Memory refers to the storage, retention and recall of
information including past experiences, knowledge and thoughts. Memory for specific information can vary greatly according to the individual and the individual’s state of mind. It can also vary according to the content of the information itself; thus information which is novel or exciting tends to be better remembered than information which is uninteresting or ordinary. Failure of memory can normally result from failure to adequately store the memory in the first place, failure to retain the information (forgetting) and failure to retrieve the information later.
The precise biological mechanisms of memory are not fully
understood, but most scientists believe that memory results from changes in connections or connection strengths between neurons in the brain. One possible mechanism is long-term potentiation (LTP). Roughly stated, LTP refers to a process whereby if two neurons are usually active together, the connection between them will be strengthened; over time, this means that activity in one neuron will tend to produce activity in the other neuron. Categories of Memory Systems Psychologists and memory researchers often divide memory into categories defined by the duration for which the memory is expected to last. Sensory Memory refers to the fact that, after experiencing a stimulus, information about thestimulus is briefly held in memory in the exact form it was received, until it can be further processed. Typically, sensory memories may last only a few seconds before decaying – or being overwritten by new, incoming information. But, while they last, sensory memory contains detailed information: almost like an internal “copy” of the stimulus, in perfect detail. For example, psychologists have assumed that there is a memory area (called a “buffer”) where incoming visual information is stored as a picture or icon. This is sometimes called iconic memory. While visual information remains in iconic memory, an individual can answer detailed questions, such as what is the third row of numbers in a numerical display. Psychologists have assumed that there is also an echoic memory for auditory information (stored as an echo) and other buffers for information related to the other senses: taste, smell and touch. Short-term memories which last for a few minutes. Unlike sensory memory, which is stored in the exact form it was experienced, short-term memory has received some processing; thus “A” is stored not as a visual stimulus, but as an abstract concept of the letter “A”. Short-term memory is of limited capacity, usually 5-9 items (“7-plus- or-minus-two”). Beyond this capacity, new information can “bump” out other items from short-term memory. This is one form of forgetting. Objects in short-term memory can be of indefinite complexity: thus short-term memory can hold several numbers, or several words, or several complex concepts simultaneously. Thus, while an individual may only be able to remember seven random digits, it may be possible to remember more digits if they are “chunked” into meaningful objects: thus, “177-2001- 1941” represents twelve separate digits – well beyond most people’s capacity – but only three easily- remembered chunks. Items can be maintained indefinitely in short-term memory by rehearsal: e.g. by repeating the information over and over again. An example would be a seven-digit phone number, which is maintained in short-term memory by repetition until the number is dialed, and then fades from short-term memory once the conversation starts. Repetition may also increase the probability that items in short-term memory will enter permanent storage in long- term memory. Intermediate-term or working memory is sometimes considered a synonym for short-term memory. However, memory researchers often consider this a specialized term referring for information about the current task. Thus, even though a specific phone number may occupy short- term memory, working memory contains the information that lets you remember that you are in the process of phoning the gas company to complain about a recent billing error. Long term memory is memory that lasts for years or longer. It contains everything we know about the world, including semantic and factual information as well as autobiographical experience. In general, long-term memory is organized so that it is easy to reach a stored item by a number of routes. For example, the concept “umbrella” may be retrieved by seeing an umbrella, experiencing a rainstorm, hearing the words to the song “Let a smile be your umbrella,” and so on. Retrieval of an item also facilitates other related items: so that retrieving information about a cat can lead to retrieval of information about dogs, lions, specific instances of cats (Grandmother’s tabby), the Cheshire Cat from Alice in Wonderland, and so on. NOTE: Clinicians (e.g. neurologists) often use’ a slightly different classification, in which short-term memory is memory for events which occurred recently (e.g. a few days or weeks ago) and long-term memory is memory for events which occurred in the distant past (e.g. childhood). How aging affect memory Forgetting may be almost as important as What about
remembering, in terms of brain functions. Retaining, in
your brain, every single bit of information you’ve been exposed to throughout your life would be catastrophic. For this reason, our brains sort out what will and what won’t become long-term memories. How this happens, though, is a matter of continuing debate, and may be influenced by many factors, including our… Emotional states Stress levels Environments Previous memories Biases Perceptions
Memory loss with aging: What’s Normal, What’s not?
How does the brain store information? Information is stored in different parts of your memory, information stored in the short-term memory may include the name of a person you met moments ago. Information stored in the recent memory may include things that you stored in your memory years ago, such as memories of childhood. How does aging change the brain? When you’re in your 20s, you begin to lose brain cells a few at a time. Your body also start to make less of the chemicals your brain cells need to work. The older you are, the more these changes can affect your memory. Aging may affect memory by changing the way the brain stores information and by making it harder to recall stored information. Your short-term and remote memories aren’t usually affected by aging. But your recent memory may be affected. For example, you may forget names of people you’ve met recently. These are normal changes. Why do we experience changes in our mental abilities as we age? What happens in our brains to cause these changes? And what can we do to keep our minds sharp? Until recently, scientists could only offer educated guesses about the answer to these questions. Now, however, thanks to sophisticated new brain-imaging technology, they can start to put the pieces of the puzzle together. Some of the most important information scientists have learned about our brains appears below. These concepts- based on animal experiments and human brain-imaging studies-represent what we know today about the effects of aging on our brains. Understanding how and why brain functions change as we grow older may lead to new therapies and medications that could slow, stop, or prevent these processes altogether. Of course, other health problems-like high blood pressure, diabetes, or deafness – that people either have or develop as they grow older profoundly affect how their brains change with time. Specific changes vary greatly from one person to the next and may include the following} depending on their medical and psychological history: Brain mass shrinks Outer surface thins White matter decreases Chemicals messengers decrease
Brain mass shrinks:
Beginning in our 60s or 70s, some people’s overall brain mass may shrink a bit. Certain brain areas shrink more than others, including the frontal lobe (important for mental abilities) and the hippocampus (where new memories are formed). Outer surface thins: The cortex-the heavily ridged outer surface of the brain- thins slightly with age. This thinning is not, as scientists once believed, the result of widespread loss of brain cells. Instead, the thinning of the brain’s outer surface is likely due to a decrease in synaptic connections (a process that starts when we’re about 20 years old). Synapses are like intersections. They allow brain cells to communicate with one another and to form connections. White matter decreases: Many studies have linked aging with decreases in the brain’s white matter (so called because it’s made up, in part, of myelin-a fatty, white substance). Myelin helps to improve communication between brain cells. Research shows that changes in white matter are linked with changes in speed of cognitive processing. Cognitive processing include memory, attention, action, problem solving and decision-making abilities. It’s important to remember, though, that aging is not a process of decline. Many of our gifts and abilities- including wisdom and problem solving-improve as we age. Chemical messengers decrease: As our brains age, they generate fewer neurotransmitters (chemicals like serotonin, which carry messages between brain cells) and have fewer receptors that lock onto these messengers. This change may have an effect on memory. Memory decline in normal aging The ability to encode new memories of events or facts and working memory shows decline in both cross- sectional and longitudinal studies (Hedden&Gabrieli, 2004). Studies comparing the effects of aging on episodic memory, semantic memory, short-term memory and priming, find that episodic memory is especially impaired in normal aging (Nilsson) 2003). These deficits may be related to impairments seen in the ability to refresh recently processed information (Johnson et al., 2002). In addition, even when equated in memory for a particular item or fact, older adults tend to be worse at remembering the source of their information (Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993), a deficit that may be related to declines in the ability to bind information together in memory during encoding and retrieve those associations at a later time (Naveh- Benjamin, 2000; Mitchel et al., 2000). A postmortem examination of five brains of elderly people with better memory than average-called “super aged” – found that these individuals had less fiber-like tangles of tau protein than found in typical elderly brains, but a similar amount of amyloid plaque. Things to help you remember Keep lists. Follow a routine Make associations (connect things in your mind), such as using landmarks to help you find places. Keep a detailed calendar Put important items, such as your keys, in the same place every time. Repeat names when you meet new people Do things that keep your mind and body busy Run through the ABC’s in your head to help you think of words you’re having trouble remembering. “Hearing” the first letter of a word may jog your memory.
when I know a word but can’t recall it?
This is usually just a glitch in your memory. You’ll almost always remember the word with time. This may become more common as you age. It can be very frustrating, but it’s not usually serious.
What are some other causes of
memory problems? Many things other than aging can cause memory problems. These include depression, dementia (severe problems with memory and thinking, such as Alzheimer’s disease), side effects of drugs strokes, head injury and alcoholism.