applied

sciences
Article
Tests and Analysis of the Compressive Performance
of an Integrated Masonry Structure of a
Brick-Stem-Insulating Layer
Suizi Jia 1 , Yan Liu 2 , Wanlin Cao 1, *, Zhongyi Zhou 3 and Yuchen Zhang 4
1 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, No. 100, Pingleyuan,
Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China; suizijia@163.com
2 University of Architectural Engineering, North China University of science and technology, No. 46,
Xinghua West street, Tangshan 063009, China; lyan13579@163.com
3 Institute of engineering mechanics, China Earthquake Administration, The North Ring Road, YanjiaoDistrict,
Langfang 150080, China; 15933130822@163.com
4 Academy of Railway Sciences, Scientific & Technological Information Research Institute,
No. 2 Daliushu Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China; bj20110426@163.com
* Correspondence: 07814@bjut.edu.cn; Tel./Fax: +86-10-6739-6617

Academic Editor: Dimitrios G. Aggelis

Received: 29 February 2016; Accepted: 6 May 2016; Published: 11 May 2016

Abstract: This paper proposes, for low buildings, an integrated wall structure of a
brick-stem-insulating layer, which plays a major part in both heat preservation and force bearing.
The research team has tested the thermal performance of the structure, the results of which are
satisfying. To further study the force-bearing performance, the paper carries out compressive tests
of specimens of different structural design, with two types of bricks, i.e., clay and recycled concrete
bricks; three types of stems, i.e., square-shaped wood, square-shaped steel pipe and circular steel
pipe; and one type of insulating layer, i.e., fly ash masonry blocks. Afterward, the force bearing
performance, damage that occurred, compressive deformation and ductility of all of the specimens
are compared. On the sideline, the structure is applied in the construction of a pilot residence project,
yielding favorable outcomes. The results indicate that in comparison with a brick wall with an
insulating layer sandwiched in between, the integrated wall structure of bricks and fly ash blocks
is a more preferable choice in terms of compressive performance and ductility. The integrated
wall structure of brick-stem-fly ash blocks delivers much better performance to this end. Note that
regarding the stem’s contribution to compressive strength, circular steel pipe is highest, followed
by square-shaped steel pipe and then square-shaped wood. The compressive performance of the
sandwiched blocks surpasses that of the two brick wall pieces combined by a large margin.

Keywords: clay bricks; recycled bricks; stem; insulating layer; integrated wall structure;
compressive test

1. Introduction
When studying the force-bearing performance of low buildings in villages and small towns,
researchers have attained fruitful results, which can be roughly categorized into three schools [1–5].
Developed countries, such as the United States and Japan, take the lead in the first category, as they
have developed a well-designed standard system for seismic resistance. Related tasks—the issuance
of compulsory regulations, the release of earthquake insurance and tax collection—fall under the
jurisdiction of each country directly. Some European countries have drawn on the seismic research
at hand and have carried out the analysis of structural resistance against progressive collapse and
the standard of design. Some Latin American countries, such as Peru and Costa Rica, make up the

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146; doi:10.3390/app6050146 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 2 of 15

second school. Constantly plagued by earthquakes, these countries have put anti-seismic tasks at
the top of their agenda. In line with the local culture, the geological environment on the ground and
the economic reality, they have worked actively to study seismic technology; simultaneously, they
encourage people to improve the seismic performance of their houses by leveraging government
subsides, e.g., a host of enhancement technology research programs for adobes have been carried out
to theoretically underpin the work of seismic safety in rural areas. Countries of the third school, located
in Asia and Africa, though constantly plagued by earthquakes, have yet to grow the economic muscle
to carry out large-scale disaster prevention efforts. In India, for example, 70% of its buildings have poor
seismic resistance. Although the government unveiled a public policy of disaster alleviation-working
to improve quake-proof capacity via supportive measures in the 1990s, the campaign turned out to
be a disappointment due to poor management. Considering the economic difficulties of countries
like Nepal, the international community has lent a helping hand, and the recipient countries have
encouraged researchers to enhance the seismic performance of local residences; however, the outcomes
largely stay at the theoretical level. Some North African countries, such as Algeria and Morocco,
have yet to register visible progress in the nationwide application of seismic enhancement measures,
though the relevant works have been included in the government agenda. By and large, most of the
developing countries—due to economic difficulties—have yet to launch a regulatory and managerial
yardstick for rural housing, which explains the limited progress in seismic technology and the poor
seismic resistance of most rural buildings. Without technological backup, these countries will be
trapped in a vicious cycle in the long run.
In response to the climbing temperature worldwide, all countries have committed to boosting
the development of their low-carbon industries in their own way. Under such background, the
architecture field works to contribute its due share in this all-out endeavor. With this vision of low
carbon and environmental protection, the world has experienced a transition from the traditional
clay-brick masonry structure to a newly developed masonry design, the mechanical performance of
which has become the R & D focus of researchers in this field.
Yoshimura and his team studied the influence of the height–width ratio on the shear strength of a
concrete-block wall. The results indicated that strong structural columns evidently help to improve
the shear stress of the wall [6]. Tomazevic, on the other hand, worked with his team to experimentally
study 32 pieces of a reinforced block wall, exploring the influence of different loading approaches
on the bearing performance of the overall wall structure. Their findings showed that the increase in
compressive strain in the vertical direction drives up the shear stress of the wall while simultaneously
bringing down the deformative capacity of the structure [7]. In comparison, Riddington and Ghazali
worked out the failure mechanism of the masonry wall structure under shear loading and analyzed
the influence of stress changes in the vertical direction on the shear strength of the wall [8]. Hamid and
Lotfi put a full-scale masonry wall of grouted concrete under vertical stress and imposed loading from
the side. They believed that as the longitudinal re-bar(s) yields, vertical loading has a small part to play
in terms of displacement limit change at the top [9]. Banting and Dakhakhni carried out experimental
studies on the seismic performance of a reinforced masonry block wall with a constraint design. They
noticed that the constraint structure helps to mitigate the cracking, which in turn enhances the seismic
resistance of the wall [10].
Shedid et al. performed cyclic dynamic tests on three pieces of reinforced block shear wall with
different height-to-length ratios and various reinforcement ratios. By doing so, they noticed that
the specimen promises fairly good performance with respect to energy consumption; at the same
time, a greater reinforcement ratio in the vertical direction helps to undermine stiffness degradation
and build up the deformative capacity of the structure [11]. In a comparative study of the exterior
insulation of different wall structures, i.e., concrete blocks, cement blocks, bricks, etc., Oak Ridge
National Laboratory noticed that the concrete-block specimen excels in this category [12]. Yang and
Zhang focused on the influence of eccentricity on the force-bearing performance of a masonry structure
with autoclaved fly-ash bricks. Their works showed that the force-bearing performance linearly
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 3 of 15

declines with increasing eccentricity [13]. The experimental research on the compressive resistance of
the masonry structure with recycled-concrete bricks, carried out by Liu showed that compared with
its clay-brick counterpart, the structure falls short with respect to force-bearing performance and its
compressive strength deteriorates in a fairly quick manner. However, note that greater mortar strength
drives up the force-bearing and deformative capacities of the structure [14]. Zheng et al. considered the
seismic performance of a low masonry structure constraint by using stem-type structural columns as
the focus and determined that the columns, compared with their cast-in-situ counterparts, contribute
to better seismic resistance of the overall masonry structure [15]. With the help of a vibration test rig,
Lidija et al. managed to test the masonry-steel frame wall structure used in the Beauharnois Generating
Station in Montreal, Canada. The results indicated that the interaction between the steel frame and
wall is a cooperative one, as major vibration only results in local cracks and some displacement at the
joint of the brick wall and the steel frame [16].
Therefore, it can be said that the research endeavors in this field, that is, the basic mechanical
performance of wall structures, mainly focus on the study of those made of one single wall material
or the integration of different materials; however, the mechanical performance of the integrated wall
structure that embodies both thermal insulation and force bearing seems to be overlooked. In other
words, it is the major concern and pressing challenge of researchers and engineers at large to put
forward wall structures and resource-efficient housing designs to fill in this gap.
This paper, giving full consideration to the wall structure and the material applied, proposes an
integrated wall structure of a brick-stem-insulating layer, with the wall being the member for both
thermal insulation and force bearing. The structure opens up new dimensions in the following fields:
(1) The manufacture of recycled bricks and fly ash blocks facilitates the green effort, as construction and
industrial wastes are recycled for the preparation of recycled concrete aggregate and fly ash. (2) With
the lightweight fly ash blocks sandwiched in between, the integrated structure, compared with a
brick wall of the same thickness, shows great improvement in thermal performance and ductility.
Note that the compressive performance of the sandwiched blocks surpasses that of the two brick wall
pieces combined by a large margin. (3) The steel pipe embedded largely drives up the compressive
performance and the ductility of the structure.
Study of the heat transfer coefficient of the integrated wall structure of bricks and fly ash masonry
blocks has led to the following conclusion: the coefficients measured for the four types of structure, i.e.,
clay-brick wall, clay-brick wall with fly ash masonry blocks sandwiched in between as an insulating
layer, recycled-brick wall, and recycled-brick wall with fly ash masonry blocks sandwiched as an
insulating layer, are 1.607, 0.782, 2.046 and 0.812, respectively. Therefore, it can be said that with the help
of the fly-ash-block layer, the integrated structures—of either clay bricks or recycled bricks—promise
better thermal performance compared with brick structures, where only one type of material is
involved [17].
To further study the force-bearing performance, this paper carries out compressive tests of
specimens of different structural design, with two types of bricks, i.e., clay and recycled concrete bricks;
three types of stems, i.e., square-shaped wood, square-shaped steel pipe and circular steel pipe; and
one type of insulating layer, i.e., fly ash masonry blocks. Afterward, the force bearing performance,
damage that occurred, compressive deformation and ductility of all of the specimens are compared.

2. Experiment Overview

2.1. Experiment Design

The 16 integrated masonry pieces of the brick-stem-insulating layer are evenly divided into
4 groups, with the first group being specimens of clay bricks (FCB1–FCB4); the second group, specimens
of recycled concrete bricks (RCB1–RCB4); the third group, specimens of clay bricks and fly ash blocks
(AFCB1–AFCB4); and the fourth group, specimens of recycled concrete bricks and fly ash blocks
(ARCB1–ARCB4). Figure 1 shows the specimen layout with a 240 mm ˆ 240 mm cross section, while
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 4 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  4 of 15 
4 of 15 

section, while Figure 2 shows the specimen layout with a 240 mm × 370 mm cross section. Please 
section, while Figure 2 shows the specimen layout with a 240 mm × 370 mm cross section. Please 
Figure 2 shows the specimen layout with a 240 mm ˆ 370 mm cross section. Please refer to Table 1 for
refer to Table 1 for the structural details and specifications of the specimens.
refer to Table 1 for the structural details and specifications of the specimens.
the structural details and specifications of the specimens.
  

  

  
(a) 
(a)  (b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d) 
(d) 
Figure 1. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm × 
Figure 1. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm  ×  240 mm cross section: (a) 
240 mm cross section: (a) 
Figure 1. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm ˆ 240 mm cross section:
standard 
standard  specimen; 
specimen;  (b)  square‐shaped 
(b) (b)
square‐shaped  wood 
wood  embedded; 
embedded;  (c)  square‐shaped  steel  pipe 
pipe  embedded; 
(a) standard specimen; square-shaped wood embedded;(c) 
(c)square‐shaped 
square-shapedsteel 
steel pipe embedded; 
embedded;
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded. 
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded. 
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded.

           
(a) 
(a)  (b) 
(b)  (c) 
(c)  (d) 
(d) 
Figure 2. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm 
Figure 2. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm
Figure 2. Dimensions and structural details for specimens with 240 mm  ×  370 mm cross section: (a) 
×  370 mm cross section: (a) 
ˆ 370 mm cross section:
standard 
standard  specimen; 
(a) standard specimen;
specimen;  (b)  square‐shaped 
(b) (b) wood 
square-shaped
square‐shaped  wood
wood  embedded;  (c) 
embedded;(c) 
embedded;  square‐shaped 
(c)square‐shaped  steel 
square-shapedsteel  pipe 
steelpipe  embedded; 
pipe embedded; 
embedded;
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded. 
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded.
and (d) circular steel pipe embedded. 

Table 1. Specifications. 
Table 1. Specifications.
Table 1. Specifications. 
Group No. 
Group No.  Specimen No.
Specimen No. Configuration
Configuration Dimensions
Dimensions
Group No. Specimen No. Configuration Dimensions
FCB1 
FCB1  No support embedded 
No support embedded 
FCB1 No support embedded
Square‐shaped wood 
Square‐shaped wood 
Group One Clay Bricks
FCB2 
FCB2
FCB2  Square-shaped wood embedded 240 mm ˆ 240 mm
Group One Clay 
Group One Clay  FCB3 embedded 
embedded 
Square-shaped 240 mm × 240 mm × 
steel pipe embedded 240 mm × 240 mm × 
ˆ 720 mm
Bricks 
Bricks  FCB4 Square‐shaped steel pipe 
Circular steel pipe embedded
Square‐shaped steel pipe  720 mm 
720 mm 
FCB3 
FCB3 
RCB1 embedded 
embedded 
No support embedded
Group Two Recycled FCB4 
RCB2
FCB4  Circular steel pipe embedded 
Square-shaped wood embedded
Circular steel pipe embedded  240 mm ˆ 240 mm
Concrete Bricks RCB3
RCB1  Square-shaped steel pipe embedded
No support embedded  ˆ 720 mm
RCB1  No support embedded 
RCB4 Circular steel pipe embedded
Square‐shaped wood 
Square‐shaped wood 
Group Two 
Group Two  RCB2 
RCB2 
AFCB1 No support embedded
embedded 
embedded  240 mm × 240 mm × 
240 mm × 240 mm × 
Recycled Concrete 
Group Three Clay Bricks
Recycled Concrete  AFCB2 Square-shaped wood embedded 240 mm ˆ 370 mm
+ Fly Ash Blocks AFCB3 Square‐shaped steel pipe 
Square‐shaped steel pipe 
Square-shaped steel pipe embedded
720 mm 
720 mm 
ˆ 720 mm
Bricks 
Bricks  RCB3 
RCB3 
AFCB4 embedded 
embedded 
Circular steel pipe embedded
RCB4 
RCB4 
ARCB1 Circular steel pipe embedded 
Circular steel pipe embedded 
No support embedded
Group Four Recycled AFCB1  No support embedded 
ARCB2
AFCB1  Square-shaped wood embedded
No support embedded  240 mm ˆ 370 mm
Concrete Bricks + Fly
ARCB3 Square-shaped steel pipe embedded
Square‐shaped wood  ˆ 720 mm
Ash Blocks
Group Three Clay  AFCB2  Square‐shaped wood 
Group Three Clay  AFCB2 
ARCB4 Circular steel pipe embedded
embedded  240 mm × 370 mm × 
Bricks + Fly Ash  embedded  240 mm × 370 mm × 
Bricks + Fly Ash  Square‐shaped steel pipe  720 mm 
Blocks  AFCB3  Square‐shaped steel pipe  720 mm 
Blocks 
2.2. Making of Specimens AFCB3  embedded 
embedded 
AFCB4 
Please refer to Figure 3 AFCB4  Circular steel pipe embedded 
regarding how the clay bricks, recycled-concrete bricks, fly-ash blocks,
Circular steel pipe embedded 
ARCB1 
recycled concrete, square-shaped No support embedded 
wood stem, lightweight
ARCB1  concrete-filled steel stem, integrated masonry
No support embedded 
Group Four 
parts, etc., were
Group Four  made. Square‐shaped wood 
Square‐shaped wood 
ARCB2 
ARCB2 
Recycled Concrete 
Recycled Concrete  embedded 
embedded  240 mm × 370 mm × 
240 mm × 370 mm × 
Bricks + Fly Ash 
Bricks + Fly Ash  Square‐shaped steel pipe 
Square‐shaped steel pipe  720 mm 
720 mm 
ARCB3 
ARCB3 
Blocks 
Blocks  embedded 
embedded 
ARCB4 
ARCB4  Circular steel pipe embedded 
Circular steel pipe embedded 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  5 of 15 

2.2. Making of Specimens 
Please refer to Figure 3 regarding how the clay bricks, recycled‐concrete bricks, fly‐ash blocks, 
recycled  concrete, 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 square‐shaped  wood  stem,  lightweight  concrete‐filled  steel  stem,  integrated 
5 of 15
masonry parts, etc., were made. 

   
(a)  (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure 3. Preparation of materials and specimens: (a) recycled concrete bricks and clay bricks; (b) fly 
Figure 3. Preparation of materials and specimens: (a) recycled concrete bricks and clay bricks; (b) fly ash
ash  blocks; 
blocks; (c)  square‐shaped 
(c) square-shaped woodwood  embedded; 
embedded; (d)  lightweight 
(d) lightweight concrete‐filled 
concrete-filled steel 
steel stem; andstem;  and  (e) 
(e) making
making of the specimens. 
of the specimens.

2.3. Mechanical Performance of the Materials 
2.3. Mechanical Performance of the Materials
Please see Table 2 for the mechanical performances of the materials measured. 
Please see Table 2 for the mechanical performances of the materials measured.

Table 2. Material performance. 
Table 2. Material performance.
Material fc N/mm2 fy N/mm2 fu N/mm2
Material fc N/mm 2 fy N/mm2 ‐  fu N/mm2
Clay Bricks  10.39  ‐ 
Clay Bricks
Recycled Bricks  10.39
10.95  - ‐  - ‐ 
Recycled Bricks
Fly‐ash Masonry Blocks  10.95
2.58  - ‐  - ‐ 
Fly-ash Masonry Blocks 2.58 - -
Mortar Mortar 10.03 
10.03 - ‐  - ‐ 
Recycled Concrete 
Recycled Concrete 36.5 
36.5 - ‐  - ‐ 
Square‐shaped Wood 
Square-shaped Wood - ‐  - ‐  16.6 16.6 
Square-shaped Steel Pipe
Square‐shaped Steel Pipe  - ‐  308.33308.33  393.67 393.67 
Circular Steel Pipe - 341.67 455.24
Circular Steel Pipe  ‐  341.67  455.24 
fc represents the compressive strength of clay bricks, recycled bricks, recycled concrete and mortar; fy stands for
fc represents the compressive strength of clay bricks, recycled bricks, recycled concrete and mortar; f
the yield strength of the steel; and fu is steel’s limit with respect to tensile strength.
y 

stands for the yield strength of the steel; and fu is steel’s limit with respect to tensile strength. 
2.4. Loading Imposed
2.4. Loading Imposed 
The test takes a loading controlled approach, where monotone loading is imposed by grades,
The test takes a loading controlled approach, where monotone loading is imposed by grades, 
with the loading in each grade being 1/10 of the loading limit expected. In carrying out the test, the
with the loading in each grade being 1/10 of the loading limit expected. In carrying out the test, the 
duration for each grade lasts for 2 to 3 min, where the cracking of the specimen is closely followed.
duration for each grade lasts for 2 to 3 min, where the cracking of the specimen is closely followed. 
As the deformation reaches a steady stage, the loading imposed and the displacement that occurs are
As the deformation reaches a steady stage, the loading imposed and the displacement that occurs 
recorded before the test moves on to the next grade of loading. When the loading imposed hits 60% of
are recorded before the test moves on to the next grade of loading. When the loading imposed hits 
the loading limit (or fu ), the loading increment shall be adjusted to 1/15–1/20 of the expected limit. As
60% of the loading limit (or fu), the loading increment shall be adjusted to 1/15–1/20 of the expected 
the loading comes to the limit, the increment shall be further adjusted (lowered) in which continuous
limit. As the loading comes to the limit, the increment shall be further adjusted (lowered) in which 
loading shall be imposed slowly. Please refer to Figure 4a,b for the loading device applied and photo
continuous  loading  shall  be  imposed  slowly.  Please  refer  to  Figure  4a,b  for  the  loading  device 
of the test site.
applied and photo of the test site. 
Test Items: loading (measured by loading sensor); strain of square-shaped wood, square-shaped
steel pipe and circular steel pipe (measured by the attached strain gauges); and relative displacement
in axial and horizontal directions within gauge length (measured by electronic dial indicator).
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 6 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  6 of 15 

 
Figure 4. Loading imposed: (a) loading device; and (b) test scene. 
Figure 4. Loading imposed: (a) loading device; and (b) test scene.

Test  Items: 
3. Results loading  (measured  by  loading  sensor);  strain  of  square‐shaped  wood, 
and Analysis
square‐shaped  steel  pipe  and  circular  steel  pipe  (measured  by  the  attached  strain  gauges);  and 
3.1. Failure
relative  Process
displacement  in  axial  and  horizontal  directions  within  gauge  length  (measured  by 
electronic dial indicator). 
3.1.1. Group One (FCB1–FCB4)
3. Results and Analysis 
(1) FCB1: As the loading starts, no visible crack is noticed at the surface and the
loading-displacement curve develops in a linear manner, during which the specimen reaches the
3.1. Failure Process 
elastic stage. Under a loading of 150 kN, the top part of the specimen starts to crack slightly and
vertically. The increase in loading encourages the cracks to further develop along the mortar joint.
3.1.1. Group One (FCB1–FCB4) 
At this point, the axial and longitudinal deformations take place at an accelerated pace, meaning that
the structure
(1)  FCB1:  hasAs 
entered
the  the elastic-plastic
loading  starts,  stage. As thecrack 
no  visible  loading is tops 200 kN,
noticed  at cracks cross through
the  surface  the
and  the 
specimen along the direction
loading‐displacement  of the mortar
curve  develops  in  a joint in the
linear  middleduring 
manner,  and expand
which inthe width, accompanied
specimen  reaches by a
the 
minor cracking
elastic  sound
stage.  Under  a and evident
loading  exfoliation.
of  150  kN,  the  Under
top  part a loading of 251 kN,starts 
of  the  specimen  the bearing performance
to  crack  slightly  and of
the specimen declines drastically, resulting in its utter failure. Please refer to Figure 5a for the state of
vertically. The increase in loading encourages the cracks to further develop along the mortar joint. 
thethis 
At  specimen
point, upon failure.
the  axial  and  longitudinal  deformations  take  place  at  an  accelerated  pace,  meaning 
(2) FCB2:
that  the  Likehas 
structure  FCB1, FCB2the 
entered  starts with the elastic
elastic‐plastic  stage,
stage.  thenloading 
As  the  enters the elastic-plastic
tops  200  kN,  cracks stagecross 
and
ends with
through  the
the  failure stage.
specimen  along The differenceof 
the  direction  lies
the inmortar 
the split limit,
joint  regarding
in  the  middle which FCB2 stands
and  expand  out
in  width, 
because its split limit tops 150 kN. As the loading imposed hits 300 kN, the
accompanied  by  a  minor  cracking  sound  and  evident  exfoliation.  Under  a  loading  of  251  kN,  the  exterior clay starts to
exfoliate slightly. Under approximately 330 kN, the specimen crashes, while the loading–displacement
bearing performance of the specimen declines drastically, resulting in its utter failure. Please refer 
curve declines. At this point, the crashed square wood stem indicates that it works with the clay bricks
to Figure 5a for the state of the specimen upon failure. 
in tandem to bear the force imposed and promises fairly good results. Please see Figure 5b for the
(2) FCB2: Like FCB1, FCB2 starts with the elastic stage, then enters the elastic‐plastic stage and 
specimen state at the failure stage and Figure 5c for the bent stem.
ends with the failure stage. The difference lies in the split limit, regarding which FCB2 stands out 
(3) FCB3: As the elastic stage, FCB3 bears resemblance to its counterpart FCB1. Under a loading
because its split limit tops 150 kN. As the loading imposed hits 300 kN, the exterior clay starts to 
of 430 kN, slightly. 
exfoliate  the first crack
Under appears vertically and330 
approximately  slightly
kN, somethe distance
specimen from crashes, 
the centralwhile line of the 
the
wall’s elevation. As the loading increases, cracks—both vertical and longitudinal—are noticed at other
loading–displacement curve declines. At this point, the crashed square wood stem indicates that it 
sides, which, though minor, are slowly extending. When the loading further increases to 550 kN, the
works with the clay bricks in tandem to bear the force imposed and promises fairly good results. 
vertical and longitudinal deformations take place at an accelerated pace, while the cracks expand at
Please see Figure 5b for the specimen state at the failure stage and Figure 5c for the bent stem. 
both(3) 
ends and cross
FCB3:  through
As  the  thestage, 
elastic  bricks. As the
FCB3  loading
bears  tops 670 kN,
resemblance  through
to  its  cracks are
counterpart  noticed
FCB1.  along
Under  a 
the mortar joint. Therefore, the loading pace is slowed down; however, the clay bricks start to exfoliate.
loading of 430 kN, the first crack appears vertically and slightly some distance from the central line 
Upon
of  the awall’s 
loading of 830 kNAs 
elevation.  (the compressive
the  strength of
loading  increases,  the square-shaped
cracks—both  vertical pipe
and measured stands at
longitudinal—are 
767 kN),at 
noticed  theother 
clay bricks
sides, crash, while
which,  the loading-displacement
though  curve starts When 
minor,  are  slowly  extending.  to decline.
the  At this point,
loading  the
further 
specimento 
increases  is 550 
destroyed,
kN,  the with minor
vertical  buckling
and  observed
longitudinal  at both ends
deformations  of place 
take  the concrete-filled
at  an  accelerated steel pace, 
stem.
Pleasethe 
while  refer to Figure
cracks  expand 5d for the specimen
at  both  ends  and statecross at through 
the failurethe stage andAs 
bricks.  Figure 5e for the
the  loading  state
tops  ofkN, 
670  the
square-shaped concrete-filled steel stem upon specimen failure.
through  cracks  are  noticed  along  the  mortar  joint.  Therefore,  the  loading  pace  is  slowed  down; 
(4) FCB4: The damage process of FCB4 generally follows the same pattern of FCB3, with the split
however, the clay bricks start to exfoliate. Upon a loading of 830 kN (the compressive strength of 
limitsquare‐shaped 
the  as an exception, which exceeds thatstands 
pipe  measured  of FCB3.at  As767 
the loading
kN),  the reaches
clay 530bricks 
kN, thecrash, 
first crack—minor
while  the 
loading‐displacement curve starts to decline. At this point, the specimen is destroyed, with minor 
buckling  observed  at  both  ends  of  the  concrete‐filled  steel  stem.  Please  refer  to  Figure  5d  for  the 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  7 of 15 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  7 of 15 
specimen  state at  the  failure  stage and Figure  5e for  the state  of  the  square‐shaped  concrete‐filled 
specimen  state at  the  failure  stage and Figure  5e for  the state  of  the  square‐shaped  concrete‐filled 
steel stem upon specimen failure. 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 7 of 15
steel stem upon specimen failure. 
(4)  FCB4:  The  damage  process  of  FCB4  generally  follows  the  same  pattern  of  FCB3,  with  the 
split (4)  FCB4: 
limit  The 
as  an  damage  which 
exception,  process exceeds 
of  FCB4  generally 
that  follows 
of  FCB3.  As  the the  same  pattern 
loading  reaches of  FCB3, 
530  kN, with  the 
the  first 
split  limit  as  an 
and vertical—is
crack—minor  and exception, 
noticed at the
vertical—is which 
top exceeds 
part
noticed  of
at thethat 
the  of part 
specimen
top  FCB3. 
of As 
near the 
the
the  loading 
central
specimen  reaches 
line. The
near  530  kN, 
increase
the  central  the 
inline.  first 
loading
The 
crack—minor 
causes a growing and  vertical—is 
number of noticed 
slight cracks,at  the 
which top  part 
develop of 
atthe 
a specimen 
slow pace. near 
Under
increase in loading causes a growing number of slight cracks, which develop at a slow pace. Under  the 
a central 
loading ofline. 
660 The 
kN,
increase in loading causes a growing number of slight cracks, which develop at a slow pace. Under 
theloading 
a  verticalof and longitudinal
660  deformations
kN,  the  vertical  increase, accompanied
and  longitudinal  deformations  byincrease, 
the extension of cracks. by 
accompanied  As the 
the
a  loading 
loading of  660 
further kN,  the 
increases vertical 
to 755 and  longitudinal 
kN, through deformations 
cracks are noticed along the increase,  accompanied 
mortar joint.
extension of cracks. As the loading further increases to 755 kN, through cracks are noticed along the  by  the 
At this stage, the
extension of cracks. As the loading further increases to 755 kN, through cracks are noticed along the 
loading starts to be imposed slowly, upon which cracks expand in width and exfoliation
mortar  joint. At  this  stage,  the loading starts  to  be imposed  slowly,  upon  which  cracks  expand in  takes place at
mortar  joint. At  this  stage,  the loading starts  to  be imposed  slowly,  upon  which 
the clay bricks. The specimen crashes at a loading of 945 kN. At this point, the loading-displacement
width and exfoliation takes place at the clay bricks. The specimen crashes at a loading of 945 kN. At  cracks  expand in 
width and exfoliation takes place at the clay bricks. The specimen crashes at a loading of 945 kN. At 
curve declines drastically, and the circular concrete-filled steel pipe starts to exfoliate and buckle at
this point, the loading‐displacement curve declines drastically, and the circular concrete‐filled steel 
this point, the loading‐displacement curve declines drastically, and the circular concrete‐filled steel 
both ends. Please refer to Figure 5f for the failure state of the specimen and Figure 5g for that of the
pipe starts to exfoliate and buckle at both ends. Please refer to Figure 5f for the failure state of the 
pipe starts to exfoliate and buckle at both ends. Please refer to Figure 5f for the failure state of the 
circular concrete-filled steel stem.
specimen and Figure 5g for that of the circular concrete‐filled steel stem. 
specimen and Figure 5g for that of the circular concrete‐filled steel stem. 

     
(a)    (b)   (c) (d) (e) (f)    (g)
(a)  (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)  (g)
Figure  5.  Failure  states  of  FCB1‐FCB4:  (a)  FCB1;  (b)  FCB2;  (c)  square‐shaped  wood;  (d)  FCB3;  (e) 
Figure 5. Failure states of FCB1-FCB4: (a) FCB1; (b) FCB2; (c) square-shaped wood; (d) FCB3;
Figure  5.  Failure  states  of  FCB1‐FCB4:  (a)  FCB1;  (b)  FCB2;  (c) 
square‐shaped steel pine; (f) FCB4; and (g) circular steel pine.    square‐shaped  wood;  (d)  FCB3;  (e) 
(e) square-shaped steel pine; (f) FCB4; and (g) circular steel pine.
square‐shaped steel pine; (f) FCB4; and (g) circular steel pine.   
3.1.2. Group Two (RCB1–RCB4) 
3.1.2. Group Two (RCB1–RCB4)
3.1.2. Group Two (RCB1–RCB4) 
The  failure  process  of  group  two  roughly  follows  the  same  pattern  as  that  of  group  one. 
The failure
The  failure process ofof 
process  group twotwo 
group  roughly follows
roughly  the same
follows  the  pattern as that of
same  pattern  as group one.
that  of  However,
group  one. 
However, compared with the specimen of clay bricks, recycled concrete bricks promise less cracks, 
compared with the specimen of clay bricks, recycled concrete bricks promise less
However, compared with the specimen of clay bricks, recycled concrete bricks promise less cracks,  cracks, though
though the cracking takes place at a faster pace. As the specimen reaches the failure stage, it breaks 
the cracking takes place at a faster pace. As the specimen reaches the failure stage, it breaks into
though the cracking takes place at a faster pace. As the specimen reaches the failure stage, it breaks 
into pieces. Please see Figure 6a for the failure state of RCB1. RCB2 (with square‐shaped wood stem 
pieces. Please see Figure 6a for the failure state of RCB1. RCB2 (with square-shaped wood stem
into pieces. Please see Figure 6a for the failure state of RCB1. RCB2 (with square‐shaped wood stem 
embedded),  with  better  compressive  performance,  experiences  a  slowdown  in  crack  expansion. 
embedded), with
embedded),  with better compressive
better  compressive performance,
performance, experiences a slowdown
experiences  in crack
a  slowdown  in  expansion.
crack  Again,
expansion. 
Again,  the  loading‐displacement  curve  gradually  declines  before  the  specimen  yields,  which  to 
the loading-displacement
Again,  curve gradually declines before the specimen yields, which
the  loading‐displacement  curve  gradually  declines  before  the  specimen  yields,  which  to some level
to 
some level indicates a delay of any impediment that may happen. At the final stage, through cracks 
indicates a delay of any impediment that may happen. At the final stage, through
some level indicates a delay of any impediment that may happen. At the final stage, through cracks cracks are noticed
are noticed near the central line of the side face along the mortar joint. Please refer to Figure 6b for 
near the central line of the side face along the mortar joint. Please refer to Figure 6b for the failure
are noticed near the central line of the side face along the mortar joint. Please refer to Figure 6b for 
the failure state of the specimen and Figure 6c for the failure of the square‐shaped wood stem. Just 
state of the specimen and Figure 6c for the failure of the square-shaped wood stem. Just as the
the failure state of the specimen and Figure 6c for the failure of the square‐shaped wood stem. Just 
as  the  steel‐pipe  reinforced  clay  brick  specimen,  the  square‐shaped  (or  circular)  steel  pipe 
steel-pipe
as  reinforced
the  steel‐pipe  clay brick clay 
reinforced  specimen,
brick the square-shaped
specimen,  (or circular) steel
the  square‐shaped  (or pipe embedded
circular)  steel delays
pipe 
embedded delays any impediment that may happen to the recycled concrete specimen. As a result, 
any impediment that may happen to the recycled concrete specimen. As a result,
embedded delays any impediment that may happen to the recycled concrete specimen. As a result, the split limit and the
the split limit and the loading limit increase by a large margin. Please see Figure 6d–g for the failure 
loading limit increase by a large margin. Please see Figure 6d–g for the failure states of the specimens
the split limit and the loading limit increase by a large margin. Please see Figure 6d–g for the failure 
states of the specimens and that of the steel pipe. 
and that of the steel pipe.
states of the specimens and that of the steel pipe. 

       
(a)    (b)    (c) (d) (e) (f)    (g)   
(a)  (b)  (c) (d) (e) (f)  (g) 

Figure 6. Failure states of RCB1–RCB4: (a) RCB1; (b) RCB2; (c) square-shaped wood; (d) RCB3;
(e) square-shaped steel pine; (f) RCB4; and (g) circular steel pine.
 Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  8 of 15 
8 of 15 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 8 of 15
Figure 6. Failure states of RCB1–RCB4: (a) RCB1; (b) RCB2; (c) square‐shaped wood; (d) RCB3; (e) 
Figure 6. Failure states of RCB1–RCB4: (a) RCB1; (b) RCB2; (c) square‐shaped wood; (d) RCB3; (e) 
square‐shaped steel pine; (f) RCB4; and (g) circular steel pine.    
square‐shaped steel pine; (f) RCB4; and (g) circular steel pine. 
3.1.3. Group Three (AFCB1–AFCB4)
3.1.3. Group Three (AFCB1–AFCB4) 
3.1.3. Group Three (AFCB1–AFCB4) 
(1) AFCB1: As the loading remains at a relatively low level, nothing visible is noticed. When it
(1) AFCB1: As the loading remains at a relatively low level, nothing visible is noticed. When it 
reaches(1) AFCB1: As the loading remains at a relatively low level, nothing visible is noticed. When it 
175 kN, the joints of fly-ash blocks and clay bricks in the center start to crack vertically and
reaches 175 kN, the joints of fly‐ash blocks and clay bricks in the center start to crack vertically and 
then gradually extend at both ends as the loading increases to 200 kN. At this point, the clay bricks
reaches 175 kN, the joints of fly‐ash blocks and clay bricks in the center start to crack vertically and 
then gradually extend at both ends as the loading increases to 200 kN. At this point, the clay bricks 
crack slightly, while the fly-ash blocks show no visible change. Under a loading of 250 kN, through
then gradually extend at both ends as the loading increases to 200 kN. At this point, the clay bricks 
crack slightly, while the fly‐ash blocks show no visible change. Under a loading of 250 kN, through 
cracks are noticed at the brick-block joints. As the ends of the vertical cracks on the clay bricks meet,
crack slightly, while the fly‐ash blocks show no visible change. Under a loading of 250 kN, through 
cracks are noticed at the brick‐block joints. As the ends of the vertical cracks on the clay bricks meet, 
some bricks crash. Afterward, the loading continues, during which exfoliation takes place; cracks at
cracks are noticed at the brick‐block joints. As the ends of the vertical cracks on the clay bricks meet, 
some bricks crash. Afterward, the loading continues, during which exfoliation takes place; cracks at 
thesome bricks crash. Afterward, the loading continues, during which exfoliation takes place; cracks at 
top and bottom parts of the structure are widened and the fly ash blocks break in half. As the
the top and bottom parts of the structure are widened and the fly ash blocks break in half. As the 
the top and bottom parts of the structure are widened and the fly ash blocks break in half. As the 
loading increases to 298 kN, the clay bricks at both sides of the fly ash blocks start to show wearing
loading increases to 298 kN, the clay bricks at both sides of the fly ash blocks start to show wearing 
loading increases to 298 kN, the clay bricks at both sides of the fly ash blocks start to show wearing 
of the edges and corners, the clay bricks nearly crash and the blocks bend. Therefore, the specimen
of the edges and corners, the clay bricks nearly crash and the blocks bend. Therefore, the specimen 
of the edges and corners, the clay bricks nearly crash and the blocks bend. Therefore, the specimen 
yields. Please refer to Figure 7a for the failure state of AFCB1.
yields. Please refer to Figure 7a for the failure state of AFCB1. 
yields. Please refer to Figure 7a for the failure state of AFCB1. 
(2) AFCB2: Apart from the improvement in split limit, loading limit and ductility, the failure
(2) AFCB2: Apart from the improvement in split limit, loading limit and ductility, the failure 
process(2) AFCB2: Apart from the improvement in split limit, loading limit and ductility, the failure 
of AFCB2 bears resemblance to that of AFCB1.
process of AFCB2 bears resemblance to that of AFCB1. 
process of AFCB2 bears resemblance to that of AFCB1. 
(3)(3) In comparison with AFCB2, AFCB3 and AFCB4 show great improvement in ductility, split 
In comparison with AFCB2, AFCB3 and AFCB4 show great improvement in ductility, split
(3) In comparison with AFCB2, AFCB3 and AFCB4 show great improvement in ductility, split 
limit and loading limit, as the cracks now densely spread on the surface. It can be said that the steel
limit and loading limit, as the cracks now densely spread on the surface. It can be said that the steel 
limit and loading limit, as the cracks now densely spread on the surface. It can be said that the steel 
pipe embedded largely contributes to better force-bearing performance of the integrated brick-block
pipe embedded largely contributes to better force‐bearing performance of the integrated brick‐block 
pipe embedded largely contributes to better force‐bearing performance of the integrated brick‐block 
masonry structure. Please see Figure 7c,d for the failure states of AFCB3 and AFCB4.
masonry structure. Please see Figure 7c,d for the failure states of AFCB3 and AFCB4. 
masonry structure. Please see Figure 7c,d for the failure states of AFCB3 and AFCB4. 

     
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure 7. Failure states of AFCB1–AFCB4: (a) AFCB1; (b) AFCB2; (c) AFCB3; and (d) AFCB4.    
Figure 7. Failure states of AFCB1–AFCB4: (a) AFCB1; (b) AFCB2; (c) AFCB3; and (d) AFCB4. 
Figure 7. Failure states of AFCB1–AFCB4: (a) AFCB1; (b) AFCB2; (c) AFCB3; and (d) AFCB4.

3.1.4. Group Four (ARCB1–ARCB 4) 
3.1.4. Group Four (ARCB1–ARCB 4) 
3.1.4. Group Four (ARCB1–ARCB 4)
For this group of specimens, the failure process proceeds in the same manner as that of group 
For this group of specimens, the failure process proceeds in the same manner as that of group 
For this
three.  groupthe 
However,  of specimens, the failure
integrated  masonry 
masonry  processof 
structure  proceeds
recycled inconcrete 
the same
concrete  manner
bricks  and as that
fly  ash of group
block 
three.  However,  the  integrated  structure  of  recycled  bricks  and  fly  ash  block 
three. However,
shows  more  the
more  evident integrated
evident  signs  masonry
signs  of 
of  brittle  structure
brittle  fractures  of
fractures  in  recycled concrete
in  comparison. 
comparison.  The  bricks
The  cracks  and
cracks  that  fly ash
that  appear, block
appear,  though  shows
though 
shows 
more evident signs of brittle fractures in comparison. The cracks that appear, though decreased in
decreased in quantity (compared with the specimens in group three), develop at a quickened pace. 
decreased in quantity (compared with the specimens in group three), develop at a quickened pace. 
quantity (compared
Upon  failure,  the with
failure,  the  the specimens
structure  in group
breaks  down 
down  into three), develop
different  pieces atand 
a quickened
and  the  blocks pace.
blocks  Uponpartially. 
exfoliate  failure, the
Upon  structure  breaks  into  different  pieces  the  exfoliate  partially. 
structure
Please  breaks
Please see  down
see Figure 
Figure 8a  into
8a for  different
for the 
the failure  pieces
failure process  and
process of  the blocks
of ARCB1. 
ARCB1. The  exfoliate
The paper  partially.
paper notes  Please
notes regarding 
regarding the see Figure
the subsequent 
subsequent 8a for
thetests 
failure
tests  process
that 
that  ARCB2, 
ARCB2, of ARCB1.
ARCB3 The
ARCB3  and paper
and  ARCB4 
ARCB4  notes regarding
deliver 
deliver  theductility, 
better 
better  subsequent
ductility,  tests
split 
split  thatand 
limit 
limit  ARCB2,
and  ARCB3
loading 
loading  and
limit 
limit 
ARCB4 deliver
compared  better
with  their ductility, split
counterpart  limit
ARCB1. and loading
Please  limit
see  compared
Figure  8b–d  with
for  their
the  counterpart
failure 
compared  with  their  counterpart  ARCB1.  Please  see  Figure  8b–d  for  the  failure  states  of  the  states  ARCB1.
of  the 
specimens mentioned above. 
Please see Figure 8b–d for the failure states of the specimens mentioned above.
specimens mentioned above. 

     
(a) 
(a)  (b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d)
(d)

Figure 8. Failure states of ARCB1–ARCB4: (a) ARCB1; (b) ARCB2; (c) ARCB3; and (d) ARCB4.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  9 of 15 

Appl. Sci. Figure 8. Failure states of ARCB1–ARCB4: (a) ARCB1; (b) ARCB2; (c) ARCB3; and (d) ARCB4. 

2016, 6, 146   9 of 15

The  following  can  be  concluded  from  Figure  5  to  Figure  8:  (1)  The  clay‐brick  wall,  the 
The following can be concluded from Figure 5 to Figure 8: (1) The clay-brick wall, the
recycled‐concrete‐brick wall, the integrated wall of clay bricks and fly ash blocks, and the integrated 
recycled-concrete-brick wall, the integrated wall of clay bricks and fly ash blocks, and the integrated
wall  of  recycled  concrete  bricks  and  fly  ash  blocks  deliver  a  similar  failure  process,  which  shows 
wall of recycled concrete bricks and fly ash blocks deliver a similar failure process, which shows classic
classic signs of brittle fractures. (2) The stems embedded‐square‐shaped wood, square‐shaped steel 
signs of brittle fractures. (2) The stems embedded-square-shaped wood, square-shaped steel pipe
pipe  and  circular  steel  pipe  visibly  improve  a  structure’s  split  limit  and  loading  limit.  In  other 
and circular steel pipe visibly improve a structure’s split limit and loading limit. In other words, the
words, the integrated structures now deliver much better compressive performance. (3) The fly ash 
integrated structures now deliver much better compressive performance. (3) The fly ash masonry
masonry  blocks  and  bricks  (clay  bricks/recycled  bricks)  that  are  bonded  by  mortar  are  able  to 
blocks and bricks (clay bricks/recycled bricks) that are bonded by mortar are able to coordinate in a
coordinate in a productive manner. 
productive manner.
3.2. Analysis of Bearing Performance 
3.2. Analysis of Bearing Performance
3.2.1. Loading‐Displacement Curve 
3.2.1. Loading-Displacement Curve
Please see Figure 9 for the axial loading‐axial deformation curves (F‐U curves), of all specimens 
Please see Figure 9 for the axial loading-axial deformation curves (F-U curves), of all specimens
measured on site.
measured on site. 

(a)  (b)

(c)  (d)
Figure 9. Axial loading‐axial displacement curve: (a) Group One; (b) Group Two; (c) Group three; 
Figure 9. Axial loading-axial displacement curve: (a) Group One; (b) Group Two; (c) Group three; and
and (d) Group four. 
(d) Group four.

From  Figure  9,  it  can  be  observed  that  (1)  the  loading‐displacement  curve  of  the  specimens 
From Figure 9, it can be observed that (1) the loading-displacement curve of the specimens with
with recycled concrete bricks bears resemblance to that with clay bricks. In contrast, the curves for 
recycled concrete bricks bears resemblance to that with clay bricks. In contrast, the curves for specimens
specimens with no stem embedded show no sign of reduction, which indicates that the impediment 
with no stem embedded show no sign of reduction, which indicates that the impediment is a brittle
is a brittle one. (2) The compressive resistance and ductility of the structure can be largely elevated 
one.using 
via  (2) Thethe 
compressive resistance
square‐shaped  and
wood  ductility
stem,  of the structure
square‐shaped  can be largely
concrete‐filled  elevated
steel  pipe,  via
and using the
circular 
square-shaped wood stem, square-shaped concrete-filled steel pipe, and circular concrete-filled steel
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 10 of 15

pipe, the last one among which stands as the most preferable choice. (3) With the support of fly ash
blocks, the integrated structure grows in compressive strength, yield limit and ductility.

3.2.2. Force-Bearing Performance

Please see Table 3 for the split limit, loading limit and converted compressive strength. fc refers to
the split limit of loading, where the first value observed applies. fu represents the loading limit, the
maximum value of which applies; fm stands for the converted compressive strength, where the loading
limit to cross section area ratio is used.

Table 3. Split limit, loading limit and converted compressive strength measured for four groups
of specimens.

Specimen fm (Relative
Group No. fc /(N/mm2 ) fu (N/mm2 ) fc /fu fm /MPa
No. Values)
FCB1 150 251 0.60 4.36 1.00
FCB2 180 330 0.55 5.73 1.31
Group One
FCB3 430 830 0.52 14.41 3.31
FCB4 530 945 0.56 16.41 3.76
RCB1 175 256 0.68 4.44 1.00
RCB2 210 346 0.61 6.01 1.35
Group Two
RCB3 500 860 0.58 14.93 3.36
RCB4 700 968 0.72 16.81 3.79
AFCB1 175 298 0.59 3.36 1.00
AFCB2 250 425 0.59 4.79 1.43
Group Three
AFCB3 400 815 0.49 9.18 2.73
AFCB4 460 925 0.50 10.42 3.10
ARCB1 165 308 0.54 3.47 1.00
ARCB2 250 435 0.57 4.90 1.41
Group Four
ARCB3 425 845 0.50 9.52 2.74
ARCB4 475 950 0.50 10.70 3.08

From Table 3, the following can be concluded: (1) Compared with the specimens of clay bricks,
the masonry walls of recycled concrete bricks deliver equally matched compressive strength. (2) The
application of square-shaped wood, square-shaped steel pipe and circular steel pipe helps largely to
elevate the compressive strength of a structure, with the most preferable choice being the circular steel
pipe. Take the last groups of specimens, or the integrated wall structure of recycled bricks, stems and fly
ash masonry blocks, as an example; the application of square-shaped wood stem, square-shaped steel
pipe and circular steel pipe increases the compressive strength by 41%, 174% and 208%, respectively.

3.3. Overall Compressive Performance

The compressive performance of the specimen refers to the compressive stiffness, force-bearing
performance and ductility (deformative resistance). As specimens deliver identical stiffness and
bearing performance, better ductility promises better overall performance. Likewise, when stiffness
and ductility stand on par, or when bearing performance and ductility are identical, force bearing
performance and stiffness become the decisive factors. The axial loading (F)-axial deformation
(U) curve (see Figure 9) depicts the stiffness, force-bearing performance and ductility measured.
Considering that the specimens vary with respect to all three parameters, the paper quantifies the
process by using the product(s) of axial loading F and the corresponding axial deformation U to carry
out integrated comparison of the compressive performance. Here, the product (E) reflects the work of
force (F) amid the specimen’s deformation. E equals the area between the F-U curve and horizontal
coordinate measured. Please see Table 4 for the measured values of E for all specimens.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 11 of 15

Table 4. Relative energy consumption measured.

Group No. Specimen No. Energy Consumption E/kN¨ mm ∆e

FCB1 115 1.00
FCB2 253 2.19
Group One
FCB3 3154 27.31
FCB4 3858 33.42
RCB1 133 1.00
RCB2 337 2.53
Group Two
RCB3 2803 21.03
RCB4 5157 38.70
AFCB1 312 1.00
AFCB2 818 2.62
Group Three
AFCB3 5474 17.53
AFCB4 6189 19.82
ARCB1 417 1.00
ARCB2 1141 2.73
Group Four
ARCB3 5241 12.57
ARCB4 8351 20.02

The following can be concluded from Table 4: Compared with a 240 mm ˆ240 mm clay-brick
wall, a recycled-brick wall of the same dimensions promises a 15% increase in overall compressive
performance, while a 240 mm ˆ 370 mm integrated wall of clay bricks and fly ash masonry blocks,
171%. A 240 mm ˆ 370 mm integrated wall of recycled bricks and fly ash blocks delivers 213% more
in terms of overall compressive performance compared with the 240 mm ˆ 240 mm recycled-brick
wall. That being said, the integrated wall structure of brick-stem-fly ash blocks delivers much better
performance in this category. Note that with respect to the stem’s contribution to compressive strength,
circular steel pipe is highest, followed by square-shaped steel pipe and then square-shaped wood.
Calculation shows a 16.53-fold difference in overall compressive performance between the integrated
wall of clay bricks and fly ash blocks with stem support (square-shaped steel pipe) and that without,
while the figure is 11.57-fold between the integrated wall of recycled bricks and fly ash blocks with
square-shaped steel pipe embedded and that without.

4. Engineering Practice
This paper carries out a test run of the structure in the pilot rebuilding project of a dilapidated
area—where a single-story building with a floorage of 96 m2 and a story height of 3.4 m is designed
to withstand earthquakes at an intensity level of seven—of Xihai village of Laoting county, Hebei
province. The paper proposes the integrated fly-ash masonry structure with an insulated layer and
lightweight steel stem embedded.
The requirement for engineering application states that: (1) The recycled-concrete brick masonry
structure with lightweight steel stems embedded and an insulating layer sandwiched shall comply with
the design and seismic requirement stipulated in the references [18,19]. (2) The design of ring beams
and structural columns conforms to the relevant requirement listed in the reference [19]. (3) Lintels are
arranged at structural portals—be it window or door—to avoid the occurrence of being out of plane.
The cross section of such lintel attains a height of 100 mm, while the width remains consistent with that
of the wall piece. Note that for single-floor houses, enclosed ring beams—with a height and width of
180 mm and 240 mm, respectively—are arranged right beneath the roof board. Four longitudinal Q234
re-bars with a diameter of 12 mm are embedded within the ring beams, while the stirrups applied
are Q235 re-bars—6 mm in diameter—arranged with a 200-mm interval in between. (4) In terms of
the wall pieces, tie bars with a diameter of 6 mm or more are installed longitudinally, with a 500-mm
interval between every piece. The arrangement is made on the premise that a 600-mm-long tie bar is
embedded in every piece of the inner and outer wythes. (5) Tie bars are arranged in the building of
 ring  beams—with  a  height  and  width  of  180  mm  and  240  mm,  respectively—are  arranged  right 
beneath  the  roof  board.  Four  longitudinal  Q234  re‐bars  with  a  diameter  of  12  mm  are  embedded 
within the ring beams, while the stirrups applied are Q235 re‐bars—6 mm in diameter—arranged 
with a 200‐mm interval in between. (4) In terms of the wall pieces, tie bars with a diameter of 6 mm 
or more are installed longitudinally, with a 500‐mm interval between every piece. The arrangement 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 12 of 15
is  made  on  the  premise  that  a  600‐mm‐long  tie  bar  is  embedded  in  every  piece  of  the  inner  and 
outer  wythes.  (5)  Tie  bars  are  arranged  in  the  building  of  the  wythes,  made  of  standard‐sized 
the wythes, made
bricks‐and  of standard-sized
the  fly‐ash  bricks-and
blocks;  therefore,  thebars 
the  fly-ash
can blocks; therefore,embedded 
be  vertically  the bars canand 
be vertically
properly 
embedded
sandwiched  and in properly
between sandwiched
the  mortar. in between
The  theand 
vertical  mortar. The vertical
horizontal  and of 
intervals  horizontal intervals
such  bars  of
shall  not 
such bars shall not exceed 400 and 800 mm, respectively.
exceed 400 and 800 mm, respectively. 
In
In terms
terms ofof the
the choice
choice of
of material,
material, the
the recycled-concrete
recycled‐concrete bricks-consistent
bricks‐consistent with
with clay
clay bricks
bricks inin 
size-shall display a strength of MU10 or more. The dimensions of the fly-ash masonry blocks are jointly
size‐shall  display  a  strength  of  MU10  or  more.  The  dimensions  of  the  fly‐ash  masonry  blocks  are 
decided by wall thickness and the insulating performance required. The structural columns shall enjoy
jointly decided by wall thickness and the insulating performance required. The structural columns 
ashall enjoy a no less than C20 concrete strength. With mortar poured in as an adhesive agent, the 
no less than C20 concrete strength. With mortar poured in as an adhesive agent, the wythe pieces
and the masonry blocks are bound by z-shaped reinforced steel with a diameter of 4 mm.
wythe pieces and the masonry blocks are bound by z‐shaped reinforced steel with a diameter of 4 mm. 
Please see Figure 10a,b for the arrangement plan of the main structure and Figure 11a–h for the
Please see Figure 10a,b for the arrangement plan of the main structure and Figure 11a–h for the 
illustration of the construction site.
illustration of the construction site. 

(a)

 
(b)
Figure 10. Arrangement plan of structure: (a) floor plan of structure; and (b) elevation drawing of 
Figure 10. Arrangement plan of structure: (a) floor plan of structure; and (b) elevation drawing
structure. 
of structure.

The following can be concluded from the household inquiry: (1) The application of the integrated
masonry structure with stem and insulating layers promises a streamlined construction procedure,
easily-accessible raw materials and affordable cost of constriction. (2) In the summertime, the room
temperature of the cottage—with no air conditioner or fan—is 3–5 ˝ C lower than that of other houses
in the village, meaning that the structure helps reduce electricity costs. In the wintertime, the structure
increases the room temperature (with only cooking heat indoors) by 5–8 ˝ C. The extraordinary thermal
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 13 of 15

insulation performance decreases the heating cost for the household. Overall, the feedback from the
household considered and the citizens of this village is fairly good.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146  13 of 15 

   
(a)  (b) (c) 

   
(d)  (e)  (f) 

 
(g)  (h)
Figure 11. The construction site of the integrated fly‐ash masonry structure with an insulated layer 
Figure 11. The construction site of the integrated fly-ash masonry structure with an insulated layer
and  lightweight  steel  stem  embedded:  (a)  groundsill  construction;  (b)  construction  of  lightweight 
and lightweight steel stem embedded: (a) groundsill construction; (b) construction of lightweight
concrete‐filled  steel  stem;  (c)  construction  of  insulating  layer  for  fly‐ash  masonry  blocks;  (d)  wall 
concrete-filled steel stem; (c) construction of insulating layer for fly-ash masonry blocks; (d) wall
construction on the north side; (e) wall construction on the south side; (f) ring beam construction; (g) 
construction on the north side; (e) wall construction on the south side; (f) ring beam construction;
(g)roofing construction; and (h) completion of major structure of rural housing. 
roofing construction; and (h) completion of major structure of rural housing.

The  following  can  be  concluded  from  the  household  inquiry:  (1)  The  application  of  the 
5. Conclusions
integrated masonry structure with stem and insulating layers promises a streamlined construction 
(1) The clay-brick
procedure,  structure raw 
easily‐accessible  (with materials 
no stem), the recycled-concrete-brick
and  affordable  cost  of  structure, the integrated
constriction.  (2)  In  the 
masonry structure of recycled concrete bricks and fly ash blocks, and the integrated
summertime, the room temperature of the cottage—with no air conditioner or fan—is 3–5 °C lower  structure of
recycled concrete bricks and fly ash masonry blocks deliver similar failure processes, showing classic
than that of other houses in the village, meaning that the structure helps reduce electricity costs. In 
signs of brittle fractures. The square-shaped wood, square-shaped concrete-filled steel pipe and
the wintertime, the structure increases the room temperature (with only cooking heat indoors) by 
circular concrete-filled
5–8  °C.  steel pipe
The  extraordinary  largely insulation 
thermal  elevate the compressive
performance resistance,
decreases working and deformative
the  heating  cost  for  the 
performances of the integrated structure.
household. Overall, the feedback from the household considered and the citizens of this village is 
(2) The integrated structure of clay bricks and fly ash blocks and the structure of recycled-concrete
fairly good. 
bricks and fly-ash blocks promise productive cooperation between the masonry blocks and bricks,
5. Conclusions 
showing no visible sign of detachment.
(3) In comparison with a brick wall with an insulating layer sandwiched in between, the integrated
(1) The clay‐brick structure (with no stem), the recycled‐concrete‐brick structure, the integrated 
wall structure of bricks and fly ash blocks is a more preferable choice in terms of compressive
masonry  structure  of  recycled  concrete  bricks  and  fly  ash  blocks,  and  the  integrated  structure  of 
performance and ductility. That being said, the integrated wall structure of brick-stem-fly ash blocks
recycled  concrete  bricks  and  fly  ash  masonry  blocks  deliver  similar  failure  processes,  showing 
delivers much better compressive performance and ductility. Note that in regard to the stem’s
classic signs of brittle fractures. The square‐shaped wood, square‐shaped concrete‐filled steel pipe 
contribution to compressive strength, circular steel pipe is highest, followed by square-shaped steel
and  circular  concrete‐filled  steel  pipe  largely  elevate  the  compressive  resistance,  working  and 
pipe and then square-shaped wood.
deformative performances of the integrated structure. 
(2)  The  integrated  structure  of  clay  bricks  and  fly  ash  blocks  and  the  structure  of 
recycled‐concrete  bricks  and  fly‐ash  blocks  promise  productive  cooperation  between  the  masonry 
blocks and bricks, showing no visible sign of detachment. 
(3)  In  comparison  with  a  brick  wall  with  an  insulating  layer  sandwiched  in  between,  the 
integrated  wall  structure  of  bricks  and  fly  ash  blocks  is  a  more  preferable  choice  in  terms  of 
compressive  performance  and  ductility.  That  being  said,  the  integrated  wall  structure  of 
brick‐stem‐fly ash blocks delivers much better compressive performance and ductility. Note that in 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 14 of 15

Acknowledgments: This research was conducted with the financial support of the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NO. 51508009) and the Project was supported by the Beijing Postdoctoral Research
Foundation (2015ZZ-29), National Science and technology support program of China (NO. 2015BAL03B01).
Author Contributions: Suizi Jia wrote the manuscript; Suizi Jia, Yan Liu, Wanlin Cao, Zhongyi Zhou designed
the experiments. Suizi Jia, Wanlin Cao and Yuchen Zhang modified the final paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
MDPI Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute
DOAJ Directory of open access journals
TLA Three letter acronym
LD linear dichroism

References
1. GSA2003. Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines for New Federal Office Buildings and Major
Modernization Project. Available online: http://bbs.co188.com/thread-9221826-1-1.html (accessed on
10 May 2016).
2. Niroumand, H.; Kassim, K.A. Comparison of compressive strength in mud bricks with shred tires and
concrete particles as sustainable materials. Electron. J. Geotech. Eng. 2010, 15, 1151–1158.
3. Valdés, G.A.; Rapimán, J.G. Physical and mechanical properties of concrete bricks produced with recycled
aggregates. Inf. Technol. 2007, 18, 81–88.
4. Corinaldesi, V.; Monosi, S.; Moriconi, G. Effect of different recycled aggregates on mortar performance.
In Proceedings of the Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies International Conference on
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, Coventry, United Kingdom, 11–13 June 2007; pp. 59–62.
5. Corinaldesi, V.; Moriconi, G. Concrete and mortar performance by using recycled aggregates. In Proceedings
of the International Conference on Sustainable Waste Management and Recycling: Construction Demolition
Waste, Wuhan, China, 18–22 October 2004; pp. 157–164.
6. Yoshimura, K.; Kikuchi, K. Experimental study on seismic behavior of masonry walls confined by R/C
frames. Appl. Mech. Mater. 1995, 15, 41–48.
7. Tomazevic, M.; Lutman, M.; Petkovic, L. Seismic behavior of masonry walls: Experimental simulation.
J. Struct. Eng. 1996, 122, 1040–1047. [CrossRef]
8. Riddington, J.R.; Ghazali, M.Z. Hypothesis for shear failure in masonry joints. Proc.-Inst. Civ. Eng. 1990, 89,
89–102. [CrossRef]
9. Lotfi, H.R.; Shing, P.B. Interface model applied to fracture masonry structures. J. Struct. Eng. 1994, 120, 63–80.
[CrossRef]
10. Banting, B.; El-Dakhakhni, W. Force-and displacement-based seismic performance parameters for reinforced
masonry structural walls with boundary elements. J. Struct. Eng. 2012, 2, 71–82. [CrossRef]
11. Shedid, M.T.; Hamid, A.A.; Drysdale, R.G. Ductility of reinforced masonry shear walls and impact of
incomplete grouting. In Proceedings of the 10th Canadian Masonry Symposium, Banff, Alberta, 8–12 June 2005.
12. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. New building insulation to combat wet, warm, wall worries. Eng. Syst.
2007, 24, 84–85.
13. Yang, D.J.; Zhang, Z.W. Analysis on earthquake resistance and affective factors of concrete hollow block
composite wall structures. New Build. Mater. 2010, 3, 42–44.
14. Liu, C. Shaking table model design for brick masonry structures strengthened with an externally steel
reinforced mesh mortar layer. Struct. Eng. 2012, 6, 72–78.
15. Zheng, N.N.; Li, Y.M.; Pan, Y. Seismic behavior of low masonry structure with core-tie-column. J. Southwest
Jiaotong Univ. 2011, 46, 24–29.
16. Lidija, K.; Ljubomir, T.; Vladimir, G.; Mihail, G. Experimental and analytical investigation of seismic stability
of masonry walls at beauharnois powerhouse. Bull. Earthq. Eng. 2010, 8, 421–450.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 146 15 of 15

17. Li, J.; Cao, W. The Heat Transfer Coefficient of Recycled Concrete Bricks Combination with EPS Insulation
Board Wall. Math. Probl. Eng. 2015, 2015. [CrossRef]
18. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. GB50011-2010; Code
for Seismic Design of Buildings; China Architecture Building Press: Beijing, China, 2010; Available online:
http://bbs.co188.com/thread-4941150-1-1.html (accessed on 10 May 2016).
19. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. GB 50003-2011; Code
for Design of Masonry Structures; China Architecture Building Press: Beijing, China, 2011; Available online:
http://bbs.co188.com/thread-5107290-1-1.html (accessed on 10 May 2016).

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).