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ESTIMATION OF FIRE LOAD IN A BUILDING AND PROCEDURE TO ASCERTAIN

SAFETY OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Conference Paper · March 2018

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

ESTIMATION OF FIRE LOAD IN A BUILDING AND

PROCEDURE TO ASCERTAIN SAFETY OF STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS

Sushant Gadilohar1, Ratnesh Kumar2

1
PG Student, Deptt. of Applied Mechanics, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur, sushantgadilohar@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Applied Mechanics, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur, ratnesh.eq@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In recent years, occurrence of building fire has become a more frequent event which
highlights the need of incorporating effect of fire in structural designing and detailing. Most
of the fire affected buildings are put into re-use by only providing cosmetic repairs instead of
evaluating the actual damage in the structural members caused due to fire. Present study
provides a simplified procedure for assessing the stability of fire affected buildings. In the
study, a realistic public building is considered for calculation of fire load density. The
maximum rise in temperature in various rooms of the building, the material properties at the
elevated temperature and the reduced member capacity due to fire exposure have been
obtained from analysis using Eurocode-2 method. Reduced member capacity due to expected
fire have been compared with expected demand under fire to ascertain the failure of structural
elements. The study also provides a method to calculate fire rating of the structural elements
for particular building.
Key Words: Building Fire, Fire Load Energy Density, Fire Rating, Member capacity, Fire
safety

INTRODUCTION
Occurrence of fire inside the building is an unexpected phenomenon which can cause loss of
lives and damage to the property. As per the world fire statistics (2011) given by the Geneva
Association (National Crime Records Bureau, NFPA 2010), India suffers most deaths due to
fire per year across the world. Even though the occurrence of building fire is more frequent
other than extreme events like earthquake and hurricanes etc., the subject has not received
adequate importance in structural design and detailing.
Effect of fire on material properties and on structural members are the two important
parameters for proper evaluation of damage of a building due to fire. Experimental studies by
many researchers show that the material strength degradation at higher temperature is a major
concerning issue in a fire event. Arioz (2007), studied the effect of high temperature on
compressive strength of concrete with different types of aggregates and found significant
reduction in compressive strength of concrete above 800oC. Hager (2013), presented effect of
high temperature on physical properties (colour change, thermal strain and thermal strain
under load) of concrete and studied the colour change of concrete at various temperature
range. Topcu (2008), investigated performance of S220 and S420 reinforcing steel rebars
under fire and found significant reduction in tensile strength of rebars above 950oC. Youssef
and Moftah (2007), proposed stress-strain model of concrete incorporating effect of
temperature. Jau and Hang (2007), studied the effect of non-uniform fire on strength of

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

reinforced concrete column subjected to 2 hour and 4 hour of fire exposure along with
axial loading and biaxial bending. Kodur and Dwaikat (2008), developed the mathematical
model for predicting the behavior of reinforced concrete beams subjected to fire with the
effect of spalling. Tan and Yao (2004), presented simplified approach for predicting fire
resistance of column subjected to different thermal boundary conditions and developed
strength reduction factors for steel and concrete subjected to 1-face, 2-face, 3-face and 4-face
heating by using SAFIR software tool. Wickstrom (1986), developed simplified approach for
estimating temperatures in fire exposed RC members. Stern-Gottfried et al. (2012),
investigated vertical fire propagation time in a building and found that vertically upward fire
travel time was 6-8 minutes and downward travel time was 30 minutes. Law and Gillie
(2010), proposed new method for developing interaction diagrams of sections at any
temperature with the use of the sectional tangent stiffness. Pham et al. (2015), used yield
design theory to develop the procedure to determine PM- Interaction diagrams of RC sections
in fire. Hadole (2017), performed non-linear static pushover analysis to assess seismic
behavior of fire affected models. Author considered 44 different fire possibilities in order to
find out worst fire scenario for building.
Different national codes provide different approach to handle structural fire related issues.
National Building Code of India (2016) provides simplified tables for different fire rating to
safeguards structural elements. However, it does not provide method for assessing reduced
capacity of fire affected structural elements. Eurocode-1(EN 1991-1-2:2002) and Eurocode-
2(EN 1992-1-2:2004) provides detailed procedure for assessment of fire affected members.
Eurocode uses ISO: 834 curve (ISO, 1999a) as a standard fire curve. It also provides stress-
strain properties of concrete and steel at elevated temperature (shown in Figure 1). Eurocode-
2 provides two simplified approaches for estimating capacity of fire affected members: (a)
Zone Method and (b) 500oC Isothermal Method.

When the fire occurs in a room/compartment, extent of damage to structural elements mainly
depends on two factors: Amount of fuel load available in a room (Fire Load Energy Density)
and temperature rise in a room. Hence, in the study maximum temperature rise in a
compartment/room/building due to fire load is determined and reduction in member capacity
of beams due to expected fire exposure is estimated.

DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING

Constructional Details
In the present study, an institutional building is considered for assessment of structural fire
effects. The plan of building is regular with longitudinal arrangement of rooms along with
parallel 2.1 m wide corridor (shown in Figure 2). Selected building is two storey (G+1) RC
moment resisting frame with 280 mm thick unreinforced burnt clay brick infill (considering
both side plaster). The floor to floor height of building is 4 m and provided with 150 mm
thick slab. The building is situated on medium soil strata and located in seismic zone II (as
per IS 1893: (Part 1) 2016) having peak ground acceleration of 0.10g. The building is
constructed with M20 grade of concrete (i.e. characteristics strength = 20 MPa) and Fe 415
grade steel (i.e. yield stress = 415 MPa). The building is consisting of 6 frames along
longitudinal direction(x-direction) and 20 frames along transverse direction(y-direction).
There are no significant damages and cracks observed in structural and non-structural
elements of the building.

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

450
18 20˚C 400 20˚C
16 350 300˚C
300˚C

Stress (MPa)
14 300 600˚C
Stress (MPa)

12 600˚C
250 900˚C
10 900˚C 200
8
150
6
100
4
2 50
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Strain Strain
(a) Concrete (ƒ’c = 16 MPa) (b) Steel (Yield stress = 415 MPa)
Figure 1 Stress-strain curve for different temperatures (EN 1992-1-2:2004)

Analysis and Design

Structural modelling, analysis and design has been performed using structural analysis
software SAP 2000. The considered existing building has been constructed in 1960 and
designed by prevailing Indian standard codes. Columns are eccentrically placed to create
offset in external walls (as shown in Figure 3).
2.9 4.3 3.4 7.5 4.1 4.6 11.2 13.5 15.8 6.5
3

WC Room
Corridor

7 Room 4 Room 3 Room 1

3.3

Room 2

10.8
WC Room 8
Room
Room
6 5
4.1

Staircase

D D D D D D D
Corridor (2.1 m wide)
All Dimensions in Metres
Figure 2 First Floor Plan of the considered building

The reinforcement details are not available, hence building has been designed using
configurational details (from actual measurements, Table 1) for gravity loads as per
provisions of IS 456:2000 for 1.5 (Dead Load + Live Load). The building loads are
considered as per provisions of IS 875-Part I and Part II: 1987. The analytical model of the
considered building is as shown in the Figure 4. Slab has been modelled using thin shell area
element.
Table 1 Configurational Details
Particulars Dimension Particulars Dimension
(mm) (mm)
Type 1 230 x 400 Type 1 250 x 280
Type 2 250 x 650 Type 2 250 x 500
Beams Type 3 280 x 550 Columns Type 3 350 x 600
Type 4 400 x 1000 Type 4 280 x 1000
Type 5 550 x 425 Type 5 1300 x 425

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

Type 6 1300 x 425 - -

3.1 4.3 4.3 14 @ 4.6 m c/c

3 @ 3.7 m c/c
6.8

B6
B5 B4
B1
B3
4.3

B2

2.9
2.2
All Dimensions are in metres
Figure 3 Structural plan of the building

Figure 4 Analytical Model of the building

Expected Demand under fire

As the fire is an accidental event, loads present at the time of fire are much lower than the
actual design loads for structural elements at ambient temperature. Table 2 shows expected
fire demand suggested by different codes.
Table 2 Fire Limit State Load Combinations
Codes Load Combinations
Eurocode (CEN, 2002a) Lƒ* = Gk# + 0.5Qk+ or Lƒ = Gk + 0.9Qk
US Standards (ASCE, 2010) Lƒ = 1.2Gk + 0.5Qk
Australia/New Zealand Standard (SA, 2002) Lƒ = Gk + 0.4Qk or Lƒ = Gk + 0.6Qk
*Factored Load Combination for Fire, #Characteristic Dead Load, +Characteristic Live Load

In the paper, the stability of beams under fire is assessed using fire limit state combination
suggested by Eurocode i.e. (Dead Load (DL) + 0.5 (Live Load)).

STAGES IN FIRE ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING

Estimation of Fire Load/ Fire Load Energy Density

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

Fire Load is an important parameter to decide the maximum temperature rise in a particular
compartment/room. Amount of combustible material in a compartment/room is generally
expressed in terms of Fire Load Energy Density. Fuel available in a room in the form of
furniture, plastic, paper, lining materials and some part of structural elements. All these
material release energy/heat as per their calorific value. Following are the steps to evaluate
fire load in any compartment (Buchanan and Abu, 2017).
(a) Determination of total energy contained in the fuel
The quantity and calorific values of each item present in the compartment is obtained.
Range of calorific values of various items are used as per given in Purkiss (2007).
Similar calorific values are also present in National Building Code of India (2016). Total
Energy contained in the fuel (E) = Mass (M) x Calorific Value (∆Hc) = M ∆Hc
(b) Heat Release Rate = Q = E/tb where, tb = time of burning
(c) Fuel load energy density = ef = E/Af where Af = Total Floor Area
(d) Total fire load in the compartment is given as Qfi,k = Σ Mk,i Hu,i where, Mk,i and Hu,i are
the mass and calorific values of the ith material within the compartment.
In the present study, fire load in various rooms are calculated. Figure 5 shows various types
of material present in room 1 of the considered building. The various inflammable materials
in room 1 are classified into three categories i.e. wood, plastic and papers according to their
calorific values. Further, the weights of chairs, stools, cupboards, tables, computers, printers,
partitions and paper type materials are calculated. The typical calculation of estimation of
fuel weights for room 1 is given in Table 3. The fire load of room 1 has been obtained from
fuel weights and its calorific values. Similarly, fuel weights and fire load energy density of
other rooms are calculated and presented in Table 4.

Room 1-(a) Room 1-(b)

Figure 5 Types of Fire Load in Room 1
Table 3 Estimation of Weights of fuel available in Room 1
List of Items No. Weight (kg) Total Weight Total
(kg) (kg)
Chair 20 5 100
Stools 10 5 50
Wood Cupboard - - - 650
Small Tables 7 20 140
Large Tables 3 120 360
Chair 6 1.5 9
Plastic PC 8 5 40 84
Printers 3 5 15

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

Partition - 20 20
Papers Books - 400 400 400

Evaluation of Maximum Temperature Rise in various rooms

For appropriate evaluation of damage in structural elements, calculation of the compartment
temperature is necessary. Maximum temperature rise in the various rooms of the considered
building has been calculated using Parametric Fire Curve Equations (BS EN 1991-1-2:2002).
Table 5 shows that the maximum expected temperature in rooms of the considered building
calculated by incorporating the effect of ventilation factor, fuel load and wall lining material
properties.

Estimation of Reduced Capacity of beams under expected fire exposure

The simplified calculation methods are given in BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 for evaluating
capacity of structural members at elevated temperature. The scope of present study is
restricted up to capacity assessment of beams only as most of the columns are covered with
lining materials. 500oC Isothermal Method has been used in the present paper to calculate
reduced moment capacity of beams. Figure 6 explains steps involved in estimating capacity
of beams exposed to fire.

Table 4 Estimation of Fire Load in different compartments of building

Fire load Total
Calorific Energy Floor
Mass energy Fire load
Value Contained Area
Particulars Material density
∆Hc Af ef = E / Af
M(kg) E(MJ) (MJ/m2)
(MJ/kg) (m2) (MJ/m2)

Wood 17.5 650 8750 70.24 124.57

Room 1 Plastic 25 84 2125 70.24 30.25 269
Papers 20 400 8000 70.24 113.89
Wood 17.5 2975 50750 171.06 296.69
Room 2
Plastic 25 10 250 171.06 1.46 304
Papers 20 50 1000 171.06 5.85
Wood 17.5 2020 33600 146.23 241.74
Room 3
Plastic 25 42 750 146.23 7.18 267.3
Papers 20 150 3000 146.23 20.52
Wood 17.5 970 16625 122.06 136.21
Room 4
Plastic 25 5 125 122.06 1.03 138.05
Papers 20 5 100 122.06 0.9
Wood 17.5 600 10500 48.5 216.78
Room 5
Plastic 25 60 1500 48.5 30.96 413
Papers 20 400 8000 48.5 165.1
Wood 17.5 75 1312.5 15.73 83.4
Room 6
Plastic 25 10 250 15.73 15.9 162.92
Papers 20 50 1000 15.73 63.6
Wood 17.5 75 1312.5 18.23 72
Room 7
Plastic 25 10 250 18.23 13.72 140.58
Papers 20 50 1000 18.23 54.86
Room 8 Wood 17.5 500 8750 81.20 107.8
110.54
Plastic 25 5 125 81.20 1.54

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

Papers 20 5 100 81.20 1.24

Table 5 Maximum Expected Temperature

Particulars Total Fire Load (MJ/m2) Tmax (oC)
Room 1 269 870
Room 2 304 890
Room 3 267.3 862
Room 4 138.05 765
Room 5 413 975
Room 6 162.92 784
Room 7 140.58 813
Room 8 110.54 687

Determine
reduced cross- Obtain material Calculate rebar Determine
section properties at temperature using reduced
elevated penetration due to Moment
corresponding
temperature fire Capacity
to 500oC
Isotherm

Figure 6 Prescriptive Approach for estimating capacity of beams exposed to fire

In the present study, maximum temperature of 890oC and 975oC was found to be reached in
room 2 and room 5 respectively. Hence, the reduced moment capacity has been obtained for
some beams in room 2 and room 5. The positions of the beams are given in structural plan of
the building. The moment capacity of beam B1 was found to 381 kN-m at 975oC and it was
observed that beam capacity is reduced by approximately 42 %. Similarly, reduced moment
capacities of all other beams are calculated as shown in Table 6.
Table 6 Reduced Capacity of Beams
Beam Cross- Fire Reduced Moment Reduced %
No. section Temperature C/S(mm) Capacity Moment Reduction
(mm) (oC) (Mc) kN- Capacity(Rf)
m kN-m
(Ambient)
B1 250 x 650 975 180 x 615 658 381 42
B2 280 x 550 975 210 x 515 262 179 25
B3 400 x 1000 975 330 x 965 1417 979 30.91
B4 400 x 1000 890 350 x 975 2024 1454 12
B5 280 x 550 890 230 x 525 417 290 30.4
B6 230 x 400 890 180 x 375 390 169.15 56

Further, the reduced moment capacity of beams are compared with the expected fire demand
i.e. fire limit state load combination Dead Load (DL) + 0.5 Live Load (LL) as shown in
Table 7 to ascertain the stability of beams when exposed to fire.

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

The results from Table 7 have shown that all the beams are having their reduced moment
capacity at their respective temperature found to be greater than moment obtained using
accidental load case of fire. Hence, beams are said to be stable under expected fire demand.

Table 7 Comparison of capacity of fire affected section with expected fire demand
Beam No. Cross-section Mu 1.5(DL+LL) Mu (DL+0.5LL) Rf (Fire Case)
(mm) kN-m kN-m kN-m
B1 250 x 650 342 184 381
B2 280 x 550 60 33 179
B3 400 x 1000 573 239 979
B4 400 x 1000 573 328 1454
B5 280 x 550 172 95 290
B6 230 x 400 97 52 169.15

Calculation of fire rating of beams

As per National Building Code of India (2016), Fire Resistance Rating is defined as the time
which structural members can withstand when subjected to standard fire tests. The analytical
study is carried out to decide the fire rating of the beams in room 2 and room 5. These beams
are checked for different hours of Standard fire exposure. Table 8 shows the calculated
moment capacities of all considered beams at different hour of fire exposure.
The expected demand for B1 was found to be 184 kN-m which lies between moment
capacities of B1 at 2-hour of fire exposure and 2.5 –hour of fire exposure i.e. between 217
kN-m and 145 kN-m respectively. Hence, it can be given fire rating of 2-hour. Similarly, fire
ratings for all the beams are calculated as shown in Table 8. From this calculation, it has been
found that fire ratings of building elements varies from 2-hour to 3-hour.

Table 8 Fire Resistance Rating of Beams

Beam Mu Mambient M0.5hr M1hr M1.5hr M2hr M2.5hr M3hr Remarks
No. (DL+0. (kN-m) (kN- (kN- (kN- (kN- (kN- (kN- (Fire
5LL) m) m) m) m) m) m) Rating-
kN-m hours)
B1 184 658 516 421 301 217 145 109 2-hr
B2 33 262 236 201 140 97 59 42 3-hr
B3 239 1417 1266 1089 771 534 323 231 2.5-hr
B4 328 2024 1674 1418 1037 755 492 355 3-hr
B5 95 417 339 282 204 147 98 73 2.5-hr
B6 52 390 279 177 126 97 70 56 3-hr

CONCLUSION

Past fire accidents shown that occurrence of fire in a building can result in damage as well as
collapse of the structure. Hence, proper assessment of fire safety shall be done for
anticipating and determining the amount of damage and chances of collapse. In this paper,
simplified method to ascertain fire loads and structural safety has been provided.
For case study, small institutional building has been considered and its realistic fire load is
calculated. Calculation of realistic fire load indicated that temperature in different
rooms/compartments can vary from 690oC to 975oC under an isolated fire event. The

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

reduction in capacity of beams have been determined for respective temperature rise occurred
due to realistic fire load. Further, the anticipated demand for fire safety load case i.e.
(DL+0.5LL) compared with available reduced capacity and it was observed that for present
fire load, structure will remain stable i.e. no collapse of any part of structure will occur.
Furthermore, using reverse calculation fire rating of different rooms/compartments have been
ascertained. This simplified procedure can be applied to various buildings for assessing the
behavior under fire event.

REFERENCES

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 International Conference on
Advances in Construction Materials and Structures (ACMS-2018)
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India, March 7-8, 2018

20. Purkiss, J. A. (2007), “Fire Safety Engineering: Design of Structures (Second Edition)”,
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