Course: Culture and Discourse

Erasmus Student: Magdalena Alexandru

Teacher: Carla Alexandra Ferreira Guerreiro

The History and Culture of Romania

● From the Beginning until Nowadays -

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 Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………..3

The Ancient Times………………………………………………...3

The Middle Ages…………………………………………………..4

The Modern Times………………………………………………...5

The Contemporary Age…………………………………………....8

Conclusion..………………………………………………………..9

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 Introduction

Like any other European country Romania has a long history, which can be traced
down to the ancient times, and a great culture which has been enriched with the evolution and
development of the Romanian people within the frame of European history. In order to
explain and understand the Romanian culture with its distinct elements its necessary an
incursion into its history.
My purpose for this paper is to follow the historical evolution of the Romanian
people, focusing on the most important events that marked the development of my country,
and in the same time to present the greatest assets of our culture.
In order to achieve this goal, the paperwork will be divided into four major parts. First
offers the background of Ancient Times, being followed by the Middle Ages. However, the
most important are the last two parts which present the Modern Times and the Contemporary
Age, times in which Romania had the greatest achievements. Finally, the paper ends with a
personal view and conclusion on the matter.

The Ancient Times

As I already have mentioned, the history of my people starts in the Antiquity. Around
500 BC the current Romanian land, called back then Dacia, used to be populated by
Getae-Dacians tribes, which were a branch of Thracians. The first written evidence of people
leaving in the Carpatian-Danubian-Pontic lands belongs to the Greek historian Herodotus,
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who wrote about this in 440 BC, in his fourth book of ​Histories . In the age of the great

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Romania
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Greek colonies, the Getae-Dacians had intense commercial and trade relations with the
Greeks, who build colonies on the shore of the Black Sea. The ruins of the Greek cities of
Histria, Tomis and Callatis, can still be seen today on the Romanian shore of the Black Sea.
The most important moment in the Ancient times was though the reign of the King
Burebista (82-44 BC), who managed to expand the Dacian Kingdom and make it powerful in
the region and a threat to the Romans regional interests. Julius Caesar died before having the
chance to start a campaign against the Dacians, and in the same year died Burebista as well.
His great state was divided into four parts and was unified only in 95 AD by king
Decebalus. However, after the famous Dacian-Roman wars (101-102 AD and 105-106 AD),
recorded on Trajan’s Column, Decebalus’s state was defeated and was turned into a Roman
province. Dacia was a great source of gold and natural richness for the Romans; therefore
they began to exploit it intensely. It was colonized and Dacia began the process of
Romanization, which included the adoption of Roman’s customs, beliefs and most important
of all, the adoption of Vulgar Latin, which is today the basis of Romanian Language. It is also
considered that the Dacians-Romans are the origin base of nowadays Romanians.
Although the Roman presence was intense in Dacia, in 271, due to the barbarian
invasions, the Roman army withdrew from the province. Consequently, Dacia was invaded
more than once. First, by the Goths, then by the Huns, followed by the Slavic Gepids and
Avars, by the Pechenegs and the Cumans, who lived with the Dacian-Romans on these lands,
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until the Romanian principalities were found in the first half of 14​th​ century .

The Middle Ages

The beginning of the Middle Ages in the Eastern Europe differs greatly from the
Middle Ages in Western Europe. While Spain, Italy, France and England had powerful
kingdoms, the Romanians only formed three distinct principalities. In the south, in 1301,
Basarab I founded Wallachia, also called The Romanian Land, and in the east Dragos formed
Moldova, around 1352. In the west, Transylvania was a matter of dispute between the
Romanians and Hungarians and remained under the rule of Hungarian Kingdom, and

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Romania
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afterwards of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, despite all attempts of union, until the Great
Union of 1918. But, we’ll get there too.
Returning to the Middle Ages, the Romanians have faced a lot of trouble, due to the
fact that we had a strategic and wealthy land, and the accession of the Ottoman Empire threw
us in a vortex of battles with the Turks. In the struggle to maintain its independence and
Orthodox beliefs, Wallachia felt under the Ottoman’s suzerainty in the 15​th century. The
greatest ruler of these times, Vlad the Impeller (1448, 1456-1462, 1476), famously known as
Prince Dracula due to Bram Stoker’s novel, defended the Wallachian independence towards
the Ottoman Empire and had an extreme sense of justice in the domestic affairs.
Regarding the principality of Moldova, the most glorious period was reached under
the long reign of Stephen the Great (1457-1504), who managed to win 48 battles out of 50
and contributed to the enrichment of his state, by building 48 churches and monasteries, most
of which today are part of the UNESCO’s world heritage sites.
Another important leader was Michael the Brave (1593-1601) who tried to unite for
the first time all three principalities. He actually succeeded and was Prince of Wallachia,
Moldavia and Transylvania, but for a short while, being assassinated from the order of the
Habsburg emperor. After his death, in the 17​th century, all the Romanian states of Moldavia,
Wallachia and Transylvania felt under the Ottoman suzerainty and until the Phanariot Epoch,
in 18​th century, the feudal system remained as the basic model of administration. Only in the
end of the 18​th century, leaders with new visions in the spirit of Enlightenment began to adopt
a changing attitude.
During the 17​th century, the chroniclers began to register the historical evolution of the
Romanian lands and the most important were the Moldavians Grigore Ureche, who wrote the
Moldavian history from 1359 to ​1594,​ Ion Neculce and Miron Costin, who wrote ​The
Chronicles of the land of Moldavia,​ covering the time from 1594 to 1660.

The Modern Times

A great personality of the 18​th century was Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), twice
prince of Moldavia and, most important, a man of letters: philosopher, historian, composer,

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musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer. Not did only he contributed to the
modern Romanian historical literature with ​Descriptio Moldaviae and ​Chronicle of the
durability of Romans-Moldavians-Wallachians, b​ ut also to the Turkish historical writings
with the ​History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire​. An important contribution
into musical history is his ​History and notation of Ottoman court music and I also must stress
the fact that his compositions are being studied nowadays in Music Universities by the
musicology students.
The 19​th century brought many changes in the Romanian political, cultural,
administrative, social and economic fields. As the French Revolution spread in all Europe,
the Romanians desired a better life and the liberation from all foreign occupation. The first
movement was in the end of 18​th century, the Revolt of Horea, Closca and Crisan, who
demanded political equality between Romanians in Transylvania. However, they were
defeated by the Austrian Imperial Army.
Also in this time, the Illuminist ideas began to appear in Transylvania, in the form of
an emancipation movement, known as the ​Transylvanian School. Because of people like
Samuil Micu, Gheorghe Sincai and Petru Maior, who wrote about the Roman origin of
Romanian people, we adopted the modern Latin-based Romanian alphabet. Also, in 1818 was
founded in Bucharest, by Gheorghe Lazar and Ion Heliade Radulescu, the first Romanian
School. Moreover, the Wallachian uprising of 1821, leaded by Tudor Vladimirescu, was a
real step towards change. Unfortunately, the revolutionary hero, after fighting bravely for
defeating Bucharest, was killed by the Turks.
A new chance and hope was seen in the year of 1848, when like in many European
countries, the revolution came upon the three principalities with their goals of full
independence for Moldavia and Wallachia and national emancipation in Transylvania. It was
the moment of recognition of unity of language and interests between those lands, the start
for creation, for construction and reconstruction, the impulse for deliverance and for striving
to achieve the old historical desideratum: unity among Romanians.
The poets and writers, that took part in this great revolution, fought for an education
system that would offer everybody the free chance to learn and they put the basis for the first
Universities. They also started to write intensely about the Romanian historical events, they
collected legends and songs from the mioritical realms and they translated a great amount of
European literature into Romanian.

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 The new elite of the second half of 19​th century included the former revolutionists, of
which the most important are: Mihail Kogalniceanu (1817-1891) - writer, politician and the
first prime minister of Romania; Vasile Alecsandri (1821-1890) - politician, playwright and
poet, Andrei Muresanu (1816-1863) - publicist and the writer of the current Romanian
National Anthem and Nicolae Balcescu (1819-1852) - historian, writer and revolutionary.
In 1859, Wallachia and Moldavia was united by the double election of Prince
Alexandru Ioan Cuza. His desire of reforms, good for the country but threatening for the
upper class, brought him into exile. In 1866, Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
became Prince Carol of Romania and later – after Romania being recognized as independent
in 1878 and becoming a Kingdom in 1881 – King Carol I of Romania.
During his reign (1866-1914), the country began a prosperous growth and
development in every domain. Because of him the Romanians gain their independence from
the Ottoman Empire, by fighting bravely in the Russo-Turk War (1877-1878).
Also a rich cultural life emerged, during Carol’s time, when prestigious newspapers
and literary circles were created. The most important and influential one was ​Junimea,​
founded in 1863 by the literary critic, and politician, Titu Maiorescu. In its cultural journal
Literary Conversations published their works, among others, Mihai Eminescu (1850-1889),
Romania's greatest poet and the last European Romantic, Ion Creanga (1839-1889), the great
storyteller and Ion Luca Caragiale (1852-1912), Romania's greatest playwright and novelist.
During the same period, Nicolae Grigorescu (1838-1907) and Stefan Luchian (1868-1917)
founded the modern Romanian painting.
As I see it, those significant writers, poets, composers, play writers and painters raised
the Romanian culture, in a very short time, at the level of the European cultural currents.
Even though the First World War ruined Europe, and by getting involved in 1916, it
also damaged Romania, it was a chance for the Kingdom to finally unite with Transylvania.
The event, The Great Union, took place on 1 December 1918, in Alba-Iulia, and since today,
1 of December is celebrated as the National Day of Romania.
Often called the Golden Age of Romania, the first half of the 20​th century was the
highest phase of Romanian international affirmation and also the period in which the
intellectuality had strong connection to the European cultural trends. Most of the political
leaders and artists were studying in the European cultural capitals and we’re returning home
with new ideas and plans of change and development.

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 The sculptor Constantin Brancusi (1876–1957), had a great influence on the world
culture, being a central figure of the modern movement and a pioneer of abstraction, Lucian
Blaga (1895-1961) was a great playwright, expressionist poet and philosopher. The literary
critic, George Calinescu (1899-1965), wrote ​History of the Romanian literature, from its
origins till present day. Among other important writers, I must mention the novelist Liviu
Rebreanu (1885-1944), the modern writer Camil Petrescu (1894-1957), the dramatist Mihail
Sebastian (1907-1945), the revolutionist poet Tudor Arghezi (1880-1967), the symbolict poet
George Bacovia (1881-1957), or the mathematician and poet Dan Barbilian, on his
pseudonym Ion Barbu (1895-1961).
In the Romanian philosophy, names as Mircea Vulcanescu, Dimitrie Gusti, Alexandru
Dragomir and Vasile Conta have made an important contribution. Also, the musicians and
composers Dinu Lipatti and George Enescu are famous worldwide.
A great personality of his time was Mircea Eliade (1907-1986), historian of religion,
fiction writer, philosopher and professor at the University of Chicago, who contributed to the
western literature with his famous ​History of Religious Ideas​.

The Contemporary Age

However, the end of the Second World War and the misfortune of falling under the
Soviet sphere of influence brought in 1947 the forced abdication of then King Michael I and
the instauration of the Communist Republic. The communist regime censored almost every
elements of life and the artists who were against were imprisoned or banned from publishing
their works, culture becoming a means to control the population.
During Nicolae Ceausescu’s (1965-1918) leadership, the most outstanding
personalities where: the writer Marin Preda (1922-1980), the poets Nichita Stanescu
(1933-1983) and Marin Sorescu (1936-1996) and the literary critics Nicolae Manolescu (b.
1939) and Eugen Simion (b. 1933), who managed to create in way that their works won’t be
in the same line as the Communist party’s beliefs, but would still be published.
Even though, the Party dictated what and how the cultural creations should be, and
most of the events were dedicated to the President, I believe that the good part of it is that a
growth in the cultural life was visible.
For example, the cinematography and theatre gave birth to great actors such as the

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prolific Toma Caragiu (1925-1977), Victor Rebengiuc (b. 1933), the academic Dem
Radulescu (1931-2000), Jean Constantin (1927-2010), Amza Pellea (1931-1983), Elvira
Popescu (1894-1993) or Luminita Gheorghiu (b. 1949). The famous and probably most
important Romanian film director was the recently deceased Sergiu Nicolaescu (1930-2013),
who created great historical movies. ​Mihai Viteazul i​ s one of his greatest creations and is also
appreciated worldwide as one of the best historical movie.
In the musical field, were well-known outside Romania the conducters Sergiu
Celibidache - the main conductor at the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and later of Munich
Philharmonic Orchestra - and Constantin Silvestri, the main conductor at the Bournemouth
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Symphony Orchestra . An important musician and movie composer was Gheorghe Zamfir,
who played beautifully the pan pipes.
The emerging rock bands of the 60’s, like Phoenix, Sfinx, Iris, Progresiv TM, Cargo,
Semnal M, Rosu si Negru (Red and Black), Sincron and folk singers, such as Florian Pittis,
Nicu Alifantis, Mircea Baniciu, Mircea Vintila, Zoia Alecu, Valeriu Sterian, Tatiana Stepa
and Maria Gheorghiu, have grouped together in ​Cenaclul Flacara (​ Flame Cenacle). Runned
by the poet Adrian Paunescu, ​The Flame was a cultural phenomenon mint to promote artistic
creations and the common beliefs of freedom. Between 1973 when it started and 1985 when
the shows were forbidden, 1.615 music and poetry shows took place.
It is also notably, that in 1974, the cell biologist and teacher George Emil Palade
became the first Romanian to receive the Nobel Prize, winning it for describing the structure
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and function of organelles in cells .
After the fall of Communist, with the Revolution 1989, the cultural life took a new
turn, a decadent one I might say. Although, the beginning of the 90’s made possible the
publication of many books that have been forbidden before, and some of the dissident and
exiled artists returned in the country, in the musical field was an explosion of young pop
music bands and rap singers, whose music quality was debatable. Afterwards, the 2000 years
brought a sort of balance in the cultural landscape, but as I see it, it reduced very much the
creativity to monotony and vulgar modern expression. Nowadays, our culture struggles
between the Western influences of free expression and extremes, and the traditional motifs of
our music and poetry and the great contributions of our past artists.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Romania
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Romania
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 Conclusion

I believe that Romania had an important role in the European history, especially with
the start of the Romanian modern state, when we began to contribute with our creations to the
European culture.
Our greatest writers, composers or painters were educated in prestigious European
centers and were instilled with the innovative ideas of their times. They brought change into
our country and made possible a quick evolution and development and were widely
recognized as semnificative personalities.
Because our culture was very much influenced by our historical background, every
part of cult literature, of folkloric music or rural object is a piece of evidence of our history
and of our evolution as a nation and as cultural people.

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