Electrical symbols and electronic The symbols represent

Electrical circuit symbols are used for electrical and electronic

drawing schematic diagram. components.
Symbols &
Electronic
Symbols
Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

Disconnects current when

SPST Toggle Switch
open

Selects between two

SPDT Toggle Switch
connections

Momentary switch - normally

Pushbutton Switch (N.O)
open

Momentary switch - normally

Pushbutton Switch (N.C)
closed

DIP switch is used for onboard

DIP Switch
configuration

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection
by an electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Close connection by jumper

Jumper
insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols
 Used for zero potential
Earth Ground reference and electrical shock
protection.

Connected to the chassis of the

Chassis Ground
circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current
flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3
terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2
terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change

Thermistor resistance when temperature
changes
Photo-resistor - change
Photoresistor / Light dependent
resistance with light intensity
resistor (LDR)
change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor Capacitor is used to store

electric charge. It acts as short
circuit with AC and open
Capacitor circuit with DC.

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Inductor / Coil Symbols
Inductor
Iron Core Inductor
Variable Inductor
Power Supply Symbols
Voltage Source
Current Source
AC Voltage Source
Generator
Battery Cell
Battery
Controlled Voltage Source
Controlled Current Source
Meter Symbols
Voltmeter
Electrolytic capacitor
Adjustable capacitance
Coil / solenoid that generates
magnetic field
Includes iron
Generates constant voltage
Generates constant current.
AC voltage source
Electrical voltage is generated
by mechanical rotation of the
generator
Generates constant voltage
Generates constant voltage
Generates voltage as a
function of voltage or current
of other circuit element.
Generates current as a function
of voltage or current of other
circuit element.
Measures voltage. Has very
high resistance. Connected in
parallel.
 Measures electric current. Has
Ammeter near zero resistance.
Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Generates light when current

Lamp / light bulb
flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in
Diode one direction only - left
(anode) to right (cathode).
Allows current flow in one
direction, but also can flow in
Zener Diode
the reverse direction when
above breakdown voltage

Schottky diode is a diode with

Schottky Diode
low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

LED emits light when current

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
flows through

Photodiode allows current

Photodiode
flow when exposed to light

Transistor Symbols

Allows current flow when

NPN Bipolar Transistor
high potential at base (middle)
 Allows current flow when low
PNP Bipolar Transistor
potential at base (middle)

Made from 2 bipolar

Darlington Transistor transistors. Has total gain of
the product of each gain.

N-channel field effect

JFET-N Transistor
transistor

P-channel field effect

JFET-P Transistor
transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Change AC voltage from high

Transformer
to low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

Fuse The fuse disconnects when

current above threshold. Used
to protect circuit from high
Fuse currents.

Bus

Contains several wires.

Bus
Usually for data / address.

Bus
 Optocoupler isolates
Optocoupler / Opto-isolator
connection to other board

Converts electrical signal to

Loudspeaker
sound waves

Converts sound waves to

Microphone
electrical signal

Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Operates with hysteresis to

Schmitt Trigger
reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter Converts analog signal to

(ADC) digital numbers

Digital-to-Analog converter Converts digital numbers to

(DAC) analog signal

Used to generate precise

Crystal Oscillator
frequency clock signal

Antenna Symbols

Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio
waves
Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

Outputs 1 when both inputs

AND Gate
are 1.

Outputs 0 when both inputs

NAND Gate
are 1. (NOT + AND)

OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

 Outputs 0 when any input is 1.
NOR Gate
(NOT + OR)
Outputs 1 when inputs are
XOR Gate
different. (Exclusive OR)
D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data
Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1
Connects the output to
selected input line.
Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1
Connects selected output to
Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4
the input line.
known as a single Galvanic cell battery consisting of two or more cells, connected in either parallel or series
pattern.[1]
An electrochemical
cell is a device
capable of either
generating electrical
energy from
chemical reactions
or facilitating
chemical reactions
through the
introduction of
electrical energy. A
common example of
an electrochemical
cell is a standard
1.5-volt battery
meant for consumer
use. A conventional
battery of this type is

Contents
 1 Half-cells
o 1.1 Equilibrium reaction
o 1.2 Cell potential
 2 Reference
 3 See also

Half-cells

The Bunsen cell, invented by Robert Bunsen.

An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells. Each half-cell consists of an electrode and an electrolyte. The two
half-cells may use the same electrolyte, or they may use different electrolytes. The chemical reactions in the cell may
involve the electrolyte, the electrodes, or an external substance (as in fuel cells that may use hydrogen gas as a
reactant). In a full electrochemical cell, species from one half-cell lose electrons (oxidation) to their electrode while
species from the other half-cell gain electrons (reduction) from their electrode.

A salt bridge (e.g., filter paper soaked in KNO3 or some other electrolyte) is often employed to provide ionic contact
between two half-cells with different electrolytes, yet prevent the solutions from mixing and causing unwanted side
reactions. An alternative to a salt bridge is to allow direct contact (and mixing) between the two half-cells, for
example in simple electrolysis of water.

As electrons flow from one half-cell to the other through an external circuit, a difference in charge is established. If
no ionic contact were provided, this charge difference would quickly prevent the further flow of electrons. A salt
bridge allows the flow of negative or positive ions to maintain a steady-state charge distribution between the
oxidation and reduction vessels, while keeping the contents otherwise separate. Other devices for achieving
separation of solutions are porous pots and gelled solutions. A porous pot is used in the Bunsen cell (right).

Equilibrium reaction

Each half-cell has a characteristic voltage. Various choices of substances for each half-cell give different potential
differences. Each reaction is undergoing an equilibrium reaction between different oxidation states of the ions: When
equilibrium is reached, the cell cannot provide further voltage. In the half-cell that is undergoing oxidation, the closer
the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will
provide. Likewise, in the reduction reaction, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more negative
oxidation state the higher the potential.

Cell potential

The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials (the voltages of each half-cell). These half-
cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 volts to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). (See table
of standard electrode potentials). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the
potential measured. When calculating the difference in voltage, one must first rewrite the half-cell reaction equations
to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction equation.

1. Reverse the reduction reaction with the smallest potential ( to create an oxidation reaction/ overall positive cell
potential)
2. Half-reactions must be multiplied by integers to achieve electron balance.

Note that the cell potential does not change when the reaction is multiplied by a constant.

Cell potentials have a possible range of roughly zero to 6 volts. Cells using water-based electrolytes are usually
limited to cell potentials less than about 2.5 volts, because the very powerful oxidizing and reducing agents that
would be required to produce a higher cell potential tend to react with the water. Higher cell potentials are possible
with cells using other solvents instead of water. For instance, lithium cells with a voltage of 3 volts are commonly
available.

The cell potential depends on the concentration of the reactants, as well as their type. As the cell is discharged, the
concentration of the reactants decreases, and the cell potential also decreases.

What are batteries?

A battery can change chemical energy to electricity by putting certain chemicals in contact with each
other in a specific way. Electrons, which are small parts of an atoms, will travel from one kind of
chemical to another under the right circumstances. When electrons flow, this makes an electrical current
that can power something. What a battery does is put the right chemicals in the right relationships, and
then puts a wall between them. Only when the two sides of a battery are connected by a wire or another
conductor can the electrons flow.

Batteries come in several styles; you are probably most familiar with single-use alkaline batteries.
NASA spacecraft usually use rechargeable nickel-cadmium or nickel-hydride batteries like those found
in laptop computers or cellular phones. (DS1 uses nickel-hydrogen batteries.) Engineers think of
batteries as a place to store electricity in a chemical form.

Batteries tend to expend their charge fairly quickly. DS1 can last from half an hour to three hours
running purely on battery power before the batteries need to be recharged from the solar panels. These
batteries are recharged thousands of times over the life of the spacecraft.

Electrical Cells and Batteries

Introduction
In it's most simple form a battery can be regarded as a pump that provides the energy to move charge around a circuit.

In order to provide a potential difference, or electro-motive force (EMF) a store of energy is required. One such
method is a battery or cell. The common usages of the term battery is any device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy. However, strictly speaking, the term battery is used when several electrical cells are connected
together to provide a source of a potential difference in a circuit. If it is just a single chemical source then it is called a
cell.

History
Figure 1. Galvani's Frog's Leg Experiment

In 1791, Galvani noticed that a circuit created with two different metals, when touched on the ends of the leg of a
dead frog, would cause it twitch. The two metals were creating an electric current within the frog's leg, causing the
muscles to contract. Early batteries were an improvement of this method transfering chemical energy into electrical
energy.

The first battery was invented in 1793 by Alessandro Volta. Just as the two different metals touching the wet skin of a
frog's leg, caused an electrical current to flow, early batteries increased the voltage that could be produced by
stacking a pile of discs made from silver and zinc sandwiched between paper soaked in a salt water solution as shown
in Figure 2. In honour of Volta, we use the Volt as the unit of potential difference and EMF.

Figure 2. Volta's battery of cells.

Battery Operation
Why does this produce electricity? The flow of current can be understood as the flow of ions from the more reactice
metal to the less reactive metal. The ions moving from one electrode to the other creates an electrical charge which is
neutralised by the flow of electrons across the wire.

Before considering the reaction of two metals, consider what happens when we place a single metal electrode in an
electrolyte. Some of the metal atoms in the electrolyte go into solution as ions while the remaining electrons create a
negative charge on the metal. The separation of ions and electrons leads to a separation of charge. However, this
build up of charge cannot continue indefinitely because as the negative charge builds up in the metal it becomes
increasingly difficult for positive metal ions to go into solution. A similar build up in positive charge in the
electrolyte also prevents the build up of charge. This degree of charge build up depends on the metal and represents
the work required to separate electrons from the ions. This is known as the electroneutrality principle

Similarly, if a copper strip is placed in an aquaous Copper(II)Sulfate solution the copper will also lose ions. These
reactions are often written as Cu | Cu+2 this is the half-cell reaction.

The tendancy for Zinc to lose ions is greater than that of Copper. When the two cells are joined together (using a
copper wire to connect the electrodes and porous barrier that allows the ions to pass known as a salt-bridge connect
the elecrolytes, the build up of electrons on the zinc will flow to through the wire onto the copper.

The copper ions in the electrolyte gain electrons and become copper atoms.

Thus the reaction can be written,

Zn | Zn2+ | | Cu2+ | Cu

Figure 3. Danile Cell

To continue the reaction, the charge must be removed. This can be acheived by coupling a second reaction which
uses the electrons in the metal to convert the ions in the electrolyte into a metal. For a more specific example,
consider a zinc electrode in an electrolyte of Copper(II)Sulphate solution.

The loss of electrons by the Zinc is known as oxidation. Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e-.(1)

A wire connecting the Zinc electrode to a Copper electrode, allows the electrons to flow to the Copper electrode.
Copper ions in the copper sulphate solution take up the electrons and become atoms of copper on the copper
electrode. The gaining of electrons by ions is known as reduction

Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu(s).(2)

The net reactions is then,

Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Cu(s) + Zn2+

When the two electrodes are joined by a wire the charge stored can flow and the electrons combine. The simplest
kinds of battery have two conductors made of different materials which are partially emersed in a solution which
allow the electrons and ions to flow freely known as an electrolyte.

At the copper electrode (cathode), the acid dissolves the copper metal producing hydrogen gas, H+. The reaction will
continue until the supply of zinc is used up. The electrons, with their negative charge, are attracted to the copper
electrode which causes a current to flow. One of the problems with this cell is that the current stops flowing after a
short time because the hydrogen bubles block the current.
Cells using aqueous (containing water) electrolytes are limited in voltage to less than 2 Volts because the oxygen and
hydrogen in water dissociate in the presence of voltages above this voltage. Lithium batteries (see below) which use
non-aqueous electrolytes do not have this problem and are available in voltages between 2.7 and 3.7 Volts. However
the use of non-aqueous electrolytes results in those cells having a relatively high internal impedance.

Activity Series
In the activity series, a metal will give up electrons to any other metal which is below it on the activity series.
Elements which gain electrons are called negative irons. Elements which lose electrons are called positive ions. Any
more active metal will give up electrons to a less active metal. This will serve to protect the less active metal from
corrosion. For example, steel ships often have bars of zinc attached to the sides of the ship. As the steel is corroded by
the oxygen of water and air, the zinc will give up electrons to the steel and protect it from corrosion.

Batteries in Circuits
Just like any other electrical component, individual cells can be placed in series or parallel. In series their voltage sum
to create a battery with a higher voltage but the current remain the same as in a single cell. In parallel, the batteries
have the same voltage but the current is summed to create a battery with a higher current.

Batteries and Internal Resistance

Figure 4. A real cell with internal resistance.

A real battery has internal resistance, r, which lowers the voltage when the cell is connect to a load. If you try to send
too much current through a battery, the internal resistance will convert the battery’s own chemical potential energy
into thermal energy. The battery will get warm and electrons will leave the negative electrode with relatively little
energy.

Figure 5. A cell with internal resistance in series with a load, R.

The EMF of the battery is given by E and represents the voltage when the battery is open circuit. If the battery had no
internal resistance, the current flowing in the circuit would be given by Ohm's law, I =E/R where R is the resistance
of the load.
The internal resistance adds to the total resistance of the circuit. If we call the new total resistance of the cell and
load, Req = r + R

Then current is then I= E/Req = E/(r + R).(3)

Since Req is larger than R the current flowing in the circuit is reduced. Therefore, if we are making a cell we want the
internal resistance to be a small as possible.

What is the voltage across the resistor R? Clearly it is not the same as the EMF because of the internal resistance. We
know that the EMF, E = Ir + IR. We also know that the voltage across the resistor R is IR. Rearranging these two
equations we find the voltage in terms of E, r and R.

V = E - Ir (4).

This equation also shows that if we draw a lot of current from the circuit we see the voltage reduces. A good example
of this is a car starting with its lights switched on. When the ignitioin key is turned, the electric starter-motor uses a
lot of current before it starts to turn. The current for this is supplied by the car battery, which also powers the lights.
The voltage available for the lights is reduced at this moment and the lights dim as the car starts. They quickly
become bright again once the engine is turning over because less current is required by the starter motor. (When the
car has started no current is drawn by the starter motor because it disengages from the engine.)

Metal Metal Ion Reactivity

Lithium Li+ Most Reactive

Potassium K+

Calcium Ca2+

Sodium K+

Magnesium Mg2+

Aluminum Al3+

Manganese Mn2+

Zinc Zn2+

Chromium Cr2+, Cr3+

Iron Fe2+, Fe3+

Lead Pb2+

Copper Cu2+

Mercury Hg2+

Silver Ag2+
Gold Au+,Au3+ Least Reactive

Platinum Pt2+

Table 1. Metal Reactivity Series from most reactive to least reactive.

Power and Efficiency

The power output of the battery is given by PE = I2R(5)

But from equation (3), I = E/Req = E/(r + R), therefore, P = E2R/(r + R)2(6)

Similarly, the power given off as heat by the battery to due to internal resistance is Pr = I2r = E2r/(r+R)2(7)

The efficiency, η of the circuit is the ratio of the power actually produced by the battery with its internal resistance to
the power supplied by the source, P0. P0 = I E

The power generated is given by I VR, where VR is the voltage across the resistor R.

η = PE/P0 = IVR/IE = R/(r + R)

The smaller the internal resistance, the closer the efficiency, η will be to its maximum value of 1.

If we plot the power tranferred to a load resistance R against the increasing R along with the efficiency we find that
the maximum power is transferred by the battery when R = r. This is a very important result and find applications in
many electrical devices is known as Jacobi's theorem

Power transferred and efficiency of a battery against load resistance.

To check this is true we can also differentiate the expression for the power P against R and set it equal to zero to find
the maximum value of R.

dP/dR = -dE2/dR (r + R)-2 + d(R+r)-2/dR (E2R) = 0

E2/(r + R)2 - 2 E2R/(r + R)3 = 0

(r + R)3 - 2R(r + R)2 = 0

(r + R) - 2R = 0
r - R = 0 or r = R

While the power transferred may be at a maximum, the efficiency at this percent is only 50%. The higher the load
resistance, the greater the efficiency. In practise the exact loading of the circuit is dependent on the application, a
good voltmeter has an extremely high-resistance so that the power transmitted is as small as possible.

Types of Battery
Over the years, progress in battery technology has been rather slow but the need for small more powerful batteries in
the many small electrical items we carry around with us has driven research into higher power, longer lasting
batteries.

Zinc Carbon

This is commonly known as the Leclanché Cell and despite being the oldest type of battery it is still the most
commonly used as it is very low-cost. Traditional Zinc Carbon batteries cannot be reused when their chemical energy
has been released

Zinc-Carbon Cell

Alkaline Cells

Alkaline chemistry is used in common Duracell and Energizer batteries, the electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide,
with an alkaline electrolyte. Alkaline batteries can be re-used upto 100 times with the correct type of battery charger.
A normal battery charger must not be used to charge these batteries.

The active materials used are the same as in the Leclanché cell – zinc and manganese dioxide. However the
electrolyte is potassium hydroxide, which is very conductive, resulting in low internal impedance for the cell. This
time the zinc anode does not form the container; it is in the form of a powder instead, giving a large surface area.

Silver Zinc

Lightweight but expensive. Used in aeronautical applications.

Rechargable or Secondary Cells

Rechargeable batteries are rechargeable because the chemical reaction that leads to the flow of current is reversible
by passing a current through the battery. The animation shows a battery undergoing charging and discharging. When
the battery is charged the current can flow through a resistive load.

Flash animation 1. Rechargable battery undergoing charge and discharge cycle.

Lead-Acid

Lead acide batteries are used to provide large amounts of current for a relatively short time. They consist of plates of
lead and lead oxide in a solution of sulphuric acid. Lead combines with SO4 (sulphate) to create PbSO4 (Lead
Sulphate), plus one electron. Lead dioxide, hydrogen ions and SO4 ions, plus electrons from the lead plate, create
PbSO4 and water on the lead dioxide plate. As the battery discharges, both plates build up PbSO4 and water builds up
in the acid. The characteristic voltage is about 2 volts per cell, so by combining six cells you get a 12-volt battery.

half-reaction V vs SHE

Pb + SO42- → PbSO4 + 2e- .356

PbO2 + SO42- + 4H+ + 2e- → PbSO4 + 2H2O 1.685

Nickle Cadmium (Ni-Cad)

Nickle-Cadmium cells are the most common type of re-chargable battery. They have a high-energy density and a
EMF of 1.2 V. They can be recharged more times than other types of rechargable batteries but unless they are fully
discharged before recharging suffer from a memory effect which reduces their capacity to store charge.

Nickle-Metal Hydride (Ni-Mh)

Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)

Lithium is the most electronegative metal in the electrochemical series. It also has a low density so it is an atractive
material for the anode of batteries. However, lithium is also very reactive with aqueous electrolytes producing
hydrogen gas. Because of this it took many years to develop a stable electrolyte. Lithium batteries must be sealed
from moisture and air due to the reactivity of lithium. Non-rechargable lithium batteries have been available since the
1980s with rechargable lithium batteries becoming widely available around 1995. Lithium-ion batteries can be
recharged between 500 - 1000 cycles. The half-reactions are:

The following reactions take place upon discharge:

Anode: xLi+ + Mn2O4 → LixMn2O4

Cathode: LixC6 → xLi+ + 6C + xe-

Overall: LixMn2O4 + 6C → LixC6 + Mn2O4

Lithium Polymer (Li-poly)

Lithium polymer batteries use a solid polymer electrolyte.

Rusting

Corrosion of iron and steel due to rusting is responsible for millions of pounds of damage each year. Rustiing, is
oxidation of the metal to form a metal oxide. Rust does not firmly adhere to the surface of the metal allowing it oxide
further. The oxide causes damage to the surface of the metal known as pitting which, over time, reduces thes
structural integrity of the metal.

What has this got to do with batteries? Rusting is a chemical process the occurs when the iron or steel is exposed to
moist air, it reacts with the oxygen in the air to create Iron (III) oxide. We saw earlier how electricity is generated by
the process of oxidization and reduction. The formation of rust can occur at some distance away from theactual
pitting or erosion of iron as illustrated below. This is possible because the electrons produced via the initial oxidation
of iron can be conducted through the metal and the iron ions can diffuse through the water layer to another point on
the metal surface where oxygen is available. This process results in an electrochemical cell in which iron serves as
the anode, oxygen gas as the cathode, and the aqueous solution of ions serving as a "salt bridge" as shown below.

Rusting of Iron by water droplet.

Fe → Fe+2 + 2e- and Fe → Fe+3 + e- in the anode

The amount of water complexed with the iron (III) oxide (ferric oxide) varies as indicated by the letter "X". The
amount of water present also determines the color of rust, which may vary from black to yellow to orange brown. The
formation of rust is a very complex process which is thought to begin with the oxidation of iron to ferrous (iron "+2")
ions.

Fe → Fe+2 + 2 e-

Both water and oxygen are required for the next sequence of reactions. The iron (+2) ions are further oxidized to form
ferric ions (iron "+3") ions.

Fe+2 → Fe+3 + 1 e-

Tthe electrons provided from both oxidation steps are used toreduce oxygen as shown.

O2 (g) + 2 H2O + 4e- → 4 OH-

The ferric ions then combine with oxygen to form ferric oxide [iron (III) oxide] which is then hydrated with varying
amounts of water. The overall equation for the rust formation may be written as:

Other metals, such as Aluminium, form an oxide layer when they come into contact with oxygen from the air but the
layer of oxide bonds very strongly to the surface of the Aluminium preventing further oxidation from occurring.
However, Aluminium can rust in a very short time if a thin layer of mercury is applied to the surface. Mercury readily
combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminum amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. When
the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving behind mercury. The oxide flakes away, exposing
more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process thus a small amount of mercury can rust a large amount of
aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide. For this reason
mercury is prohibited on aircraft.

Fuel Cells

Hydrogen fuel cells are a relatively new technology that take hydrogen and oxgen and convert them into electricity
by using a catalyst. Water is the result of the reaction. Thus the hydrogen fuel cell is potentially an environmentally
method of powering cars.

Hydrogen fuel cell operation

Nuclear Batteries

Nuclear batteries may seem like a recipe for disaster given the concern for nuclear safety, however, they have the
ability to produce power for long periods of time. Nuclear batteries are not new. It may surprise you to know that they
have been been implanted into paitents that suffer from heart arrthymia to power cardiac pacemakers since the 1973.
Advances in the power of lithium batteries led to the phasing out of nuclear batteries by 1975. The development of
nuclear batteries has been re-ignited with the need for long lasting batteries to power the portable devices such as
laptops, mp3 players and mobile telephones.
Nuclear batteries work by converting the heat produced by a nuclear source and creating a current using the Seebeck-
effect a second type of nuclear cell uses beta-radiation impinging on a semiconductor junction to create electron hole
pair which migrate to the elelectrode of the junction creating a current. Much in the same way that a solar cell creates
energy. Currently these batteries cannot produce enough power to run a laptop however they can be used to trickle
charge batteries to give longer lifetime for existing batteries.

What's a circuit?
A circuit is a closed loop that electrons can travel in. A source of electricity, such as a battery, provides
electrical energy in the circuit. Unless the circuit is complete, that is, making a full circle back to the
electrical source, no electrons will move.

Generally, there is some appliance that uses electricity in the circuit. The appliance may, for example,
provide light or heat or mechanical energy.

How do batteries work?

Electricity, as you probably already know, is the flow of electrons through a conductive path like a wire.
This path is called a circuit.

Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and the electrolyte. The cathode and anode (the
positive and negative sides at either end of a traditional battery) are hooked up to an electrical circuit.
The chemical reactions in the battery causes a build up of electrons at the anode. This results in an
electrical difference between the anode and the cathode. You can think of this difference as an unstable
build-up of the electrons. The electrons wants to rearrange themselves to get rid of this difference. But
they do this in a certain way. Electrons repel each other and try to go to a place with fewer electrons.

In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the electrolyte keeps the electrons from going
straight from the anode to the cathode within the battery. When the circuit is closed (a wire connects the
cathode and the anode) the electrons will be able to get to the cathode. In the picture above, the electrons
go through the wire, lighting the light bulb along the way. This is one way of describing how electrical
potential causes electrons to flow through the circuit.

However, these electrochemical processes change the chemicals in anode and cathode to make them
stop supplying electrons. So there is a limited amount of power available in a battery.

When you recharge a battery, you change the direction of the flow of electrons using another power
source, such as solar panels. The electrochemical processes happen in reverse, and the anode and
cathode are restored to their original state and can again provide full power.

We can't always generate electricity where and when it is needed so

batteries, devices that store electrical energy in chemical form, are very important. Many different types of batteries
are produced for a wide variety of applications, from storing solar power for satellites in space to powering heart
pacemakers fitted inside people's chests.
You might think a battery looks just about as dull as anything you've ever seen. But the minute you hook it up to
something, it starts buzzing with electricity. That dull little cylinder turns into your very own micro power plant! Let's
see what's going on in there...

Photo: Disposable batteries like this one are really convenient, but they can be expensive in the long haul and they're
bad for the environment. A better option is to use rechargeable batteries. They cost more to begin with, but you can
charge them hundreds of times—so they save an absolute fortune and help save the planet!

What are the main parts of a battery?

All batteries contain one or more cells, but people often use the terms battery and cell interchangeably. A cell is just
the working chemical unit inside a battery; one battery can contain any number of cells. A cell has three main parts: a
positive electrode (terminal), a negative electrode, and a liquid or solid separating them called the electrolyte. When a
battery is connected to an electric circuit, a chemical reaction takes place in the electrolyte causing ions (in this case,
atoms with a positive electrical charge) to flow through it one way, with electrons (particles with a negative charge)
flowing through the outer circuit in the other direction. This movement of electric charge makes an electric current
flow through the cell and through the circuit it is connected to. It's important to note that the electrodes in a battery
are always made from two dissimilar materials (so never both from the same metal, for example). This is the key to
how and why a battery works: one of the materials "likes" to give up electrons, the other likes to receive them. If both
electrodes were made from the same material, that wouldn't happen and no current would flow.

That's the theory anyway. Now let's look at it in practice.

How does a battery really work?

Where does the power in a battery actually come from? Let's take a closer look!

Here's my battery hooked up to a flashlight bulb to make a simple circuit. I've unwrapped a paperclip to make a piece
of connecting wire and I'm holding that between the bottom of the battery and the side of the bulb. If you look
closely, you can see the bulb is shining. That's because electrons are marching through it!

Anode and cathode?

Now here's what's going on inside. The battery's positive terminal (shown just above my left thumb in the photo and
colored red in the artwork below) is connected to a positive electrode that's mostly hidden inside the battery. We call
this the cathode. The outer case and the bottom of the battery make up the negative terminal, or negative electrode,
which is also called the anode and colored green in the artwork. The paperclip wire is represented in the art by the
blue line.

Let's quickly clear up one point of confusion. At school, you may have learned that the cathode is the negative
electrode and the anode the positive electrode? However, that applies only to electrolysis (passing electricity through
a chemical to split it up). Batteries are like electrolysis going backwards (they split up chemicals to make electricity)
so the terms anode and cathode are switched around. Okay? To avoid confusion, I suggest it's best not to use the
terms anode and cathode at all. It's better to say "positive terminal" and "negative terminal" and then it's always clear
what you mean, whether you're talking about batteries or electrolysis.

Chemical reactions

Now back to our battery. The positive and negative electrodes are separated by the chemical electrolyte. It can be a
liquid, but in an ordinary battery it is more likely to be a dry powder.

When you connect the battery to a lamp and switch on, chemical reactions start happening. One of the reactions
generates positive ions (shown here as big yellow blobs) and electrons (smaller brown blobs) at the negative
electrode. The positive ions flow through the electrolyte to the positive electrode (from the green line to the red one).
Meanwhile, the electrons (smaller brown blobs) flow around the outside circuit (blue line) to the positive electrode
and make the lamp light up on the way.

The electrons and ions flow because of the chemical reactions happening inside the battery—usually two or three of
them going on simultaneously. The exact reactions depend on the materials from which the electrodes and electrolyte
are made, and we won't go into them here. (If you want to know what they are, enter the type of the battery you're
interested in followed by the words "anode cathode reactions" in your favorite search engine.) Whatever chemical
reactions take place, the general principle of electrons going around the outer circuit and ions flowing in the opposite
direction through the electrolyte happens in all batteries. As the battery generates power, the chemicals inside it are
gradually converted into different chemicals. Their ability to generate power dwindles, the battery's voltage slowly
falls, and the battery eventually runs flat. In other words, if the battery cannot produce positive ions because the
chemicals inside it have become depleted, it can't produce electrons for the outer circuit either.

Now you may be thinking: "Hang on, this doesn't make any sense! Why don't the electrons just take a short cut and
hop straight from the negative electrode through the electrolyte to the positive electrode? It turns out that, because of
the chemistry of the electrolyte, electrons can't flow through it in this simple way. In fact, so far as the electrons are
concerned, the electrolyte is pretty much an insulator: a barrier they cannot cross. Their easiest path to the positive
electrode is actually by flowing through the outer circuit.

Types of batteries
Although there are lots of different kinds of batteries, there are really only two types: disposable and rechargeable.
They contain two different kinds of cells. Primary cells make the power in ordinary, disposable batteries. They
produce electricity by slowly using up the chemicals from which the electrodes and electrolyte are made. Secondary
cells power rechargeable batteries. You can find them in the big lead-acid batteries that start cars and the nickel-
cadmium (NiCd or "nicad"), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion batteries that power cellular phones.
Unlike primary cells, secondary cells can be recharged simply by passing a current through them in the reverse
direction to normal. When you charge your cellphone, you are really just running the battery (and the chemical
reactions inside it) in reverse.

Examples of disposable batteries (primary cells)

Zinc-chloride batteries

In a zinc-chloride long-life battery, the positive electrode is made from a carbon rod surrounded by a mixture of
powdered carbon and manganese dioxide, the negative electrode is made from an alloy of zinc and the electrolyte
between them is a jelly or paste of ammonium chloride. The whole battery may be sealed inside a metal or plastic
case and, because there is no liquid that can be spilled, it is often referred to as a dry cell. The cheapest, ordinary,
everyday batteries you get for things like flashlights are zinc carbon ones.

Alkaline batteries

Inside an alkaline battery, manganese dioxide molecules are converted into manganese oxide and hydroxyl ions. The
hydroxyl ions then react with zinc to form zinc oxide and water, releasing electrons. The electrons move toward the
carbon rod and flow out around the circuit, producing an electric current. The battery stops producing electricity
when all the manganese dioxide is used up. Alkaline batteries look much the same as zinc carbon ones but last longer
and cost more.

Button cells

Button cells are used inside calculators and watches (and you find really tiny ones in hearing aids). The top of the cell
is the negative electrode, made from powdered zinc trapped between two metal layers. The bottom of the cell and the
case make up the positive electrode, made from mercury oxide and graphite. In between the electrodes is an alkaline
electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. During operation, the zinc loses electrons to become zinc oxide and the mercury
oxide changes to mercury metal.
Examples of rechargeable batteries (secondary cells)
This a quick overview of rechargeables. You can read a more detailed account in our main article on how battery
chargers work.

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries

Until recently, virtually all rechargeable batteries were nickel-cadmium (NiCd, usually pronounced "nicad").
Although very dependable, it's often said that they need to be discharged fully before you charge them up or the
amount of charge they will store (and their effective lifespan) can be greatly reduced. Opinions vary on whether this
is true and, if so, why it happens, but as a rule of thumb, regularly discharging batteries completely and then
recharging them is a good practice. Nickel metal hydride work in a similar way, but suffer less from this so-called
"memory effect." Another problem with NiCd batteries is the toxic cadmium metal they contain. If they are buried in
a landfill, instead of properly recycled the cadmium can escape into the soil and could potentially pollute
watercourses nearby.

Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium is a lightweight metal that easily forms ions, so it is excellent for making batteries. The latest lithium-ion
batteries can store about twice as much energy as traditional NiCd rechargeables, work at higher voltages, and are
more environmentally friendly, but do not last as long. There are probably lithium-ion batteries in your cellphone,
MP3 player, and laptop computer.

How do they work? When you plug a cellphone or laptop into the power supply, the lithium-ion battery inside starts
buzzing with chemical activity. The battery's job is to store as much electricity as possible, as fast as possible. It does
this through a chemical reaction that shunts lithium ions (lithium atoms that have lost an electron to become
positively charged) from one part of the battery to another. When you unplug the power and use your laptop or
phone, the battery switches into reverse: the ions move the opposite way and the battery gradually loses its charge.
Lithium-ion batteries also have special electronic circuits that can interrupt charging and discharging. These switch
off the power to prevent overcharging and overheating and to prevent too much discharging, which makes the battery
unstable and harder to charge up again. Read more in our main article on how lithum-ion batteries work.

Accumulators

Accumulators are most familiar to us as large, powerful car batteries. A lead-acid accumulator contains three or six
separate cells inside a tough plastic casing. Each cell contains lead electrodes and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid and
water. During operation, the sulfuric acid is gradually turned into water, the lead electrodes are converted into lead
sulfate, and the battery becomes unable to supply more charge. But unlike a dry cell, it can be recharged simply by
passing a current through it in the opposite direction.

How do fuel cells differ from batteries?

Photo of a bus powered by fuel cells. The fuel cells are just inside the open door on the right. Picture courtesy of
NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.

Unlike a battery, which gradually loses its ability to make electricity from the chemicals inside it, a fuel cell converts
chemicals into electricity from a continuous supply of fuel outside it. Like a battery, a fuel cell has positive and
negative electrodes and an electrolyte in between.

Because fuel cells are at least twice as efficient as internal combustion (gasoline and diesel) engines and produce
nothing more polluting than water, they could be used for environmentally friendly electric cars in the future,
although many people think battery-powered electric cars are more efficient and more practical. Fuel cells are already
used to generate power inside unmanned space probes (and they were also used in the Space Shuttle).

Inside a fuel cell

A fuel cell has a fuel electrode and an oxygen electrode. As it passes over the negative fuel electrode, hydrogen turns
into hydrogen ions and electrons. The electrons move through the circuit to the positive oxygen electrode, while the
ions move through the electrolyte. At the oxygen electrode, electrons combine with hydrogen ions and oxygen gas to
make water.