Applied Animal Behaviour Science 218 (2019) 104828

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Animal Behaviour Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/applanim

Crossing the divide between academic research and practical application of T

ethology and animal behavior information on commercial livestock and
poultry farms
Temple Grandin
Colorado State University, Department of Animal Sciences, United States

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: There are young managers in commercial animal agriculture in the United States, United Kingdom, Asia, and
Scientific communication other countries, who are unaware of the scientific field of animal ethology. They may have an agricultural degree
Translational research with no training in animal behavior. Some have no idea that scientists have already conducted many research
Ethology studies on animal behavior. In this opinion paper, the author discusses ways to cross this divide. Basic animal
Animal behavior
behavior principles should be taught to both veterinary and animal science undergraduate students. The basic
information that should be taught to undergraduates is: 1) Behavioral principles of livestock handling, 2) im-
portance of good stockmanship to improve animal productivity, 3) principles of animal learning, 4) bull, ram
and boar safety, 5) the importance of behavioral needs and environmental enrichment, 6) how to recognize
abnormal behaviors, and 7) formation of dominance hierarchies. This material should be in introductory courses
with practical explanations about why it is important. For example, a nutritionist needs to understand how
dominance behavior may reduce access to feed. When I communicate directly with students, they are eager to
learn about behavior. Students should also be taught to use the major academic databases. The second step is
that researchers must communicate with producers in jargon-free language. The third step is training graduate
students for management jobs on farms or research careers in industry. In the developed countries, there is a
shortage of academic positions for new Ph.D.’s. Graduates in animal behavior subjects can have excellent careers
outside of academia. Training in animal behavior may help them influence the policies of their employers to
improve animal welfare. There are also factors in the future that may block free flow of scientific information.
Unfortunately, some research results remain proprietary commercial industry information and they are not
published in the scientific literature. To promote the spread of knowledge, academic researchers should avoid
signing long-term non-disclosure agreements with industry. These agreements may block scientific publication.
Everybody in the field of animal behavior needs to communicate outside their field and explain why behavior is
important.

1. Introduction
In many fields of science, there is a lack of communication between
academic research scientists and people who could benefit from the
results of the research (Butler, 2008). During many discussions with
pork farm managers in the United States and Asia, I was shocked to
learn that many managers were not aware that the field of ethology
existed. They became interested when I showed them research papers
that may be helpful to them. In this keynote address, I will discuss
practical ways to reach across the divide between research scientists
and agricultural managers who are not scientists. Many of the state-
ments in this paper are my opinions. They are based on over 40 years of
work in both academia and consulting work with the livestock
industries. I have worked with farms, ranches, and abattoirs in the U.S.,
Canada, Europe, Asia, and South America.
2. Both animal science and veterinary students need behavior
information in their curriculum
Some students in the U.S. and other countries are able to complete
either an Animal Science degree, or a Veterinary Medicine degree and
receive little or no instruction about farm animal behavior. Some aca-
demic programs do a much better job of teaching the importance of
behavior compared to others. Shivley et al. (2016) found that a quarter
of U.S. accredited veterinary colleges had no animal behavior course.
Even in the United Kingdom, there are gaps in animal behavior

E-mail address: cheryl.miller@colostate.edu.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.06.009
Received 9 November 2018; Received in revised form 3 June 2019; Accepted 18 June 2019
Available online 26 June 2019
0168-1591/ © 2019 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
T. Grandin
education. In 2016, I talked to four students at a U.K. bovine veterinary
medicine meeting and they had received no training in the basics of bull
behavior and human safety. They were all studying at the same veter-
inary college. In years of consulting work on animal behavior, I have
learned that some people have a hard time understanding why animal
behavior training is important. Another factor is that behavioral con-
sultations with clients who own pets bring in less money than doing a
surgical procedure. U.S. veterinary students are hungry for behavior
information. I have been invited to many student veterinary meetings.
2.1. Minimum behavior basics all students working with farm animal should
learn
2.1.1. Livestock handling principles
They need to learn the use of behavioral principles to move cattle,
pigs, and sheep in a calm low stress manner. Handlers also need to
understand that livestock have wide angle vision and they are likely to
balk at distractions such as shadows, reflections, or changes in flooring
(Prince, 1977; Grandin, 1996). Some of the basics which should be
learned are flight zone and point of balance. To create a safe working
environment, people handling livestock need training in animal beha-
vior (Lindahl et al., 2013). Further information is available in Grandin
(2014, 2017) and Kilgour and Dalton (1984).
2.1.2. Safety with bulls, boars, and rams
Many people are not aware that the bull which is most likely to
attack a person is often a hand reared “pet.” He has not learned to
interact with his own species. When he becomes sexually mature, he
attacks people instead of other bulls. Research shows that bulls reared
alone are more likely to attack people (Price and Wallach, 1990). This
occurs because the bull lacked the opportunity to learn how to interact
with other cattle. Students should be trained to recognized the broad-
side threat a bull displays before he attacks.
2.1.3. Good stockmanship is important
Animals may become behaviorally agitated due to fear and show
eye white (Sandem et al., 2006). Pigs, chickens, and dairy cows that
fear people are less productive (Hemsworth et al., 1986, 2000; Rushen
and de Passille, 2015). Good stock people are highly skilled and should
receive both more pay and recognition (Daigle and Ridge, 2018). Stu-
dies show the value of good stockmanship and it can improve animal
productivity (Waiblinger et al., 2006). In my consulting work, I have
often emphasized the economic benefits of good stockmanship. Pro-
gressive managers will use this information and improve practices.
Unfortunately, I have observed poor managers who are not willing to
change old rough practices. On many very large farms I have observed
problems with understaffing and overworking of stock people.
2.1.4. Learn to recognize stereotypies
There is a severe lack of studies on producer knowledge of abnormal
animal behavior that does not physically damage the animal. Damaging
behavior, such as tail biting, is recognized by farmers. In both the U.K.
and the U.S., I have recently talked to pork farm managers and bovine
veterinarians who did not know that repetitive stereotypic behaviors
were abnormal. This is why students need to be specifically taught
about stereotypies and other abnormal behavior. A basic reference for
introductory students is Mason (1991).
2.1.5. Learn why behavioral needs are important
Students should be taught that highly motivated innate behavioral
needs, such as secluded nest boxes for laying hens and substrates for
pigs to root in are important (Cooper and Appleby, 1996; Studnitz et al.,
2007). Some veterinarians and animal scientists with no background in
animal behavior may not understand the importance of behavioral
needs and environmental enrichment.
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science 218 (2019) 104828
2.1.6. Teach students how to use academic databases and understand data
generated by precision farming methods
In my livestock handling class, I have students pick out an animal
behavior subject that interests them. Their assignment is to find ab-
stracts and papers in four different databases and write a short sum-
mary about the papers. The databases are Google Scholar, PubMed,
Science Direct, and Web of Science. Today, approximately a third of the
undergraduate students in my class had never previously used data-
bases. When they get out in industry, database use is an important skill.
Precision livestock management is becoming increasingly mainstream.
Students will also need to learn how to interpret animal behavior data
from spread sheets and other computerized records.
2.1.7. Learn basic principles of animal learning
Students in academic programs need to understand the basic prin-
ciples of operant conditioning and how it can be used to train all types
of animals. In many countries outside of Europe, a student can get a
degree in animal agriculture with no training in animal learning. They
also need to learn that animals will approach when they are positively
reinforced and avoid places and people where they have had an aver-
sive experience.
2.1.8. Why animals form dominance hierarchies
Explain the basics of the formation of behavioral hierarches. When
animals form a stable dominance order, it reduces constant fighting
over resources such as feed and water. On the other hand, males may
fight to gain access to mates.
2.1.9. Review of basics undergraduate students need to learn
The seven areas listed above are elementary basics that every edu-
cated manager who works with farm animals should be trained in.
Unfortunately, there are still many managers in the animal agriculture
industry who do not know these simple basics. Animal handling is one
of the brighter spots. In the last ten years, cattle and pig handling
classes are now being sponsored by livestock associations and industry
suppliers throughout the U.S. and Canada. The other issues, such as
understanding abnormal behavior and behavioral needs, is less likely to
be taught. In 2016, a practicing bovine veterinarian in the U.K. asked,
“What are stereotypies?” His statement may not be representative of
most veterinarians, but I was surprised at his lack of knowledge.
3. Researcher communication with producers and scientists in
other fields
Often the disconnect between academic researchers and non-sci-
entists is due to the two groups thinking differently. In a long career as
an industry consultant, I have observed that academics are often too
timid to make a recommendation to a producer because they feel that
more research is needed. On the other hand, producers will often make
big mistakes and try something new with too little information. In
2017, three U.S. professional societies in animal science split a joint
meeting of three animal research societies into three separate meetings.
This was a step backward in scientific communication. The Animal
Scientists, Dairy scientists, and Poultry scientists stopped meeting to-
gether. This hampers transfer of knowledge to the farmers because
consultants who go to the meetings will receive less information. In my
own consulting work with pigs and cattle, I have learned things in the
poultry meeting that were relevant to livestock. Most people do not
have the time or the money to attend three separate meetings. In
conclusion of this section, Bush et al. (2018) discusses the need for
public outreach of animal behavior research.
3.1. Write in industry publications
Researchers should communicate research findings in an easy-to-
understand format. Publish in blogs, websites, and livestock and poultry
T. Grandin
trade publications. Eliminate jargon and tell producers and industry
people the basic findings of your results. Instead of stating that pigs had
“agonistic behavior with conspecifics” state that the pigs had fights
with their herdmates. When you communicate outside your field you
must simplify the information.
3.1.1. Develop good public speaking and writing skills
To help prepare my students, I have often recommended that they
take either a public speaking class or a writing class. In our animal
science department, all graduate students have to present seminars to
help improve public speaking skills. Another factor that may hamper
career development is poor writing skills. There are some students who
got through college without writing term papers. They never had a
teacher correct their papers and edit their grammar. Nobody had taught
them how to write clearly.
3.2. Learn to talk to non-scientists
During training, students need actual experience presenting their
data to non-scientists. A recent discussion with a graduate student in-
dicated that she became frustrated when talking to non-scientists. This
occurred during an internship where she worked with government
legislators. She had to learn how to state data simply with no jargon. It
was an important learning experience for her.
3.3. Choose Topics that will be interesting to producers and non-scientists
In my own work, I have learned to choose animal behavior topics
that the public or producers will find interesting. I chose studies that
could either help them with their own animals or stimulate their in-
terest. Below I will give an example from my consulting work. When I
consulted on pork farms, I often discussed research on how genetics has
an effect on either tail biting or fighting when pigs are mixed. Tail
biting and fighting are different traits with different motivations. Pork
producers I have talked to are really interested in these topics. They
were especially interested in a study where neutral pigs were dis-
covered, that do not inflict tail bites on others or allow other pigs to bite
their tails (Brunberg et al., 2013, 2016). Many U.S. producers who have
successfully switched to group sow housing have made changes in sow
genetics to reduce fighting. Aggressive behavior in sows is heritable
(Lovendahl et al., 2005). When I visited these farms, the sows gently
nibbled my clothes. An older genetic line of pigs that had some of the
worst behavior problems in group housing would bite my boots so hard
it hurt. These pigs also startled more easily.
Another important principle I teach producers is that first experi-
ences with new people, places or equipment should be positive. When
they introduce a sow or beef cow to something new, such as a feeder, a
negative first experience must be avoided. Producers who have been
successful with electronic sow feeders report that they need to find a
patient person (Hog Whisperer) to train new gilts to use the feeder
(Coleman, 2016). Another question I get asked all the time is “My cattle
are gentle at home and they went crazy at the auction barn. Why?”
Then I explain how a sudden new novel experience is more likely to be
frightening to an animal with more flighty genetics. A review of studies
that support this concept are in Grandin (1997). Producers are not in-
terested in lectures on statistics or explanations of results loaded with
statistical jargon.
3.4. Emphasize economic benefits
In my own work, I often used economic justification for the use of
good
stockmanship and low stress handling methods. The two benefits
that I communicated to producers were improved productivity and
reduction of accidents during animal handling. To help convince pro-
ducers, I showed them the work of Hemsworth et al. (1986), (2000) and
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science 218 (2019) 104828
Rushen and de Passille (2015). When working with clients in the meat
packing industry, I sold design projects by emphasize reduction of
bruises and reducing the number of people required to move the ani-
mals. Another thing I learned from working with many clients is that
selling them new equipment was much easier than implementation of
long lasting improvements in management. Animal handling practices
often reverted back to old rough methods unless the plant manager was
committed to maintaining the improvements.
3.5. Interdisciplinary research moves science forward
Doing research either across disciplines or between academia and
commercial agriculture is often difficult. Commercial agriculture may
not like the results of a study and stop funding it. A recent editorial in
Nature (2017) discussed problems with communicating with other
scientists in disciplines outside of their area. They may have different
ways of evaluating the data. Collaboration between different disciplines
can lead to advancements in science.
4. Preparing behavior students for the future
In many scientific fields in the U.S., there are fewer academic po-
sitions for the student who is trained to become a professor and support
their research with grants. For animal behavior specialists with ad-
vanced degrees, U.S. university positions are available. Some students
avoided them because the pressure to bring in grant money is too great.
In the field of engineering, only 13% of new Ph.D.’s can fill an academic
position (Larsen et al., 2014). There are similar but less severe shortages
of tenure track positons in the biomedical sciences. There is a U.S. te-
nure track positon for one out of six Ph.D. students (Ghaffarzadegan
et al., 2014). Nelson (2017) states that in the field of chemistry, too
many students are being trained for academic research jobs that do not
exist. In chemistry, there is increasing emphasis on training students for
careers in the industry. Nelson (2017) maintains that students need
leadership skills and problem-solving ability. There may be a lack of
university research positions for Ph.D.’s in the U.S. but this is not the
case for countries that are developing (Santos et al., 2016). During the
last five years, I have lectured about animal behavior to students and
agricultural managers in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and China and other
countries that are developing their livestock industry. The students are
eager to learn about behavior. In Brazil, I told students in a recently
opened veterinary college that “the future is right here.” Many U.S.
academic departments have reached out to foreign students because
their governments pay their tuition. In my program, I had a visiting
student from Brazil who participated in a cattle handling study. She
went back to Brazil and published research on importance of good
stockmanship Peira Lima et al., 2018). To assist in communicating the
importance of animal behavior, I have reached out to South American
authors to write book chapters (Grandin, 2014). It was worth the effort
to spend hours on a plane correcting their English. These authors had
excellent information.
4.1. Careers for graduate students
There are important differences between U.S. and Canadian veter-
inary training and other countries. In North America a veterinary de-
gree DVM requires a total of eight years of academic study. If the stu-
dent gets either a master’s or a Ph.D., additional years are required. In
Europe and many other countries, a veterinary degree requires only five
to six years of study. In the U.S. and Canada, many students who get
Ph.D.’s in animal behavior subject’s start their Ph.D. program after they
have completed a four year undergraduate animal science curriculum.
There is little available information on where students who receive
either a master’s or Ph.D. degree in farm animal behavior are employed.
A summary of the career paths of some of my graduate students may
provide insights. From 2012 until 2017, six graduate students in my
T. Grandin
program have received either a masters or Ph.D. in animal behavior-
related subjects. Three of these students have gone into livestock in-
dustry careers. They are working for commercial companies in either
farm animal welfare auditing or as a welfare officer for a pork company.
Two other recent former students are working with laboratory animals
and a third one is a government scientist doing research in epide-
miology and disease. Four students who graduated before 2012 are
either university professors in behavior, or they received a veterinary
degree after they completed their masters. One veterinarian is now a
government meat inspector and the other is in a private practice. The
six most recent graduates avoided academic careers that required
supporting their work with grants. There were several job offers
available but they depended too heavily on getting grants. In the U.S.,
winning grants in behavior is getting more and more difficult. To fund
my programs, I have had the good fortune of being able to use money
from books, consulting, and speaking engagements to support my
program for behavior graduate students. Today I have several students
who are doing more meat science than behavior. These projects will
probably direct them into careers in the meat industry. They are re-
searching stunning methods and bruising because the industry sup-
ported this type of research. Even though these students may not enter a
behavior career, their training in animal behavior will probably be
beneficial to animal welfare. When they rise to corporate level man-
agement positions their animal behavior training is likely to influence
their decisions.
5. Proprietary research is not published in open scientific
literature
In the poultry and pork industry there is more and more commercial
research where the results never get published. During the last 10 years
from 2009 to 2019, I have observed that both the chicken and the pork
industry made real progress in correcting some severe animal welfare
problems related to genetics. Unfortunately, neither the public nor the
academic community knows about these improvements because the
companies who implemented the improvements never wrote about
them in either academic journals or industry trade press. To improve
communication, I have written about some of the improvements and I
have had discussions with industry leaders on the importance of com-
municating their successes.
In my book, Animals in Translation (Grandin, 2006) I wrote about
“rapist roosters” that severely injured broiler breeder hens during
breeding. In 2017, I visited a U.S. broiler breeder farm and the problem
with the roosters had been corrected. Unfortunately, I was not able to
find any published scientific literature. I have also observed that the
same poultry breeding company had corrected lameness problems in
heavy broiler chickens. They bred chickens with thicker legs.
I was pleased to see these improvements, but the problem is that the
public does not know about them. The poultry industry has done a poor
job communicating with the public about improvements that they have
made. Fifteen years ago, indiscriminant selection for pork carcass traits
resulted in leg conformation defects such as “post legged” or collapsed
ankles. I observed market swine arriving at the abattoir where 50% of
the pigs were lame. Today, in 2018, the pigs are heavier, weighing up to
132 kg and less than 5% were lame. To achieve this, the company
changed genetics to improve the structural soundness of the feet and
legs. Years ago, I introduced the concept of lameness scoring to a major
breeding to help bring about improvements.
6. Non-disclosure agreements block communication
Researchers in academic positions should avoid signing long-term
nondisclosure agreements. If you have to sign one, amend it so it does
not apply to the rest of your life. Limit it to one to five years. A student
graduating today with either an M.S. or a Ph.D. in behavior, should also
avoid signing long-term non-compete clauses. These can really retard a
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science 218 (2019) 104828
person’s professional advancement. If you are forced to sign a non-
compete contract, limit it to one or two years.
During a long career where I consulted for many different cor-
porations, I have observed that sometimes the places that are most
secretive are obsolete. The people at highly secretive corporations be-
come so inside the box that they do not realize that they have become
obsolete. Corporations that communicate between each other are more
likely to have leading edge technology.
7. Conclusion
Students studying ethology need to be able to communicate to both
the agricultural industry and the public. Good communication skills are
essential. Students who are studying for general veterinary or animal
science degrees should also receive training in livestock handling and
ethology. This will enable them to transfer behavior knowledge to both
producers and the public. Another important skill is learning how to use
academic databases. To facilitate communication of valuable informa-
tion, ethologists should avoid signing long-term non-disclosure or non-
complete agreements with industry.
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