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http://ees.elsevier.com/hbrcj
a
School of Architecture, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbongro, Bukgu, 500-757 Gwangju, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Alazhar University, Qena, Egypt
KEYWORDS Abstract Since Camillo Sitte’s time (1843–1903) and until three decades ago, a number of princi-
Urban planning; ples for quality design derived from a range of urban design and planning theorists have emerged in
Classic urban principles; urban planning field. Due to the reasons of exploratory theorists’ influence on the new urbanism
Redevelopment; movement, their concepts were applied in varied regions, especially; within the United states.
Social public space; Unfortunately, the urban planners nowadays have ignored the basic principles of good urban spac-
Cairo downtown in Egypt; ing, abandoning theories evolved from systematic observations and deductive experiments thus; the
Gwangju downtown in urban environment constitute lots of problems which undermine the role of public spacing as a
South Korea
social generator in our life.
This study examines the current situation of two areas selected in Egypt and South Korea against
some general principles extracted from a band of classic urban design theories. Therefore; the study
aims at measuring up the studied area to the successful principles in order to determine both the
positive and negative aspects of urban design, in an attempt to improving the built environment
in the forthcoming redevelopments.
1687-4048 ª 2014 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Housing and Building National Research Center.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2013.12.008
328 A.M. Hassan et al.
The result showed some encouraging aspects of the studied area, especially in Cairo downtown of
Egypt which appears to be consistent with classic urban design theories, but Gwangju downtown of
South Korea still has some problems, and as a result, there are overriding concerns that could well
undermine such positive elements.
ª 2014 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Housing and Building National Research
Center.
Soria y Mata, Ciudad Lineal which had been Station Road which located in
planned in Madrid (1894), shows the role of Letchworth Garden City shows
transportation means for linking the existing reliance on automobiles to move
cities 11. throughout the vast urbanity 13.
Linear city: Soria Y. Mata coined in1882, Norton Way that located in South
implemented in 1894 (as Ciudad Lineal) 12. Letchworth looks like a boulevard
Garden city: (E. Howard 1898) .
street 13.
Satellite cities : (Raymond Unwin -1922), Broadacre city theory: (Frank L. Wright -1932) called for expanding
Satellite cities are the seeds of suburbs which horizontally, and of course it supports the idea of suburbs and reliance on
spread rapidly later, and caused many of cars 15.
problems to the mother city 14.
Fig. 1 The prominent theories of modern city planning which cause several urban problems [11–15].
The debate and criticism towards the performance of built principles. The study centers on the comparative approach be-
environment aims to set some principles of good urbanity tween the current situation of the studied areas and the principles
which can be used as a criterion to enable the urban designers of classic theories in an attempt to adjusting of the built environ-
in rebuilding the city better and likably. Cairo which is located ment. It is worth mentioning that the study framework is limited
in Egypt (Middle East) and Gwangju downtowns which are lo- to the classical theories which included most of the principles de-
cated in Asia, had been planned by different planners. Islamic rived from the new urbanism theory and modern initiatives such
planning and later Haussmann shared in planning Cairo as reclaim the street except the environmental concerns or
downtown consequently, whereas the Gwangju downtown dimensions (as Mathew Carmona and others described this
had been planned by a Japanese planner. Differentiating be- dimension in his book ‘‘Public places Urban spaces- the
tween the two areas will enrich the assessment process through dimensions of urban design’’), which has been added by the new
the classic urban theories. urbanism or transition towns policies. The study focuses on the
urban classical theories to be more profound and justified.
Methods Furthermore, the classical urban theories were validated through
field researches and surveys like those done by Keven Lynch and
In order to determine a criterion for evaluation of the quality of William White.
contemporary urban design, it is necessary to examine the work
of well known theorists and practitioners on the topic. Therefore, Framework of theories
a review of urban design principles that have evolved over time as
the result of different contributions of various theorists and It is essential to show the main principles of quality design of
practitioners will be presented first. Then a field study which selected celebrated urban design or city planning commenta-
includes two areas of which one lies in Egypt and the latter is tors such as Camilo Sitte, Christopher Alexander, William
located in South Korea will be evaluated according to these Whyte, Jane Jacobs, Kevin Lynch and Alan Jacobs and
330 A.M. Hassan et al.
Donald Appleyard. From this therefore, modern ideas were effects on people who live and work in tall buildings, Alexan-
included along with those proposed as early as 30, 40, and in der imposes a general height limit of four floors for most of
the case of Sitte over 100 years. However, all are considered buildings with limited exceptions allowed for non residential
classic works that are still relevant and currently used [21]. buildings.
people and their activities from the side, and static elements dwellings per acre, and up to 48 dwellings per acre. Such a
from the other side. Nearly, everything is in a continuous oper- density enhances the human exchange, public life, action,
ation of changeability. So, studying the legibility and image- diversity and community that make up city life. Therefore;
ability are essential required issues in the urban environment. A. Jacobs and Appleyard agree with C Alexander on the
K. Lynch defined the Legibility of the cityscape as the ease importance of this issue. (c) The good urban environment
with which its parts can be recognized and organized into a must integrate some activities. Living, working and shopping
coherent pattern. Or; legibility is essentially the ease with in reasonable proximity (accessible by walking) to each other.
which people understand the layout of a place. Keven defined So, A. Jacobs and Appleyard support J. Jacobs’s principles.
imageability as the quality of a physical object which gives an (d) Good public space boosts pedestrians’ needs as no public
observer a strong vivid image. He concluded that a highly life can take place between people where they are in cars. On
imageable city would be well formed, would contain very dis- this point A. Jacobs and Appleyard also agree with J. Jacobs
tinct parts, and would be instantly recognizable to the com- on the role of sidewalks as a generator for livable places. (e)
mon inhabitant. He put the elements of legibility as follows A good urban environment is more compatible with many
[31]: (a) Paths: Are the channels along which the observer cus- separate, distinct building with complex arrangements and
tomarily, occasionally, or potentially moves such as streets, relationships rather than few large buildings or superblocks.
walkways, transit lines, canals and railroads. According to Smaller buildings mean more entrances located on the public
Lynch the Weak paths; Branching and number of small space, thus a more lively public environment. So, they sup-
changes along the path cause orientation problems. (b) Edges: port the concept of diversity of J. Jacobs and her advocation
are the linear elements not used or considered as paths by the for the short block.
observer. They are boundaries between two phases, linear
breaks in continuity such as shores, railroad cuts, edges of Principal urban design concepts as a measurable framework
development and walls. (c) Districts: areas with perceived
internal homogeneity- are medium-to-large sections of the city,
Many mutual principles can be derived from the review of ur-
conceived of as having a two-dimensional extent, which the
ban design theorists. These pillars are considered the criteria or
observer mentally enters ‘inside of,’ and which are recogniz-
framework of good urban space. These principles include: the
able as having some common identifying character such as
identity of place, building height and human scales, mixed
center, midtown, its in-town residential areas, organized indus-
uses, reasonable densities and community size, linkage through
trial areas, train yards, suburbs and college campuses. (d)
built environment and compatibility with the natural environ-
Landmarks: Are another type of point-reference, but in this
ment. Therefore, all these pillars are seen as dimensions of
case the observer does not enter within them, they are external.
urban design [30].
They are usually a rather simply defined physical object which
makes one orient oneself. (e) Nodes: Are points, the strategic
spots in a city into which an observer can enter. The nodes Identity of place
may be simply concentrations, which gain their importance To arrive at meaningful identification of a place, urban devel-
from being the condensation of some use or physical character, opment should encompass elements which give identity and
as a street-corner hangout or an enclosed square. And these character to the location and landform to such design based
elements when placed in good form, they increase the human on topography or style of building design. Identifiable environ-
ability to see and remember patterns, and it is these patterns ment should include elements that expresses about history,
that make it easier to learn. culture, customs and heritage through a setback of new build-
ings to create a distance which allows to pedestrians explore
Alan Jacobs and Donald Appleyard the heritage and meaning of the place. Nevertheless, this
Alan Jacobs and D. Appleyard in their work attacked the principle was advocated significantly by K. Lynch.
practice of city building and rebuilding. Their particular criti-
cisms focused on the vast area developed by both public and Building height and human scale
private developers that result in high rise buildings, super- All theorists without exception criticize buildings that are too
blocks, separate paths for people and cars and housing tall. C. Alexander had the strongest view on this and imposes a
divorced from streets. Such developments are large and best four storey height limit on all buildings with only occasional
seen from a distance or from a moving car but if the super- exception permitted. Before the first skyscraper was ever
block is seen from nearby, pedestrians never feel of diversity designed, Sitte was criticizing the ‘‘modern cubic mass’’ of
or spontaneity in urban patterns, and thus; the place becomes building that was growing ever higher. While W. Whyte’s
meaningless [32]. observes that taller building cast taller shadows, and thus he
A. Jacobs and D. Appleyard suggested a number of struc- supposed that a height of 18–20 m is an optimal height for
tural qualities for good urban environment. There are five the lower scaled heritage building. Similarly; J. Jacobs
physical characteristics that must all be present for positive criticized high buildings and skyscrapers which do not allow
urban life [33]: (a) a good urban environment should contain residents to keep their eyes on the street. And therefore con-
livable streets and neighborhoods, and ensures healthy condi- cludes that skyscrapers are not condusive for human scale.
tions including sunlight, clean air, trees, vegetation, gardens, A. Jacobs and Appleyard suggested that many small and
open spaces, pleasantly scaled and designed buildings, clean- separate buildings are better than tall buildings or superblocks.
liness, physical safety and without offensive noise. (b) A. In short, the excessive height of the building planned for some
Jacobs and D. Appleyard suggested a minimum density of areas is out of character with current development in the
development and intensity of land use. They suggested 15 vicinity and could well determine other design qualities.
332 A.M. Hassan et al.
Mixed use Hence, a fine grain of urban fabric includes streets. Never-
Against the zones concept which sets aside district areas for theless, with regard to the new urbanists Alexander approves
separate uses, there is general agreement in the grouping of of the existing street grid into the site. But, Sitte was not agree-
housing, retail, and various commercial uses within a compact ing with those who approved that the streets grid should be a
area. The idea of land use zones emerged after deterioration of base or determinant for development. Thus, he preferred
the environmental quality endured by the population post streets to follow natural contours. Furthermore; there is more
industrial cities, but has since been shown to cause problems emphasis on ‘‘T’’ intersections rather than cross roads.
for accessibility and community participation. So, the urban
theorists and commentators prefer mixed use more than zones. The field study
Sidewalks of pedestrians Two areas were chosen for evaluation against the principles of
classic urban theories. The downtown of Cairo in Egypt, and
The good urban principles are elements of one of the series
the downtown of Gwanju city in South Korea are the field
which create a livable environment, and thus these principles
research areas.
are dependent on each other. Limiting building height to four
or five stories and at the same time avoiding uniformly one
Cairo downtown
storey and tall buildings, allows both a reasonable density
and a human scale which supports a walkable neighborhood. Egypt vice regal khedive Ismail (governed Egypt in between
Jane Jacobs encouraged the concern of sidewalks in particular, 1863–1879) who studied in Paris, fascinated by the French cul-
and therefore advised on how to make them more interesting ture, tried to develop a blueprint of Cairo’s future. So he asked
to motivate people to walk through it, and thus provide safety the third Napoleon to send him Haussmann (1809–1891) to
and social involvement to the urban environment. plan the new Cairo at this time. Presently, Khedivial Cairo is
a small neighborhood downtown. In 1863, the new streets of
Acceptable densities and community size Khedivial Cairo were wide and straight to ease the commuting
compared to the Islamic Cairo (641 till beginning of 19th
In principle, mixed use, accessibility, community involvement
century), these streets met at beautiful plazas rich in fountains
and pedestrian realm, all required compactness and a certain
and statues. Fig. 2 shows Haussmann’s concept and the new
number of populations which allow the society to interact
European style arrived in Egypt. These elements attracted
and integrate. Alexander and A. Jacobs as well as Appleyard
foreign communities, rich merchants and senior civil servants
provide density figures promoting medium rather than high
to move out of the walled neighborhood of the old city into
or low density. On this note, they suggested the density average
the new downtown with its gardens and cafes.
of 37 dwellings per hectare. Nevertheless, Jane Jacobs also
supposed urban density rather than the suburb is required
Boundaries and land use of Cairo downtown. The studied area in
for creating a vibrant urban center.
Cairo Downtown lies between four squares as shown in fig. 3
where Ramsis square, Abd-elmoneam Ryadh square, El-Opera
Linkage through built environment
square and El-Tahreer square confine among them Cairo
The built environment encompasses public and private spaces, midtown.
the relationship between the interior and exterior of buildings There are varied uses in Cairo downtown area. On the
as well as neighboring buildings and spaces must give well ground level were people walk, the commercial and
defined built environment and places. So, the need for many governmental offices dominated whereas the residential,
separate buildings, windows and a fine grain of urban fabric religious, entertainment, educational and cultural purposes ap-
is vital and helpful for legibility rather than tall tower blocks pear as a secondary uses. On the first storey, the commercial
or long scale bland buildings. purpose decreased whereas the residential and governmental
Fig. 4 Ground and first storey use of the Cairo downtown area [36].
334 A.M. Hassan et al.
Gwangju downtown
With a population of 1.5 million, Gwangju Metropolitan City
is the fifth largest city in South Korea. Gwangju region is
located in the south west of the republic of Korea as shown
in fig. 6. It is divided into five districts and was the center of
administration of the South Jeolla Province until 2005.
Gwangju city was originally established in 57 BC. Gwangju
downtown was chosen as a second case in this study.
Fig. 6 On left (a): Location of Gwangju city – Republic of Korea, and on the right (b): Structure of Gwangju pattern in 1940 (Drawn by
the American Army and printed in 1947, modified by authors).
Evaluation of the contemporary urban design classic urban theories 335
Fig. 7 The use of land in Gwangju downtown on the ground, first and repeated floors (Source: the authors).
Table 1 Shows measuring Cairo downtown and Gwangju downtown against the principles derived from the urban classic theories.
Principles of the livable urban design Cairo downtown Gwangju downtown
(a) Identity of the a-1) Historic Architecture belongs to Architecture back to Japanese
place footprint Architecture of Renaissance and Architecture
Islamic era
a-2) Elements of Districts, nodes and landmarks can Elements of legibility. Are not
legibility be easily observed clear enough
(b) Building heights b-1) Heights as Varied but majority around 6 floors Varied, majority revolved
and population a density gauge around 4 floors
density b-2) Denser Except those who come for Except those who come for
urban areas shopping, population density shopping, population density
considered moderated considered low
(c) Diversity and c-1) Varied Varied height Varied height
mixed use height
c-2) Mixed use Varied and mixed use Almost commercial use
c-3) Mingling of Varied aged buildings and ease to Varied aged buildings but hardly
the Building realize the different ages significant
Ages
(d) Sidewalk d-1) Availability Sidewalks with adequate width are Not available enough
of footpaths available
d-2) Safe Permanent residents in the area Not safe enough where there is
walkable paths keep their eyes on the street. So it is no permanent residents in this
safe area
(e) Linkage through e-1) Small sizes Small blocks or short blocks Big or long blocks
built environment of blocks
e-2) Pattern of Regular and grid in general Mixed between grid and curved
streets pattern
reflects the cultural and social values of the settlers; Building and influence positively in the health status. Linkage through
heights and densities which adds aesthetics and economic built environment provides people with accessibility and
profits; diversity and mixed use that enable settlers to shorten encourages them to form social relationships.
their daily trips and get their needs; safe and interesting The table below summarizes the main principles which
sidewalks which encourage people to walk rather than driving should be embodied in the positive urban space, it is also
336 A.M. Hassan et al.
necessary to focus on these principles more closely. And thus, Building height and population density
the results of the toolbox will be discussed with more focus on
the positive and negative aspects related to each principle, and The denser urban areas ensure efficient use for transportation
giving conclusions based on the analysis of the urban design in means, retails and increasing of work opportunities, and thus
Cairo and Gwangju downtowns. create a sustainable and compact district [38]. In Cairo down-
town, the Egyptian laws govern the urban harmony as well as
Discussion control the height of historic buildings and juxtaposed build-
ings. Although, there are some exceptions of height limits
The five principles of the livable urban design which assess the but building heights are almost around 6 floors. The situation
study cases will be discussed in detail and conclusions brought of height limits in Gwangju downtown is not different from
out. counterparts of Cairo downtown buildings. Although, despite
the similarity of building heights in the two areas, population
Identity of the place density has become different because the urban pattern in
Cairo mixes between varied uses. Especially; the existence of
Identity of the place is considered one of the sustainable urban residential apartments in repeated floors. Residential use was
principles missed in the modern planning theories [30]. Because missed out completely in Gwangju downtown.
most of Cairo downtown area was planned by Haussmann
(1863), and other parts of it planned during the Islamic era Diversity and mixed use
(641-the beginning of 19th century), so the historic city centre,
enriched by numerous monuments, retains a prominent phys- Diversity and mixed use somewhere highlight urban aesthet-
ical urban character and a strong socio-cultural identity ics, facilitate access to services and sometimes workplaces, in
according to the Egyptian law No. 117 of 1983 and law addition to keeping settlers’ eyes on the streets during differ-
No.144 of 2006 which preserves the architectural heritage ent times of the day [1,38]. The commercial, residential,
[37]. The architectural heritage in Cairo was preserved by laws administrational, entertainment, cultural, religious, and
and regulations whereas Gwangju downtown area which was healthy purposes interrelated together in Cairo downtown
planned by the Japanese in 1930s during their occupation of as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Thus, this diversity provided social
South Korea, has not had laws to preserve it, therefore the surveillance to this zone. But majorly, the use of Gwangju
architectural design continues to change due to the economic downtown buildings is unilateral, and oriented to the com-
needs of the owners. Despite the impact of the ongoing prob- mercial sector. Therefore; people could not keep their eyes
lems on the Egyptian urban heritage in this area, the National on the streets during specific time of the day. The building
Organization of Urban Harmony undermines the decay of owners and authorities depend on the digital surveillance
historic buildings, and thus gives identity to the urban environ- such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) to secure stores
ment. This matter was missed in Gwangju downtown. and streets. And thus they do not seek for the safety of by
The style of the renaissance era in Cairo downtown, added by-passers and pedestrians [39].
internal homogeneity to the area. So the feeling of ‘‘the
district’’ as one of the legibility elements is true. Some of the his- Sidewalks
toric buildings which encompass unique architectural details
helped it to appear as landmarks. Furthermore; the statues in Sidewalks are considered a zone of social activity for pedestri-
the plazas and squares were also considered as a landmark. ans [1,6,40]. Sidewalks are available in Cairo downtown, as a
While, Nodes in Cairo downtown are active and attractive result there are some cafes which opened directly on sidewalks,
points, it can also be recognized clearly in this terrain. On the and thus became vibrant. In Gwangju downtown, moving
other hand, using the same tools of structure, materials for through streets looks systematic and monotonous because
the decoration of shops, made the urban environment of these streets have no sidewalks as shown in Fig. 8. This is in
Gwangu downtown vague. The style of nodes morphology addition to the constant use (commercial) of sidewalks located
was replicated more than once as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. on both street sides.
Fig. 8 Shows the vagueness of nodes and streets in Gwangju down town due to replicating the elements of morphology and construction
(Source: the authors via neighborhood online map).
Evaluation of the contemporary urban design classic urban theories 337
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