ty Ausal New Zan Centrerca.on Goons Shera, 22.23 Apu! 1988 The State of the Art of Rock Cuttability and Rippability Prediction 4.6. BRAVBROOKE Principal Enginosring Geoiogst 0. Douplas& Pairs Py Li. ‘Te prediction of rock cuttability by roadheadere and rock rippability by bulldozers is of Concern, Lo. both geotechnical engineers and contractors. The relatively high lack of success in predicting production rates is due in part to the large number of factors affecting performance, in part Tack of appreciation of the sechanice of zock broakage by picks and in part to th Setailea case history date necessary for calibration of predictive models. the theory of rock cuteing ty picke and summaries the influence that rock materiel and rock mans properties, have on productivity. Te then outlines many of the current predictive models for roadheader Productivity and pick usage and for rippability by bulldozers. compared with cose history alae Most civil and mining engineering projects more of the following opick ana shovel Sackpiok breetoe Docket wheel excavator hydraulic excavator hydraulic rock splitter Grill ~ perouseion of zotazy, Rock excavation ie often the part of the project thet leads to the greatest cost overruns, Litigation. This is probably because rock excavetabliity is. a subject that har been Little Studied; the relatively snail snount of basic Erscture mechanics and on rock areakage Dy aril) Creavatapsiity. ‘Been whore predictive relationships between rock parameters vatabslity have becn developed ‘quantitative productivity data in the literature with which the Talationshipe can” be independently evalvated, generally done by contractors who either donot Keep sufficiently. detailed records to b Gstermine productivity, ory Sf ehey d the information ss a\ trade secret, von where Gout the chacacteriaties of the rock mass being excavated, co only half the information ie mis review will concentrate onthe. Gxeavatability classification systens Seveloped for. ripping by bulldozers and for cutting by road headers, two of tho more” conmon meone of rock sxcavation today, Ar both these Sten of plant lise drag” picks, albeit of vastly different size, the review will start By Briefly outlining the WAIL be followed “by a summary of the effect of Tock properties en rock cutting by picks. SEL PICK. e nate Ne c PowTED Pick FIGIRE 1. Pick cutting Action and Pick Variables Breakage of rock by ricks depends basically on the pick penetesting the rock rurface, Te wae following relationship for a chivel pick cutting foros’ (Fe)"ag. = depth of cut Gt = Lenesle strength of the zoek. rors pointed pick fans (1984) gave the cutting force ast ro = rengt? a2 foneee here 29 = point sngie Ge = Gnconeines cenpreasive stronath 5 5 é ‘eM 2. Rake Angle v= Predicted Failure Mechanism (afer Roxboroudh © Philip 1561) de the piok!2 rake angle reduces, tensile failure Giver way to shear failure at shout 18" (Pasure Sw Wissmveu tists) derived the” following Theoretical "relationship for she “pick cutting force for shear failure, Pe = 262.4 cos (Y-ec)con8 Gena ein te see) I where, Oe = Ye angie of ‘the pick and the rock n= “eteoss. distribution factor which t= rock shear strength Sliding friction between From laboratory study of cone penetration of (grenite Lundberg (1974) found that the best. Y vas taken as 0° © was taken as 408 lover than the Tsborstory nesoured valve. Siniler findings were reported by Paul and Sixarakie (1968) for wedge penetration. They Ele. that the main. reason for” high predicted force at chip failure is because the Coulon = None failure criterion iz not” followed. The failure surface ie. formed by cracks which row, Bren allowing for this the above equations predict” that the cutting forces norsase Lineaely rock strength Do pik ice npzovenent. 2.1 Pick Related Parameters se a. Z HZ US Ss ° tenn ° ace ant ot B i i i 5 (after Roxborough & Phillipe, 2982) fang Phillipe (2961), Roxborough (1965), the main Felationships sliustrated in Figure 3 vere found to hold for coal end other rocks. In this Figure the "concept of Specisie Energy (SH) ae Introduced) Ses SsE. ta the ratio of eneray xpended againgi volume of rock excavated lance, the’ cutting efficiency improves (specific eneray decreases) as: «the depth of cut increases to some Lintting Gepth (Figure 30); this is due to the Dreskout of rock at about 60" to either side of the groove increasing the yield, (Figure 1 5). At some depth breakout nay discontinue and specific eneray increase) in coal ond Other friable” rocks shia occurs at + the axe angle, ec » increases to about 20" (igure 3 8). + The back clearance angle increases to about, 5, (Figure 3c). + The epucing netween picks increase to between 2 ond 3 tines the cutting depth (Figure 3 8), ety optimum epacing equaler shore, d = depth of out, w= pick wiaen, specific energy, novever large picks are nore eeficient than email ones. A simple fiat pottoned wedge is the most nomal foree a pointed pick will penctrate deeper ana give a higher level of efficiency a6 the depth of cut 12 the dominant. variable in tema of setting officsency. No epecitie jeutting force testing of rock strength versus ‘Spears to have been carried outscme ‘oumestone © rasrone “fstosone FIGINE 4. Effect of UES on Mean Cutting Force for Sharp Picks (d-- 6 mm) for nomalised cutting force compressive strength (U.C.S.) Various cutting teste voing sharp picks, reported in Roxborough and Phillipe, (1981), Roxborough (2965), and Feishurst and Delia (1386). Despite some anomslovs values the predicted straight line relationship between cutting force and strength can be seen aboratory testing by Barker (1964) showed thet Sitertve "eooke coused fopld pick weary mtkediy Feduciog helt cutting efficiency. From thei Sxperinente "on Gunter” Sandstone, fosborough and Seiitipe “sen “anova nat efeer 9 eateioa Gistance of about 100'm in abrasive sock the Fate Gt” pick weer’ tens’ Conde, a ‘constent"velee ‘rigire se a 5 3 x a " c x 3x 3 2, Energy for Abrasive Sandstone, (after Roxborough 6 Phillips, i981) Figure 5 B shows that a2 the wear increases there is an increase in. both mean euteing force and rnean normal force, the latter increasing up to? Eimes "that of tho “fomer. The significance of thie ie that a blunt pick requires, = aajor increase in thrust to hold it at a constant depth. Figure 5 C shows that cutting with a blunt” pick requires a three to four fold increase in specisic energy. To _put the above into perspective, pick on the outside of a 1 etre diameter cutter head on oud header “would travel about 100m in rook Mohe* Hardness Bguivalent quarts. 1 ° 2 0.0022 2s oloas 3 0.036 as 01038 as Olea é oon (Es | about 60 revolutions, equivalent to 2-4 rock picks wil effectively be blunt ail FIGIRE 6. Effect of Quarts Content on Pick Hoar (after Rextorough € Phillips, 1981) From a series of experiments regorted by Roxborough “and Phillipe (1982) the dominant, rock variable, a5" far ee abrasive wear is concerned, ie quartz ‘content. the quarts content only, bbecenas s najor” problem” in” pick wear hen it ekceets spproxinately SO. by Yolune (Paguce 6). and Knatz (1970) produced a table (Table 1) of the abrasiveness of one other minerals related to. that of quarts, based’ on Rostival's Beale (able 2). “They “found that grein size was an inportant " factor! > ‘coarse stained sandetone Iineralogically similar bot finer grained rock, Gehring claims that quarts grains analler thas abrasivity (Braybrooke, 1965). aeren SCHDAZEL © HURT, 1970) Minera Belative Abrasivity quarts 1008) Peldepar 20 - 38 Arglilaccous mineraletmnen cutting jointed zock the mean peak cutting wide “Ngccreases rapidly. a= joant frequency [GEStasces fram atudies of the cutting forces in sete coats Evane and Pomeroy, (1906) found a SLEESSE. Gr ‘uean peak cutting force from 660 8 Seer faest epacing of 18 m= to 340 N for @ cleat scrote off may, (Figure 7)+ They also found TE hae orientation of the pick with respect to UR alte “Cetest) direction affected the cutting whee “and the apecitic energy, (Pagare @)r 1b 35 FREES qifticutt to ext coal oF rock when attacking Bese so" to the Joist direction white cutting Mvallel or at 4s" to the joint direction Puaiece the lowest forces, (woo Figure 9). From TREE apartment. there ie 709 more specific rergy_or 308 noce pak force required to et $0 P'Eleeieut atzecrion FIGIME 7. Effect of Cleat spacing in Coal on Cutting Force (after Evans 6 Pomeroy, 906) e108 ioe as FIORE 8, Effect of Cleat (Joint) Orientation fn butting Forse and Specs#ie Emery (Gfter Roxborough © Phillips, 190) tonarth (1980), undertook a eories of controlled Tnboretory, experiments to acsess the performance Of dice ‘cutters, in simalated Jointed rock. The Quarry, narrabeen Group sandstone from Sonersby ‘confords with 2 UsC.S- of 42.3 + 2.6 Beas {" aithoush not strictly comparable with pick Stack “the results are relevant to this ne experinent used 4 100 am dianster disc while ThE Pimutaced jointed rock comprised generally 60 Ge egunre biocke with paper or other iow strength Teetial “between. Tn one experiment the block Mises vere varied from 20 to 100 nm and the Joint SEktn Yortea from 0. to 3. mm, Tor the 60 om Tlocns “Sneeeaoing penetration from 2 to 10 ma Closed @ decrease "in thrust foree (Fy) by about Soe compared to that for solid rock, with the Gecrecse, in. thrust force taking place after 4 nm peneteation” (eigare 102, that ts, at Penetration depth Joint spacing ratio of 1:15 and Tees. atts PeNeTRATiONnmt Frou 10. Effect of Change in Penetration Bepth én 60m wide Soint Blocks om Thrust © Rolling Perce (after Howarth, 1980) we For a penetration of 6 mm both the specific Tnergy and) penetration force increased a= joint Spreitg increased, the S.8+ approaching the Shlues’ for unjointed rock at joint block wigth BF go = “Too, am deeey at a penetration Geptn/joint pacing ratio of 1:17 to 1:13 (Figure See beyond this width the Jointed rock could Be tegarded ass continvous ase. hat is, Ckeavacion is nore efficient in highly fractered % 400k WOT (em 2.00 worn Depth of © mm (after Mowartn, 3980) As joint width increased there was roduetion in Theuse forces and’ an Ancrease in yield, hence @ Eehuction in specific. energy (Figure 11). Further analysis of the deta indicated that when Block with (8) snd Joint width (1) were Considered together the limiting value of the Se facie wai aboot. 60 (igure 12). Tet Sey GE Jointed rock asco approrimited "solid rock Shen “the joint opmness ‘war Less than 1/60th of the Joint spacing.detom de oe mw tone 0 a wom me tome (2), to Joint Openene (1) Ratio on cutting Forces: and Specific Energy Tor 9 penstsacion eth of 6 mw (after howsttne 1986) once kw YELOIa) wien lo la Fr PERCE He Howarth stated that there was only nazginél variation “in both thrust and specific eneesy Paraneters for different orientations of the dite with” respect to the soint ~~ the engles being Varied. between 30 and 90°, However, hus Piguee 3 Indicates. a 400 increase in thrust force between gutting at” 45° to the joint (the most favourable irection! and cutting at 90°" (normal) to the Joints. the lowest” specific energy. though appeared to coeur at angles of 60-75" to the Selnee 4. Rock curTING - FiLo s1upzes Apart from the builder Feferred to by Brevster” (1964), most, of the monitored rock’ cutting field studies appear to have been carried out on road headers, Fippability trials 4.1 Rock Stzength and Head Design Doth theory and laboratory experimentation predict “that “the efficienty “of "cutting Operation is related to the deyth of peneerstion by picks on a cutting head. From full scale jutting tests "ubing o” Dosco Mk 2A turret and Doom, Speight and. Fovell (2987) thowed thet. the efficsency ‘of cutting ie inversely related to the fextting hoad advance per” ead revolution mich depends on pick penetration and rotary speeds At low advance per” revolution, performance if Limited ‘by poor break-out between picks end By rubbing contact between pick and sock giving high pick year. At high advance per rovolution Performance” is Limited by pick box/cock rubbing energy. For a hypothetical machine able. to mmsintain constant pick peneteation for Fange. of strengthe in a particular rock type, he achine'e "productivity ‘approximately Snversely related to rock strengeh (Figure 12) Speight “(2987).” With increasing rock strength he ‘main method the typothetical aschine has of maintaining pick penetration ia ta reduce the umber “of picks in the cut (1.e., reduce the size fof the “head) to’ increase pick force. hn axial head is generally smaller than a tranoverse heed (eee Secticn 6.1) and iz therefore more sested to harder ground,” However, dus to” ite sizer an axial head's “production "in weak rock ie Limited by overpenetration of picks and this fouling of pick boxes. In this situation a larges head fa Fequired. Hence the twa heado cover different vanges of rock strength az shown on Figure 131 + Axial esd for nederately strong to strong + Tranaverse head for moderately strong ground. be used in weak te noderately strong’ ground. 2purr seneratin pick damage bower peretraen ack box flag = hal hes os Transverse had —-—oum — corms ROCK STRENGTH ‘RODUCTINTY FOR SPORE ACHR Size FGWRE 13. Effect of Different Roadheader Heads ‘on froductivity in Different Strength Rocks Garter Speight 1589) 4.2 Jointing and Beavatability Fowel1 and MeFeat~Snith (2976), measured change: in machine performance of a ‘Doses Wk 2A reed header in open jointed mdatone where the mnber of joints per’ isnesl metre varied without eoy, ‘significant "change in joint “width,” infiiting material or joint roughness, "They “noted d decrease in specific energy for undercutting the face vith 9 decrease in joing, spacing from massive, 1 Goint/S G8 im) “tone” soige facing, of G45) Sand dees “(2 agent) In the Inte 1970's the Mineral Research and Development Establishment (WRDE) of the bition iat ional Coal Board started a revearch project to establish the paranctere which strongly influence iis “project was to develop auttanie vechnigues to measure strata properties and then to moniter Phe “cutting performance of various rosd header types in’ different strata “conditions, the Fosults of tho teste were analyeed using fulti-Linear regression techniquess Literature survey the MRDE conetuded fone measuring intact atrength of rock‘and the other measuring in situ charecteristice klenam, 1983). the intact properties measured See nconfined compressive strength, tensile eiSaget ond abrasivity. he in eita properties Jere ihe “Upecing and density of discontinuities Tock a6) jointe,, Bedding planes and foliations SRS" seine doneity was measured by counting the Tela “fractures, in the core, together with the Siero ‘Eractores reventea by a’ penetrant dyes the together expressed of micro feletures per metre. for each lithological type. She fracture. density and) fracture spacing were Combined to form the °A value, wheres 1A = nicrotracturea/n + (100 ~ R90) vatuce_of A waty fron 0 to 300, the competence of the sock ineeasing for a decrease 3n As ‘me cutting perfomance of four difterent road funders, 2) Deseo, Mk 2k, Dosco. Mk 3, Anderson Stratnelyge pil/3 and ‘Thyssen Titan ‘#134 wore Sonitores in a, total of seven cross measure Gries: tho steats varied from sandstone vith on Gncontined sompesnive strength of 144 MFay = ets mieten with an unconfined cenpressive Zeength of 16 Mbay A= 250.” The relationship Exiecdn machine cutting perfomance and strata Rioperties fron regeession analysis 4s given Sn foe 3. RELATIONSHIP BENNER MACHINE covErES Variables in the ‘Genrelation prediction Equation Soefescient es, AB 0.75 es, 70 0.77 cs, AB, ROD, MPLA 0.90 |nreee classiying steata by A value ~ tor a 10 - 200 aD, MP, UES, AB, 0.85 Jcor a > 200 Fo, 0.98 he micro fesctores/a gb = rock quality designation ney found for exeaatially onogeneous and pssive rocks, with jointe spaced greater than Thou 150" mm, "euttability depends upon rock faterial properties, For rocks with joints spaced less than about 150 fm and. greater than about 10 mm the cuttabslity depends upon, the teasirenent of both intact rock ‘properties and atecontinuities. ror rock in a highly fractured state with joints Eplced ese” then 10 mm the anfluence of intact her strength, is of Little consequence ana hence Bair “an Taseesonent of rock” structure is necessary. 15 REQUIREMENTS OF AY EXCAVATABELITY CLASSTETEATION SYST rollowing kirsten's (1962) suggested requirements for an vexcavatanility classification system, the [Mheeification should be based entirely on the Gisganental in situ. properties of the natural Sneerials Te should not be dictated by the size, Taper volume and. methods of excavation and the Greavaeing plant and equipment. Kirsten suggests thet the excavatability of aterial may. be cxpresced in tems of the [olloving characterssese paraneters: parent material Lithology Strength of the parent material, Abrasiveners of parent material Shaite denssey Degree of weathering Seismic velocity Block atze Seine sneitl Joint saparaeion 151 Shape of excavation guipnent. to avoid problene in definition of parameters the Elecetfication shoild be in quantitative tems. However for ease of application the numerical (Sines “oe input parameters should be capable of Toniuquiitative field teste, particularly for Eippability nessurenanta, These field tests con EEPPELeckeos ageinst standard mechanical tests, for “exanple, field strength tests using Geelogical hanar which can be related to GReRety actermined “.c.5, values. However, [Reletent resolts "shouldbe" obtained Seltapective of the manner in vhich the input [Mormeion ie obtained and of the individual who Scllecs its Further, the classifiestion used Should be applicable to’ both drill core and other Sinise indirect teane of lovestigation and to lirect exposures of the material and excavation, As can besten from the previous sections, the Desie rock material and. Fook mass parancters which snfluence excavatabiLity ere: Sjock strength oF specific energy. rock sbracivene Seine frequency sone of paraneters" Kirstens sugested ‘eharacteristic fare, sirsctly related to these basic Buranetere, for snatange, strength, abrasiveness Bad jointing charactertacies. However, some are Undieectly selated. or Fepreoent more than one of the beoic pacanstere, for instance, in sity Genesty, weathering and selamic velocity. Classification system atovld not have an undue Bias towards. ony ane of the asic poraneters as this bisey untoss deliberately built iny may tendto reduce the correlation of the classification fyeten with the effort to excavate, over the Henge of material type. lence a classification 0 represent the sane basic property. 45.1 Rock Material taboratory Teste Tero is no single test that uniquely defines fetch. relevant rock” material property. Instead, Shere “are numerous testa giving either « direct fan indirect. value to each property. Many of tests are tabulated in Table 4, vhere. they have been broadly subdivided into strength teats, tests "and combined strength and Suresivity vente, rou 4 EST OF ROCK STRENGTH 6 ASRASIVENESS oEsns Measured Strength Dees. Tensile strength, shear Density, ultrasonic velocity, Shore Seleleroscope, Schmidt Rebound Hanner, penetrometer (weceB. and. C.8-1.R.00) expanding bolt tester. Engenter (morris, Bangewsen), indenter, 08 K wedge vest. ‘Shatter Strength Stvengeh/inpect strength, rock impact hardness, Swadion prittienese sere, se Angeles abrasion test Neweastie cutting wear test Mosse Alpine abrasivity test ‘combination strengen/ Sbrssivensss pettiapsrsty Goodeich driliabs.ity index Sievers J value (Drilling Rate NC.B, rock dellabslsey Voese alpine rock cuttability CERCINR toushnese coteabiiiey Hacksaw machinbizicy she full descriptions of each of these tests are through the “Literature, bavever, ¢he relevant aspects of most of the teste are dscerined “either by Roxborough and Phillipes (961) or Santora, (3904). ‘These include dizect measurement fon outcrop, excavations or drill core of weathering and of joint detaits such as RD, Joint spacing, Joint Continuity, joint roughness, Joint infill, joint separation and joint orientation. Tt as, Fecommended “that the Joint. information be Fecorded following the "asthods outlined by Barton, tion and. unde” (1974), Hoek and Brown (1980), Brady “ang Brom (1985) oF by Alenan (303)! ‘Te one other indirect nessure is field seienic welocity. As thie ie so widely used and abused as an indicator of exeavatability some of its Aevantages and digeavaneages yell ae Correlations “with rock properties “will be xt lined Below. 5.2s1, Saimmic Velocity Many of the intrinsic properties vhich affect Fook material strength (porseity, dencity, grain size and shape, anisotropy, mineralogy, degree of Genentation and noistare)’ also affect seismic velocity (wmitely, 1979, 1983). “Hence ve would expecta correlation between seianie velocity and stzengea, Factors tonding to decrease velocity are weathering, fracturing and porosity, all of which Yend to decrease rock mass density. Uncontined Compressive Strength and Seismic Okubo and Terasaki, (Whitely, 1979) after carrying "out a Isboratory. atady of "the Felationship. between uncontined compress Strengen and longitudinal (compressional) wave velocity (¥) of a large number of sanples of 8 variety oP “rocks, derived the genezal Felationship ~ Unconfined compressive strength = cVp? mere, cis a constant, varying according to rock type. For example, sgneous compressive atzengths rocks tend to have higher ‘than metanorphse rocks but often have 2 lover seienio. velocity. Whately (1375) “Geterminea the correlation betuen Vand lunconfined compressive “strength for satubated samples of Hawkesbury Sandstone, Assuming that the point load strength of a 50 mm diameter, piece of core ie 1/24 UCs his e factor was 3,0, (Figure 15), where OCS was estimated in MPs and Yin kL lonetres/second, ° Wore recent work on point lead strength sndex versus USS reported by Forster (1903) and Pelle (1985) indicate that the correlation factor is sonavhat less, 16 to 20, hence ¢ should be lowe (ier for 16, and 2.5 for 20). Emi et al (1976) correlated shear wave velocity (i) with’ laboratory seaeured Us for eoile and vwelk rocks. “they derived the following empiricalvucg427 v, (nfsoe) is es) approximately 140 FIQRE 15: Effort BEES on the Longitntinal Wave lepity tn Hooeestry Santone (after Mhtelys ‘Joint Frequency and Seismic Velocity awkine (2961) demonstrated that in sity seismic Welocitice are signticantly effected by Giecontinuitiee. from feldvork in chile end Seeden, Bledsoe (Whitely, 1979) obtained good Correlations, between joint frequency (Jointe/a) Sav eco Zable’ 5. he increase of joint frequeRcy “gives 2 nean core length from which an feinste’ of ASD can’ be determined, Peck and Walker, (4979) found 9” reasonable “correlation Detween BQO and. Vy. for fresh sandstones ond Tiitetones, of the Pferzigal Formation. However they found a. iacge, scatter in reoulte. for Eligneay and moderately weathered rocks of the Sane formation, suggesting that at lest one further variable te involved. fees i, aap [= [me | AailL (1970) proposed the use of ratio betioen Eleld and” laborstory aeaoured seismic velocities famed fracture index (F)- shore, VE = in ait velocity Ye = core veisesty He used thi method to measure the effectivences Sf “blonket grouting in’ "eightening™ up dan ‘me relationship betwsen field and laboratory (core) velocity and Joint specing, a= proposed by Belly, 1982), ie given sn Table 5. This Felationship se" different to that found by Nore recently King and MeConnell used an index: Gerived fron the fracture index termed the velocity zatio (#2) rave ‘they plotted results of velocity ratio against nao’ fren, three boreholes and derived. the relationship: We + = 0,185 + 0.657 (RID) A numberof zones with low velocity ratio Coreespended “to “intervals with open fractures (omatedy, 1979). Setentc Velocity Interpretational Froblens ron the foregoing it would seem thet knowing the Fock naterial, strength, the laboratory velocity Gnd’ the field ‘velocity profile it should. be possible to. derive a sound predictive model. Rowever, there are” umber of problens tsoviated with interpretation of seismic data, Gheee problema are dealt with in detail by Tawtins "and Whitey and hence will only be briefly outiined here. Ae there is no unique setente velocity for [natvidusl rock types it se not possible to itecpret voce eype worsetione "with certainty (ech as core drilling) bas been used in Conjunction with the seianie traversing. This is particularly “important in the case of boulder Eormtions, thin. masked layers, velocity Siversione’ and areas “where the water table lies sithin the zone of intezest. noulder Fomations 6 Seismic Velocity Fresh boulders ine matrix of completely Weathered aterial are often sifficult to Growete, “This ie common weathering profile foe granite, andesite, ganbro, dolerite, basalt, Gnd Gone sandstone,” Sinise peoblons’ are als Precent in pinnacle dolomite or Limstone SKathering and’ aleo for t1ilite and torrentially oposites kouldery alleviun. ‘Tino-distance data fren such formations may have much scatter in Gngivides! pointe, "0. Sntezpret sing the Eeciprocal-tine, methods aveine, 1961), requires Hitting steeight Line segpente which average the velocity (Ver) Vay = bx vy 4 (1-3) %y vineze b= fraction of boulders ‘ug = velocity of boulder 2 velocity of matrix. ‘min High Velocity Layers (ussden Layer) mere the geophone spacing ie greater than the Thickness of a high velocity layer or where a igh velocity “ayer 42 leas than one third the thiemesa of on overlying layer, surface seisnic ‘methods nay “ase” through the layer. A hicden Tayer should be suspected when drilling reaulte chev a consiatently greater depth to the higher Velocity “layer below than do the seismic interpretations.Welocsty tnversien ‘the opposite problen to the thin, high velocity, Inyer ie, the “presence of low velocity material below & nigh velocity layer. In thie instance the spger Layer masks lover layers giving rise to Shterpestational "problems, This can be overcome by sprhole shooting. Accuracy of Velocity & Layer thickness vnicoly (1979) clatns that the present methods of dite sequieition, using multi-chensel selaaic foment; tnd" of interpretation leads. st Dest, $5” etocity determination scruractes of 2 108 and fo tecuracles of layer thickness determinations St Sao Kirsten (1902) elaine that selene Soietity annot be etersine’ to. on accurec? Petter ‘than s 20e and that setenic velocity may fave a wariance of the "order of “1000 m/e 3m Spmscentiy identical materia 6:1 Factors Affecting Road Header Performance Washine Related Variable «Machine installed power, cutting heed type end geometry Gathering and Losding our aysten tunnel size, shape, gradtent and Length oper mi type and quantity of ventilation funbes of working shifes, guration and {[ hieaine availability (ice-r ready to cut) LFegulariey, duretion and quality of planned availability and quality of spares (neu/socsateisned) «maintenance of setting Mead end pick Intact Rock Properties = atrengta, 1 BeietRenese/oughnese Dabrsivity Hock vase Prosecttes + dhecontinuteies 1 beading and mixed strazs conditions ‘mere are nunerous factors affecting road header performance "and pick consumption. These have Eien listed by various authors, one of the most Conpkehensive lists being given by Speight (257), S00 Table 6. Prom this Liat it becones obvious how complex the task of predicting overall performance of a oad header becomes. os headers can be subdivided into four broad Glasses dependent on size, (weight) and installed mate 7 ‘Size Tnstalled Rover ltarge - Heavy > 300 i edium 150 = 300 Kw smelt ~ Light 00 = 148 kt rscy sats - © 100 Speight (2907) gives instantaneous” cutting tentative figures for performance for the fee Table 8 below. gst see vas wc gg «nessa, BE Gs Sees ame Spey widaa Te hould be noted that these productivity figures are nove optinistic than those predicted by, Figure. 37. Mhere are two principal types of Foad. header being manafactured, each 3iffering in the orientation of the a4is of rotation of the utter heed snd thus in the way in which cutting forces are applied to” the rock. The two types fre those with heeds mounted axially” (Figure 16 A). and those with heads mounted tranoversely (igure “Ie 8) to. the boom. With the axial/milling “head machines the head rotates around” an axis parallel to the boom, see, more Of lees perpendicular to. the face snd sean oF mille the face, the transverse heed rotates Shout 2 Rorszonvel axis perpendicular to the boom ne. is" thus porellel to the face. The speed of head rotation for the two typee of machine Giffere with mich olover speeds nornally being Ssscciated with axial attacks Ay indicated in Section 4.1, axial heads aro more effective in nederately” "strong to strong” ground while: fransverse heads are better in moderately stzong ground, Table 9 giver a partial List of current Tosdhesders, subdivided secording to cutter head Dower and head type.ra ar or mao 0 SSS ee et, |(Sae Bet L ‘oo EMU AML Wego Gurvo|sauaee coon "Ie 6.2 Rook Cuttabiiity Prediction Models ‘mere is no generally accepted criterion for Fredicting "road header performance on the basis GE a specific. rock property ar group of Took Properties, Apart from the lerge number of Variables "affecting machine performance the eck Of accepted criteria in partly due to the leck of Getalled case, history studies and the absence of ny large scale study of the data wich is Gvaileble (ermer and Agcociates, 1986). Attempts have boon made to establish atatistical ‘correlations between rock properties, as defined by both standard and empirical tests, and machine Performances, Waghine aanufacturore and others Fave, siso “developed special "in house" tests in Order “to” predict the likely perfomance of their Gachinee dn any. given rock. type, soe Table 4. Host of these correlations dopond on intact rock peopertios rather than on Fock masz properties for road headers this is a generally realistic approach a2 joint spacing mise generally be less thon Ost to 0.2m before. they appreciably Influence productivity (eee Section 4.2). At this spacing support problena often become acute tothe overall rate of advance of the tunnel. 6.2.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength Versus Produetivivy sme tory of rock cutting predicts © correlation between feck material eucengeh and productivity. This relationship haa been used by © sumber of ood “header” manufacturers who. have produced Charts "eslating the neonfined compreseive Strength of rock to approximate proguctivity Weluess Oh Figure. 17), the curves. derived by Yoest Alpine for’ three of their machines (Voost Ripine, 1987) “and “by Anderson Mavor, (given in Roxborough and Phillipe, 1961) are plotted. Vosst Alpine algo” take the vatio of OCS to tensile Strength into account, the smaller the ratio the Jower the productivity, see Figure 10 (Gehring 13), However, 9 funber of workers dneluding Voest “ipine,, Poole and Parmer (1976) and Alena (sel, 1963) "have found relatively lov Gorrelation cosfficiente (0.62 to 0.71) between nconfined compressive strength and machine performance, Because of this, other strength Enaicators nave also. been looked at to try to predict mechine performanct eal Predicted kfect ae ff US on Road Fe Baty (otter 7 Anderson Rawor)COMPRESSIVE. STRENGTH 8 STENSLE. STRENGTH FIQRE 18. Effect of Variation in UCS/Tensile efter Gehring) 6.2.2. Senaidt Hanmer vorous Productivity Poole and Yarner (1978) found after correlating various geotechnical factors that the Sehniol hammer rebound number geve. a close correlation with advance rates of & Dosco Mk 28 roed header hammer’ values wero recorded at 1m intervals along the tunnel. “At” least ten resdings were taken at” each point, with the peat value being yecorded. "The oak value wae used as it is escy to get ‘a tov value with a Gehaiat hamer but it ie fechanicaily’ impossible to get a nigh veloc (Poole and Farmer, 1960). “Relating iniiviaual peak values to individual productivity values aid not give a good corvelation, however’ 2 mich Detter correlation (0.70) wae obtained when the averaged. peak Schmidt hemor rebound values. for a 10m section wore compared with the average productivity within that sane section, 6.2.3 1.6.5. cone Indanter Hardness versie Both the original cone indenter rig and the Melbourne modified rig is described by Benford (998). Hardness roeuite have been correlated in coal Measure mudstones and siltstones ey NoFeat-Snith (Roxborough and Phillips, 1961) 2 shown in Pigure 19, corte aang FIGE 19. Effect of Cone Indenter Hardness on Productivity for @ Dosco Me 2h 6.2.4 Expanding Wedge Tester versus Productivity ‘Aleman (1981) of the British National coal soard found) that, whereas” UGS on ite "om waa nota Felisble indicator” of machine performance "and also the use of a” combination of laboratory Properties including Ues, tensile strengths shore Rerdness, abrasivity and drilling epecitic’ enscoy only sligntly improved the predictions” the fd situ strength “index (2581) measured” by” the expanding wedge.” tester gave an’ accurste Imechine over” the range of strata in which © wae tested, (wa) =_p Fe where, P= pull out force (ai) = Gopth of hole (n) = radius of hole (a) This however, is a hindsight test ond therefore not particularly useful for predicting machine performance in a new project. 6.2.5 CERCHAR Toughness Yatue The French coal Mining Research Centre (CERCHAR) developed their own cuttabiiity testy a tungsten carbide drill bir te drilled into a sample ander 4 specific load (Banford, 1994) anda penetration versus tise curve is derived, The apparent tine Sm seconde taken to pensteato 10 mn at ‘the ssitial penetration rate ie quoted ae the CERCHAK “durete or toughness valve, Yoest Alpine have correlated this value with productivity for a ANSO) and 1100 road header (eee Pigure 20),cerown TOSS ue (eee urine ee atte 6.6 Goodrich & Sievers J-Value Drillabsiity both the Goodrich and Sievers J-value Boiitapiiity test use a stendara sharp microbit Se Randacd thrust (Bamford, 1984). The depth BE foie ie measured in 3/10 nm after «standard Slater of revolutions, to give # driliability 2 Seat anes b mmcaar Snttoe (od 1 Pga.t oFFcuLT oo mao ee Gocomo! GALL ALITY INDEX 00 prone 21. cuttability Field: for Smal Rood Meare a based on Goodrich Drillability Index thd Wear Mumbers the Sievers devalue is used by the Norwesien Institute of Technology as one of the tests iiguired fo derive @ Drilling Rete Index Tokura. ‘The B.ket. s2 used in a Tunnel Boring jinchine Advance peedsctive nogel (Novinkel and Jonannessen, 1986) Lislerud, 1987). the data avabiable, sameiy the vear flat induced Ge ahevaciit bit. | dn the Goodzien cost enis iz Geasused and is quoted a= the Wear Nunber. The Meat Nummer is then plotted against the UeLiapitiey index with the point falling into Sho of a nosber of predictive fields. Faguee 21, Qeelogea” tor snall road headers, predicts the SSeiscioniiey of using a roed header but does not preaiet coteing rates. 6.207 Voest Alpine (VA) Index Test recognising that cuttabiiity of & rock depends en The vinecraction of @ number of mechanical BrSpertice sneiuding strength, modulus, BiaEalesy and grain size, Voost Alpine devased Grraiternstive sndex test. This test, described Busty by Ceheing (19) and Benford (1904) uses Eronicel steel pick rotated about = vertical Sua under a lesd. ne pick cots a groove inte EAT peck ourface with a wiath by (am) and depth 5, tom. a for three of the VA nachines‘is given in Figure 22, From case histories up to 1979, VA found = Corgelation factor of 0.84 between ‘productivity CaNyhe) and 3,- Comparing the eons Roerelation factor of O78. hose Es > pe 8 bb ee fw6.2.8 University of Newcastle Rock Cutting Test A more promising ané nore philosophicaity fatistying approach to prediction of euttability. is based on cho specific energy of rock exttingy Ales the energy required to eet a unit volume of Tock: The apparent specific energy of a rock Se affected by s munber of parancters. Theae {include cutting toot “design, mechine desigh and operational parameters. Por example, changing tthe machine stiftness, the shape of the pick of ‘the depth of cut changes. the apparent epecitic energy required to cot the rock materials For this reason a standasdised core cutting tect ae developed at the University of Neveastle-on~Tyne. The game teat, a9 described by Roxborough and Phillipe (1982), Roxborough (1982), 1a now alo carried out at tho Univeceity of New South Wales. The test measures, mean Cutting force which multiplied by the distance Sut gives the work done by the picks thie Gividea by the volune of rock cuts gives the specific energy of the rock. fhe test aleo ensures. wean peak cutting force which gives an indication of ‘transient stresses that the pick will have to endurey mean normal force which (Gives a measure of the force a machine will have fo provide to achiove and aefntain depth of cuty ean peak normal force, of relevance to mechanical durability of picks, ‘Pick wear cen Also be meecured (zee Section 6.3+4)+ 4s ESTHATEO POTENTIAL ROADHEADER CUTTING RATE PER Wok CUTTER- * veAo Power = + NARRABEEN HavessuRY e ‘SANDSTONES. 2 ° 2 3 g oo eS me SPEORIC ENERGY Mu /et FIGIRE 23. Theoretical Relationship between ‘Apparent Specific Energy & Instantaneous Cutting Rate per 100 lt Cutterhead Power: for ‘Sharp Preks From the apparent specific energy of the rock st is possible to graph instantansaus cutting rate againot apparent specific energy for a pervicular power input (Pig. 23). for inatance, with a ‘cutting head power of 100 KW = 100. ki/ese’ = 260, NGfer, the instantaneous cutting rate of 2 reek with ‘an average apparent, specific energy of Lo s/n? would ve 36 m°/hr for permanently sharp picks. Before an ostinate of cuttability can be made for a particelar rock formation it is algo necessery to know the sbrasivity, of the Fock. "Yor example, from a detatied investigation Of the cuttabsiity of Bunter Sondetones Roxborough and Phillips (1981) determined thet after a few minutes of cutting the picks developed a ‘reasonably stable, worn profile which increase the specific onersy of cutting theee to four tinne. store that for thasp ‘picke essere She “Hencey for quarte.sandstonna of slater peopertion to the Santor sandstone (tor examin Howesbucy Sandstone) the “etveceive, spect Gncray i= thees tov four tines \greatey “thos Inoestory” values, that ios If) che Losocatery alae ie 10 niga? soe eifective:specitic eowey 12550 to tans ‘This means the instantancoug cutting rate reduces to ‘between 2 and 8 a'/se/100 kas Fors nonvabrasive rocky such as, nugstone, the increase in specific energy will be nominal Tt should bo noted that mst road headers are thrust rather than torque Linited, that is, they Usually do not have sufeicient thrust to hold the picks at the required depth of cut. These thrust Limitations are critical in abrasive rock ar the effects of wear produce a two to three tines Greater increase in notmal forse than’ in. cutear force. Foxborough (1962) gives a. method of celevlating the instantaneous excavation at ‘maximum machine thrust. Tie rate ie generally ess than the rate for maximum power. ‘Te probion of Lintted ghrust hes beon overcome by machines such as the Mellente Hybrid. Road Header/Tonmelling Shield or some of the new Generation machines using grippers, the Yapanese Tunnel Boring Header (Aisaws tale 3967) ana the Einco HRTM (Saunders and. Bromley, 3987). 6.2.9 Mefeat-Snith & Fowell (1979) Hock Wachineabtiiey Prediction MoPeat~smith and Powell (1978) advocated that testing to characterize rock material. properties Tor prediction of sdvance tates, should include sone Gr all of the teats in Table 10. ‘mane 20 BOCK MATERIAL PROPERTIES POR PAIDTCTION oP RODE WAGHTRADEETTY, (WeVEXt sara M Foens, 1375) Parana ‘Rask Property Instantaneous| Specitie Gnargy (65) and/or cutting rate | Cone Indenter (ct) outficiont of plasticity (x) Uncontined compressive strangtn| oes) Shore hazéness (sit) Conontation coefticsent (62) cutter cost | cutter wear (CH) and/or Shore hardness (Sit) quarts content (9c) Conantation soefficient (cc) I They thought it preferable to carry out @ Linived number of University of Newcastle specific enersy fang cutter wear teste and a larger munber of the other, less dnvolved tests. They present: various specific energy and cutter wear (ci) results forprediction of Fock excavatability and for cross Ehecking purposes. The correlations are: se = 0.14 (cr)2 + 3.3 (ucsrS + .o00018 Raab? Suoost” cee? —ee3e ge (s/n?) = ovat (cr)? + 1.81 KF 0,65 0.55 + 4,5 sH? x 1075 - 1.99 si x 40° se 1.98 ce? x 10 (ow (og/m) = + 1.2 9c? x 10 veing the specific energies, Moreat-Saith and Poweth (i979) presented Table 1, which predicts Generaticed cutting performance for both medivn Beugue and Aeavy weight machines. Tho cane Table pee bccn prevented. by NeFeat~anith (1967) who Teleco thot nore eecent studies indicate that the Correlations have not changed significantly since Bie, this Table ie a slightly sodifiea version aE inate presented by MoFeat-snith and Fovell (as. mee ae a ES Seema aE Seren of hawt woe tes tant ee gen Seb hugh cueeieg seo san De ‘pabte 11-— application of coudheaders in sasatve, Rely jolted tate euietave to spelt eee 6.2.10 Farner & Associates (1986) Energy Balance ‘the alternative approach te the apparent specific energy of rock oveting, as determined from Teboratory cutting tests, 1s the theoretical Spocitic coeigy of rock failure, ‘hie is related fe Feecture toughness oF toughness index, whieh {othe strain energy stored ans unit volume of Fock just before failure ies, force (OCS) x Strain at faiiure (UC5/E}, waich is a direct Fonction of UES#/E. ‘the relatively low stiffness of road headers heane thet the energy used in actuel rock Deeakage ie oniy 4 comparatively spall proportion of that supplied by the machine, the reneinder Being dissipated ina variety of forms. Apparent Specitic energy nensured et the machine (head power/volune excavation rate) therefore Evorestinatee the energy seed for rock breakage. Parmer and Associates (1986) created = generalised excavation performance index. They. Plotted the moduive/Ucs ratio for typical rocks Tole, Deere and Miiler, 1966) lobbs, 3974) and apparent specific energy derived from snfornation Felating to actual performance of road headers Sperating in a variety of rock types, onto @ YGgarithase plot of Ucs* against deformation modulus, see igure 24, The tipped area Topresente the area in which road headers Experienced difficulties. Eegeoe 500 00 7 rower Hows iy Mong the 10 AJ/n? apparent Sf line problens are experienced by the least powerful, hydrautiganly softest auchines whale along the Bos hi/ad Line ‘even, the most. poverful. machines Experience excessive tool wear end damage. Eetween the Linite pick consumption increases and Progress. te reduced, Cuttabslity end abrasivity Peete become incrsasingly important with the harder, more competent. rocks 1 2 ~ acta, ewer sed 1-28) to FIGME 25. Effect of UCS7/E on productivity for the Roodheadoray (after Faracr £ hewoesy 1386) Figure 25 shove the relationship between 0052/2 fei excavation rates for two road headers (D0scoWe 3 and Paurat £134) working in English coal easure rocks. The Figuse indicates. thet? + only a fraction of the machine head power is ‘used to Break rock (I= # hie + there is a greater sensitivity of volune illustrated by the steeper profile with Eespect to the axis of thet kW curve Compared with the 4k curve, productivity gains for cocks. having’ slew specific energy roquirenent than for rocks with « high apect#io energy requirement. + Low levels of power consumption and rock Smprovenent in machine performance when osing water Jet assistance. (see Section 623) + Por a constant UCS+/E the range of data points is due to the variety of reck typer = Bandstones are aseociated with the tower values of volune excavation cate due to theif higher abrasivity. ‘The use of shallow depth of cut to avoid excessive tool forces remulte in less efficient cutting vnich causes significant tool wear. Tn Figure 26 Parmer and Associates use the Concept of cutting energy, power transfer and Pick wear together with Tock descriptions and Racine performance data to. provide a method for eimating limits of cuttability.. ‘The sane information is" presented in a different way by weighting the factors according te the degree 6 wnien they intluence operations (Fable 12). the ‘Toble uses four principal factors: ucss/e natural joint frequency (of aoaDiAnee coritns PenrOuUACe (apren ramen & ASuSCTNGES Shey Tega z 7 T okt A, UesIe me s0.3 [5 Seine Fegan — [8 Bice tonsganaos GT ties tar Hig | Summing the veigntings gives a cutting performance (CP) factor, unere: ©F>10 Road headers well exited. ood excavation rates and low pick wear = 5-10 Generatty satistactery operation land driveago rater. Pick wear and energy requirenents ney significant in sone eizcumatances. Poor performance with rapid pick wear and low progress ratess Unaidee progress may be impossible Cutting Pertormunce (after Former 6 Aesee, 1 2u6) tay ger curTHG a (enmooerare curtis (Pa) cs . 2s] (en EaSe CUTTING 2) High strange, high toughness rocks. igh to vty Kigh pk ase lo sliceot ries Pages "ate cantrlled by cutting ate OY Mesiue strength Coritte vachos mderate pick sa ecaming igh in siliceeve vache Progest fates high le canptent, brtle rei 1 Weak rock. "Lon to nary ow pick eae, Progress 0.5 aN Hrdrsuicaliy ofe or norm sachin, Foor floor 2 tn ydraeiicalty stSfF. Hodeote Fleer conditions ‘uv nsdrutiellp tiff, igh overs table Flese nition, "ater jet sind, Operating tem ek 2 > 5 % VOLUME EXCAVATION RATE, w/e %6.3 Pick Usage Prediction Models Picks are worn both by abrasion due to the Tebbing action of abrasive minerals and by Exipping due to shock Loading of the pick. Both CRIDER? oea ‘co blunting of picks, to reducing their cutting efficiency and hence productivity. ve weer is due to the generation of spotst auring cutting. Tenperstore of those thot-spots" seduces the hardness of pick CREE" usuntty made Exon cerbide) to below thet of Geuress nesce weer occurs. Ae indicated in REIGN 82 the higner the percentage quarts and fhe larger the mean diameter of the quarte grains 1 should be noted that there is no standard Heky pick dlnensions vary fron sLin to squat and Piageten carbsde tips vary in metellursy, Sapenaing on excavation requsrenents. Hence i GePaieeieit to compare pick usage from one job Eo the next if different picks are used (cfs Figures 27-29). Recent research vork into the use of water jet Geeisted rock cueting (Hood, 1985; Morris and MacAndrev, 186) Powell, 1p and Johnson, 1986) Pelshurse’ and Deliacy i966) has indicated thet The tmotvapot' cenperatures axe reduced by water She." Gae jete also flush out abrasive debris HESS ene tip point. Both these actions lead to Anproved prodectavaty. Tis e the aieticulty in comparing Various teste nave been developed to characterise the abrasiveness of @ Fock:Schimazek and knatz (1970) determine = coefficient of vear, "Fa" on the basis of petrographic examination of sedimentary rocks This "F," value in defined as 7, = 2a6t where, @= 8 quarte or quarts equivalent, inerals (eee Tabler 1 and 2) fron ‘icroscopte determination, 2+ moan diameter of quartz grains in Ot = Brazilian Tensile strengtn of oven arsed core. + If the mean grain size is less than 0.035 an, is recorded as 0.025 mn. Below this Gismeter it appeare that graine nave iittle + Tensile steongtn is taken ae a measure of the bond strength between grains, in facts current reaeareh at the University of ew South Walee suggests that. the relationship between bond strength, grain size and abrasivity may be more complex then Sriginally ehoushe. Voost Alpine have developed a coctelation between "Ps" for sedimentary rocks with more tha IO "Kennanetal" picks (Pigute 27). 6.3.2 Voost Alpine Abrasivity Test (*#,") The abrasivity test is carried out on the matching half of the block used for their cuttability test. A vertically loaded stool pin is rotated along a circular path. After traversing 3. the pin is replaced. tho weight loss for five pine se then uasd to ‘ealculate. the coetficient of wear "P." in ag/m, (Hanford, 3984). From comparative testing Voest Mpine found en almost linear relationship between and i," for sedinentary rocke with at Least “108 of gusts minerals However for other rocks such aa sedimentary rocks with high percentages of ailicate minerals oF pyrite, ‘or ‘metamorphic rocks, there are poor Fo, 8, and pick vsage (see Figure 26) for aféccrdnt Hennanetal pickse 6.3.3 CERCHAR Abrasivity est ‘Me CERCIAR abrasivity is measured by tho wear flat diameter, expressed in 1/10 mn, produced by ubbing « special steel tool ‘under "load on rook (Bancora, 1984). Voost Alpine have derived @ relationship between the CERGIAK “queete” asd abrasivity velues and Kennanetal pick usage, given in Figure 23, 6.3 University of Nevosstle Cutting Wear Test Following the rock cutting test the carbide toss fron the cutting tool, due to Both abrasion and chipping, 1s accurately ‘measured, Thie ioes i exprested in terns of mg ger metre cat. Prom Eiela monitoring of Dosce Mk 2h roadheaderss MeFeat=smith & Fowell (1977) obtained the Felationship between cutting vear and pick ueaye show sn Pigure 20. 1s Ki f r o 7 é 2 7 S06 7 E f i « X-swostoe Fr z PICK USAGE PICK ni? FIGURE 30. Relationship between Newcastle University's Cutting Wear Test 6 Plex Usage Of all the above teste only the University of Neveastie's rock cutting test can predict productivity figures trom first principles Bonever, even with this test there io 2 gep between ‘relating the SE of a rock using sheep Dicks and the abrasivity of the rock. Ae sandstone quickly blunts picks and increases the apparent si of ock 3 to 4 fold. where this ta not recognised there will be gross, misrmatches Detusen predicted and actual productivity. Xe is suggested that possible ways of improving predictive models may be tos (4) carry out extended testing of rock Banples to dovelop a stable pick veat flat and chon determine the rock's apparent st, (iA) carey out extended niniature dritiebilty tests, for example the CORGHAR toughness vyeluo' test, until a relatively constant rete of penetration develops. ‘This sate could then be correlated with productivity. (i) Ag with the Goodrich test, relate aeitlability index ageingt wear miner and subdivide the fields inte Productivity cells,7.4 Pectors Affecting sulldozer Ripping ‘me ripping action of @ bulldozer 1s dependent on the penetration fares imparted by the ripper, the 1 poitdceer can put about 25% of sts weight onto the ripper ip. (Drevster, 1904). Once the tap fis penetrated the bulldoser's weight also helps to" deternine sti dfavbsr pail (DP), the. axinn pull’ that can be dnparted before track slip Bravber” pull’ ip equivalent to te traction forse (tan ¢ 2 cosétieient of friction between the tracks ond the ground) x bulldozer weight tans Bp = w tan és ‘me power of the belldozer is normally expressed ge flywheel power: Thie, molesplies by power Ulain efficiency (about 808), gives the effective power (P) of Mgrauser gower" (Church, 2981) which Ectermines whether or not the tip canbe Gavanceds Ar ground speed (V) ie reduced the pull force (e) increaser until it reaches fRaxiaum at stalling speedy iat» As indicated in Sections 2 and 3, the desth of Toper (pick) penetration se not ‘only. dependent Sn down ‘peesaue, Dut elo op rake ( ), rapper Glp cross sectional area and strength of rock. angle (20! ~e2), tne optimum penetration angle iesoe "8 (uht’ is, the axis of the ripper tip axinan angie 90" “ee 6) ie about 45" on flat (ground, To increase thia angle the bulldozer bas to rip dommill. However, by Going so there 18 Yeee weight teanaterred to the ripper tsp. There are three basic ripper types, hinge, Dpecallelogean and adjustable peralielogran. The Tatter conbines benefits of the first tho and 1s the most common (Caterpillar, 2976). Further, there are single and multivshank Cappers, the nore shanks, the less tsp pressure, ‘reaction factor depends on track condition and on the surface material. For tracks in good Condition the approximate coefficient of traction ApPRORIMANE COEPFICTENT OF TRACTION FACTORS TEASED ON CATERFILEAR, 1978, UALS CTHERWZSE NOTED) Surface ‘eaction concrete 0.85 Dey and 0.30 sandy clay (ary) } o.s0 guarry Pit 0.55 Gravel Road (loose, not hard) 0.50) cows, ripped rock 0.60 (Chacon, 1975) the unrippea rock. ° If the ateength parameters of the material to be Fipped “sce” hnowa) the foregoing determines the Wihether ipper penetration can be obtained ana fRaintained in that formation. Tt aleo determines Whether the bulldoser ha power to advance the Tipper tip and whether the groes weight of the bubldoeee will give sufficient traction to ore Sts flytieel powers Before considering the strength parameters and the predictive models there is another” factor which greatly affects the economics and Droductivity of rippingy that ie, the size of the Fipeed. product required. "There are, tre itificiently so that se tay be economically Sizes The “latter aay be either to prodace #11 tases "She saserial wen ‘compacted steal ave Gan be enconpaased in a 250 (oF 300, oF 50D, oF specification for delivery to # crusher for agsregste or ore processing. the size of the snstial product wilt be greatly Tneluenced by the geological and cite conditions. Kovever, ‘the final required product Size, before processing, will dictate ene spacing Ae aieeady seen, geotechnical factors which Influence cuttability of in this case, Hppabiiity of rock, inolude rook strength, joint Spacing, joint openeas, josne orientation. the factors favourable of unfavourable for Hoping are outlined in eble 14, Factors Favourable Rectors unfavourable for Ripping ior Rioping 2a Low rock strength |, High rook steangen 2, uarge geain aise |2. Fine grain ize 3, Besette, exyetaitine |3. Plastic, mek non-crystalline 4. cuonety jointed or 4, Massive roe faulted Zook Highly steatigied or |§, Homegenenous cock laminated rock 6. Weathered rook 6. Fresh ro0kNot all the factors favourable for sipping are conducive to ripping efficiency. For example, Fipping efficiency is better when rock breaks into larger pieces. When rock breaks into very snail pieces ‘or whon it granulates only the pare Fipped will bo crushed asa graove and the eet To be able to predict rock rigpability there needs to be a noone of assessing the rock mass parancters, either directly or indirectly. Over, the last twenty years these have been a large hunber of rock mase classification systems Geveloped to try to characterise sock for various, Fesgons, but mainly a4 4 neans of assessing Support requirements fer underground Gxcavations. wo of ‘the most used classification (Bieniavers, 1973, 1975) and. of the Norwegian Geotechnical’ inetitute (Basten, Lien and. tundey wo75). Both aystens have also been incorporated into Gitterent rock rippability preaictive modal strength fron a knowledge of rock substance properties and the strength of defects (requiring easurononts doninatea by fino detail) is a Geophysical method. Geophysics provides a bulk Properties on physical paveneters auch ae setanie velocity, resistivity, and density. Of these Physical parameters. the measurement of variations in seismic velocity by refeaction methods has bbeen the most popular and the sort successful way of predicting wippability. 7.2 Riggabslity Predictive Models Based on Seianie Velocity 7.2.1 Caterpillar Rippability Cheet Rippers nounted on bulldosece wire introduced in the mid-1950's, in 1958 the Caterpillar Tractor Company started correlating setsnic velocity and rippability (caterpillar, 1976). These correlations have been tevised and updated as ewer and nore Govorful equgnent hes Deon added chare for a DSL is reproduced as Figure 3- Bach gine of bulldozer hee ite oun chart and on each chart there are three classes of Fippabilitys rippable, marginal and hon-ippable. ‘These classes are not defineds however Section 7.4 of thie Paper locks at this definition problem, Tt should also be noted that there are different velocity ranges for sifterent Similar charts are also available for Komatsu and Fiot-AlLis bulldossrs. Using data from 28 Main Roads Department (KD) of Queensland sites in sandstone, Martin (1966) Compared fiela rippability with performance predicted using Caterpillar charts. te, found that in'36y of the cases the Caterpillar charts were over optimistic, see igure 22. 1 SATSACTORY Remi auasTag nanan membre Sess fe 3 3, 2 mppasue E 4 5 c+ : » i. z oof i a oa ae evra AMG mache FIGIRE 92. Comparison of Martin's Field Rippability Reoults with Caterpillar's 7.2.2 church's Excavation Assessment, chorch (1972) carted out a comprehensive field study of velocity vartations vith depth ae. pete Of a series of rippability studies. Thess Etudies were carried out’ in a large. number of Guts in California overga geriod ef 15" yearer Approximately 9 x 10° mf a material was excavated from cuts of up to 100 m depth following 750 km of eeissic traversing in material types varying fron alluvium to. geentter ‘The selomic velocity of the materiale ranged frox 300 to 6700 m/sec. Fran the study Church fourd ‘the following broad eelationshig: ess than 450 9/s _.- requires no ripping Greater than 2150 m/s ~ usually coquices ~ trected et ffocently 1850 ~ 2100 a/e Church found that for depths of up to 75 m and velocities of up to 4900 n/a there was an approximately Linear relationship: between setamie Velocity end depth for each rock type. Parthety the Linear functions depended on weathering conditions, (see Table 15], Chueh proposed theconjunction with thiz Table, Te List (Table 16) Gnelugea seven surface. feature’ variables) which dig affect weathering, fron the chocklist iNiteaget or snininoat “can be prodicted eves before ony subsurface investagation has been Gaerica out. the weathering asstasnent loads to the appropriate seismic velocity /aepen Eelaciouenip. forthe sock type and hence, an Sppropeiate profile can be determined. ineeresng Ue tbove Seienie ‘seloesty versus cippenslsty Eelavionshipe, eo the aelenic. profile allows Hlnstcpace ectinate Of percentage Tippebility of Tele Bate? Tone 16 sus oscrarion com 7.3 Rippability Predictive Hodels Based on Rock Hore (ego, 50 MPa) can crush ond penetrate Toot of 1:5 to Z times higher strength (75 - 100 Nba Taporatery strength) because of manor cracks and Seints an the rock mass. Based on this, Konatey produced Figure 33 shoving their predicted range Sf Fippebility for various bulldozer models 7.3.2 Rock Strength and Joint Spacing ve Reppanility Up untii the early 1970's the assessment of aritling/alasting versus ripping operations were based on eather the above seismic velocity ethods or on an empirical approach, such a6. the Tvolve key" scratch test. one of the first attempts to formally classify of predict the Gurtace excavation methods using information 51. (1971), They graphed point load strength SERLLLSESE dnd”"Ceaden (190i) on comparing