Reported by AC Committee 547 Refractory concretes are cur- rently used in a wide variety of industrial applications where py- reprocessing and/or thermal con- tainment is required. The service demands of these applications are becoming increasingly severe and this, combined with the constant demand for refractories with en- hanced service life and more ef- ficient means of installation, has resulted in an ever expanding re- fractory conerete technology: ACI ‘Committee 547 has prepared this state-of-the-art report in order 10 meet the need for a better under- standing of this relatively new technology. The report presents back- ground information and per- spective on the history and ‘cur rent status of the technolog) Composition and proportioning methods are discussed together with a detailed review of the con- stituent ingredients. Emphasis is placed on proper procedures for the installation, curing, drying, and firing. The physical and engi- neering properties of both normal weight and light weight refractory concretes are reported, as are state-of-the-art construction de- tails and repair/maintenance tech- niques. Also included is an ine depth review of a wide variety of applications together with the committee's assessment of future needs and developments. Kaworks sbrasion; sccleating aren iniures) aggregates amin cement and concrows, anehorage (etactra) metagpes reacts chal aay. SE cominucion” eorsion ering: ing: fee shaman mere nee hydrates insulting cone Ins lputwalghtconerestx, heSoneal pope 15 i praporonngs peep hr nysleal properties. plage pumped. com Erde, quality congol retacttes refrac tory’ comeretes;remforsing material Dales; Tesearchs shotorete, spatiin Sructal analysis femporatres, there oper; water Weld ‘wie abr, © Refractory Concrete: Abstract of State-of-the-Art Report U ‘his goernet fs appara in Conn dom Ve Re NEP Estered inthis abstract. Contents of summary Chapter 1 — Introduction, p. SATR2 LL = Objective of report 12 = Scape oF report 13 > Nomencian 16 = Non-hyeraslic sercing refrec- Chapter 2 — Criteria for re- fractory concrete selection, p. SAR. 2 ~ Inroduesion 22. = Castabes and field mixes 2:5 = Load beering considerations 20 = Abrasion ane erosion resiste Chapter 3 - Constituent in. gredients, p. 547R-6 32 = Binders 33° > Aggregates 3A Bffecss oF extraneous materials Chapter 4 - Composition and proportioning, p. 547R-7 41 ~ lerodaction 43) 1 eke mice S41 ite coment Chapter 5 ~ Installation, p, SRB ET tatson of 33 = Shoterting 54 — Pumping and extruding $3 — Pneumatic gur caring Sa 1 Finishing Chapter 6 ~ Curing, drying, firing, p. 547-9 4) msoduction 82 53 5a 65 Gangriate © 1979, Ameren Concrete isstate TEE cane deg eh of eae tha in ese nan form ce Og any mess ‘loding We making oF ope any pt Sang ay ton ocala Arua eprduson a fr se ea age or retrleval atom or device, unless pr sa7Ra Be Separate Gullaion 8% Xin, paper caer ‘ages Cents Usted on ts page oproct bay the soto of the port. Gules ——__ ACI 547R-79 TRovised 1385) (Reapproved 1997) harp, Din & Cr. te Bat par esse st congo 24 Chapter 7 — Properties of normal weight refractory concretes, p. 547R-10 LL = Introduction 2 = Maximum service temperature 4 Shrinkage and expansion 5 = Strenath & = Themah conductivity io Specie nem Chapter 8 — Properties of lightweight refractory con- cretes, p. 547R-11 1 — Introduction £4 = Sinlage expansion ss 2 Stengt 85 = Thermal conductivity S10 = specific hex Chapter 9 — Construction de tails, p. 547R12 BL = odction = Stpport structure 3 Fonne 82 Anchors 85 1 Reinforcement and metal embed meat as — Joins Chapter 10 — Repair, p. 547R-13 11 = Intoduetion 2 = Feline mechaions 3 = Surface ‘preparation {Ut Anchoring and bonding G3 — Repar metenals 15“ Repair Techniques Chapter 11 - Applications, p. S47R-15 IL = Ireodution Chapter 12 — New devel- opments and future use of re- fraetory concrete, p. 547R-15, 21 = Imzoietion 122 New devetopmenss 13 = Research requirements snow tn wring abn from the copyright Bees. eustn oftis commie repert say be su tian actordanee nity geaetalrequrements ff he ACI Paitin Pay to ACI Hesaaar= ters PO. Box TH, Detrote Michigan 49. (Going date for subeabsion sf scan Ne senber 1, 178sa7R2 Chapter 1 - Introduction 1.1 Objective of report The objective of this report is to provide a source o: information on the many facets of reffactory con- crete technology. The report is intended as a unified and objective source of information to aid the engi- neer or consumer in categorizing and evaluating monolithic refractory concrete technology and the many materials and processes available today. It is not intended to be a specification or standard, and should not be quoted ot used for that purpose. 1.2 Scope of report Refractory conorete, is concrete suitable for use at temperatures up to about 3400 F (1870 C). It consi of a graded refractory aggregate bound by a suitable cementing medium. “This report is concemed with reffactory concrete in. which the binding agent is a hhydranlic cement, and does not consider concretes which use waterglass (sodium silicate), phosphonic acid, or phosphates as a principal cementing agent, It covers all facets of refractory concrete installation and use, including the properties of individual in- gredients and concretes, placing techniques, methods Of curing and firing, repair procedures, construction details, and current ‘and fiture applications 1.3 Nomenclature The following definitions ‘2 are used in this report: ACID REFRACTORIES. - Refractories containing @ substantial amount of ‘silica that may react chem- ically with basic refractories, basic slags, oz basic fluxes at high temperatures APPARENT POROSITY (ASTM C20) - The tela- tionship of the volume of the open pores in a refrace tory specimen to its exterior volume, expressed 2s a percentage. BASIC REFRACTORIES ~ Refractories whose ma- Jjor constituent is lime, magnesia, or both, and which ‘may react chemically with acid refraciories, acid slags, or acid fluxes at high temperatures. (Com- mercial use of this term also includes refractories made of chrome ore or combinations of chrome ore and dead bumed magnesite). CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT - Tae product obiained by pulverizing clinker which consists of hy- Graulic calcium aluminates formed by fusing or sin- tering a suitably proportioned mixture of aluminous and calcareous ‘materials, CASTABLE REFRACTORY ~ & proprietary pack- aged dry mixture of hydraulic cement and specially selected and proportioned refractory aggregates which, when mixed with water, will produce reftac- tory conerete or mortar CERAMIC BOND ~ The high strength bond which is developed between materials, such as. calcium aluminate cement and refractory aggregates, as a re- sult of thermochemical reactions which occur when the materials are subjected to elevated temperature EXPLOSIVE SPALLING - & sudden spalling which occurs as the result of a build-up of steam pressure caused by too rapid heating on first firing. GROG - Burned refractory material, usually cal- cined clay or crashed brick bats. u . ter MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE HEAT RESISTANT CONCRETE ~ Any concrete which will not disintegrate when exposed to com stant or cyclical heating at any temperature below Which @ ceramic bond is formed. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT ~ Seo calcium aluni- nate cement. NEUTRAL REFRACTORIES ~ Refractories that are resistant to chemical attack by both acid and ba- sic slags, refractories, or fluxes at high temper- atures. REFRACTORY AGGREGATE ~ Materials having refractory properties which form a reffactory body ‘when bound into a conglomerate mass by a matrix. REFRACTORY CONCRETE ~ Concrete which is stitable for use at high temperatures and contains hydraulic cement as the dinding agent SOFTENING TEMPERATURE’ ~ The temperature at which a refractory material begins to undergo permanent deformation under specified conditions, ‘This term is more appropriately applied to glasses than to reffactory coneretes, THERMAL SHOCK ~ The exposure of a matetial or body to a rapid change in temperature which may have a deleterious effect. 1.6 Non-hydraulic settimpfractories? The following discussion, while not pertinent, to the main theme of the report, will be of some interest and use to the reader 1.6.4 Refractory brick = High quality brick, known as firebrick, with unique chemical and physical pros enties is obtained by blending different types of clay and other ingredients and by varying both the method of processing and the burning temperatures In addition to the many varieties of fireciay brick, high alumina, insulating, silica, fused aggregate, and basic firebrick have been developed. Refractory brick remains a major construction material for 2 plications in which heat containment and control is necessary and in many instances, is the only satisfac- tory solution to a specific problem, Brick has a number of disadvantages when com- pared to monolithic refractories. These dis- advantages include multiple joints, complicated an- choring, higher placement costs, more difficult repair procedures, the need to maintain expensive invento- Ties of special or scarce items, a certain inflexibility in structural design, and higher fuel requirements uring manufactur. 1.6.2 Plastics and ramming mixes — Plastic reftac- tories and ramming mixes are refractories which are tamped or rammed in place and are used for mon- olithic construction, for repair purposes, and for molding special shapes. These materials find exten- sive use in industry. They usually employ a clay, ake ina, magnesite, chrome, silicon carbide, or graphite base, and are blended with a binder, Heat setting mixes are likely to contain fireclay or phosphoric acid as a binder. Air or cold-setting mixes generally contain fireclay and sodium silicate as the binder. Compared to ramming mixes, plastic refractories have higher moisture contents ‘and therefore, higher plasticity.sua ee see REFRACTORY COMCRETE ae “eet a = $8 Jo49 GOD Aiojsusyox IYBfON feMLION Jo SONS) CT -Z AAVBATRA MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE Weenevre comzncra ura Sais mosses 2a omnes ae iin) Ginsaat oo a rad gar Recommended Service hae I g java gory Sas ha ion set haus 40) 2 A Z Seeciad wee meester te | Geer seer 4658 mn gestae Feared ange eos 59 a x vetigd of wltcasione ae |eca-a-a 7 Bik Dare a ie percent, 200 810% | aa.ge 6-90 sess as Hel wks see EB fa a seo rep. re a3 tam ciety IS ses £8 : Bo ke : Bu eae : Sate omer a ‘aye ttg | 2 so-o6] og woe] oa ne ta | og vo oe Ease! Bue fag | as S cha] 23 8 me] ag ere | 88 BE Sin IE Bat { cure ce] 22 Bb BBE Sige Bue sat mie a ame, te per | zes-a60 racam | aseaso zs0-129 ass Ba so ie Hee Beas | es Hees HS ef Ey eae Bese | ae E SE Sie BRE | Beas BREE | EDS aor Sesh Bor | ea - Sia Graken SE = aay asses scorn | szoase | no-no Bes co ant sess Bene | Bese deus Be Ee eee fens | S088 | Begase GE Sie ROE ard Seas | dois : Bet | Blom, : Bah 28303 : Gaesical waaiyei, parsone sie, a 138 on Azo), "0, ten sams pe i Perey, Fea a os hat : ca, Heo a we nie skanies ss Lm Dee : Tpnitlen tose pid nas pac Rega commer Ra eT, a) a Sa he soo 7 a 2 ao ‘ — 1003 F 26 1.98 Ma 14s ey cae ih a 2B Bet a Bhs “CrGnotingr Ttroveling: S-shotereting, E-utrading. All neagurenante except thereal conductivicy talon St on temazatuces ‘+/7000 (Por back-up material) Semwoia tens Dears de es Pet 16.0 igi 1b oss ep 1 pats o.00st5 we i Btude jiseoy fe deoREFRACTORY CONCRETE Plastics are generally placed without use of forms. With the exception of some specialized tabular alu- mina castables, plastics have a somewhat higher ser- vice limit than’ castable refractories. Their main dis- advantages are greater shrinkage and crack development. Except for phosphate bonded mate- Hals cured above 600 F (315 C) plastics generally have lower cold and hot strengths than refractory coneretes. In addition, plastics tend to have a rela- tively low strength zone on the cool side of the line ing, Ramming mixes usually have higher density and less shrinkage than plastic refractories. With their low water content, they must be forced into place and requite strong well-braced forms. Some of the dryer medium grind ramming mixes are suitable for gunning, and are used for patching and maintenance materials 1.6.4 Gunning mixes other than refractory con- crass? ~ As used in this section, the term “gun- ning mixes” does not refer to refractory concrete and should not be confused with gunned refractory materials which produce reftactory concrete, Gun- ning mixes are mixtures of non-hydraulic setting in- gredients which are installed hot or cold, usually by the shoterete method. Gunning mixes generally have low rebound loss, are predominately used for patching or resurfacing brick or other refractories, have a strong internal bond, and exhibit excelient adhesion or bond to the ‘existing refractory lining. They find extensive use in basic oxygen, electric arc and open hearth furnaces, among other ‘applications Chapter 2 — Cri selection 2.1 Introduction Refractory concrete is usually made with high alu. soina cement. It is not generally used as a structural ‘material and its primary purpose is as @ protective lining for steel, concrete or brick structures. It is considered 2 consumable material requiring replace- ment after an appropriate service life. Some of the destructive forces that refractory con- eretes withstand are abrasion, erosion, physical abuse, high temperatures, thermal shock, hot and molten metals, clinker, slag, alkalies, mild acid or acid fumes, expansion, contraction, carbon monoxide, and flame impingement Refractory concretes are categorized as either nor mal weight or lightweight, The former are also re- ferred to 2s “heavy reftactory concretes” and the latter are often called “insulating refractory con- cretes.” Table 2.la shows the characteristics of a typical range of normal weight refractory concretes; ‘Table 2.1 shows the characteristics of lightweight reffactory concretes. 2.2 Castables and field mixes Refractory concretes are usually prepared at the job site from materials supplied to the user in either of two ways: (I) prepackaged so-called “reftactory cast- ables;” (2)field mixes. ia for refractory concrete BATS Refractory castables are plant packaged mixes composed of ingredients that are weighed, blended and usually bagged in convenient sizes for shipping and handling. They require only mixing with water on the job to produce refractory concrete. Field mixes are made from material components which are proportioned and mixed on the site just prior to the addition of water. 2.5 Load bearing considerations Most application designs of refractory concrete con- sider that there is a thermal gradient through the ‘material with heat conducted from the hot face to the cold face. A cross section of the refractory will usually have a layer at the hot face that has a ce- ramic bond, an intermediate section with a weaker combination of ceramic and a partial hydraulic bond, and a cold face section that retains most of its hy- raulic bond. Refractory concrete linings in this type of situation are usually well anchored and self-sup- porting Castables containing high proportions of coarse ag- gregates produce refractory concrete with good load bearing characteristics, Certain types of refractory conerete tend to have low strengths in the inter mediate temperature zones [1500-2250 F (820-1230 C)} and should not be subjected to excessive mechanical abuse or dead load. Generally, lightweight coneretes designed for insulating purposes should not be sub- Jected to impact, heavy loads, abrasion, erosion or ‘other physical abuse. Normally, both the strength and the resistance to destructive forces decline “as the bulk density of the refractory concrete de- creases, There are a number of special refractory castables available which have better than average load-bear- ing capabilities and withstand abrasion or erosion much better than the standard types. 2.7 Corrosion influences High temperature in combination with a corrosive environment can have a serious deleterious effect on both the concrete and the backup steel structure Generally, the higher density, higher purity refrac- tory concretes have better corrosion resistance than the lower density, lower purity types. Alkalies can effect the service life of reftactory concretes. The furnace charge can give off both alks- liss (KO) and the fuel sulfur compounds ($02) as va- pors. These can penetrate into the pores of the re- factory concrete and react their reaction products cool, solidify, and expand, sometimes causing the hot face’ of the tefiactory to peel or shear away. In certain applications, the refractory concrete is subjected to highly reducing conditions. Low-iron reffactory concretes should be used for this type of application. 2.10 Abrasion and erosion resistance Abrasion and erosion begin with the wearing away of the weakest matrix constituent, binder, leaving the coarse or hard aggregate to eventually fall away. ‘A hard aggregate, @ high modulus of ruprure, and high compressive strength at the hot face are neces- sary for good abrasion and erosion resistance in re- factory concretesSHS MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACICE Chapter 3 — Constituent ingredients precautions are taken to ensure a sound refractory concrete, Cyclic heating and cooling tends to disnipt 3.2 Binders Portland cement concretes and adding a fine se The binders principally used in refractory concretes Hiceous materia! to react with the caleium hydroxide, are calcium aluminate cements, However, ASTM- formed during hydration, is helpful in alleviating the type portland cements can be used in some reffac problem. tory applications up to an approximate macimum of Calcium aluminate (high alumina) cements are 2000 F (1090 ©) with selected aggregates, if special commercially available hydraulic binders. They are TABLE 33a- Maximum service temperature of selected aggregates mixed with calcium aluminate cements under optimum conditions oe Maximo temperature = Asgregate Remarks Deg Deg F Alumina, tabular Refractory, abrasion 1870 00 resistant Dolomiti limestone ‘Abrasion and corcosion 00 0 (eae!) resistant Fireclay, expanded Insulating, abrasion and 1640 2989 cocresion resistant Fireclay brick, Abrasion and eomosion 1600 em10 crushed resistant Flint fireclay, 680 3000 calcined Kaolin, cloined Abrasion and corrosion 1650 3000 resistant Malte 1680 3000 Perlite Insulating 1340 30 Sand (Gilica content ess 300 70 than 90 percent not recommended) ‘Abrasion and corasion resistant Stag, blast furnace Abrasion resistant 10 1000 (air cooled) Sag, blast fumace Tnsulating, abrasion and 1209 2190 (Granulated) corrosion resistant Trap rock, diabase (Basic Igneous Rock- 1000 1830 Minimal Quartz) Abrasion and corrosion resistant Vermicatite Insulating. 1100 2010 TABLE 33b— Aggregate grading ‘Maximum size aggregate (except for gun placement) Din, G81 em} ‘Maximum size aggregate for normal gun placement ‘ain (0.64 em) Maximum size insulating crushed firebrick 1 in, 2.54 om) ‘Maximum size expanded shales and clays Yein. (1.27 era) Maximum size, with the above exceptions, should not be greater than 2025 percent of the conerete minimum dimension. Aggregate of Ya in, (1.27 em) or larger size Retained on No. 8 Sieve = 50 percent Passing No. 100 Sieve = 10-15 percent Agaregate of less than Ys in. (1.27 emi) maximum size Retained on No, 50 Sieve = 75 percent Passing No, 100 Sieve = 10-15 pereent Tin special cases langer sizes have been used successfully. a aa PeeFig. 44 ~ Ballin hand test specifically designed for use in monolithic refractory concrete construction. They are generally classified under three, basic categories: Low Purity, Inter- ‘mediate Parity, and High Purity. This is a relative classification scheme and is based primarily on the total iton content of the cement. Binder selection is primarily based on the service temperature desired for the refractory concrete. Maximum service temperatures are extended with incseasing ALO; ant decreasing iron contents. Lower ior content binders are alo beneficial in re: ducing carbon monoxide (CO) disintegration of con- crete (Section 2.7). 3.3 Aggregates The maximum service temperatures of selected ag gregates mixed with appropriate calcium aluminate coments are listed in Table 3.32, These maximum temperatures are based on optimum conditions of binder and aggregate. Thermal properties of agare- gates, such as volume change (expansion, shrinkage or crystalline inversion) and decomposition, can af- fect these maximum temperatures, along with the chemical composition of both aggregate and binder and the reactivity between these mix constituents. Temperature stability of the aggregate determines the maximum service conditions below approx- imately 2400 F (1320 ©). Therefore, any type of cal- cium aluminate cement can be used at these temper- atures, For conditions above 2400 F (1320 C), binder purity also becomes a design factor. Generally, the low purity binder can be used with proper aggre- gates up to 2700 F (1480 C), intermediate purity to 3000 F (1650 ©) and high purity to 3400 F (18700) Aggregate gradation is an important consideration in designing refractory concrete, Table 3.3b provides suggested guidelines for nominal maximum size and grading of refractory aggregates. For refractory mix designs a 1:3 or 14 by bulk volume dry’ basis cement: ageregate mix is generally used to satisfy typical applications. In certain cases the ratio may change from as low as 1:2 to as high as 16, with the latter being used for lightweight concretes, Within the range of normal usage, in- creasing the cement content will provide higher strength development. However, increased cement content may also result in increased shrinkage. A higher aggregate content will increase insulating or refractory properties, depending on the type of ag- gregate Selected for the mix. Combinations of vari- ous aggregates can be made to secure the desirable properties of each. 33.1 Lightweight aggregates — Perlite, expanded shale, expanded fireclay, and bubble alumina are the ‘more commonly used lightweight aggregate for com- mercial insulating concretes 34 Effects of extraneous materials Extraneous materials commonly associated with portland cements, either as admixtures or as con- faminants from equipment or surrounding cond tions, may behave differently when used with cal- cium aluminate cement mixes. Many castables contain proprietary additions which may be ad- versely affected by field admixtures. Chapter 4 - Composition and proportioning 4. TIntroduetion In designing mixes, refractory coneretes are not only defined by density but also by operating temper- ature, Refiactory concretes fall into three subclasses based on service temperature ranges. The first sub class is “ceramically-bonded concrete,” defined as concrete in which the cement binder and the fine ag- gregate particles react thermochemically to form a bbond. This bond is referred to as the ceramic bond and may occur at temperatures as low as 1650 F (900 C), The second subclass is “heat resistant con- crete,” defined as conerete in which the cement has dehydrated but has not formed 2 ceramic bond. The third category is concrete which still has some hy- dtaulic bond when heated but performs satisfactorily under cyclic conditions 4.3 Field mixes 43.1 Ceramically bonded concrete ~ The ceramic bond can be formed at temperatures as low as 1650 F (900 C). To aid formation of the ceramic bond, concretes operating above this temperature should hhave 10-15 percent of the aggregate passing a No. 100 sieve. Most field insulating concretes are made with pre- soaked aggregate. Since the specified proportions are based on dry materials, the actual batch mixes may require correction,5a7R-B 4.3.2. Heat resistant concrete ~ This concrete is gen- erally used in the range 930 F (500 ©) to 1650 F (00 ©), Many coarse aggregates are unsuitable for use as reftactory aggregates because they contain quartz, which has a lage volume change at 1065 F (575 C) 4.4 Water content A. majority of the aggregates used in refractory and heat resistant concretes have high water absorb- ency. For this reason specific water/cement ratios are generally not used in developing mix designs. In- stead, water requirements are arrived at by period- ically conducting a “ball-in-hand” test (ASTM C860) This test is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The correct water content is that which will provide a placeable, rather than a pourable, mix. When using well-soaked agere- gates, it may be necessary to add little or no water at the mixer. It is sometimes found that a mixture which appears fairly stiff when discharged ftom the mixer will yield excess water as the concrete is placed, Chapter 5 - Installation 5.1 Introduction Regardless of the quality of the reftactory cement, aggregate, and/or castable, and regardless of the re. search devoted to the selection of correct materials for a specific application, maximum service life will not be obtained unless the refractory concrete is in- stalled properly. The most frequently used methods of installing re- fractory concretes are casting and shotcreting. 5.2 Casting 5.2.1 Mixing = Proper mixing of castables is of pri- mary importance. Care should be taken to avoid mixing previously hydrated material into fresh re- fractory concreté, Mixers, tools and transporting equipment used previously with portland ot other ‘type cement concretes must be cleaned prior to mix- ak sgaaee TEES to Fig. 5.2.3 — Flexwal strength of tabular alumina, high purity cement castable (ASTM C268) MANUAL ORCONCRETE PRACTICE ing. Remains of lime, plaster, or portland cement will induce flash set and will lower refractoriness. Generally, paddle mixers are used for small to me- urn size jobs involving calcium aluminate cement concretes. Ina paddle mixer, normal weight refia tory coneretes should be mixed for about 2 to 4 min. Reffactory concretes of less than 60 lbs/cu ft (960 kg/m) density should be mixed no longer than nec- essary to insure thorough wetting. ‘This precaution is necessary because the lightweight aggregate may brealcup during the mixing action and reduce the ef- fectiveness of the concrete as a heat insulator. Re- fractory concretes in the 75 to 90 Ib/eu ft (1200-1400 kg/m?) range should be mixed for approximately 2 to 5 min. Because working time may be short, all castables should be cast immediately after mixing. 5.2.3 Mixing and curing temperature — Mixing and curing temperature can affect the type of hydrates formed in set concrete. A castable develops its hy draulic bond because of chemical reactions between the calcium aluminate cement and water. To get the ‘maximum benefits from these chemical reactions, it is preferable to form the stable C:AHs during the inital curing period, The relative amount of GABs formed versus metastable CAHto and C2AHe can be directly related to the temperature at which the chemical reactions take place. Recent work illustrates the significant impact of mixing and curing temperatures on strength proper- ties. Fig, 5.2.3 shows the flexural strength of a tabular alumina, high purity cement castable plotted as a function of mixing and curing temperatures. It can be seen that the strength developed after mix- ing and curing at 85 F (30C) and drying at 230 F (110 © is nearly twice that “of the concrete mixed and cured at 60 F (15 C) and dried at 230 F. Explosive spalling of high purity cement concretes an occur when casting and curing temperatures be- low 70 F (2 C) are used. Thus, a reftactory concrete containing a high purity cement should be cast or cured above 70 F (2! C). This spalling phenomenon is less likely to occur with low or intermediate purity cement. binders, 5.24 Transporting - Other than shotereting and pumping, the techniques for transporting refractory concretes are similar to those used for portland ce- ment conerete. Some calcium aluminate cement bind- ers have a shorter placing time available. 53 Shotereting Shotcreting of reftactory concrete is particularly of fective where, (I) forms are impractical, (2) access is difficult, (3) thin layers and/or variable thicknesses are required, or (4) normal casting techniques cannot be employed. 5.3.1 Equipment — There are two basic types of shoterete methods: dry-mnix and wet-mix. The dry- mix method conveys the aggregate and binder pneu- matically to the nozzle in-an essentially dry state where water is added in a spray. The wetemix method conveys the aggregate, binder and a pr determined amount of water, either pneumatically or under pressure, to the nozale where compressed air is used to increase the velocity of impact. The dry method, though it produces greater rebound, is theREFRACTORY CONCRETE ‘most suitable and recommended technique for shot creting reftactory concrete, An exception is the rec- ‘ommended use of a wet-mix gun for hot petching, 53.2 Installation — To ensure a miform covering free of laminations and with minimum rebound, the nozzleman should move the nozzle in a small cixcular orbit and where possible, maintain the flow from a 3 4 fe (0.9-1.2 m) distance at right angles to the receiv- ing surface > The shoterete should be left in its as- placed state. If for some reason scraping or finishing is required, the absolute minimum should be done s0 as to avoid breaking the bond or creating surface cracks. Shotcreting of refractory coneretes can in crease the in-place density and result in other changes in the physical properties. This effect is more pronounced in lower density castables, and must be taken info account when specifying thick- nesses and material quantities for insulating appli- cations, The uset should be aware thet certain as- pects of portland cement concrete shoterete practice do not apply to refractory shoterete. 5.4 Pumping and extruding Certain refractory concretes can be installed with positive displacement pumps in conjunction with rigid or flexible pipelines. The design of the mix is critical, and special attention must be given to the absorpive characteristics and sizing of the aggre- te. "Some applicators use the term “extrading” to de- scribe the conveying and placing of refractory con- crete at velocities that are very low or close to 2er0 on exit from the pipeline. When extruding, mixing of the refractory castable and water can be done inter- nally or externally depending on type of extruding device. 5.5 Pneumatic gun casting Pneumatic gun casting, or gun casting, is a rela tively new technique for casting concrete and is find- ing increased uses for refractory concrete. Con- ventional dry shotcrete equipment and procedures are utilized with the exception that an energy reduc- ing device is attached to the nozzle body in place of ‘the standard shoterete nozale tip. 5.8 Finishing Surface finishing or rubbing of refractory coneretes should be kept at a minimum, Use of a steel trowel should be avoided, and the final surface can be lightly screeded to grade but should not be worked in any manner. Chapter 6- Curing, drying, firing’*"™" 6.1 Introduetion Reftactory concrete should be properly cured for at least the first 24 hr. Following this curing it should be dried at 220 F (105 C), and then heated slowly un- til the combined water hes been removed before heating at a more rapid rate 6.2 Bond mechanisms Calcium aluminate cements have anhydrous mineral phases which react with water to form alumina gel a The cement chemistry abbreviations: C= CaO A = ALO, H_= BO Fig. 62 -. Hydration reaction products of ealcium aaluminates!"§ and crystalline compounds which function as a binder for the concrete.?02! The hydration of these cements (Fig. 6.21 is exothermic. The rate of the chemical reaction is relatively fast. For all practical purposes, calcium aluminate concretes will develop full strength within 24 hr of mixing. The total drying shrinkage of calcium aluminate cement concretes in ait, is comparable to that of portland cement concrete. inorder to provide for Complete hydration, and to contro! drying shrinkage, special attention mast be given to the curing of ref ractory concretes, 6.3 Curing The temperature of hardening calcium cement rises rapidly. If the exposed surfaces are not kept damp, the cement on the surface may dry out before it can be properly hydrated. The application of curing wa- ter prevents the surface from becoming dry and fur- nishes water for hydration. In addition, the evapo- ration has @ cooling effect which helps to dissipate the heat of hydration Conversion of the high alumina cement hydrates, which ocours if the cement is allowed to develop ex- cessive heat, does not present the same problem in refiactory concretes that it does in high alumina ce- ment concretes used for structural purposes. It has been shown that if reftectory concrete is fully con- verted by allowing it to harden in hot water and then heated to 2500 F (1370 C), the fired strength is equal to that obtained for well cured concrete. When possible, however, refractory concrete should be‘S47RA0 Kept cool by appropriate curing under 210 F (99 C) for two reasons: + The catire refiactory concrete structure does not usually reach the maximum service temperature, and the higher cold strengths obtained by good cur- ing may be useful in the cooler portions of the re- factory, + If the temperature within the concrete reaches a high level during hardening, the thermal stresses produced during cooling maybe sufficient to cause ‘crackin, Curing should start as soon as the surface is firm, Under normal atmospheric temperatures, this will occur within 4 to 10 hr after mixing the concrete ‘The concrete should be kept moist for 24 hr by cov- ering with wet burlap, by fine spraying or by using @ curing membrane, Alternate wetting and drying can be detrimental to the cure of the concrete, When using a curing membrane, the compound should contain a resin and not 2 wax base, and should be applied to the surface as soon as possible after placing and sereeding. The reason for dis- couraging the use of wax is that a hot surface will tnelt the wax, causing it to be absorbed into the con- crete, breaking the membrane 6.4 Drying The large amount of free water in the refractory concrete necessitates a drying period before expo- sure t0 operating temperatures. Otherwise, the for mation of steam may lead to explosive spalling du ing firing. 6.5 Firing Following drying of the refractory concrete, the first heat-up should be at a reasonably slow rate, A. typi- cal firing schedule, for a 9 in. (22.9 em) thick lining, consists of applying a slow heat by gradually bring- ing the temperature up to 220 F (105 C), and holding for at least 6 hr. The temperature is then raised at a rate of 30-100 F (10-400) per hr up to 1000 F (540 ©) and again held for at least 6 lhe. The first hold is to allow remaining free water to evaporate, and the second hold is to eliminate the combined wa: ter without danger of spalling, Beyond 1900 F (540 C), the temperature of the re- fractory concrete can be raised more rapidly. Calei- ing of the green concrete into a refractory structure will take place between 1600 F (820 0) and 2500 F (1370 C) Wall thickness and mix variations may re- quite somewhat different rates of heating, but the hold temperatures should remain at least 6 hr. TF steam is observed during heat-up, the temper- ature should be held until steam is no longer visible. Chapter 7 - Properties of Normal Weight Refractory Coneretes 7.1 Introduction There are various physical properties and tests which are standard in the refractory industry and these are usually provided in the material specifica. tions, Table 2.Ja is an example of typical data for normal weight reffactory concrete MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 7.2 Maximum service temperature The recommended maximum service temperature will normally assume that the castable will be used in a clean, oxidizing atmosphere, such as is present when firing with natural gas. The maximum service temperature is usually determined as the point above which excessive shrinkage will take place, It is about 150-200 F (70-90 C) below the actual soft. ening point of the concrete. Ifa fuel has solid impurities, such as in coals or heavy fuel oils, or if the solids or dust in the process contact the refractory, the maximum permissible service temperature will usually be considerably re- duced, Solid impurities can react with the concrete and produce compounds of lower melting point which melt and ran, This is generally referred to. as slagging, The lower softening point thus represents a limit for the operating temperature, Slag forming reactions usually do not occur below about 2500 F (1320 C) except in the presence of alkalies where re- actions ear: occur in the 1900-2000 F (1040-1090 C) range. A reducing atmosphere can lower the melting point and hence the maximum operating temper- ature by 100-200 F (40.96 C) if sufficient quantities of iron compounds are present in the reffactory.? 74 Shrinkage and expansion In discussing shrinkage and expansion of a reffac- tory conorele, it is important’ to define the dis- tinction between the independent effects of per- manent shrinkage or expansion and reversible thermal expansion. Permanent change is determined by measuring a specimen at room temperature, heat- ing it to a specified temperature, cooling to room temperature, and remeasuring it, The difference be- tween the two measurements is the permanent change, which ocoars during the first heating cycle. Subsequent heating to the same or lower temper- ature will have litle or no additional effect on the permanent change. Heating to a higher temperature may cause some additional permanent change. Reversible thermal expansion of a specimen ‘which has been previously stabilized against further per- manent change, is the dimensional change as a speci- men is heated. ‘Upon cooling, the specimen contracts to its original si At any given temperature, the net dimensional change of a refractory concrete is the sum of the re- versible expansion and the permanent shrinkage cor- responding to the highest temperature to which the castable has been heated. TAAL Permanent shrinkage and expansion ~ The ini- tial heating of a refractory concrete usually causes shrinkage. At higher temperatures permanent ex- pansion can occu. This effect, which varies with the maximum temperature attained, must be considered with reversible thermal expansion when calculating the net expansion (or shrinkage) at service temper- atare. The ASTM rating of castables is based on no more than 1.5 percent permanent linear shrinkage occurring at prescribed temperatures (ASTM C64 and C401). Most normal weight refractory concretes will have less than 0.5 percent permanent linear shrinkage after firing at 2000 F (1080 C).REFRACTORY CONCRETE The permanent change appears as cracks after the first firing. These cracks will generally be about 2-3 f (0.6-0.9 m) on centers, and may vary, depending on the concrete thickness and the anchor spacing, Usually, the width of the cracks at room temper. ature is partly dependent on the permanent shrink- age. Normally, the cracks will be tightly closed at operating temperatures. Such cracking, which may star during dying, is to be expected’ and wil not adversely affect the service performance of the re- factory, 7.4.2 Reversible thermal expansion ~ The reversible thermal expansion of most refractory concretes is approximately 3 x 10% in/in/F (5 x 10 cmvemCL. However, the expansion coefficient may be as high as 4x 10° in fin /P (Tx 10 cmlem/C) for high alu- mina concretes and t0 5 x 10 inJin. /F (Sx 108 om/em/C) for chrome castables. Fig. 7.4.2 shows typical length changes due to permanent shrinkage and reversible expansion. 7.5 Strength 784 Modulus of rupture — Modulus of rupture is measured by means of a flexure test and is. consid- cred as a measure of tensile strength (ASTM. C268) The extreme fiber tensile strength calculated from this test will be 50 to 100 percent higher than the tensile strength derived from a straight pull test Typical modulus of rupture values are 300 to 1500 psi (2,07-10.4 MPa). Shotcreting can increase modu- Jus of rupture values by up to 50 percent. Fig. 7.5 shows typical tends of modulus of rup- ture strength versus temperature, 1.5.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) - The test is ordinarily run on 9 x 4! x 2! in, (22.9 x 11.4 x 6.4 cm) specimens 9 in. (22.9 cm) straights in brisk terminology with pressure applied to the smaliest. surface (ASTM C133). Failure in this test is gener- ally dve to shear. Crushing strengths vary from 1000 to 8000 psi (6.9 to 55.2 MPa). Typically, compressive strengths are three to four times greater than modulus of rupture values. 7.6 Thermal conductivity For normal weight refractory concretes, thermal conductivity tends to vary with density. ‘Typical val- ues (K factors) range from about $ Btucin./sq ft -he-F (72 W -cm/m*-C) for 120 pef (1920 kg/m’) material to about 10 Btu-in./sq ft iF (144 Wecm/n?-C) for 160 pef (2560 kg/m’) material, There is usually an in- tease in thermal conductivity with temperature 7.40 Specific beat The specific heat of a reftactory concrete increases with temperature from about 0.20 Bawlb/F (837 J/ kg-C) at 100 F (40 C) to about 0.29 Brw/Ib/F (1210 3/ Kg-C) at 2500 F (1370 ©). This can vary plus or minus 0.025 units, depending on the aggregate. Chapter 8 - Properties of lightweight refractory concretes 8.1 Introduction Reftactory concretes are widely used as_ insulating materials, They have a wide range of densities (20 t0 742 — Net thermal expansion of a typical re- fractory concrete 100 pef (320 to 1600 ke/m*) and can be formulated to have high maximum service temperatures and rela- tively high strengths. This often allows the usc of these materials as single component, exposed service Jinings. Table 2.1b shows physical property values for typ- ieal lightweight refractory concrete. 8.4 Shrinkage and expansion The reversible thermal expansion of lightweight con- ceretes will vary from 2.5 x1 to 3.5 x10 in/in/E (4.5 x10“om/cm/C) Because of compensating per- manent shrinkage, the thermal expansion of light- \weight reffactory ‘concrete is normally insignificant and is usually ignored in the design of lightweight refractory concrete systems. 8.5 Strength Strengths of lightweight refractory concrete are measured by both a modulus of rupture and a crush- ing test. 85.1 Modulus of rupture - Typical values 1 from approximately 50 (0.3 MPa) to 400 ps MPa), Fig, 7.5 = Effect of temperature on modulus of rup- turesameaz MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE ‘TABLE 8.5.1 - Hot and cold modulus of rupture of a 2800F (1538C) lightweight refractory concrete containing expanded fireclay aggregate ‘Modulus of rupture, psi (MPs) (lot tested (Cold tested after at temperature) firing and cooling) 230F (1100) 350 2a) 350 (2.4) 10O0F (638C) 300 (21) NDA 1500F @16C) 280 (17) 250 (1-1) 2000F (1683C) 10 (14) 225 (1.6) 2500F (13710) 20 17) 470 8.2) 2700F (14820) 90 (05) $00 (55) ———F'— SS 8005.5) °N.D. = Not Determined Table 8.5.1 shows the difference between the cold and hot modulus of rupture for a typical 2800 F (1540 C) lightweight refractory concrete. 8.6.2 Cold compressive strength (crushing) ~ Cold emushing strengths vary from 200-500 psi (1.4-35 MP2) for lightweight refractory concretes with den- sities up to 50 pof (800 kg/m), For materials having densities in the 75-100 pef (1200-1600 ke/m) range, the cold crushing strength varies from 1000-2500 psi (69-17-3 MP2) 8.6 Thermal conductivity ‘Thermal conductivity is one of the most important physical properties of a lightweight refractory con rete and is controlled primarily by the density of the concrete. For hydraulically bonded, alumina-si- fica coneretes, a usable correlation exists between concrete density [after drying at 230 F (110 C)j and the thermal conductivity (k factor). Typically, the thermal conductivity for insulating ‘concretes ranges from 1 t0 4 Brvin./sq f-h-F (0.1 to 0.6 W/M2-C). 8.10 Specific Heat ‘The specific heat of a lightweight refractory con- crete 18 approximately the same as that of normal weight concrete. The range is from 0.2 Buvlb/F (837 Jkg-Cl at 100 F (40 C) to approximately 0.3 Btu/lb/F (1255 Wkg-C) at 2500 F (1370 C), Chapter 9 - Construction details 8.1 Introduction Construction details are an important ingredient in the successful application of refractory concrete, Proper design details and careful implementation are essential, and parameters such as support structure integrity, forms, anchors, and construction joints have a major influence on the overall quality and performance of refractory concrete installations. 8.2 Support structure Normally, refractory concrete is permanently sy ported by a back-up structure. The support material 1s usually bolted or welded steel which, prior to in- stallation of the refractory concrete, should be checked to ensure that there is no warpage and that all joints are structurally sound and tight. 8.3 Forms Both metal and wood forms are used for refractory concrete. 9.4 Anchorstist54s ‘An anchor is a device used to hold reffactory con- crete in a stable position while counteracting ihe ef fects of dead loads, thermal stessing and cycling, and mechanical vibration. Anchors and anchoring systems are not designed to function as reinforce: ment. Anchors are produced as alloy steel rods or cast- ings, and prefired refractory ceramic shapes. The ro- quirements of a particular installation will determine the type and positioning of anchors. Typical factors to be considered are: unit size, wall thickness, mum- ber of refractory conoret= components, area of appli- cation, and service temperature. 941 Metal anchors — The most frequently used ‘metal anchors are V-clips, studs, and castings. How- ever, in special applications, welded wire fabric, hex steel and chain link fencing are used. Generally, ‘metal anchors are extended ftom the cold face for % to % of the lining thickness and are staggered to avoid formation of planes of weakness ‘Metal V-clips, stud anchors and castings are avail- able in carbon steel, Type 304 stainless alloy, Type 310 stainless alloy,’ anid other suitable alloys. The choice of material’ depends on the temperature to which the anchors will be exposed. Carbon steel can be used for anchor temperatures of up to 1000 F (40 ©. Type 304 stainless is suitable for anchor temperatures of up to 1800 F (980 C) and Type 310 stainless is adequate up t0 2000 F (1095 ©), Depend- ing on the grade of alloy, alloy steel castings can sustain a maximum temperature of between 1500 F (815 ©) and 2000 F (1095 C). 9.4.2 Pre-fired refractory anchors (ceramic anchors) = The principal use of ceramic anchors is to anchor refractory plastic, rather then refractory concrete However, ceramic anchors are used in areas where reftactory concrete is subjected to high service tem- perature. In addition, they are sometimes used as a substitute for metal’ anchors where concrete thick- nesses are 9 in, (230 mm), or greater Ceramic anchors usually are composed of reffac- tory aggregates, clays, and binders. They are me-REFRACTORY CONCRETE chanically pressed into shapes which provide for at tachment t0 either the wall or roof and are ribbed to aid in securing the refractory concrete, Ceramic an- chors are pre-fired at elevated temperature 10 pro- vide a strong, dense structure. Depending on the composition, ‘service conditions, and other factors, ceramic anchors are available with maximum secvice temperature ratings of up to 3200 F (1760 C). Ceramic anchors are attached to structural wall or roof supports by bolts and/or metal support. cast ings. In order to minimize the tendency of the re- fractory concrete to sheet spall, the hot face of the ceramic anchor should extend to the hot face of the refractory concrete. 9.4.6.1 Thin single component linings, Plain metal chain link fencing is often used to anchor single com- ponent linings, less than 2 in, (50 mm) thick, com- posed of lightweight or medium weight refractory concrete and exposed to low to moderate mechanical stresses and/or service temperatures. 9.4.5.2 Single component linings up to 9 in. (230 mm) thick. Normally, ‘single component linings 2 in. {60 mm) to 9 in, (230 mm) thick, composed entirely of lightweight, medium weight or normal weight re- fractory concrete, and exposed to moderate stresses and service temperatures use metal anchors. 9.45.3 Single component linings greater than 9 in (230 mm) thick. Normal weight refractory concrete linings, greater than 9 in. (230 mm) thick, utilize ei- ther ceramic or metal anchors. The type of anchor chosen will depend on the operating parameters. 9.4.5.4 Roofi. Two types of anchor systems, internal ‘and extemal, are used for single component roof, The choice depends on roof thickness and on con- struction and design preferences, $5 Multicomponent linings. Multicomponent lin- ings of 9 in. (230 mm) or less in thickness which are subjected to moderate service temperatures and me- chanical stresses should employ metal anchors. Multicomponent finings of 9 in. (230 mm) or greater thickness, composed of a combination of lightweight or medium weight reffactory concrete as, back-up in conjunction with a normal weight refiac- tory concrete, can ust a combination of ceramic and metal anchors. With multicomponent shoterete linings, the back- up component is applied directiy to the shell and provisions must be made either to protect the an- chor (metal or ceramic) from rebound build-up, or to clean the anchor after placing of the back-up’ layer. Rebound build-up can destroy the grip between the heavy weight refractory concrete and the ceramic anchor. 9.5 Reinforcement and metal embedment The use of steel as a reinforcement should be avoided. In general, the metal will cause cracking duc to the differential expansion, caused by temper- ature or oxidation, between the metal and concrete For the same reason heavy metal objects such as bolts, pipes, etc. should never be embedded in re- factory concrete sare 8.6 Joints! In cast installations, construction joints occur at the Junction of walls and roofs or where large place- ‘ments are broken into separate sections. Cold joints of this type will not bond and should be avoided where it is necessary {0 contain liquid or gases. It is often necessary to include a provision for ex- pansion. Expansion joints can be formed by inserting materials such as wood, cardboard, expanded poly styrene or ceramic fiber in the appropriate location. Shotcrete installations require construction joints at transitions between materials, or when appli cation must be curtailed due to shift changes or ma- terial supply. In these cases, the in situ refractory concrete should be trimmed back to produce a clean edge perpendicular to the shell. Expansion com- pensating materials are not generally. inserted into this type of joint. If a joint edge is allowed to stand for a prolonged period of time (more than 4 hr), it should be thoroughly moistened before any new ma- terial is applied, Chapter 10 - Repair 10.1 Introduction Repair of refractory concrete should be considered only when economics dictate that cost and downtime do not justify complete replacement. Before under- taking 2 repair, an effort should be made to deter- mine the cause of the previous failure. If possible, the design and/or construction details should be modified to reduce the possibility of a recurrence of failure and to prolong service fife between repairs. Hot repair techniques are valuable for minimizing downtime and for extending an operating ran until a scheduled shutdown. Hot repairs are especially suit- able for temporary repairs of localized failures and hot spots 10.2 Failure mechanisms Some of the phenomena that can cause failure are: (1) Thermal stress and thermal shock; (2) Exposure to excessive temperatures; (3) Mechanical loading (4) Erosion and abrasion: (§) Corrosive environments; (6) Anchorage failures and (7) Operational problems or upsets 10.3 Surface preparation ‘When the installation to be repaized is made of mor- tar or concrete, it is important to prepare. the sur- face of the old material so that a mechanical bond will be formed between it and the new reffactory concrete. No significant chemical bond will be formed, and adhesion of the repair material must de- pend primarily on the mechanical bond. Preparation of the surface requires removal of all deteriorated or spalled materials and roughening of the exposed sound surface of the old concrete, In all cases, the chipping of old material must leave a flat base, and square shoulders approximately perpendicular to the hot face, completely around the perimeter of the re- pair section. If this is done properly, there is no need to chamfer the edges or provide fillets to walls and floors. Once initial removal of loose concrete hasSarre been completed, the old refractory should be sounded with bars or hammers to make certain only sound material remains ‘Areas that were not chipped should be thoroughly sandblasted to remove any traces of soot, grease, oil or other substances that could interfere with’ the bond. Excess sand and loose debris must then be blown from the surface with compressed air. Par ticular care must be taken to remove any debris from around the anchors. 10.4 Anchoring and bonding If possible, patches showld be anchored with a min- imum of two anchors which should be solidly at tached to the shell. In cases where this is impossible, anchors should be solidly embedded in the old re factory. Ceramic anchors should extend to the hot face of the new refractory concrete. Otherwise, sheet spalling may occur. If metal anchors ate used, they should be brought as close as possible to the hhot face. The distance will depend on the metal- orgy of the anchors and the thermal conductivity of the concrete Where anchors are not practical, or repairs are shallow, mechanical bonding will be aided by cutting chases or keyways in a waffle pattem across the en- tire surface of the repair section and by slightly un- dereutting the existing refractory. In certain limited applications, where other means are not available, the bond may be improved by pre- coating the surface to be repaired with a bonding agent. When repairing reftactory concrete with a similer cast-in-place material pre-wetting is required, and use of a neat calcium aluminate cement slury may improve bonding. 10.5 Repair materials ‘A wide range of repair products is available for re- pairing refractory concrete. However, it is usually best £0 use a material similar to that being repaired. Refractory concrete is frequently used as a repair material and performs satisfactorily in many situa- tions. Among. the other available repair materials are the following: 1. Air setting mortars; 2. Phosphate-bonded and clay-based heat-setting mortars; 3. Steel-fiber reinforced refractory concrete; (Steel-fiber reinforved refiactory concrete will gen ally exhibit superior resistance to cracking and abra- sion. However, the fibers will not perform well if the temperatures to which they are exposed induce oxi- dation. If the conditions are such that the fiber-rein- forced system is above the oxidizing, but below the melting temperature of the particular fibers being used, if is possible that they may stil be utilized, de- pending on the temperature gradient through the concrete, the furnace atmosphere, the permeability of the concrete, the severity and frequency of tem perature cycles, the exposure time at maximum tem- perature, and the mechanical loading.) 4, Plastic refractories and ramming mixes; and 5. Hot repair materials, Some of the repair mate- rials used for hot patching contain calcium aluminate cement as the principal binder, however, most do MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE not. The latter utilize non-hydrautic and chemical binders (sec Section 1.6.4). Since these materials are intended for temporary repairs, they may not have service life or properties equivalent to those in the original lining. While field mixes can be used for hot gunning, ‘most applications use proprietary (prepackaged) m- terials which are specially designed for specific con- ditions of installation. Some mamafacturers have de- signed special spray or gunning equipment and maintenance programs to install their hot repair ma- terials on a planned basis, 10.6 Repair techniques 10.6.2 Refractory concrete ~ When a refractory con- crete is selected to effect repairs, the type of place- ment procedure must insure that the full thickness of the repair section is installed in as short a time as possible, preferably in a single lif. ‘When refractory concrete is placed by the shot crete method, certain precautions must be lowed.}* The area being repaired must be delineated in advance so that the concrete can be shot to the fall section depth or thickness before any layer de- velops an initial set Tt is important that the refractory concrete be cured properly during the 24h period following placement (see Section 6.3). After the concrete has been moist-cured for 24 hr, drying and firing can be initiated (see Sections 6.4 and 6.51. Speeding up the moist-caring, drying and firing can result ina marked reduction in the physical properties and life of the repair. 10.63 Plastic and ramming mixes ~ & refractory mortar coating may be used to improve bonding when repairing refractory concrete with a plastic or ramming mix. In order to achieve high density and prevent laminations, it is recommended that plastic refractories be installed by the pneumatic ramming method using a steel wedge-type head. The basic ppattern of ramming should be 10 build up layers of plastic on top of the backing wall. The plastic is placed in strips and laid at right angles to the forms. it is important to angle the pneumatic rammer so that the strips are driven against the form, and side- ‘ways against the previously installed material, The repaired area should be trimmed to a rough surface for more uniform drying Moisture escape holes should be made by inserting 21/8 in, G mm) diameter pointed rod, approx- imately twoahirds of the depth of the material, on approximately 6 in, (150 mm) centers. In order to prevent formation of an outer skin, which can seal in moisture, @ short period of forced drying of air-set- ting plastic refractories is desirable. Excessive tem- perature or direct flame impingement, which will seal the surface and prevent escape of moisture, must be avoided, The following heat-curing procedure has been found to give good results with plastic and ramming mixes: Remove all free moisture at a temperature of not over 250 F (120 ©). Following removal of free and absorbed moisture, raise the temperature at a rate of 75-100 F (42-56 C) /hr until the desired oper-REFRACTORY CONCRETE. ating temperature is reached. If steam is observed uring heat-up, hold the present temperature watil it stops. ‘Whenever possible, repairs using plastic mixes should be carried out immediately prior to heat-up A properly bumed-in plastic will exhibit less crack- ing than a plastic exposed to lengthy air drying, 10.6.4 Steel fiber reinforced refractory concrete 10.641 Cast.in-place mixes. 4 problem with stecl fi- bers is their tendency to “ball-up”. Clusters of fibers can be broken up by hand feeding or shaking of the sieve before addition to the concrete mix. In some cases, vibration will tighten up the fiber clusters and it is not a recommended method of fiber dispersal The addition of steel fibers tends to reduce the ‘workability of the mix. Normally, this ean be over- come by internal or external vibration. Use of addi- tional water is not recommended since this will de- grade cured strength and increase the porosity. 10.6.4.2 Shoterete mixes. Steel fiber reinforced 1e- fractory coneretes can be shot into place by either the wet or dry process. Fiber lengths approaching the intemal diameter of the material hose or nozzle can be shot successfully. Because rebound of the fi bers can be dangerous, the nozzleman and support crew should wear protective clothing when dry shooting with steel fibers. 10.65 Hot repair procedures — Hot repair pro- cedures are based on standard shotcreting tech- nology. However, because of the high temperatures, certain differences are necessary. Compared to nor- mal shotereting, the high temperatures require a specially designed nozzle and an excessive amount of water in the mix in order to insure proper delivery, impingement, compaction, and material retention, Hot shotcreting requires that the nozzieman and a helper stand outside the furace and manually or mechanically manipulate an extended nozzle ot “lance” within the fumace. Special ports or openings must be provided in the furnace for proper access, The length, size, and design of the nozzle depends on the fumace configuration, temperature, and type of application. In general, the best bonds are achieved when the vessel interior is a red or oramge color (1500-1700 F (815-925 0) ‘The refractory concrete repair must be allowed to heat-cure prior to placing the unit back in sevice. The length of time to accomplish this, al- though usually brief, will depend on the temperature at the time of repait, the type of material used for the repair, and the thickness of the installed mate- rial Chapter 11 - Applications 11.1 Introduction Reffactory concretes are currently used in a wide variety of industrial applications where pyroprocess- ing or thermal containment is required. Because there are literally hundreds of reffactory concretes available, it is impossible to discuss every composi- tion and its application. Accordingly, only the more important applications, where refractory concretes have been used successfully, are reviewed. Included in the review are the following industries: sams (@) Tron and steel )) Nonferrous metal (©, Petrochemical (@) Ceramic processing (©) Glass (Steam power generation (g) Aerospace (b) Noclear (i) Gas production (jj, MHD power generation (i) Lightweight aggregate {l)_ Incinerator (m) Cement and lime Chapter 12 - New development and future use of refractory concrete 12.1 Ineroduetion Traditionally, developments in the refractories dustry have been closely related to the process in- dustries, the primary customers for the product Tn recent years, there have been marked changes in the production ‘and use of refractories. A mumber of factors have contributed to these changes includ- ing: (a) development of new and improved industrial processes, () demand for higher temperatures and increased production rates associated with the above devel- opments, (@ improvement in the quality of reffactory prod= ucts and incteased use of different types of reftac- tories, especially the monolithic castables and, (@) ‘increased technical knowledge of the service behavior of refractory materials, With these technological advancements, in- vestigations into the use of refiuctory concretes for special applications is increasing, Typical of these new and proposed applications are incinerators, coal gasification plants, chemical process plants, steel plants, and foundries. 12.2 New developments 12.2.1 Steel fibers?" _ The following poten- tial advantages are offered by the use of steel-fiber reinforcement in monolithic construction: (@) improved flexural strength at ambient and ele- vated_ temperatures, (0) improved thermal and mechanical stress resise tance, (Q improved thermal shock resistance, ( improved spall resistance, and (© improved load-canying ability. However, degradation of the steel fibers at high temperature can occur under service conditions and, therefore, limit the full potential of these materials. ‘Note: See References 197 through 208. 12.2.2 Shoterete ~ The use of shotcrete for new re- factory construction and for repairs is a rapidly wowing field and successful results have been achieved in many applications. 12.2.3 Precast shapes — Increasingly, precast. shapes are being used for special conditions and this trend will continue.sa7R16 123 Research requirements Unfortunately, selection and use of refractory con- cretes is still considered an art and, with a few ex- ceptions, the properties of refractory coneretes are not utilized in rational design schemes, In many in stances, the wrong properties are being measured or the available data are not being used correctly. Future research efforts should be directed to- wards obtaining a better understanding of the be- havior of refractory concretes under service condi- tions. Increased emphasis will be placed on elevated temperature properties and how they are influenced by such factors as proportioning, grading and compo sition. ‘Areas of needed research include the following: (2) Dimensional stability (b) Chemical attack (c) Mechanical properties (d) Property measurements and tests (6) Process conditions ( Rational design procedures References 1.ACI Committee 116, Cement and Concrete Terminol- ogy, SP-19, American Concrete Institute, Detoit, 1967, 146 op. 2, Van Schoeck, Emily C., Editor, Ceramic Glossary, American Ceramie Society, Columbus, 1963. 3. Norton, F.#., Refractories, tn Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1968, 782 rp. 5.Robson, T. D High Alumina Cements and Concrete, ley ané Sons, New York, 1962, 263 pp. 20, Chats, 8., and Jeffry, J. W., “Microstrcture of Set High-Alumina’Cemeat Paste.” Transactions, British CCeramie Society (London), V. 67, May 1968, pp. 17-18 21. Midgley, H. G., “The Mineralogy of Set High- Ali mina Cement,” Transactions, Britsk Ceramic Society (Lon- on), 1966, pp. 161-181 23. Wyeant, I. T., “Cementitious Bonding in Ceramic Fabrication,” Ceramle Fabrication Processes, W. D. King xy, Eto, Tohn Wiley and Sons, New York, 1958, pp. 1718 34. Givan, G. Vs; Hart, L. D.; Hellich, R. P. and Mac: Zor, G., “Curing and Firing High Purity Calcium Alumi- nate’ Bonded Tabular Alumina Casables.” American Ce- ranic Society Bulletin, V. 54, No. 8, 1975, pp. 110-713. 135. Shotereting, SP-I4, American Concrete lnstine, De- trot, 1965, 223 pp 41, Wygant, IF, and Crowley, M.S., “Designing Mon- olitie Refractory Vessel Linings,” American Cerante So- ciety Bulletin, V. 3, No. 3, 1964, pp. 173-182 44, Crowley, M. S., “Faihire Mechanism of Two-Com- ponent Lining for Fe-Ges Dust,” American Ceranic So- ciety Bullen, V. 47, No.5, 1968, pp. 481-483. 45, Crowley, M. 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Preparing Refractory Conerete Specimens by Casting, (ASTM € 862- 77), 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Patt 17, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 940-946, 204, “Standard Recommended Practice for Firing Re- fractory Conorete Specimens,” (ASTM C 865-77) 1982 An- nual Book of ASTM Standards, Patt 17, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 949-951, 205, “Standard Practice for Proparing Refractory Con- crete Specimens by Cold Gunning,” (ASTM C 903-79) 1982 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 17, American So- Ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 978-979, ‘The compete report was submited to letter ballot of he com nites wich cosiced of 16 members, 18 mara teuNed a firmatve ball. ‘Tho preceding report wes a summary. The complete report wi be avaliable May ae 9 soperate publeaton