BJA Education, 16 (1): 26–32 (2016)
doi: 10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkv011
Matrix reference
1D02, 2E02, 3A08
Rib fracture management
L May MBChB FRCA MAcadMEd1, C Hillermann MBChB FRCA DA(SA)1, * and
S Patil MS MSc FRCSEd (T&O)2
1
Department of Anaesthesia, University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust, Coventry, UK,
and 2Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, UHCW NHS Trust, Coventry, UK
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: chillermann@yahoo.co.uk
Key points
• Traumatic rib fractures are common, resulting from
significant forces impacting on the chest, and are
associated with significant morbidity and mortality.
• Respiratory complications, including pneumonia,
are common occurring in up to 31% of patients.
• Prompt multi-modal analgesia incorporating re-
gional analgesia, i.v. opioids, and oral adjuncts are
essential to reduce complications.
• Operative fixation is indicated in some instances.
Trauma is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide,
and the leading cause of death in the first four decades of life.
Rib fractures are very common and are detected in at least 10%
of all injured patients, the majority of which are as a consequence
of blunt thoracic trauma (75%) with road traffic collisions being
the main cause. The remaining 25% are due to penetrating injur-
ies. Rib fractures are associated with significant morbidity, with
patients frequently requiring admission to the intensive care
unit (ICU), and mortality rates as high as 33%.1
Pathophysiology
This morbidity and mortality associated with rib fractures is
caused by three main problems: hypoventilation due to pain, im-
paired gas exchange in damaged lung underlying the fractures,
and altered breathing mechanics.
Pain associated with rib movement reduces the tidal volume
and predisposes to significant atelectasis. This can further lead to
retention of pulmonary secretions and pneumonia.
An injury severe enough to fracture ribs, especially if so sig-
nificant as to cause a flail segment, will invariably cause a sub-
stantial contusion to the underlying lung. The lung becomes
© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Journal of Anaesthesia. All rights reserved.
For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com
Advance Access Publication Date: 8 June 2015
oedematous with varying degrees of haemorrhage and necrosis.
The damaged lung is poorly compliant and will not take part in
gas exchange, leading to intrapulmonary shunting and a de-
crease in PaO2 .
In the presence of a flail segment, the generation of negative
intrapleural pressure produces paradoxical movement of the
flail, causing it to move inward, while the rest of the ribcage
moves outward. This means that the underlying lung does not
expand and as a result, the tidal volume decreases; this has
been demonstrated clinically, although an increase in the re-
spiratory rate means that PaCO2 remains normal. This inefficient
breathing results in higher oxygen consumption and has been
shown to reduce PaO2 .
Ventilatory management
Ventilatory management of patients with rib fractures begins
with supplementary oxygen. This should be humidified to loosen
secretions and help sputum clearance improving patient com-
fort. Nebulized saline may also help reduce sputum retention. Re-
spiratory physiotherapy can also be useful, but the patient’s
ability to cooperate will often be limited by discomfort.
If, despite supplementary oxygen, the PaO2 cannot be main-
tained, continuous positive airway pressure can be useful.
Positive pressure will act to reduce atelectasis, reduce intrapul-
monary shunting, and will reduce the paradoxical movement
of a flail segment, if present. However, it can be uncomfortable
for the patient and may make expectoration more difficult.
Ultimately, if other measures fail, sedation and invasive ventila-
tion may be necessary. This is extremely undesirable and should be
avoided where possible in patients without other injuries. Pain
management therefore plays a key role in managing these patients.
Once ventilated, early weaning from a ventilator is paramount.
Rib fracture scoring
The number of ribs fractured correlates with the severity of the
injury and together with age, they are the most important
26

determinants of morbidity and mortality.2,3 Four or more frac-
tured ribs are associated with higher mortality rates and seven
or more have a mortality rate of 29%.4 The presence of a flail
chest alone has a reported mortality rate of 33%, since the para-
doxical chest movement further inhibits effective ventilation.5
The elderly are particularly susceptible to rib fractures and the
associated complications, with pneumonia rates as high as 31%.6
Ribs fracture more easily and are often a result of only moderate
trauma. This is as a consequence of osteoporosis, cartilage degen-
eration, and reduced elasticity. Respiratory mechanics are affected
due to a reduced muscle mass, a weakened diaphragm, and
intercostal muscles, along with a loss of alveoli. These changes
culminate in a reduced lung volume, decreased lung function,
and impaired gas exchange with a poor respiratory reserve.
All these alterations, along with other co-morbidities, make the
elderly patient with rib fractures at increased risk of hypoventila-
tion, atelectasis, pneumonia, and subsequent ventilation.
With these factors in mind, Easter created a formula to deter-
mine which adult patients are at higher risk and therefore in
need of a higher level of care:4
Rib fracture score ¼ (breaks × sides) þ age factor
‘Breaks’ is the total number of fractures to the ribs and not the
number of ribs fractured, for example, two fractures in one rib
Fig 1 Multiple rib fracture pain management algorithm.
Rib fracture management
scores 2. For ‘sides’, unilateral fractures scores 1 and bilateral 2.
Age is factored into the equation due to the aforementioned in-
creased risk of complications, with different age groups scoring
between 0 and 4.
In a study by Maxwell and colleagues,7 they found the scoring
system did not have a strong statistical validity as a predictor, but
it was a useful screening tool to heighten awareness of increased
risk. We have used the scoring system as a decision-making tool
to decide on the appropriate level of analgesia required for each
patient (Fig. 1).
Analgesia for rib fractures
The associated pain is notoriously difficult to manage, but effect-
ive analgesia started promptly prevents hypoventilation, enables
deep breathing, adequate coughing with clearance of pulmonary
secretions, and compliance with chest physiotherapy. Overall,
this reduces secondary pulmonary complications, including atel-
ectasis, pneumonia, respiratory failure, and the need for respira-
tory support.
Patients presenting to the emergency department after blunt
chest wall trauma may require urgent intervention, including in-
tubation and ventilation, but others may show little or no respira-
tory compromise. However, pulmonary complications often only
become evident 48–72 h after the injury.
BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016 27
Rib fracture management
It is therefore imperative that effective analgesia is started
promptly, preferably in the emergency department upon admis-
sion, not just for analgesia and patient comfort, but also to try and
prevent the complications that ensue over the subsequent days.
Opioids were previously the mainstay of treatment, but with
significant side-effects, including respiratory depression, de-
pressed cough reflex, and delirium; multi-modal analgesia is
now more commonly used, which incorporates regional nerve
blocks and thoracic epidural analgesia.
Figure 1 is our current working rib fracture algorithm that in-
corporates Easter’s scoring system to help identify those patients
at greatest risk for morbidity and mortality and provide an anal-
gesic pathway to most suit their needs.
Step 1: simple analgesics
The analgesia prescription for a patient should include regular
simple analgesia, for example, paracetamol, a weak opioid, a
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (if not contraindicated),
and a strong opioid for breakthrough pain. If adequate analgesia
is achieved then the patient can be continued on this regime.
Step 2: opioids
If the pain is not controlled with the interventions in Step 1, then
i.v. morphine can be titrated to effect with slow boluses of up to
0.1–0.2 mg kg−1. Once adequate analgesia is achieved, a strong
opioid (e.g. a slow-release morphine sulphate or oxycodone)
can be added to the regular prescription in place of the weak opi-
oid in Step 1. Side-effects of strong opioids such as nausea and
vomiting and constipation need to be addressed with the rele-
vant antiemetic and laxative prescriptions.
Step 3: i.v. patient-controlled analgesia
If the pain remains uncontrolled, or multiple morphine boluses
are required, then a morphine i.v. patient-controlled analgesia
should be started, providing the patient can successfully operate
one. The addition of gabapentinoids should be considered due to
their analgesic properties and opioid-sparing effects.
Step 4: regional anaesthetic techniques
and operative fixation
Thoracic epidural
Epidural analgesia has become the standard of care when opioid
analgesia is inadequate or initial presentation requires it, al-
though it is an underutilized resource. Patients with higher rib
fractures, multilevel or bilateral fractures, flail chests, intercostal
drains, and functional respiratory compromise secondary to pain
benefit most from epidurals.8
Multiple retrospective reviews and prospective trials have de-
monstrated improved pulmonary function, including tidal vol-
ume and maximal inspiratory force, enhanced analgesia, with
overall better clinical outcomes when compared with treatment
with systemic opioids.8 The improved pulmonary function re-
duces the incidence of pneumonia, number of ventilator days,
and mortality, especially those sustaining five or more rib
fractures.2,9
When performing a thoracic epidural to provide analgesia for
multiple rib fractures, the vertebral level of insertion should
ideally be that of the middle fractured rib. Choice of local anaes-
thetic and loading doses, along with the infusion regime, are very
28 BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016
Table 1 Local thoracic epidural regime
Loading dose 0.25% bupivacaine, 7.5–12 ml
Infusion 0.1% bupivacaine+2 μg ml−1 fentanyl, 5–15 ml h−1
Breakthrough Bolus infusion mixture, 5–10 ml, or
pain Bolus 0.25% bupivacaine, 5–10 ml
Consider bolus of epidural diamorphine 2–3 mg,
once daily only
much down to the operator and local policy. Our local policy is de-
scribed in Table 1. The addition of opioids, for example, diamor-
phine, can prove highly beneficial, especially in an inadequate
epidural. However, number of ribs fractured, co-existing injuries,
age, co-morbidities, and haemodynamic status will all have an
impact on the volume of local anaesthetic used, addition of
opioids, and the starting rate of the infusion. Throughout the dur-
ation of the thoracic epidural, the extent of the block (both sen-
sory and motor) need to be monitored and the patient requires
regular (4 h) nursing observations, including arterial pressure
and pulse and oxygen saturations.
Although thoracic epidurals provide excellent analgesia for
the management of rib fractures, they are limited to a certain
population due to patient factors and side-effects. Many trauma
patients have other injuries which contraindicate the use of epi-
durals, or which prevent positioning for insertion.
Contraindications6
Absolute
• Patient refusal
• Spinal cord injury
• Epidural or spinal cord haematoma
• Thoracic vertebral body fracture
• Spinal injury awaiting assessment
• Coagulopathy ( platelets <50×109 litre−1, INR>1.5)
• Local infection or sepsis
• Allergy to local anaesthetic
Relative
• Inability to position patient due to associated injuries
• Severe traumatic brain injury
• Unstable lumbar or cervical spinal fractures
• Anticoagulant therapy
• Platelet count 50–100 × 109 litre−1
• Hypotension
• Hypovolaemia
There are disadvantages to thoracic epidural analgesia. They are
technically challenging to insert, with a risk of dural puncture or
spinal cord injury. Adverse effects include hypotension, and if
opioids used, urinary retention and pruritus. Patients can de-
velop a motor block and are unable to mobilize with an epidural
in situ.
Paravertebral block
Injection of local anaesthetic into the thoracic paravertebral
space produces unilateral sensory, motor, and sympathetic
block. The spinal nerves are not initially bound by a fascial
sheath, therefore enhancing uptake of local anaesthetic. The
paravertebral space communicates with the epidural space
medially and the intercostal space laterally, but with adequate
volume, the majority spreads caudally and cranially covering at
least five sensory dermatomes.10 One catheter can cover up to

six consecutive fractured ribs, but a second catheter can be in-
serted for more than six levels, or for bilateral fractures, if a thor-
acic epidural is contraindicated. The vertebral level of insertion
should ideally be at the height of the middle fractured rib.
Ensuring not to exceed the maximum local anaesthetic dose,
we recommend a bolus of 40 ml of 0.25% levobupivacaine, fol-
lowed by an infusion of 0.1% levobupivacaine at 5–10 ml h−1 via
an elastomeric pump. The infusion can be continued for up to
7 days. Multiple or bilateral blocks can be performed, but ensure
local anaesthetic doses are within safe limits.
Evidence suggests that paravertebral blocks are as effective as
thoracic epidurals without many of the contraindications, com-
plications, and side-effects seen with epidurals.11 A relatively
safe and technically easy procedure that is ideally performed
under ultrasound guidance, it can be inserted in the unconscious
patient. Sympathetic blockade is not seen when compared with
thoracic epidurals due to limited epidural spread. Importantly,
patients can also mobilize with a catheter in situ.
Contraindications
Absolute
• Patient refusal
• Allergy to local anaesthetic
• Local infection or sepsis
Relative
• Inability to position the patient
• Transverse process fractures at the level of the intended block
• Unstable vertebral fractures
• Anticoagulated patients/deranged clotting
Complications
• Failure
• Inadvertent epidural or intrathecal injection
• Epidural spread and hypotension
• Pneumothorax
• Intrapleural injection
• Vascular puncture
• Local anaesthetic toxicity
Serratus plane block
A regional anaesthetic technique first described in 2013 by Blanco
and colleagues12 for surgery performed on the anterolateral chest
wall, serratus plane blocks aim to provide anaesthesia of the
hemithorax. It has been used in patients with rib fractures as
an alternative to thoracic paravertebral blocks and thoracic
epidurals.13,14
Anatomy
The serratus anterior muscle originates on the anterior surface of
ribs 1–8 and inserts on the medial border of the scapula. A poten-
tial space exists both superficial and deep to the serratus anterior
muscle. The latissimus dorsi muscle lies superficial to serratus
anterior, with the ribs and thoracic intercostal nerves lying
deep to, but also piercing the serratus muscle. This therefore en-
ables the thoracic intercostal nerves to be blocked when injecting
local anaesthetic in the potential space around the serratus mus-
cle, providing analgesia to the anterolateral part of the thorax,
with paraesthesia from T2 to T9.12 Local anaesthetic can be infil-
trated either superficial or deep to serratus anterior, but Blanco
Rib fracture management
and colleagues found a greater duration of action from superficial
placement.
Indications/contraindications
Suitable for all rib fractures, there are very few contraindications
to inserting a serratus plane block, with patient refusal, allergy to
local anaesthetics, and local infection the only standard absolute
reasons.
Relative contraindications are associated with distorted anat-
omy making landmarks difficult to identify by ultrasound, for ex-
ample, surgical emphysema, intercostal drain placement, and
previous surgery at the insertion site.
Recommended technique
Preparation
Informed consent should be obtained from the patient, and the
block performed with a trained assistant in an area where full re-
suscitation equipment is available. Standard non-invasive mon-
itoring should be applied and an i.v. cannula inserted. Aseptic
precautions should be maintained throughout the procedure.
Procedure
As described by Blanco and colleagues, the block is performed
with the patient in the supine position and the arm abducted.
Using a high-frequency linear ultrasound probe set between 6
and 13 MHz, place the probe in the sagittal plane and identify
the fifth rib in the mid-axillary line. Latissimus dorsi and serratus
anterior muscles are now easily identifiable overlying the fifth rib
(Fig. 3). The planes can be found between a depth of 1–2 cm from
the skin, with the thoracodorsal artery passing in the superficial
plane to serratus anterior (Fig. 2).
After local anaesthetic infiltration, using a 50 mm 18 G Tuohy
catheter needle, insert the needle in-plane superficial (recom-
mended and demonstrated in Figs 3 and 4) or deep to the serratus
anterior muscle (Figs 5 and 6). Inject local anaesthetic and con-
firm good spread between latissimus dorsi and the serratus mus-
cle, or deep to serratus. Ensuring not to exceed the maximum
local anaesthetic dose, we recommend a bolus of 40 ml of 0.25%
levobupivacaine. Immediately insert a catheter 2–3 cm into
the space, tunnel, and secure in place. Correct catheter place-
ment can be confirmed by demonstrating further local anaes-
thetic spread under ultrasound visualization. Commence an
infusion of local anaesthetic, again weight dependent, but 0.1%
Fig 2 Ultrasound probe and needle orientation.
BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016 29
Rib fracture management
Fig 3 Ultrasound image of a superficial serratus plane block.
Fig 4 On injection of local anaesthetic (LA), good separation is demonstrated
between latissimus dorsi (LD) and the serratus muscle (SM).
Fig 5 Ultrasound image of a deep serratus plane block.
levobupivacaine at 5–10 ml h−1 via an elastomeric pump is opti-
mal, and can be kept running for up to 7 days if no signs of infec-
tion. Bilateral blocks can be performed, but ensure the maximum
dose of local anaesthetic is not exceeded.
Static and dynamic pain scores, along with incentive spirom-
etry and patient satisfaction, can confirm the adequacy of the
block.
Advantages
• Technically easy and superficial block
• Performed with patients supine, therefore particularly useful
when other injuries prevent patients rolling laterally or sitting
to perform either a thoracic epidural or paravertebral block
30 BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016
Fig 6 Good spread of LA is seen deep to SM, above ribs 4 and 5.
• Suitable for rib fracture patients with associated spinal trau-
ma or head-injuries where paravertebral and epidural blocks
are contraindicated
• Can be inserted in anticoagulated or thrombolysed patients
• Patients can mobilize with catheter in situ
Complications
• Pneumothorax
• Vascular puncture
• Nerve damage
• Failure/inadequate block
• Local anaesthetic toxicity
• Infection
Interpleural block
This has fallen out of favour as it provides suboptimal pain relief
for patients with rib fractures.11 Local anaesthetic can be in-
jected via the chest drain, however, before absorption, it can
drain out via the chest tubing. Large volumes are required and
with rapid absorption, local anaesthetic toxicity is a risk. The
distribution of the local anaesthetic is influenced by gravity
and therefore patient positioning may prevent the correct inter-
costal nerves being targeted leading to an inadequate block.
Blood or fluid in the pleural cavity will also dilute the local an-
aesthetic. Occluding the drain before and after injection can
cause its own complications and may not be clinically safe. In-
fection can be introduced into the pleural cavity and an empy-
ema can develop.
Intercostal block
Although correctly placed intercostal blocks can be very effective,
providing effective analgesia for 4–24 h, reducing morbidity and
length of stay, they involve multiple injections with a risk of
pneumothorax and intravascular injection with every injection
(http://www.trauma.org/archive/thoracic/CHESTflail.html). 11
The risk of local anaesthetic toxicity increases with every injec-
tion due to its rapid absorption. Palpation to determine the ap-
propriate site for injection causes patient discomfort. Catheters
have been placed in the intercostal space which provides spread
of local anaesthetic to adjacent intercostal spaces providing anal-
gesia to several dermatomes.
Operative fixation
Management of rib fractures by stabilizing the chest has been
around for centuries, but has gone in and out of fashion.

Fig 7 Three-dimensional CT reconstruction showing unilateral fractures to ribs
2–8 on the right, with a flail segment involving ribs 4–8.
However, more recently, rib fracture fixation has made a resur-
gence with evidence suggesting it is beneficial for a certain
group of patients. Intubated patients with a flail chest, respiratory
failure, and prolonged ventilation, or non-intubated patients
with a flail with deteriorating pulmonary function, are now con-
sidered for operative fixation.15 The aim is to stabilize the chest to
restore pulmonary mechanics and reduce pain. Other indications
include rib fractures refractory to conventional pain manage-
ment, rib fracture non-union, and during a thoracotomy per-
formed primarily for other injuries.5
Surgical repair is technically challenging due to the nature of
the ribs. They have a conical and twisted shape with a thin cortex
and often fracture obliquely. This results in poor cortical screw
purchase. Individual ribs do not tolerate stress well and each fix-
ation must tolerate the repetitive movement of at least 20 000
breaths day−1.
A 3D CT reconstruction of the chest wall is necessary before
surgery to plan the incision (Fig. 7). Although the skin incision
is very similar to that of a thoracotomy, most centres have started
using a muscle-sparing approach which avoids incising the latis-
simus dorsi muscle. Some centres are also practising minimally
invasive surgery where small incisions are strategically placed to
provide access to at least two or more rib fractures. Ultrasound
can be used to mark the fracture site and subsequent incision
before the operation.
The procedure is usually performed in the lateral position
under general anaesthesia with a thoracic epidural, paraverteb-
ral, or serratus block for postoperative analgesia. Standard mon-
itoring is applied as per AAGBI guidelines with invasive
monitoring in the form of an arterial line, and a central venous
Rib fracture management
Fig 8 Subsequent operative fixation of ribs 4–8 with plates and locking screws.
catheter if required. The use of a double-lumen tube enables in-
spection of the lung at the time of rib fracture fixation, although
not all centres opt for this. Intercostal drains inserted before the
operation in close proximity to the surgical incision should be
removed to prevent infection.
Anterior, anterolateral, and posterolateral rib fractures can
be fixed with plates, although intramedullary splints are avail-
able for posterior fractures. The first aim of fracture fixation is
to address the flail segment. Most surgeons aim to fix both
ends of the flail segment. However, some posterior rib fractures
are difficult to access without causing significant muscle
stripping.
Once accessed, the fracture is reduced and a plate of appro-
priate length, usually 6–10 holes, is applied. The majority of
plates are pre-contoured for different rib levels, although
sometimes additional moulding is required. Two to three lock-
ing screws are then inserted on either side of the fracture
(Fig. 8). At all times, the underside of the rib is avoided to pre-
vent damage to the intercostal neurovascular bundle. No im-
aging is required intraoperatively, but an AP X-ray should be
performed after the operation to demonstrate fracture fixation
and lung expansion. A separate chest drain is inserted before
closure.
In 2010, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excel-
lence (NICE) produced guidance on the insertion of metal rib re-
inforcements to stabilize a flail chest wall. Recognizing the
evidence for operative stabilization lacks quantity, but consist-
ently shows efficacy, NICE recommend a multidisciplinary ap-
proach to patient selection by critical care specialists, chest
physicians, and thoracic surgeons, with appropriate training
and experience.
BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016 31
Rib fracture management
Randomized control trials report significantly reduced rates of
pneumonia in surgical fixation compared with those treated with
mechanical ventilation. Overall critical care stay is less with
fewer ventilator days, and reduced mortality.1,16 Studies show
opioid requirements are reduced and operative fixation is
cost-effective.1
Chronic pain and disability
Chronic pain and disability are significant contributors to dimin-
ished quality of life after trauma. Little is known about the preva-
lence of chronic pain and disability after rib fractures, but a recent
prospective follow-up of 203 patients with rib fractures found a
prevalence of chronic pain of 22% and disability of 53%.17 Acute
pain intensity in the first 2 weeks predicted chronic pain; how-
ever, associated injuries, bilateral fractures, number of fractures,
and injury severity score were not predictive of the development
of chronic pain. Only acute pain intensity and bilateral fractures
predicted disability. With operative fixation, forced vital capacity
at 12 months is greater, more people return to work, and the in-
cidence of chronic pain reduced.15
Conclusion
Rib fractures are common in trauma and associated with signifi-
cant morbidity and mortality. The key to managing these pa-
tients is early recognition of those at risk of deterioration,
prompt and effective analgesia, early mobilization, and respira-
tory support where indicated. This will enable deep breathing,
coughing, and compliance with chest physiotherapy to try and
prevent the associated complications that ensue.
Local pathways and scoring systems help to determine an
appropriate initial analgesic plan with subsequent options if sub-
optimal. Regional analgesia should be considered, and although
thoracic epidurals have previously been the gold standard, ultra-
sound-guided paravertebral and serratus plane blocks are pos-
sible alternatives. Operative fixation plays a role in patients
with a flail chest and respiratory compromise, especially those
un-intubated with deteriorating pulmonary function, or if there
is difficulty weaning patients from a ventilator. Overall, results
demonstrate reduced morbidity and mortality.
Declaration of interest
None declared.
MCQs
The associated MCQs (to support CME/CPD activity) can be
accessed at https://access.oxfordjournals.org by subscribers to
BJA Education.
32 BJA Education | Volume 16, Number 1, 2016
References
1. Pressley C, Fry W, Philp A, Berry S, Smith R. Predicting out-
come of patients with chest wall injury. Am J Surg 2012;
204: 910–4
2. Easter A. Management of patients with multiple rib fractures.
Am J Crit Care 2001; 10: 320–9
3. Flagel B, Luchette F, Reed L et al. Half-a-dozen ribs: the break-
point for mortality. Surgery 2005; 138: 717–25
4. Holcomb J, McMullin N, Kozar R, Lygas M, Moore F. Morbidity
from rib fractures increases after age 45. J Am Coll Surg 2003;
196: 549–55
5. Nirula R, Diaz J, Trunkey D, Mayberry J. Rib fracture repair: in-
dications, technical issues, and future directions. World J Surg
2009; 33: 14–22
6. Bulger E, Edwards W, Pinto M, Klotz P, Jurkovich G. Indica-
tions and contraindications for thoracic epidural analgesia
in multiply injured patients. Acute Pain 2008; 10: 15–22
7. Maxwell C, Mion L, Dietrich M. Hospitalised injured older
adults; clinical utility of a rib fracture scoring system.
J Trauma Nurs 2012; 19: 168–74
8. Yeh D, Kutcher M, Knudson M, Tang J. Epidural analgesia for
blunt thoracic injury—which patients benefit most? Injury
2012; 43: 1667–71
9. Ahn Y, Gorlinger K, Alam H, Eikermann M. Case scenario:
pain-associated respiratory failure in chest trauma.
Anaesthesiology 2013; 118: 701–8
10. Ho A, Karmakar M, Critchley L. Acute pain management of
patients with multiple fractured ribs: a focus on regional
techniques. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011; 17: 323–7
11. Wharden R. Assessment and management of rib fracture
pain in geriatric population: an ode to old age. Curr Opin
Anaesthesiol 2013; 26: 626–31
12. Blanco R, Parras T, McDonnell J, Galino A. Serratus plane
block: a novel ultrasound-guided thoracic wall nerve block.
Anaesthesia 2013; 68: 1107–13
13. Millerchip S, May L, Hillermann C. Continuous serratus an-
terior block: an alternative regional analgesia technique in
patients with multiple rib fractures. Reg Anaesth Pain Med
2014; 39: ESRA-10758
14. Lopez-Matamala B, Fajardo M, Estebanez-Montiel B,
Blancas R, Alfaro P, Chana M. A new thoracic interfascial
plane block as anaesthesia for difficult weaning due to rib-
cage pain in critically ill patients. Med Intensiva 2013; 38:
463–5
15. Hasenboehler E, Bernard A, Bottiggi A et al. Treatment of trau-
matic flail chest with muscle sparing open reduction and in-
ternal fixation: description of a surgical technique. J Trauma
2011; 71: 494–501
16. Battle C, Hutchings H, Evans P. Blunt chest wall trauma: a re-
view. Trauma 2013; 15: 156–75
17. Gordy S, Fabricant L, Ham B, Mullins R, Mayberry J. The con-
tribution of rib fractures to chronic pain and disability. Am J
Surg 2014; 207: 659–62