Running head: TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 1

Investigation on the Relationship between Test Anxiety and Sleep Quality in College Students

Sari Kripke

Miami University
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 2

Abstract

A plethora of past research looked at the relationship between variables such as sleep

quality, GPA, anxiety, stress, and test performance. Many found these relationships were based

on moderators and mediators such as aggression and coping styles. We decided to simplify

previous research by looking at the relationship between only two variables within the college

age range. Our research question asked, what is the relationship between test anxiety and sleep

quality in college students? We hypothesized that the two variables would have a negative

correlation. Those with a lower sleep quality would be expected to have higher levels of test

anxiety. We conducted a correlational, non-experimental study through a Qualtrics survey.

Participants were between the ages of 18-23 and self-reported demographics such as race, age,

grade, gender, GPA, and credit hours before answering questions about sleep and test anxiety.

We ran a Pearson correlation test on our data and found that test anxiety and sleep quality did, in

fact, have a negative relationship. In simpler terms, participants who reported to have higher

testing anxiety on the survey tended to report having poorer sleep quality as well.
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 3

Introduction

College is a four-year period of life generally characterized by fraternity parties, dorm

living, challenging classes, and late nights spent preparing for exams and finals. Managing all the

academic demands that come with being a college student can be difficult while still trying to

maintain a social life and a normal sleep schedule. Such demands may result in individualized

performance deficiencies in either one or many facets of a college student’s life. The two facets

that we are particularly interested in studying the relationship between are academics and sleep.

This is because as college students, these are the two main aspects of life that we need to stay on

top of to succeed. So, our research question is, what is the relationship between testing anxiety

and sleep quality in college students?

For our research, test anxiety is defined as feeling an increased sense of physiological

arousal (sweating, “butterflies” in stomach, muscle tension, need to urinate), worry, and

nervousness up to three days before a college exam (Cerbin, 2011). Our conceptual definition for

quality of sleep is how satisfied a person is with their night of sleep. To do this, their sleep

duration, subjective sleep satisfaction, disturbances, timing, and efficiency will be measured in

comparison to periods of time when they are not experiencing test anxiety. Their duration is how

long they sleep, while subjective sleep satisfaction is how happy they are with the sleep they got.

Sleep disturbances are how many times they wake up during the night. Timing is how late they

go to sleep and efficiency is how easy it is for them to fall asleep and stay asleep (Buysee, 2014).

In a study by K. Kelly, W. Kelly, and Clanton (2001), they administered self-report

surveys to psychology undergraduate students between the ages of 18-42 asking about their sleep

duration and GPA. Sleepers were divided into three categories: short, average, and long sleepers.

Sleeping 6 hours or less qualified participants as short sleepers, 7-8 hours for average, and 9 or
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 4

more for long. These researchers hypothesized that longer sleep duration would be positively

associated with a higher GPA, and that shorter sleepers would be positively associated with

lower GPAs. After conducting a one-way analysis of variance, or ANOVA, they found further

evidence to support their hypothesis that longer sleepers would relate to higher GPAs (K. Kelly,

W. Kelly, & Clanton, 2001). Their research findings suggest that receiving a good night sleep

could be important for academic performance, and that those with higher GPAs typically receive

a better night’s sleep. While this research found a relationship between sleep and GPA, ours will

be looking for a relationship between sleep and test anxiety specifically.

Other research conducted by Castillo (2013) aimed to discover whether test anxiety was

associated with sleep duration and, if so, if aggressiveness could be a possible third variable to

help explain the relationship. She hypothesized that test anxiety and sleep duration would be

associated. She also hypothesized that aggressiveness would be associated with reduced amounts

of sleep and increased levels of test anxiety. Castillo surveyed 137 undergraduate students right

before taking a college exam. The major findings from this research supported Castillo’s first

hypotheses and found that there is an association between sleep duration and test anxiety. She

also found a significant relationship between aggressiveness and test anxiety. But, her research

showed no correlation between sleep duration and aggressiveness (Castillo, 2013). Castillo’s

research looked at how sleep duration was related to test anxiety and how aggressiveness

impacted this relationship. We, however, will not be researching third variables such as

aggression. Also, Castillo only looked at sleep duration while we will be looking at additional

components of sleep including satisfaction, efficiency, timing, and disturbances.

Lund, Reider, Whiting, and Prichard (2009) investigated sleep patterns and predictors of

poor sleep in college students. They administered an online cross-sectional survey to 1,125
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 5

Midwestern University students between the ages of 17-24. Their survey included five different

sleep scales: Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Horne-Ostberg

Morningness-Eveningness Scale, Profile of Mood States, and the Subjective Units of Distress

Scale. Findings indicated that those with poorer sleep tended to have more reports of physical

and mental health problems than better sleepers did. They also found that stress had a negative

correlation to sleep quality. This research shows that insufficient sleep is not just present in

younger children, but it is also evident at the college level (Lund, Reider, Whiting & Prichard,

2009). This research set a foundation for how we plan to survey sleep quality among college

students. They found evidence to establish that sleep issues occur in college and can negatively

relate to other aspects of college life. We will add to this study by researching how these sleep

issues may be related to test anxiety.

Sadeh, Keinan, and Daon (2004) hypothesized that the relationship between stress and

sleep would be moderated by a person’s coping style. Their research specifically focused on

what was called emotional focused coping, or EFC. This type of coping mechanism focuses on

regulating emotional responses to problems. After surveying students on stress and objectively

monitoring their sleep levels during high and low stress weeks, researchers concluded that

coping styles are, in fact, a moderating variable between stress and sleep. Those with high EFC

reported poorer sleep quality during high stress weeks than low stress weeks. The opposite was

found for people with low EFC. Despite the coping mechanism of the participants, they found

that there are significant changes in sleep periods due to stress; higher stress levels are associated

with decreased sleep quality. Our research will be examining test anxiety instead of stress level.

Additionally, all our data will be collected through subjective self-report surveys. Our group is
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 6

also focusing solely on the relationship between test anxiety and sleep quality without including

moderating factors.

The purpose of our study is to examine the relationship between sleep quality and test

anxiety in college students. Ultimately, we hope to find evidence to support arguments that sleep

is a facet of college life that should not be compromised. We wanted to focus our research on

undergraduate college students since we are a part of this population. Discovering relevant data

to those our age will allow us to apply results to college life at Miami. If executed properly, our

findings could also be generalized to larger populations such as college students across the

United States. At Miami on days leading up to final exams, King Library is packed 24 hours per

day. Students are compromising their sleep time to cram before taking their exams. But if they

were aware that this style of studying could possibly relate to higher levels of test anxiety, they

may find a more effective way to prepare for exams such as studying in increments. Previous

studies found that sleep is related to mental and physical health, GPA, aggression, and stress; but

no past research studied test anxiety specifically in relation to sleep. We hypothesized that levels

of test anxiety are negatively correlated with sleep quality in college students. In other words, we

predict that increased levels of testing anxiety will be related to lower levels and quality of sleep,

and vice versa.

TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 7

Methods

We used a website called Qualtrics to write and administer our survey. There were three

exclusion criteria: did not consent, not between the ages of 18-23, and did not answer at least two

of the questions. The survey immediately ended and closed for those who did not consent. Each

participant who met the inclusion criteria contributed to our collected data and total N. The

questions consisted of two main subjects: sleep and test anxiety.

Participants

All group members recruited participants by posting the survey on Facebook. Two

members also sent the link to sorority Groupme’s. Participants were undergraduate college

students between the ages of 18-23. They all happened to attend Miami University for

undergraduate school and they were are all friends with at least one of our group members on

Facebook or Groupme. Originally, 279 people opened the survey. After excluding those not in

the age range, those who did not complete the survey, and those who did not consent, there were

70 participants total. Of those, 58 were female and 12 were male. From the surveyed

participants, 56 were white, 12 were Asian, 1 was African American, and 1 was of another race

or ethnicity. Most participants were freshmen in college with a mean age was 19.36 with a

standard deviation of 1.33. Their GPAs ranged from a 2.79-4.0 and they took between 8-24

credit hours with most people’s credit hours ranging between 15-18. There was no compensation

given for completing the survey.

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Design

Our design was a non-experimental, correlational study to find the association between

test anxiety and sleep quality. Both variables were measured using previously accredited Likert

scales. Test anxiety was measured by the Cognitive and Westside Test Anxiety Scales. Sleep

Quality was measured using the SATED, Epworth, and Pittsburg Sleep Scales. These scales are

made up of various questions and statements that participants had to self-report on the survey.

Measures

To measure testing anxiety, we used the Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale followed by the

Westside Test Anxiety Scale. The Cognitive scale by Cerbin (2011), is a 14 questions scale that

measures test anxiety in college students. The scale was reliable with a Cronbach’s Alpha of

0.775. An example of a statement on this scale is “I lose sleep over worrying about

examinations”. Participants rate statements like these from 0-4, where 0 is not at all typical of me

and 4 is very typical of me. Higher scores on this scale reflect higher test anxiety, and lower

scores reflect lower test anxiety (Cerbin, 2011). The Westside Test Anxiety Scale is composed of

7 statements that describe feelings and thoughts during exams. This scale was very reliable with

a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.847. The answer options were on a Likert scale from 1-5 where 1 meant

not at all, never true and 5 meant extremely, always true. An example of a statement from this

scale is “The closer I am to a major exam, the harder it is for me to concentrate on the material”.

Higher scores on this scale reflect higher levels of text anxiety (Driscoll, 2004).

We measured sleep using the SATED Scale, Epworth Sleep Scale, and then the Pittsburg

Sleep Quality Scale. SATED stands for sleep satisfaction, alertness, timing, efficiency, and

duration. This scale was composed of 5 statements about sleep during weeks with both high and
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 9

low test anxiety. The SATED Scale had a reliable Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.746. Each statement

required a response ranging from 0, meaning rarely or never, all the way to 2, meaning usually or

always. An example of a statement from the SATED scale is “Are you satisfied with your sleep”.

Since higher scores on this scale were associated with better quality of sleep, we had to reverse

code the numbers before analysis (Buysee, 2014). The Epworth Scale had 8 statements for

participants to rate their chance of dozing off in a variety of situations. The scale was 0-3 where

0 is would never doze and 3 is a high chance of dozing. Higher scores from this scale are related

to poorer sleep quality. Although this scale had a smaller Cronbach’s Alpha than all the other

scales used in our research, 0.631 was still high enough for it to be reliable. Included in this scale

are statements such as “Choose the most appropriate number for when you are sitting and

reading or watching TV” (Johns, 1997). Finally, The Pittsburg Scale is composed of 15

statements about sleeping at night. Participants were asked to rate each statement on a Likert

scale of 0-3 where 0 is not during the past month and 3 is three or more times a week. Higher

scores on this scale are associated with poorer sleep quality. It had high reliability with a

Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.708. This scale contains statements such as “During the past month, how

often have you had trouble sleeping because you cannot get to sleep within 30 minutes” (Buysse,

Reynolds, Monk, Berman & Kupfer, 1989).

Procedure

The survey administered by Qualtrics was composed of 5 main blocks: consent,

demographics, testing anxiety, sleep, and a debrief. Before individuals could participate in our

survey, they were asked if they were 18+ and in college. If they answered no, they were not

directed to the consent form because they did not meet the age requirements to participate. If
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 10

participants did meet the age requirements, they were directed to a consent form that they had to

give their consent to before the survey questions began. The consent form first explained the

study was created by psychology 293 students to explore the relationship between test anxiety

and sleep quality. It listed the survey blocks they would be completing and how long the survey

would take. The consent also included that participating in the study would not be risky or

harmful and responses would be kept confidential. Finally, we provided our names and emails

before the consent was agreed to or not in case participants had further questions. If they did

consent, the survey immediately ended for them on Qualtrics and they were unable to answer any

of the survey questions. We did not factor the 4 participants who did not consent into our data

collection and analysis. Following consent, participants provided demographic information such

as their age, race, gender, GPA, year in school, credit hours, and their majors. There were two

main blocks in the survey composed of various scales within each. The first block was for test

anxiety with statements from, first, the Cognitive Scale and then the Westside Scale. The

following block was for sleep. Statements started with the SATED Scale, then moved onto the

Epworth Scale, and ended with the Pittsburg Scale. At the end of the survey, participants were

debriefed. The debrief first thanked them for participating and repeated the purpose of the study.

We also included the results we predicted. Then, we reminded participants that their answers

were confidential and included our names and emails again in case they had questions. Since

there were no forced answers during the survey, participants could skip questions if they felt

uncomfortable answering. They could also end the survey at any point if they decided they did

not want to participate in the study anymore. After we closed the survey and applied our

exclusion criteria to participants, we ran a correlational analysis.

TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 11

Results

In our study, we ran six Pearson’s correlation tests between our different scales for test

anxiety and sleep quality to find an r correlation. This test is used to explain the magnitude and

direction of the relationship between two variables. We found all six correlations to be

statistically significant and to be in support of our hypothesis. First, we ran correlations with the

Pittsburg Sleep Scale. Sleep quality (M= 2.03, SD= 0.43) measured by the Pittsburg Sleep Scale

had a moderate negative correlation to test anxiety (M=2.75, SD=0.46) measured by the

Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.428, p<0.001, two-tailed. In other words, those who

reported higher levels of test anxiety tended to also report poorer sleep quality. The effect size

was 0.18. The Cronbach’s alpha for the Pittsburg scale was 0.708 and it was 0.775 for the

Cognitive scale, meaning our findings are reliably significant. Similarly, sleep quality (M=2.03,

SD=0.43) measured by the Pittsburg Sleep Scale also has a moderate negative correlation to test

anxiety (M=3.00, SD=0.83) measured by the Westside Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.338,

p=0.004, two-tailed. The effect size was 0.11. This result is reliable because the Cronbach’s

alpha for Pittsburg, as mentioned above, was 0.708 and it was 0.847 for Westside. Next, we ran

correlations for the SATED Sleep Scale. Sleep quality (M=1.95, SD=0.40) measured by the

SATED Sleep Scale has a moderate negative correlation to test anxiety (M=3.00, SD=0.83)

measured by the Westside Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.261, p=0.029, two-tailed. The effect size

was 0.07. The Cronbach’s alpha for the SATED scale was 0.746 and it was 0.847 for the

Westside scale, so these findings are reliably significant. Also, sleep quality (M=1.95, SD=0.40)

measured by the SATED Sleep Scale has a moderate negative correlation to test anxiety

(M=2.75, SD=0.46) measured by the Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.279, p=0.020, two-

tailed. The effect size was 0.08. The Cronbach’s alpha for the SATED scale was 0.746 and it was
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 12

0.847 for the Westside scale, so these findings are reliably significant. Finally, we ran

correlations for the Epworth Sleep Scale. Sleep quality (M=2.19, SD=0.45) measured by the

Epworth Sleep Scale has a moderate negative correlation to test anxiety (M=2.75, SD=0.46)

measured by the Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.225, p=.061, two-tailed. The effect size

was 0.05. The Cronbach’s alpha for the Epworth scale and it was 0.631 for the Cognitive scale,

meaning our findings are reliable. Sleep quality (M=2.19, SD=0.45) measured by the Epworth

Sleep Scale has a weak negative correlation to test anxiety (M=3.00, SD=0.83) measured by the

Westside Test Anxiety Scale, r(68) = -.156, p=.197, two-tailed. The effect size was 0.02. The

Cronbach’s alpha for the Epworth scale and it was 0.847 for the Westside scale, meaning our

findings are reliably statistically significant. All six correlations can be interpreted in the same

way. Participants who reported having more test anxiety on the questionnaires tended to have a

lower quality of sleep as well. In other words, as test anxiety increases, sleep quality decreases,

and vice versa. These findings supported our hypothesis that there is an association between

testing anxiety and sleep.

TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 13

Discussion

Based on the survey our group conducted, we ran a correlational analysis to examine if

test anxiety and sleep quality have an association in college students. Our purpose in running this

correlation was to discover the simple relationship between these two facets of daily college life

without factoring in third variables. We hoped that college students could potentially benefit

from our discoveries if our results supported our hypothesis. Again, we hypothesized that there

would be a negative correlation between test anxiety and sleep quality. In other words, we

predicted that test anxiety would increase as sleep quality decreased, and vice versa. After

running the correlations, we found our results to be statistically significant and in support of our

hypothesis. Sleep quality had a moderate negative relationship with test anxiety in five out of the

six correlations we ran. One out of the six correlations had a weak negative relationship. Despite

this, all our correlations supported our hypothesis.

Our research found a moderate, negative relationship between sleep quality and test

anxiety in college students specifically. Previous research examined similar variables among a

variety of demographics. Our findings added to this previous research by solely researching our

two chosen variables: test anxiety and sleep quality. We also found a relationship between these

variables in college students, and not just in adolescents like in previous research. The study by

K. Kelly, W. Kelly, and Clanton (2001) found that longer duration of sleep was associated with

higher GPAs. Their research findings suggest that receiving a good night sleep could be

important for academic performance, and that those with higher GPAs typically receive a better

night’s sleep (K. Kelly, W. Kelly & Clanton, 2001). Our research expanded upon this finding by

examining whether a better night’s sleep could also affect test anxiety and not just test

performance. Other research conducted by Castillo (2013) found that there is an association
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 14

between sleep duration and test anxiety. This study established a relationship between test

anxiety and sleep, but they only examined sleep duration. We looked at four additional aspects of

sleep including satisfaction, efficiency, timing, and alertness. Lund, Reider, Whiting, and

Prichard (2009) also investigated sleep patterns in college students. Findings indicated that those

with poorer sleep quality tended to have more reports of physical and mental health problems

than better sleepers did. They also found that stress had a negative correlation to sleep quality

(Lund, Reider, Whiting & Prichard, 2009). Their research established the relationship between

stress and sleep quality in college students, but no previous studies had been conducted on test

anxiety and sleep quality in college students. Sadeh, Keinan, and Daon (2004) also looked at the

relationship between stress and sleep. As opposed to other studies, they found that this

relationship was moderated by a person’s emotional coping mechanisms. Despite the coping

mechanism of the participants, they found that there are significant changes in sleep periods due

to stress; higher stress levels are associated with decreased sleep quality (Sadeh, Keinan & Daon,

2004).

Our research is especially relevant for college students today because sleep is often the

aspect of life that they choose to give up to stay caught up with school, friends, extracurricular

activities, etc. Experiencing poor sleep could relate to more anxiety before exams. Research like

ours which is supported by previous research is important because it reminds college students of

the importance of sleep. Staying up all night, even if it is to study, is not the way to succeed in

college. Make sure to get plenty of rest every night, especially before exams; this can relieve

your anxiety before taking important tests. Taking a simple mental break to relieve test anxiety

could keep your sleep quality in check. Take care of yourselves both physically and mentally.
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 15

Test anxiety is a part of college and it is okay up to a certain point. But before that point

hits, find a way to cope with it. Since test anxiety and sleep quality are correlated, overwhelming

feelings of test anxiety can negatively relate to your sleep quality. While our research did not

prove a causal relationship between test anxiety and sleep quality, it did suggest that test anxiety

and sleep quality are related.

Besides having a small sample size of 70 participants, there were additional limitations in

our study. To begin, we collected our data through administered surveys. While surveys are

useful when variables are difficult to manipulate, they also can come with self-report bias. To

prevent this in future research, we would reverse code some of the questions. We administered

these surveys using convenience sampling. This gave us a group of participants who were mostly

19-years-old, white, female undergraduates at Miami University. There were significantly more

girls than boys who participated in the survey which could have potentially influenced our

findings. Typically, girls are more known to report feelings of test anxiety than boys are because

mental instability is generally not considered “manly”. To ensure our sample is representative of

the population in future research, we should use a different sampling method. Also, we could

release the survey to different schools across the US. Another limitation we faced was the short

amount of time opened for the survey so we could complete the research paper before the end of

the semester. If it had been available longer, we would have gotten a much larger sample size.

With the survey being taken closer to the end of the semester, participants could have been

feeling more test anxiety than usual. Also, maybe students who were extremely consumed with

feelings of testing anxiety did not partake in the survey because of this. Both situations could

have affected our findings. To correct this, we could give the survey in the beginning, middle,

and end of the year to see if the timing of the survey affected the results.
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 16

If we had more time and resources, we would like our future research to examine the

difference in correlations between international students and domestic students on Miami’s

campus. There is a possibility that domestic students feel more test anxiety because they are not

as competent with the English language. They, additionally, may have more external pressures

from family that is sending them to receive their education far outside their native country.

Another interesting continuation of our study would be to examine the correlations between the

variables at different college prestige levels. For example, we could administer surveys to

students from IV League schools, public universities, and community colleges. Analyzing all this

data together would probably produce results that would have generalizability. Future research

on these variables would have to be done to conclude causation.

TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 17

References

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Buysse, D.J., Reynolds III, C.F., Monk, T.H., Berman, S.R., & Kupfer, D.J. (1989). The

Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument

for psychiatric practice and research. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 28(2), 193-213.

Cassady, J. C. & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance.

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Cerbin, B. (2011). Reducing test anxiety. Advancing Teaching and Learning, 2-3. Retrieved

April 19, 2017, from https://www.uwlax.edu/catl/presentations/T4Tw/2011/Cognitive%

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grade-point average among college students. 35, 84-86.

Lund, H.G., Reider, B.D., Whiting, A.B., & Prichard, R., Ph.D. (2010). Sleep patterns and

predictors of disturbed sleep in a large population of college students. Journal of

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TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 19

Appendix A

Figure 1. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the SATED Sleep Scale and the Westside
Test Anxiety Scale.

Figure 2. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the Pittsburg Sleep Scale and the Westside
Test Anxiety Scale.
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 20

Figure 3. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the Epworth Sleep Scale and the Westside
Test Anxiety Scale.

Figure 4. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the SATED Sleep Scale and the Cognitive
Test Anxiety Scale.
TEST ANXIETY AND SLEEP QUALITY IN COLLEGE STUDENTS 21

Figure 5. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the Pittsburg Sleep Scale and the
Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale.

Figure 6. Scatterplot showing the correlation between the Epworth Sleep Scale and the Cognitive
Test Anxiety Scale.