BIOLOGY
MEMBRANES AND CELL TRANSPORT
 All cells are surrounded by a plasma
membrane
 Eukaryotic cells also contain internal
membranes and membrane-bound
organelle
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
 In 1972, S. Singer and G. Nicolson
proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of
membrane structure.
FLUID- because individual phospholipids and
proteins can move side-to-side within the layer,
like it’s a liquid.
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by
the scattered protein molecules when the
membrane is viewed from above.
COMPONENTS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
TRANSPORT MECHANISM
 Different processes by which substances
move across the plasma membrane.
IMPORTANCE OF CELL TRANSPORT
 No cells exists as a closed system. In order
to survive, materials must be transported
into and out of the cell, across the plasma
membrane.
 In addition, because different processes
take place in different parts of the cell,
materials must be transported from one
part of the cell to another.
GENERAL TYPES OF TRANSPORT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT- movement of molecules
across the cell and does not require energy.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT- movement of molecules
across the cell membrane against concentration
gradient and does acquire energy.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 DIFFUSION
- Net movements of particles from a
region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration down the
concentration gradient.
- The steeper the concentration gradient
, the faster the diffusion takes place.
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- This process does not require ATP but
does require cell membrane proteins
which are called carrier proteins to
carry the molecules across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
 OSMOSIS
- Movement of water molecules through
partially permeable membrane from a
solution of high water potential, to a
solution of lower water potential.
- A process by which molecules of a
solvent tend to pass through a
semipermeable membrane from a less
concentrated solution into a more
concentrated one, thus equalizing the
concentrations on each side of the
membrane.
 OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELL WATER POTENTIAL

 Is the measure of the tendency of water

to move from one place to another.

DILUTE SOLUTION- High water potential

CONCENTRATED SOLUTION- Low water
potential
SAME CONCENTRATION- Equal water potential
WATER POTENTIAL GRADIENT

 Water molecules move from a high

water potential to a lower water
potential.

PLANT CELL IN HIGH WATER POTENTIAL

Cell Wall- FULLY PERMEABLE: allows most
dissolved substance to pass through
Cell membrane- Cell surface membrane is a
partially permeable membrane

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE RATE OF

SUBSTANCES MOVEMENTS

 Concentration Gradient
 Temperature
 Particle size
 Surface area
 Distance through with diffusion occurs
PARTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
 Allow some substances to pass through
but not others.
 Unequal concentration of ions in both
sides of the membranes.
 Eg: Cell membrane in plant and animal
cell
 Only water molecules passes through
the partially permeable membrane
(sucrose solution is too big to pass
through the partially permeable
membrane)
PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
 Allows both the solvent (water) and the
solutes (dissolved substances to pass
through)
 Equal concentration of all ions in both
sides of the membrane.
 Eg. Cell wall of plant cells
1. Cell vacuole has lower water potential
compared to solutions outside cell
2. Water enters cell by osmosis
3. Vacuole increases in size, pushes against
cell wall
4. Cell wall exerts opposing pressure (against
turgor pressure)
5. Plant cell expands and become turgid (cell
does not burst) >> Turgor
Why is Turgor Important?
 Maintain the shape of soft tissues in
plants.
-Able to remain firm and erect
because of turgor pressure.
 High rate of evaporation of water
from cells.
-Lose turgidity and plant wilts
 Movement of plant parts
-Flowers open during the day and close
at night.
 Changes in turgidity of the
plants on the opposite surfaces
of the plants
-Mimosa Plants
-Opening and closing of stomata due
to changes in turgidity in guard cells.
 PLANT CELL IN LOW WATER POTENTIAL ANIMAL CELL IN LOW WATER POTENTIAL

1. Vacuole has higher water potential 1. Cytoplasm has higher water potential
compared to solution outside the cell compared to solution outside cell
2. Water leave cells by osmosis 2. Water enters by osmosis
3. Vacuole decreases in size 3. Cell shrinks and little spikes appear on cell
4. Cytoplasm shrinks away from cell wall surface membrane. (Crenation)
(Plasmolysis)
WHAT IF CELL PLACED IN ISOTONIC SOLUTION?

ISOTONIC SOLUTION

- The solute concentration in the solution

PLASMOLYSIS
is the SAME as the cell solute
 Causes tissues to be limp or flaccid concentration
 Cells will be killed if remain
plasmolysed too long

ANIMAL CELL IN HIGH WATER POTENTIAL

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE RATE OF

DIFFUSION

1. Cytoplasm has lower water potential
compared to solution outside cell
2. Water enters by osmosis
3. Animal cell will swell and may bursts as it
does not have a cell wall to protect it.
- Concentration/Water potential
Gradient
- Cross-sectional area through which
diffusion occurs
- Temperature
- Molecular weight of a substance
- Distance through with diffusion occurs

 Cells need to move materials across their

plasma membrane at faster rate
 SURFACE AREA to VOLUME RATIO
  The greater the area of cell surface
membrane per unit volume, the faster the
rate of diffusion of a substance for a given
concentration gradient
BULK TRANSPORT
 ENDOCYTOSIS
-Is a general term for the various types
of active transport that move particles into
a cell by enclosing them in vesicle made of
lipid bilayer.
a. Phagocytosis (cell eating)- large
particles, such as cells or cellular debris,
are transported into the cell.
b. Pinocytosis (cell drinking)- cell takes
in small amounts of extracellular fluid
c. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis-
receptor proteins on the cell surface
are used to capture a specific target
molecule
 EXOCYTOSIS
- A form of bulk transport in which
materials are transported from the
inside to the outside of the cell in
membrane-bound vesicles that fuse with
the plasma membrane.
NUTRIENTS (WATER AND
BIOMOLECULES)
Why do we need food?
1. Provides energy
2. Needed for growth and repair of worn-out
tissues
3. Keep us healthy
Why water is necessary for life?
1. Solvent for chemical reactions UNIVERSAL
solvent
2. Key component of tissues
3. Controlling body temperature High heat
capacity
4. Transporting dissolved substances
What makes water a POLAR MOLECULE?
-Because oxygen is more electronegative than
hydrogen. Shared electrons are pulled towards
oxygen.
-Because water is POLAR molecule (having positive
and negative regions) it could attract the Sodium
(+) and Chlorine (-) ions, thereby breaking the
bonds between sodium and chlorine, causing it to
be evenly dispersed among water molecules or in
other term, be dissolved in water.
BIOMOLECULES- Are molecules necessary for
every living thing on earth to SURVIVE. They are
essential for: source of energy, energy storage,
and genetic code carrier.
Biomolecules are also organic compounds. They
bind with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
MONOMER- Building blocks of macromolecules
POLYMER- A chain of monomers.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen which has a ratio of 1:2:1. There are 3
carbohydrates which are: Monosaccharide,
Disaccharide, and Polysaccharide.
MONOSACCHARIDE- It is a single sugar molecule. PLANTS also use glucose
(Glucose, Fructose and Galactose) and has a to make a polysaccharide called CELLULOSE,
chemical formula of (CH2O)n which provides strength and rigidity for the plants.
DISACCHARIDE- 2 sugar molecules are linked.
(Maltose, Sucrose and Lactose)
Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
Lactose (glucose+galactose)
Maltose (glucose+glucose)

POLYSACCHARIDE- Complex structure of

sugars linked together. (Starch, Glycogen,
Cellulose)

HOW ARE MACROMOLECULES

FORMED AND SERPARATED?

CONDENSATION REACTION (DEHYDRATION

SYNTHESIS) - Removal of one water molecule
when 2 simple molecules are linked or joined
together to form large molecules.

Note: WATER IS ALWAYS THE THIRD PARTY

PAKYU WATER

HYDROLITIC REACTION- Water molecule is

needed to breakdown the bond of complex
molecules to smaller molecules.
REDUCING SUGARS
What is a reducing sugar?
Any carbohydrate which is capable of being
oxidized and causes the reduction of other
substances without having to be hydrolyzed first
Examples:
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, GALACTOSE, MALTOSE
and LACTOSE
They will produce a brick-red precipitate when
boiled with Benedict’s solution.
Note that SUCROSE is NOT a reducing sugar bcs
they don’t have an ability to oxidize
WHY ARE POLYSACCHARIDES CALLED
STORE HOUSE OF ENERGY?
LIPIDS
- is a general term to class of molecules
thatare insoluble in water. The are soluble,
however, in organic compounds such as
chloroform and ethanol.
- Lipids are concentrated sources of energy
and can be broken down (through fatty
acid oxidation in the mitochondria) to
provide fuel for aerobic respiration
- Lipids are often stored in special adipose
tissue , within large fat cells.
EXAMPLE OF LIPIDS
1. Fats and Oils (Triglycerides)
2. Phospholipids
3. Steroids
4. Waxes
5. Some vitamins
6. Glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrates attached
to them)
MOLECULES OF LIPIDS
• It contains the elements C, Hand O
(butlessoxygenthanin Carbohydrates)
 • Molecule consists of GLYCEROL and FATTY ACID
chain.
 Glycerol is the HEAD, Fatty Acids are the
TAILS.
SATURATED FATS
 Their fatty acids have no double bonds
between carbon atoms (have maximum
number of hydrogen atoms)
 Straight chain of hydrocarbons
 Unhealthy fats that usually from animal
sources
 Solid at roomtemperature(20°C)
UNSATURATED FATS
Their Fatty acids have:
 Have some carbon atoms that are
double bonded(not fully
hydrogenated) chains that have kink or
is bent
 Healthy From plant sources
 Liquid at room temperature (20°C)
STEROIDS
 Another class of lipid molecules,
identifiable by their structure of 4
fused rings.
CHOLESTEROL
- most common steroids
- synthesized in the liver
- precursor of other steroid hormones
GLYCOGEN AND STARCH are suitable as
storage materials of energy in cells because they
are:
 INSOLUBLE in Water
 LARGE molecules
 Easily hydrolyzed into glucose when
 needed
 Molecules that have compact shape
Importance of Carbohydrates
1. Body’s main source of energy
2. Functions for the formation of nucleic acid. (DNA
and RNA)
3. Form supporting structures like cell wall in plants
4. Converted into other organic compounds ( amino
acids and fats.
5. Used to synthesize other products like nectar
and other lubricants.
IMPORTANCE: BIOLOGICAL ROLES
- An important structural component of
membranes
- Phospholipids are the primary structural
component of all cellular membranes, such
as the plasma membrane (false color TEM
above).
- acts as a shock absorber and good
insulator
- Water proofing of some surfaces
- Transmission of chemical messages via
hormones
PROTEINS
PROTEINS- Are polymers of amino acids. Each
amino acid contains a central carbon, hydrogen, a
carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable
R group. The R group specifies which class of
amino acids it belongs to: electrically charged
hydrophilic side chains, polar but uncharged side
chains, nonpolar hydrophobic side chains, and
special cases.
Proteins have different “layers” of structure:
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
Proteins have a variety of function in cells. Major
functions include acting as enzymes, receptors,
transport molecules, regulatory proteins for gene
expression.
 HORMONAL PROTEINS- Chemical signals
that control growth and development of
our body, as well as metabolism &
reproduction. (HUMAN INSULIN –secreted
by pancreas to regulate blood sugar level
in the blood)
 ENZYMATIC PROTEINS- Speed up the
metabolic processes in our cell (Catalyst)
  DEFENSE PROTEINS- Part of our immune
system (WBC)
 STORAGE PROTEINS- Stores minerals like
ions such as potassium and amino acids in
our body
 TRANSPORT PROTEINS- Delivers and
carries vital materials to our body
(Hemoglobin, carries oxygen to our body)
 RECEPTOR PROTEINS (LDL receptor
protein)- These are located in the outer
part of the cell. They control what enters
and leaves the cell.
 CONTRACTILE PROTEINS- known as
“motor proteins” actin and myosin (found
in the muscles) tubulin (found in
microtubule)
Enzymes- Are biological catalysts that speed up
a chemical reaction without being permanently
altered. They have “active sites” where the
substrate/reactant binds, and they can be either
activated or inhibited (competitive and/or
noncompetitive inhibitors).
The name “amino acid” is derived from the fact
that they contain both amino group and
carboxyl-acid-group in their basic structure. As
mentioned, there are 20 amino acids present in
proteins. Ten of these are considered essential
amino acids in humans because the human
body cannot produce them and they are
obtained from the diet.
The sequence and the number of amino acids
ultimately determine the protein’s shape, size,
and function.
Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid
by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond,
which is formed by a dehydration reaction. The
carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino
group of the incoming amino acid combine,
releasing a molecule of water. The resulting bond
is the peptide bond.
Peptides- The products formed by such linkages in
amino acids.
Polypeptide- As more amino acids join to this
growing chain, the resulting chain is known as a
polypeptide.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids, macromolecules made out of units
called nucleotides, come in two naturally occurring
varieties: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA- is the genetic material found in living
organisms, all the way from single-celled bacteria
to multicellular mammals
RNA- is a polymeric molecule essential in various
biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation
and expression of genes.
Nucleotides- DNA and RNA are polymers (in the
case of DNA, often very long polymers), and are
made up of monomers known as nucleotides.
Polynucleotide- When these monomers
(nucleotides) combine, the resulting chain is called
a polynucleotide.
Each nucleotide is made up of three parts: a
nitrogen-containing ring structure called a
nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and at
least one phosphate group. The sugar molecule
has a central position in the nucleotide, with the
base attached to one of its carbons and the
phosphate group (or groups) attached to another.
THERE ARE 3 COMPONENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES
1.Phosphate group
2.Pentose sugar (5 Carbon sugar)
3.Nitrogenous bases:
a. Adenine b. Thymine
c. Guanine d. Cytosine
e. Uracil
 2. Are required in minute amounts
3. Are specific in action

How are enzymes named?

- They are named by their substrate
and the “ase” is added.
- Lactose- Lactase
- Maltose- Maltase
How are enzymes classified?
- Are classified according to the
chemical reactions they catalyse. Enzymes
that catalyse hydrolytic reactions are
known as hydrolases. Digestive enzymes
are hydrolases. The different types of
hydrolases are:
- Carbohydrases- that digest
carbohydrates
- Proteases- that digest proteins
- Lipases- that digest fats (lipids)

Lock and key hypothesis

ENZYMES - The substance on which enzymes act are
- Are protein molecule (some RNA can called substrates. For example, protein is
sometimes act as enzyme) the substrate on which a protease acts.
- A complex molecule - According to ‘lock-and-key’ hypothesis,
- They are catalyst enzyme reaction depends on the presence
- Enzymes are biological catalyst of active sites. Active sites depressions or
- ‘pockets’ on the surface of an enzyme
CATALYST molecule into which the substrate
- A substance that speed up the rate of a molecule(s) can fit—just like a lock and
chemical reaction key. (The enzymes is the lock and the
- Can be used again and again in a substrate is the key.)
chemical reaction Substrate- dun nagaact yung enzymes

FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE ENZYMES ACTION

Enzymes lower down the activation energy 1. TEMPERATURE
- Vital to maintain normal functioning in an -Enzymes have an optimum temperature at
organisms. which it is most active. For most enzymes, the
- The energy needed to start a chemical optimum temperature is about 40-50 °C
reaction is called activation energy - Enzymes are inactive at low temperature
- As the temperature increases, the rate of
- Enzymes provide an alternative pathway
reaction increases.
with lower activation energy required to
- Beyond the optimum temperature, the
start a chemical reaction.
enzyme activity decreases as the enzymes is
Enzymes can:
denatured.
- Break down complex molecules (catabolic
Denaturation is the changed in the three
reaction)
dimensional structure of an enzyme or any other
- Build up complex molecules (anabolic
soluble protein, caused by heat or chemicals such
reaction)
as acids or alkalis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES:
1. Enzymes speed up chemical reaction
2. ENZYMES ARE AFFECTED BY pH
- Enzymes are affected by the acidity or
alkalinity of the solutions in which they act.
- Some work best in acidic solutions (for
example, pepsin in the stomach), others
require alkaline solutions (for example,
intestinal enzymes).
- Extreme changes in the acidity or alkalinity
of the solutions denature the enzymes.
3. ENZYMES CATALYSE REVERSIBLE
REACTIONS
- Some reactions in living cells are reversible,
that is, they can proceed in the forward or
backward directions.
- Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions.