12C - STEM BIOLOGY

SAINT JUDE CATHOLIC SCHOOL

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
327 YCAZA ST., SAN MIGUEL, MANILA, PHILIPPINES
Tel. Nos.: 735-6386 / 735-6393
www.sjcs.edu.ph
3rd Quarter, Second Semester, SY 2019 - 2020
GENERAL BIOLOGY LECTURE NOTES

MICROSCOPE
● Micron = Small
● Scopus = Range
● An instrument used for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.
● The study of investigating small objects using an instrument is called microscopy.

Historical Development
● Zacharias Janssen was the first who developed a microscope in 1590.
● Galileo Galilei developed the first compound that uses three lenses.
● Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to discover the bacteria and sex sells, parasites and some other
small animals (animalcules).

Parts of a Compound Microscope

1. Mechanical
a. Base
b. The Hand/Arm
c. Body Tube: the cylindrical tube that connects the eyepiece to the nose piece
d. Revolving Nosepiece: the circular structure that permits the shifting of the attached objectives
e. Stage: where the specimens are placed for viewing
f. Stage Clips: attached to the stages it holds the slides in place
g. The Coarse Adjustment knob: for adjusting the focus of the scanner and low power objective.
h. The fine adjustment knob: for delicate focusing of the high power and oil immersion.
2. Magnifying
a. The eyepiece found on the body tube has a magnification of 10x – 15x. The thin black line is
the pointer
b. The scanner is the smallest objective usually with red lining with a magnification of 5x.
c. The LPO (Low Power Objective): yellow line
d. The HPO (High Power Objective): blue line
3. Illuminating
a. Mirror is responsible for responsible for reflecting light, can be concave or planar
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b. The light source is a lightbulb responsible for directing the light.
c. The condenser is the lens found below the stage used to regulate the entry of light onto the
specimen.

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY: ZOOLOGY

Biology is the Study of Life
1. Origin
● All living organisms come from other living organisms
● Arose from an organism that contains one or more cells
● Spontaneous Generation: rise of living organisms from nonliving thing
2. Reproduction
● Reproduction is the process by which an organism produces others of its same kind
● A group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring are called a species.
● Asexual
○ Budding: an appendage that can give a daughter
○ Fragmentation: Reproduction with the process of cutting and that become new
organisms
○ Vegetative Reproduction
● Sexual: union of sex cells, fertilization
○ Fertilization: the union of the sperm cell of the male parent and the egg cell of the
female parents, gametes (gonads are the organ/s that produces the gametes)
○ Autogamy: self-fertilization occurs in hermaphroditic organisms where the two gametes
fuse in fertilization come from the same individual. They are bound and all the cells
merge to form one new gamete
○ Movement: living things have the ability to move in some way without outside help.
The movement may consist of the flow of material within the organism or external
movement of the organism
○ Communicate: every information exchange between living organisms like transmission
of signals that involve a living sender and receiver can be considered a form of
communication
○ Nutrition and Metabolisms: a collection of chemical reactions that takes place in the
body’s cells. Metabolism converts the fuel in the food we eat into the energy needed to
power everything we do, from moving to thinking to growing
■ Catabolism: the process that produces the energy required for all activity in the
cells. In this process cells break down large molecules (mostly carbohydrates
and fats) to release the energy.
● Excretion and Respiration: the process by which waste products are removed from the body of
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living organisms.
○ Sensitivity and Adaptation
■ Sensitivity: the ability of an organisms or organ to respond to external stimuli is
called sensitivity
■ Adaptation: it means to change or adjust for a purpose. For animals the purpose
of adapting is to be able to survive in the environment that they live in
Adaptation is for defense and protections for others it is for reproduction
locomotion etc.
● Homeostasis: any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability
while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival. The nervous and endocrine systems
control homeostasis in the body

2 Types of Cells
1. Eukaryotes (has a nucleus)
2. Prokaryotes (absent nucleus)
● Eubacteria
● Archaebacteria

Kingdom Animalia and Zoology

Sub-Disciplines of Zoology
● Ecology – ecosystems
● Embryology – formation and development of embryo/fetus
● Entomology – insects
● Ethology – animal behavior
● Helminthology – parasitic worms
● Herpetology – reptiles and amphibians
● Ichthyology – fish
● Invertebrate Zoology – invertebrates (no backbones)
● Malacology – Mollusca
● Mammalogy – mammals
● Ornithology – birds
● Paleontology – fossils
● Para-zoology – sponges
● Primatology – living and extinct primates
● Sociobiology – social behavior

DISCOVERY OF CELLS (CELL THEORIES)

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Discovery of Cells: Robert Hooke
1. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
● First to see living microscopic organisms
● Made careful sketches
2. Robert Brown 1833
● Discovered the nucleus in plant cells (orchid)
3. Matthias Schleiden 1838
● German botanist
● Viewed plant parts under a microscope
● All plants are made of cells
4. Theodore Schwann 1839
● German scientist who studied animals’ zoologist
● All animals are made of cells
● Cell theory according to Schwann
○ The cell is the unit of structure physiology and organization of living things
○ The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms
● Cell form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation)
5. Francesco Redi’s Experiment
● the disprove spontaneous generation
● Pasteurization: heating up liquids to kill the bacteria
6. Rudolf Virchow 1855
● German physician who studied cell reproduction
● Where a cell exists then there must have been a preexisting cell
7. Revised cell theory
● All known living things are made up of cells
● The cell is structural and functional unit of all living things
● All cells come from preexisting cells by division

CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS
● A surrounding membrane
● Protoplasm cell contents in thick fluids
● Organelles structures for cell functions
● DNA; Peptidoglycan

Cell Composition
● Plasma Membrane (plasmalemma)
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● Lipid bilayer
● Semi-permeable
● Serves as boundary between the outside environment and the inside environment
● Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell

1. Cell Composition: NUCLEUS

● Control center of the cell
● Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane nuclear envelope
● Contains genetic material DNA arranged in thread like structure called chromatin

2. Cell Composition: DNA

● Hereditary material
● Chromosomes
○ DNA
○ Proteins
○ Form of cell division

3. Cell Composition: ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

● Ribosomes attached to surface
○ Manufacture proteins
○ Not all ribosomes attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● May modify proteins from ribosomes

4. Cell Composition: RIBOSOMES

● each cell contains thousands
● made up of RNA and protein
● protein synthesis
5. Cell Composition: SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● no attached ribosomes
● has enzymes that help build molecules
○ carbohydrates
○ lipids

6. Cell Composition: CENTRIOLES

● pairs of microtubular structures
● play a role in cell division

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7. Cell Composition: FLAGELLA
● provide motility
● cilia
○ short; and used to move substances outside human cells
● flagella
○ whip life extensions
○ found on sperm cells
○ basal bodies like centriole

8. Cell Composition: GOLGI APPARATUS

● involved in synthesis of plant cell wall
● packaging and shipping station of cells

9. Cell Composition: LYSOSOMES

● contains digestive enzymes
● functions
○ aid in cell renewal
○ breaks down old cell parts
○ digests invades

10. Cell Composition: MITOCHONDRIA

● powerhouse of the cell
● produces energy thru chemical reactions breaking on fats and carbohydrates
● double membrane; cristae inner folds
● matrix fluid parts

11. Cell Composition: PLASTIDS

● chloroplasts
○ o derived from photosynthetic bacteria
○ o solar energy capturing organelle

12. Cell Composition: CELL WALLS

● found in plants fungi and many protists
● surrounds plasma membrane
● for plants cellulose

13. Cell Composition: VACUOLE

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● membrane bound sacs for storage digestions and waste removal
● contains water solution
● help plants maintain shapes

TYPES OF STEM CELLS

STEM CELL TYPE CELL PLASTICITY SOURCE OF STEM CELL

Each cell transforms into a new

Totipotent Cells from early (1 – 3 days) embryos
individual

Cells proliferate into various other cell

Pluripotent Some cells of blastocyst (5 – 14 days)
types (over 200)

Fetal tissue, cord blood and postnatal

Cells differentiated, but can form a
Multipotent stem cells including dental pulp stem
number of other tissues
cells

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
Unwritten Rules in Genetics
1. Use letters that are different when written uppercase and lowercase
2. Always write the alleles of the parents
3. If the results if the Punnett square are almost all the same you can opt writing it once
4. If the alleles is note indicated if homo or hetero assume it is homozygous

Lagging Strand (3’) → Leading Strand (5’) → mRNA → tRNA → anticodons of tRNA → amino acids
CHARLES DARWIN’S THEORY OF REVOLUTION
● evolution or change over time is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient
organisms
● a scientific theory is a well supported testable explanation of phenomena that have occurred in the
natural world
● voyage of beagle dates feb 12th
○ patterns of diversity
○ patterns of life
○ Fossils
● Galapagos

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● The smallest lowest island were hot dry and nearly barrenhood island sparge vegetation
● The higher islands had greatest rainfall and a different assortments of plants and animals isabela
island had rich vegetation
● Galapagos tortoise and Marine iguanas

OTHER THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

1. JAMES HUTTON 1795
● Theory of Geological Change
● Forces change earth’s surface shape
● Changes are slow
● Earth much older than thousands of years

2. CHARLES LYELL
● Book Principles of Geography
● Geographical features can be built up or torn down
● Darwin thought if earth changes over time what about life
3. JEANNE-BAPTISTE LAMARCK
● Tendency toward perfection
● Use and disuse
● Inheritance of acquired traits

4. THOMAS MALTHUS
● If population grew (more babies born than die)
● Insufficient living space
● Food ran out
● Darwin applied this theory to animals

NATURAL VARIATION. The difference among individual of a species

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ARTIFICIAL SELECTION. Nature provide the variation among different organisms and humans select the
variation they find useful

● Natural selection
○ The struggle for existence members of each species have to compete for food shelter other
life necessaries
○ Survival of the fittest some individuals better suited for the environment
○ Over time natural selection results in changes in inherited characteristic of a population these
changes in inherited characteristics if a population these changes increase a species fitted in its
environment
● Descent
○ Descent with modifications
○ Each living organisms has descended with changes from other species over time
○ Common descent was derived from common ancestors
● Cladogram show closeness of each organism

GENETIC DRIFT THEORY

Genetic drift is a random effect on biological populations. Its effect is to remove genetic variation from a
population of living organisms. It changes the alleles of a population by chance

1. BOTTLENECK EFFECT
● By chance
● Random or Natural Effects
● Happens when the size of a population is dramatically reduced in some random event, like a
natural disaster. The surviving members if the population did not do anything special to
survive, they were just lucky—it was just chance.

2. FOUNDER EFFECT
● Finding a new environment
● The founder effect is the reduction in genetic variation that results when a small subset of a
large population is used to established a new colony
● In some cases the founder effect plays a role in the emergence of new species

Evidence of Evolution
1. the fossil recon layer show change
2. geographic distribution of living things
3. homologous body structures (same body structure different body functions)
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4. similarities in early development
5. biogeography of geographical distribution of plants and animals.
6. DNA Sequences
7. homology
Similarities between Human and Fishes’ Embryonic Development
✖ tail
✖ notochord
✖ gills
vestigial organs that serve no useful function in an organism's (appendix, miniature legs and arms)

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TYPES OF EVOLUTION
● Macroevolution. It refers to a change of an evolutionary nature of a species
● Microevolution. It is a change in gene frequency within a population evolution at this scale can be
observed over a short period of time

SUMMARY
● individuals in nature differ from one another
● organisms in nature produce more offspring than can survive and many of those who do not survive
do not reproduce
● because more organisms are produced than can survive each species must struggle for resources
● each organisms is unique each has advantage and disadvantage in the struggle for existence

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● species alive today descended with modification form species that lived in the past
● all organisms on earth are united into a single family tree of life by common descent

MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS
Animals
● Are made up of cells
● tissues
○ epithelial
○ connective
○ muscle
○ nervous

A. Epithelial Tissue - can be found on the surfaces of your body. They serve as a barrier between the
inside and outside of your body.

a. Simple Epithelium: single layer of cells lysing upon a basement membrane

1. Simple Squamous
→ The cells are very thin and rectangular in profile and are arranged closely
together to form a sheet. The type of epithelium is seen in mesentery.
2. Simple Cuboidal
→ These cells appear as boxes like or cube like cells with more or less equal height
and width can be commonly observed at the thyroid and kidneys.
3. Simple Columnar
→ the cells appear to possess a column like shape elongated in structure
→ most of these tissues can be found in the lining of digestive organs

b. Stratified Epithelium: two or more layers of epithelial cells specifically named based on the
shape of the cells at the surface
1. Stratified Squamous
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→ can be commonly found in skin
2. Stratified Cuboidal
→ large glands such as the sweat glands and mammary glands
3. Pseudostratified Columnar
→ lining of the anus, urethra, vas deferens

B. Connective - comprises a diverse group of tissues that serve to maintain and support the body. It is
generally made up of cells and an extracellular matrix. This group included connective tissue proper.
connective tissues with special properties and supporting connective layers.
1. Connective tissue proper
⟶ loose connective tissue/ areolar tissue
⟶ composed protein fibers. cells have fiber like structure used to hold organs attached
other cells
2. Connective Tissues with Special Properties
⟶ Adipose tissues: These cells have a thin ring of cytoplasm surrounding a very large
vacuole/space left by the dissolved lipid droplets. Nuclei are flattened and often seen at
the sides of the cells
⟶ Blood: the specialized tissue is composed of blood cells and a fluid matrix, the plasma
3. Support Connective Tissues
⟶ Cartilage: forms the embryonic of vertebrates at the adult skeleton of sharks and rays
⟶ Bones: serves as the reservoir of calcium (sink) which is ses for the rigidity and strength
of the tissue, bones are composed of osteocytes. *Haversian canal

spongy bone consists of an irregular thin columns of bone

called trabeculae which contain lamellae osteocytes lacunae
and canaliculi the spaces between the trabeculae of some
spongy bones are filled with red bone marrow

C. Muscular - main function is to contact to provide

movement. There are three types of muscle tissue differentiates among others by the shape of the cell's
rate of contractions and control (voluntary and involuntary movement)

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D. Nervous - main function is conductivity. The main components are the nerve cells or neurons and the
supporting cells called neuroglia

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