 Wind stress curl, 89
Vortex tubes, 216, 217 Witte-Margulies equation, 128
Vorticity, a definition, 213
Vorticity balance, 224
Vorticity components, 148
Vorticity transport, 219