Memory

Memory refers to the storage, retention and recall of

information including past experiences, knowledge and
thoughts. Memory for specific information can vary greatly
according to the individual and the individual’s state of
mind. It can also vary according to the content of the
information itself; thus information which is novel or
exciting tends to be better remembered than information
which is uninteresting or ordinary. Failure of memory can
normally result from failure to adequately store the
memory in the first place, failure to retain the information
(forgetting) and failure to retrieve the information later.

The precise biological mechanisms of memory are not fully

understood, but most scientists believe that memory
results from changes in connections or connection
strengths between neurons in the brain. One possible
mechanism is long-term potentiation (LTP). Roughly
stated, LTP refers to a process whereby if two neurons are
usually active together, the connection between them will
be strengthened; over time, this means that activity in one
neuron will tend to produce activity in the other neuron.
Categories of Memory Systems
Psychologists and memory researchers often divide
memory into categories defined by the duration for which
the memory is expected to last.
Sensory Memory refers to the fact that, after experiencing
a stimulus, information about thestimulus is briefly held in
memory in the exact form it was received, until it can be
further processed. Typically, sensory memories may last
only a few seconds before decaying – or being overwritten
by new, incoming information. But, while they last,
sensory memory contains detailed information: almost like
an internal “copy” of the stimulus, in perfect detail. For
example, psychologists have assumed that there is a
memory area (called a “buffer”) where incoming visual
information is stored as a picture or icon. This is
sometimes called iconic memory. While visual information
remains in iconic memory, an individual can answer
detailed questions, such as what is the third row of
numbers in a numerical display. Psychologists have
assumed that there is also an echoic memory for auditory
information (stored as an echo) and other buffers for
information related to the other senses: taste, smell and
touch.
Short-term memories which last for a few minutes. Unlike
sensory memory, which is stored in the exact form it was
experienced, short-term memory has received some
processing; thus “A” is stored not as a visual stimulus, but
as an abstract concept of the letter “A”. Short-term
memory is of limited capacity, usually 5-9 items (“7-plus-
or-minus-two”). Beyond this capacity, new information
can “bump” out other items from short-term memory.
This is one form of forgetting. Objects in short-term
memory can be of indefinite complexity: thus short-term
memory can hold several numbers, or several words, or
several complex concepts simultaneously. Thus, while an
individual may only be able to remember seven random
digits, it may be possible to remember more digits if they
are “chunked” into meaningful objects: thus, “177-2001-
1941” represents twelve separate digits – well beyond
most people’s capacity – but only three easily-
remembered chunks.
Items can be maintained indefinitely in short-term
memory by rehearsal: e.g. by repeating the information
over and over again. An example would be a seven-digit
phone number, which is maintained in short-term memory
by repetition until the number is dialed, and then fades
from short-term memory once the conversation starts.
Repetition may also increase the probability that items in
short-term memory will enter permanent storage in long-
term memory.
Intermediate-term or working memory is sometimes
considered a synonym for short-term memory. However,
memory researchers often consider this a specialized term
referring for information about the current task. Thus,
even though a specific phone number may occupy short-
term memory, working memory contains the information
that lets you remember that you are in the process of
phoning the gas company to complain about a recent
billing error.
Long term memory is memory that lasts for years or
longer. It contains everything we know about the world,
including semantic and factual information as well as
autobiographical experience. In general, long-term
memory is organized so that it is easy to reach a stored
item by a number of routes. For example, the concept
“umbrella” may be retrieved by seeing an umbrella,
experiencing a rainstorm, hearing the words to the song
“Let a smile be your umbrella,” and so on. Retrieval of an
item also facilitates other related items: so that retrieving
information about a cat can lead to retrieval of
information about dogs, lions, specific instances of cats
(Grandmother’s tabby), the Cheshire Cat from Alice in
Wonderland, and so on.
NOTE: Clinicians (e.g. neurologists) often use’ a slightly
different classification, in which short-term memory is
memory for events which occurred recently (e.g. a few
days or weeks ago) and long-term memory is memory for
events which occurred in the distant past (e.g. childhood).
How aging affect memory
Forgetting may be almost as important as
What about

remembering, in terms of brain functions. Retaining, in

your brain, every single bit of information you’ve been
exposed to throughout your life would be catastrophic. For
this reason, our brains sort out what will and what won’t
become long-term memories.
How this happens, though, is a matter of continuing
debate, and may be influenced by many factors, including
our…
 Emotional states
 Stress levels
 Environments
 Previous memories
 Biases
 Perceptions

Memory loss with aging: What’s Normal, What’s not?

How does the brain store information?
Information is stored in different parts of your memory,
information stored in the short-term memory may include
the name of a person you met moments ago. Information
stored in the recent memory may include things that you
stored in your memory years ago, such as memories of
childhood.
How does aging change the brain?
When you’re in your 20s, you begin to lose brain cells a
few at a time. Your body also start to make less of the
chemicals your brain cells need to work. The older you are,
the more these changes can affect your memory.
Aging may affect memory by changing the way the brain
stores information and by making it harder to recall stored
information.
Your short-term and remote memories aren’t usually
affected by aging. But your recent memory may be
affected. For example, you may forget names of people
you’ve met recently. These are normal changes.
Why do we experience changes in our mental abilities as
we age? What happens in our brains to cause these
changes? And what can we do to keep our minds sharp?
Until recently, scientists could only offer educated guesses
about the answer to these questions. Now, however,
thanks to sophisticated new brain-imaging technology,
they can start to put the pieces of the puzzle together.
Some of the most important information scientists have
learned about our brains appears below. These concepts-
based on animal experiments and human brain-imaging
studies-represent what we know today about the effects
of aging on our brains.
Understanding how and why brain functions change as we
grow older may lead to new therapies and medications
that could slow, stop, or prevent these processes
altogether.
Of course, other health problems-like high blood pressure,
diabetes, or deafness – that people either have or develop
as they grow older profoundly affect how their brains
change with time.
Specific changes vary greatly from one person to the next
and may include the following} depending on their medical
and psychological history:
 Brain mass shrinks
 Outer surface thins
 White matter decreases
 Chemicals messengers decrease

Brain mass shrinks:

Beginning in our 60s or 70s, some people’s overall brain
mass may shrink a bit. Certain brain areas shrink more
than others, including the frontal lobe (important for
mental abilities) and the hippocampus (where new
memories are formed).
Outer surface thins:
The cortex-the heavily ridged outer surface of the brain-
thins slightly with age. This thinning is not, as scientists
once believed, the result of widespread loss of brain
cells. Instead, the thinning of the brain’s outer surface is
likely due to a decrease in synaptic connections (a
process that starts when we’re about 20 years old).
Synapses are like intersections. They allow brain cells to
communicate with one another and to form
connections.
White matter decreases:
Many studies have linked aging with decreases in the
brain’s white matter (so called because it’s made up, in
part, of myelin-a fatty, white substance). Myelin helps
to improve communication between brain cells.
Research shows that changes in white matter are linked
with changes in speed of cognitive processing. Cognitive
processing include memory, attention, action, problem
solving and decision-making abilities.
It’s important to remember, though, that aging is not a
process of decline. Many of our gifts and abilities-
including wisdom and problem solving-improve as we
age.
Chemical messengers decrease:
As our brains age, they generate fewer
neurotransmitters (chemicals like serotonin, which carry
messages between brain cells) and have fewer
receptors that lock onto these messengers. This change
may have an effect on memory.
Memory decline in normal aging
The ability to encode new memories of events or facts
and working memory shows decline in both cross-
sectional and longitudinal studies (Hedden&Gabrieli,
2004). Studies comparing the effects of aging on
episodic memory, semantic memory, short-term
memory and priming, find that episodic memory is
especially impaired in normal aging (Nilsson) 2003).
These deficits may be related to impairments seen in
the ability to refresh recently processed information
(Johnson et al., 2002). In addition, even when equated
in memory for a particular item or fact, older adults
tend to be worse at remembering the source of their
information (Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993), a
deficit that may be related to declines in the ability to
bind information together in memory during encoding
and retrieve those associations at a later time (Naveh-
Benjamin, 2000; Mitchel et al., 2000).
A postmortem examination of five brains of elderly
people with better memory than average-called “super
aged” – found that these individuals had less fiber-like
tangles of tau protein than found in typical elderly
brains, but a similar amount of amyloid plaque.
Things to help you remember
 Keep lists.
 Follow a routine
 Make associations (connect things in your mind),
such as using landmarks to help you find places.
  Keep a detailed calendar
 Put important items, such as your keys, in the same
place every time.
 Repeat names when you meet new people
 Do things that keep your mind and body busy
 Run through the ABC’s in your head to help you
think of words you’re having trouble remembering.
“Hearing” the first letter of a word may jog your
memory.

when I know a word but can’t recall it?

This is usually just a glitch in your memory. You’ll almost
always remember the word with time. This may become
more common as you age. It can be very frustrating, but
it’s not usually serious.

What are some other causes of

memory problems?
Many things other than aging can cause memory
problems. These include depression, dementia (severe
problems with memory and thinking, such as Alzheimer’s
disease), side effects of drugs strokes, head injury and
alcoholism.