Electrical Machines - II Technical Publications Pune”Table of Contents : Chapter-1 Synchronous Machines : Altemators Chapter-2 Methods f é) Chapter-3 _ Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alternators (3-4) to (3-96) Chapler-4 _ Synchronous Motors (4-1) to (4-70) Chapler-§ — Three Phase Induction Motors 5 - 1) to (5 - 118) Chapter-6 Circle Diagram (6 - 1) 10 (6 - 36) Chapter-7 Starting and Speed Control of Induction Motor 7-1) to (7-38) Chapter-8 Single Phase Induction Motors (8 - 1) to (8-30) Chapter-9 Special Machines (9 - 1) to (9 ~ 4: Appendix -A Electric Braking of an Induction Motor {A- 1) to{A- 6) | Chapterwise University Questions with Answers Best of Technical Publicati © As per Revised Syllabus of Anna University (Chennai) - 2006 Course _ F ‘Semester-IV. IEEE]@ (asi Electrical Machines - II ISBN 9788184315233 All rights reserved with Technicol Publications. No port of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechenicol, Photocopy or any information storage ond tetrievel system wihout prior permission in wring, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Path, Pune - 411 030, Indie, Printer : ‘Alen DTPinters Seno. 10/3, Sahagad Road, Pine - 411 041Preface The importance of Electrical Machines-H is well known in various engineenng fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Electrical Machines-ll. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in o proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All core has been taken to moke students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This mokes the understanding of this subject more cleor and mokes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also fo the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book o reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous ‘occasions by our whole families. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated. Authors AA. Bakshi M.D, Bakshi Dedicated to Mrs. Nisha Bakshi and Mrs. Sushama Bakshi «ao11 Cont ot in ng dive any sesetees 1.3 Advantages of Rotating Field Over Rotating Armature...... 1.4 Construction. 15 Stator 16 Rotor 1.6.1 Salient Pole Type... 1.6.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type 1.6.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor 1.7 Excitation System .. 1.7.1 Brushless Excitation System be loo lon |e len len las lem le leo 9 Working Principle....... 1.9.2 Frequency of induced E. 1.9.3 Synchronous Speed { 1.10 Armature Winding 1.10.1 Winding Terminology. 1.11 Types of Armature Windings. 1.11.1 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding 1.11.2 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding .. 4.41.2.1CodSpan 1.11.22 Advantages of Short Pitch Cols. 1.11.3 Concentrated and Distributed Winding . 1.12 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator. 1.12.4 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (K,) .. SETTING AYE TINE Materyales na naka-copyright1.12.2 Distribution Factor (K,) .. 1.12.3 Generalised Expression for €.M.F. Equation of an Alternator 1.12.4 Line Value of induced EME. 1.14 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced @.1.f. wees 1 1.14.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor 1.14.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor... 1.14.3 Total e.m{. Generated due to Harmonic Components. Examples with Solutions... 2.2 Parameters of Armature Winding... x 2.4 Armature Leakage Reactance ..... emer et . Reacti Fog 2.5.1 Unity Power Factor Load... 2.5.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load .. 2.5.3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load. 2.54 Armature Reaction Reactance (Xa) 2.6 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance.........0000 2.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator ..... 2.8 Voltage Equation of an Alternator ..... 2.9 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator 2.9.1 Lagging Power Factor Load . . 2.9.2 Leading Power Factor Load .. 2.9.3 Unity Power Factor Load. 2.10 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator. 2.11 kVA Rating of an Alternator 2.12 Methods of Determining the Regulation. 2.13 Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading... 2.14 Synchronous Impedance Method or E. M. F. Method 2 Materyales na naka-copyright2.14.1 Open Circuit Test... eee piece pail Sib bodied cece 2918 2.14.3 Determination of Z, from 0.C.C. and $.C.C. 2.144 Regulation Calouiatons. 2.1458 Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method. 2.15 M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation ..... 2.16 Potier's Triangle Method or Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method 2.16.1 Open Circuit Test Fi - passe 2.163 Use of Pater Reactance to Determine Regulation. Ween 2-37 2417 ASA Modification of MME Method 00 Examples with Solutions ..... Review QUestIONS wi sssssssesesssssssssssssssiensninsssacasssssecssassscssscannsssrssne = 24 Chapter-3 Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alternators ..(3.1) to (3-96) 3.4 Introduction ae4 3.1.4 Necessary Conditions for Synchronization... 3.2 Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators 3.2.1 Lamps Dark Method... 3.2.2 Lamps Bright Method... 3.3 Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators 3.4 Synchronization by Synchroscope. 3.5 Synchronizing Current .. ; 3.6 Theory of Cylindrical Rotor Machines 3.7 Operating Characteristics .... 3.8 Power Angle Characteristics............ 3.9 Operation at Constant Load with Variable Excitation 3.10 Operation at Constant Excitation with Variable Load 3.11 Synchronizing Power..... 3.11.1 Expression for Sy. chronizing Power (P..y) 3.11.2 Synchronizing Torque Tay). 2.11.3 Effect of Load on Synchronizing Power. 3.12 Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine)...3 - 21 2.12.1 Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reactances . 3.12.2 Detail Analysis of Phasor Diagram... Materyales na naka-copyright3.13 Determination of X4 and X, using Slip Test. 3.14 Expression of Synchronizing Power for Salient Pole Machine 3.15 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators...... 8 3.16 Se in Excitation... a ‘inzaie on Load. . 3.19 Capability Curves...... 3.20 Short Circuit TraNSH@ 08 oii’ +99 2.20.1 Constant Flux Linkage Theorem 3.20.2 Analysis of RL Series Circuit 3.204 Stator Currents During Short Circuit... 3.21 Single Phase Short Circuit Examples with Solutions ........ 424 Production of Rotating Magnetic Field 4.2.2 Direction of Rotating Magnetic Field. _ 4.3 Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Motor 4.4 Principle of Working............. 4.5 Why Synchronous Motor is Not Self Starting 7... LDR PEG IE ON SER INS EE LT TS: Materyales na naka-copyright4.6 Procedure to Start a Synchronous Motor. 4.7 Methods of Starting Synchronous Motor.. 4.7.1 Using Pony Motors... 4.7.2. Using Damper Winding . 4.7.3 AS a Slip Ring Induction Motor 4.7.4 Using Small D.C. Machine. 4.8.2 Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Losses). 4.8.3 Synchronous Motor on Load 4.8.4 Constant Excitation Circle 4-17 4.8.5 Torques in Synchronous Motor 4.9 Analysis of Phasor Diagram. 4.10 Operation of Synchronous Motor at Constant Load Variable 4.12 Expression for Back E.M.F. or induced E.M.F. per Phase in Synchronous Motor (Exop) ...... 4.13 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor 5 4.14 Alt ive E: Dey a 4.15.1 The Value of Maximum Power Developed 4.15.2 Condition for Excitation When Motor Develops (P..).... - 4.46 Blondel Diagram [Constant Power Circle} 4.17 Hunting in Synchronous Motor...... 4.17.1 Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Hunting Materyales na naka-copyright4.20 Applications of Three Phase Synchronous Motor.. 4.21 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motor. Examples with Solutions sssaseuasaseninunsaneeesensess evley Geet it tee ete aT Chapter-5 Three Phase Induction Motors (5-1) to (5 - 118) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F.). 5.2.1 Production of RMF. 5.2.2 Speed of RMF 5.2.3 Direction of R.MF. . . 5.3 Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly .. 5.4 Construction. 5.4.1 Stator. 5.4.2 Rotor . ° 5.4.2.1 Squirrel Cage Rotor 5.4.22 Siip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor 5.4.2.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor 5.5 Working Principle... 5.5.1 CanN=N,? 5.6 Slip of Induction Motor... 5.7 Types of Induction Motor .... 5.8 Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters ... 5.8.1 Effect on Rotor Frequency. ce 5.8.2 Effect on Magnitude of Rotor induced E.M.F. 5.8.3 Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance. 5.8.4 Effect on Rotor Power Factor 5.8.5 Effect on Rotor Current . 5.9 Induction Motor as a Transformer. 5.10 Torque Equation 5.10.1 Starting Torque 5.11 Condition for Maximum Torque: 5.11.1 Magnitude of Maximum Torque. 5.12 Torque-Slip Characteristics... 5.12.1 Full Load Torque a4 wo5.12.2 Generating and Braking Region .. 5.13 Torque Ratios ... " §.13.1 Full Load and idasioor Torque Ratio 5.13.2 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio 5.14 Speed - Torque Characteristics ... 5.15 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque 5.16 Losses in Induction Motor... 5.17 Power Flow Diagram for an Induction Motor.. 5.18 Relationship between P,, P., and P,, 5.18.1 Derivation of k in Torque Equation 5.19 Efficiency of an Induction Motor... §.20 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Moto: 5.20.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit . 5.20.2 Power Equations from Equivalent Circuit . 5.20.3 Maximum Power Output . . . 5.20.4 Maximum Torque. 5.20.5 Synchronous Watt, . 5.21 Phasor Diagram of wnat Motor ... saaoaen as §.22 Effect of Harmonics on Performance of 3 Phase Induction Motor 5 - 67 5.22.4 Crawling, 5.22.2 Cogging 5,23 Special Rotor Constructions ... 5.23.1 Deep Bar Rotor Construction 5.23.2 Double Cage Rotor Construction. pore? ‘i 5.23.3 Comparison of Single Cage and Double Cage. Motos. 2 wee srevivees eSONe 5.24 Applications... - si SesoryyetpcneaorsseeseeeerssaES or §.25 Induction Generator ete = BF 5.25.1 Circle Diagram of induction Generator zi r z 5-86 5.25.2. Comparison of Induction Generator and Synchronous Generac. fer 5-87 §.25.3 Advantages. 5.25.4 Disadvantages 5.25.5 Applications 5.26 Synchronous Induction Motor . 5.26.1 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous induction Motors. §-91 9.26.2 Advantages of Synchronous Induction Motor. 3 c 5-91 OLE UIA5.26.3 Disadvantages of Synchronous Induction Motor 5.26.4 Applications of Synchronous Induction Motor. Examples with Solutions .... (Ebene Cone i ll eal ING: 6.2 Circle Diagram for a Series R- L Circuit. 6.3 Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase Induction Motor 6.4 Obtaining Data to Plot Circle Diagram 6.8.1 Separating No Load L0S665 cscs sesssessesessssesseeseveereseeeess 6-6 Examples with S 7.3.1 Relation between Tyand Te) oe 7.4.1 Relation between T,, and Te LS Star - Delta Starter TSA Rao OF Ty 00 Tey oo eee renvec seer meee sreseepeserereeseseoeeees 7.6 Rotor Resistance Starter. 7.6.1 Calculation of Steps of Rotor Resistance Starter. 7.7 Direct On Line Starter (D.O.L.) ....... 7.8 Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor. ELEN SS ET ARE I EE: CSCI Materyales na ni7.9 Supply Frequency Controt or V/f Control..... 7.10 Supply Voltage Control ... 7.11 Controlling Number of Poles 7.11.1 Consequent Poles Method .. 7.11.2 Multiple Stator Winding Method. 7.11.3 Pole Amplitude Modulation Method 7.12 Adding Rheostats in Stator Circuit. 7.13 Adding External Resistance in Rotor Circuit .. 7.14 Cascade Control 7.15 Injecting Slip-Frequency E.M.F. into Rotor Circuit ... ‘1.15.1 Kramer System 7.15.2 Scherbius System Examples with Solutions .. eeviow ive athe iii tistics aanaciant diana Mcnieataniaacaie «EP 8.2 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors .. 8.3 Working Principle ........... 8.4 Double Revolving Field Theory... 8.4.1 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 8.5 Cross Field Theory..... 8.6 Types of Single Phase Induction Motors 8.7 Split Phase Induction Motor... 8.7.1 Applications... 8.8 Capacitor Start Induction Motors .. 8.8.1 Applications... 8.10 Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Induction Motor... 8.10.1 Without Core Loss. 8.10.2 With Core Loss ... 8.114 Conducting Tests on Single Phase Induction Motor... psi 8.11.1 No Load Test 8-19 8.11.2 Blocked Rotor Test. Materyales na naka-copyrightDOA Woting ied stisies teeta vistdes os eeeisieliel wecrties Weestiia’ : 9.2.2 Mathematical Analysis. 9.2.3 Torque-Speed Characteristi . . 924 Advantages ee Tl 9.2.6 Applications - 2 . ..9-' 9.3 Hysteresis Motor 9.3.1 Mathematical Analysis. . 93.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 9.3.3 Advantages . 9.3.4 Applications 9.6.4 Reduction Gear Stepper Motor 9.6.5 Multistack Stepper Motor. . 26.6 Advantages of Variable Reluctance Motor 9.7 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor. 9.8 Comparison between Variable Reluctance and Permanent Magnet SHOT MOT aasasscessstssse sna sn ninenserssiassessssasasiessssreat cr mnssessueceeriniceeD = 16 9.9 Hybrid Stepper Motor 9.10 Important Definition: 9.11 Stepper Motor Characteristics . 9.11.1 Static Characteristics 9.11.2 Dynamic Characteristics SLRS ME TELE A OIC a TEE . Materyales na naka-copyright9.12 Applications of Stepper Motors 9.13 Single Phase Commutator Motors 9.13.1 Single Phase A.C. Series Motor . 9.13.3 Phasor Diagram of A.C. Series Motor....... 9.14 Repulsion Motor......... 9.15 Repulsion Principle 9.16 Repulsion Type Motors .... 9.16.1 Repulsion Motor . 9.16.2 Compensated Repulsion Motor .. 9.16.3 Repulsion Start Induction Run Motor . . . 9.16.4 Repulsion Induction Mc 9.18 Permanent Magnet D.C. Motors... 9.18.1 Construction ..... 9.18.2 Working and Performance Characters. 9.18.3 Performance Characteristics ......... 9.18.4 Advantages, 9.18.5 Disadvantages 9.18.6 Applications 9.19 Permanent Magnet A.C. Motors .. 9.19.1 Construction . .. 9.19.2 Operation 9.19.3 Advantages. 9.19.4 Disadvantages 9.19.5 Applications Appendix-A Electric Braking of an Induction Motor 2°) A.1 Electric Braking of an Induction Motor ...... A.1.1 Dynamic or Rheostatic teat A.1.2 Plugging 2 A1.3 D.C. Dynamic Braking A.14 Regenerative BrakingSynchronous Machines : Alternators 1.1 Introduction It is known that the electric supply used, now a days for commercial as well as domestic purposes, is of alternating type. Similar to dic. machines, the a.c. machines associated with alternating, voltages, are also classified as generators and motors. The machines generating ac. em. are called alternators or synchronous generators. While the machines accepting input from ac. supply to produce mechanical output are called synchronous motors. Both these machines work at a specific constant speed called synchronous speed and hence in general called synchronous machines. All the modern power stations consists of large capacity three phase alternators. In this chapter, the construction, working principle and the e.m.f, equation of three phase alternator is discussed. 1.2 Difference between D.C. Generator and Alternator It is seen that in case of a d.c. generator, basically the nature of the induced em in the armature conductors is of alternating type. By using commutator and brush assembly it is converted to dic. and made available to the external circuit. If commutator is dropped from a d.c. generator and induced e.m.f. is tapped from an armature directly outside, the nature of such e.m.f. will be alternating. Such a machine without commutator, providing an ac. em. to the external circuit is called an alternator. The obvious question is how is it possible to collect an e.m.f. from the rotating, armature without commutator ? Key Point : So the arrangement which is used to collect an induced enrf. from the rotating armature and make it avmlable to the stationary circuit is called slip ring and brush assembly (1-1)Electrical Machines - Il 1-2 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 4.2.1 Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly Whenever there is a need of developing a contact between rotating element and the stationary circuit without conversion of an e.mJ. from ac. to dc, the slip rings and brush assembly can be used. In case of three phase alternators, the armature consist of three phase winding and an ac, emf. gets induced in these windings. After connecting windings in star or delta, the three ends of the windings are brought out. Across these terminals three phase supply is available. But the armature ie, these terminals are rotating and hence stationary load can not be connected directly to them. Hence slip rings, made up of conducting material are mounted on the shaft. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip ring, permanently. Hence three phase supply is now available across the rotating slip rings. The brushes are resting on the slip rings, just making contact. Key Point: The brushes are stationary. Hence as brushes make contact with the slip rings, the three phase supply is now available across the brushes which are stationary. Hence any stationary load can then be connected across these stationary terminals available from the brushes. The schematic arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.1. Siip ning Shaft \Y ) ) N\ Brush 3 Rotating _ (Stationary terminals armature to stationary load) Fig. 1.1 Arrangement of slip rings Not only the induced emf. can be taken out from the rotating winding outside but an induced e.m.f. can be injected to the rotating winding from outside with the help of slip ring and brush assembly. The external voltage can be applied across the brushes, which gets applied across the rotating due to the springs. Now the induced e.m.f. is basically the effect of the relative motion present between an armature and the field. Such a relative motion is achieved by rotating armature with the help of prime mover, in case of a dic. generator. As armature isElectrical Machines 1-3 Synchronous Machines : Alternators connected to commutator in a d.c. generator, armature must be a rotating member while field as a stationary. But in case of alternators it is possible to have, i) The rotating armature and stationary field. ii) The rotating field and stationary armature Key Point: But practically most of the alternators prefer rotating field type construction with stationary armature due to certain advantages. 1.3 Advantages of Rotating Fleld Over Rotating Armature The various advantages of rotating field can be stated as, 1) As everywhere a.c. is used, the generation level of a.c. voltage may be higher as 11 kV to 33 KV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space can be provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulation. 2) It is always better to protect high voltage winding from the centrifugal forces caused due to the rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This avoids the interaction of mechanical and electrical stresses. 3) It is easier to collect larger currents at very high voltages from a stationary member than from the slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to the field is very low (110 V to 220 V dic) and hence can be easily supplied with the help of slip ring and brush assembly by keeping it rotating. 4) The problem of sparking at the slip rings can be avoided by keeping field rotating which is low voltage circuit and high voltage armature as stationary. 5) Due to low voltage level on the field side, the insulation required is less and hence field system has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than high inertia, as efforts required to rotate low inertia system are always less. 6) Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple, robust mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So greater output can be obtained from an alternator of given size. 7) If field is rotating, to excite it by an external d.c. supply two slip rings are enough. One each for positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase rotating armature the minimum number of slip rings required are three and can not be easily insulated due to high voltage levels. 8) The ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can be improved if it is kept stationary.Electrical Machines - I! 1-4 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Due to all these reasons the most of the alternators in practice use rotating field type of arrangement. For small voltage rating alternators rotating armature arrangement may be used. 1.4 Construction As mentioned earlier, most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of construction. In case of alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c. generators. In alternators the stationary winding is called 'Stator' while the rotating winding is called ‘Rotor’. Key Point: So most of alternators have stator as armature and rotor as field, in practice. Constructional details of rotating field type of alternator are discussed below. 1.5 Stator The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame. The section of an alternator stator is shown in the Fig. 1.2. insulation lining around Fig. 1.2 Section of an alternator stator 1.6 Rotor There are two types of rotors used in alternators — 1) Salient pole type 2) Smooth cylindrical typeElectrical Machines - It 1-5 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.6.1 Salient Pole Type This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the rotor. The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in the Fig. 1.3. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths. The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines. 4.6.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type This is also called non salient type or non-projected pole type of rotor. Fig. 1.3 Salient pole type rotor The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate the field coil. The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap between stator and the rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high speed alternators are called ‘turboalternators'. The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors. The Fig. 1.4 shows smooth cylindrical type of rotor. Fig. 1.4 Smooth cylindrical rotorElectrical Machines - II 1-6 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Let us list down the differences between the two types in tabular form Salient Pole Type 1.6.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor Smooth Cylindrical Type Poles are projecting out from the surface. ‘Air gap is non uniform. Diameter is high and axial length is small Mechanically weak. Preferred for low speed alternators. Prime mover used are water turbines, 1.C. engines. For same size, the rating is smaller than| cylindrical type. Separate damper winding is provided Unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as poles hence poles are non projecting. Air gap is uniform due to smooth cylindrical] periphery. Small diameter and large axial length is the| feature. Mechanically robust. Preferred for high speed alternators i.e. for turboatternators. Prime movers used are steam turbines, electric motors. . For same size, rating is higher than satient| pote type. ._ Separate damper winding is not necessary. 1.7 Excitation System The synchronous machines whether alternator or motor are necessarily separately excited machines. Such machines always require d.c. excitation for their operation. The field systems are provided with direct current which is supplied by a d.c. source at 125 to 600 V. In many cases the exciting current is obtained from a d.c. generator which is mounted on the same shaft of that of alternator. Thus excitation systems are of prime importance. Many of the conventional system involves slip rings, brushes and commutators. 1.7.1 Brushless Excitation System With the increase in rating of an alternator, the supply of necessary magnetic field becomes difficult as the current values may reach upto 4000 A. If we use conventional excitation systems such as a d.c. generator whose output is supplied to the alternator field through brushes and slip rings then problems are invariably associated with slip rings commutators and brushes regarding cooling and maintenance. Thus modern excitation systems are developed which minimizes these problems by avoiding the use of brushes. Such excitation system is called brushless excitation system which is shown in the Fig. 15.Electrical Machines Permanent magnet stationary armature alternator Feedback of generator ‘output voltage for control and regulation Fig. 1.5 Brushless excitation system It consists of silicon diode rectifiers which are mounted on the same shaft of alternator and will directly provide necessary excitation to the field. The power required for rectifiers is provided by an ac. excitor which is having stationary field but rotating armature. The field of an excitor is supplied through a magnetic amplifier which will control and regulate the output voltage of the alternator since the feedback of output voltage of alternator is taken and given to the magnetic amplifier. The system can be made self contained if the excitation power for the magnetic amplifier is obtained from a small permanent magnet alternator having stationary armature which is driven from the main shaft. The performance and design of the overall system can be optimized by selecting proper frequency and voltage for a.c. excitor. The additional advantage that can be obtained with this system is that it is not necessary to make arrangement for spare excitors, generator-field circuit breakers and field rheostats. 1.8 Methods of Ventilation 1) Natural Ventilation : A fan is attached to either ends of the machine. The ventilating medium is nothing but an atmospheric air which is forced over the machine parts, carrying away the heat. This circulation is possible with or without ventilating ducts. The ventilating ducts if provided may be either axial or radial. 2) Closed Circuit Ventilating System : An atmospheric air may contain injurious elements like dust, moisture, acidic fumes etc. which are harmful for the insulation of the winding. Hence for large capacity machines closed circuit system is preferred for ventilation. The ventilating medium used is generally hydrogen. The hydrogen circulated over the machine parts is cooled with the help of water cooled heat exchangers. Hydrogen provides very effective cooling than air which increases the rating of the machine upto 30 to 40% for the same size. All modern alternators use closed circuit ventilation with the help of hydrogen as a ventilating medium.Electrical Machines - tl 1-8 ‘Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.9 Working Principle The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction, When there is a relative motion between the conductors and the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the conductors. The d.c. generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in practical alternator and a d.c. generator is that in an alternator the conductors are stationary and field is rotating. But for understanding purpose we can always consider relative motion of conductors with respect to the flux produced by the field winding Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical, shown dotted in the Fig. 1.6. porailiof to flux aan ae Velocity SE perpendicular to flux Magnetic axis, Fig. 1.6 Two pole alternator Let conductor starts rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the conductor. So 24 at this instant is zero and hence induced e.m.f. in the conductor is dt also zero. As the conductor moves from position 1 towards position 2, the part of the velocity component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that, emf. gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of such an induced em¢ increases as the conductor moves from position 1 towards 2. At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines. Hence there exists maximum cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced e.m.f. in the conductor is at its maximum. ‘As the position of conductor changes from 2 towards 3, the velocity component perpendicular to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced e.m.f. magnitude also starts decreasing. At position 3, again the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines and hence at this instant induced e.m.f. in the conductor is zero.Electrical Machines - I! 1-9 Synchronous Machines : Alternators As the conductor moves from position 3 towards 4, the velocity component perpendicular to the flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite to the direction of velocity component exsisting during the movement of the conductor from position 1 to 2. Hence an induced emf. in the conductor increases but in the opposite direction. At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines. ems, Again from position 4 to 1, induced ume ems, decreases and finally at position 1, again becomes zero. This cycle continues as conductor rotates at a certain speed So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced emf. against the time, we get an Fig. 1.7 Alternating nature of the alternating nature of the induced exm, as induced e.m.f. shown in the Fig. 1.7. This is the working principle of an alternator. and Electrical Angle We have seen that for 2 pole alternator, one mechanical revolution corresponds to one electrical cycle of an induced em. Now consider 4 pole alternator ie. the field winding is designed to produce 4 poles. Due to 4 poles, the magnetic axis exists diagonally shown dotted in the Fig. 1.8. Fig. 1.8 (a) 4 Pole alternator Velocity wos aa ” ower a SS (Maximum emf) SS ed me Fux instants 4,35 and 7 Instants 2, 4,6 and 8 Fig. 1.8 (b) Velocity components at different instantsElectrical Machines - Il 1-10 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Now in position 1 of the conductor, the velocity component is parallel to the flux lines while in position 2, there is gathering of flux lines and entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines. So at position 1, the induced e.m.f. in the conductor is zero while at position 2, it is maximum. Similarly as conductor rotates, the induced e.m.f. will be maximum at positions 4, 6 and 8 and will be minimum at positions 3, 5 and 7. So during one complete revolution of the conductor, induced emf. will experience four times maxima, twice in either direction and four times zero. This is because of the distribution of flux lines due to existence of four poles. So if we plot the nature of the induced emf; for one revolution of the conductor, we get the two electrical cycles of the induced e.m-f., as shown in Fig. 1.9 Nature of the induced e.mf. the Fig. 1.9. Key Point : Thus the degrees electrical of the induced emf. i.e. number of cycles of the induced e.m.f. depends on the number of poles of an alternator. So for a four pole alternator we can write, 360° mechanical = 720° electrical From this we can establish the general relation between degrees mechanical and degrees electrical as, 360° mechanical = 360° xf electrical where P = Number of poles ie. 1° mechanical = (3) electrical 1.9.2 Frequency of Induced E.M.F. Let P = Number of poles = Speed of the rotor in p.m. and f = Frequency of the induced emf. From the discussion, we can write, One mechanical revolution of rotor = £ cycles of ems. electricallyElectrical Machines 1-11 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Thus there are P/2 cycles per revolution. As speed is N r.p.m,, in one second, rotor will complete (3) revolutions, But cycles/sec. = frequency = f Frequency f = (No. of cycles per revolution) x (No. of revolutions per second) PN = 20 Hz (cycles per sec). So there exists a fixed relationship between three quantities, the number of poles P, the speed of the rotor N in r.p.m. and f the frequency of an induced e.m4f. in Hz (Hertz). Key Point : Such a machine bearing a fixed relationship between P, N and f is called synchronous machine and hence alternators are also called synchronous generators. 1.9.3 Synchronous Speed ( N,) From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to be rotated at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated emf. constant at the required value. Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as N.. 120f So N, = =p where f = Required frequency In our nation, the frequency of an alternating emf. is standard equal to 50 Hz. To get 50Hz frequency, for different number of poles, alternator must be driven at different speeds called synchronous speeds. Following table gives the values of the synchronous speeds for the alternators having different number of poles. Number of poles P 2 Synchronous speed N, in r.p.m. 3000 Table 1.1 From the table, it can be seen that minimum number of poles for an alternator can be two hence maximum value of synchronous speed possible in our nation ie. for frequency of 50 Hz is 3000 r.p.mElectrical Machines - Il 1-12 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.10 Armature Winding Armature winding of alternators is different from that of d.c. machines. Basically three phase alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists a phase difference of 120° between the induced e.m.fs in them. In a dc. machine, winding is closed while in alternators winding is open two ends of each set of winding is brought out. In three phase alternators, the six terminals are brought out which are finally connected in star or delta and then the three terminals are brought out. Each set of windings represents winding per phase and induced emf. in each set is called induced e.m-f. per phase denoted as Epn. All the coils used for one phase must be connected in such a way that their e.m.f.s help each other. And overall design should be in such a way that the waveform of an induced e.mf. is almost sinusoidal in nature. 1.10.1 Winding Terminology 1) Conductor : The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and responsible for the induced e.m.f. is called active length of the conductor. The conductors are placed in the armature slots. 2) Turn : A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in Fig. 1.10(a). “1 sper | feengecer PT a2 for Ysbee sid (a)Turn (b)Multiturn coil Fig. 1.10 3) Coil : As there are number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together to form a coil. Such a coil is called multiturn coil. A coil may consist of single turn called single turn coil. The Fig. 1.10 (b) shows a multiturn coil. 4) Coil Side : Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a coil as shown in the Fig. 1.10 (b). 5) Pole Pitch ; It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360° electrical of e.m.f,, 4 poles are responsible for 720° electrical of emf, and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180° electrical of induced e.m.f.Electrical Machines 1-13 Synchronous Machi Key Point: So 180° electrical is also calle one pole pitch. Practically how many slots are under one pole which are responsible for 180° electrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch eg, Consider 2 pole, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 18 ie. 9 slots. So pole pitch is 9 slots or 180° electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produce a phase difference of 180° between the emfs induced in different conductors. This number of slots/pole is denoted as 'n’. Pole pitch = 180° electrical = slots per pole (no. of slots/P) = n 6) Slot Angle @) : The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot angle pi As slots per pole contributes 180° electrical which is denoted as ‘n’, we can write, 180° 1 slot angle = 8° 180° Be n In the above example, n=18 <9, while p= 160 = 20° Note : This means that if we consider an induced e.mf. in the conductors which are placed in the slots which are adjacent to each other, there will exist a phase difference of f° in between them. While if e.m.f. induced in the conductors which are placed in slots which are ‘n’ slots distance away, there will exist a phase difference of 180° in between them. Conductor 1 Conductor 2 x x : < eyzeme * lo} fof a (a) Adjacent slots (b) Indication of phase difference Fig. 1.44Electrical Machines - It 1-14 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.11 Types of Armature Windings In general armature winding is classified as, i) Single layer and double layer winding ii) Full pitch and short pitch winding iii) Concentrated and distributed winding. Let us see the details of each classification. 1.11.1 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be single layer. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top the winding is called double layer as shown in the Fig, 1.12 (b) Tums _ Colt side 1 Con side 2. ‘Slot Conductors (a) Single layer (b) Double layer Fig. 1.12 A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred. 1.11.2 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding As seen earlier, one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of 'n’, slots per pole indicates how many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from first slot, the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil. For example in 2 pole, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n= 18 = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term related to a coil called coil span. 1.11.2.1 Coil Span It is the distance on the periphery of the armature between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil spanElectrical Machines - I 1-15 Synchronous Machines : Alternators is ‘n’ slots or 180° electrical the coil is called full pitch coil. This is shown in the Fig. 1.13. Jn’ slots I] 8 ‘Slot No. 1 ‘Slot No.(n+1) ! 180" , i eteces ——ei Fig. 1.13. Full pitch coll As against this if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch ie. less than 180° electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils. Generally coils are shorted by one or two slots. So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No.1 to slot No.10, it is connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, coil is said to be short pitched coil and winding is called short pitch winding. This is shown in Fig. 1.14. For full pitch ‘Stot Stot ‘Slot No Nos Not0 ‘Short Tey Fig. 1.14 Short pitch coil 1.1.2.2 Advantages of Short Pitch Coils In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages : a) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. inactive length of winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical b) Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of e.m.f. Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching. ©) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.Electrical Machines - I! 1-16 — Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.11.3 Concentrated and Distributed Winding In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings, each for a phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases = n/3 (generally number of phases is 3) For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have n Big and m= 253 we 5, So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x’ number of conductors per phase are to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all ‘x’ conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty then the winding is called concentrated winding. Key Point: So in concentrated winding all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot under every pole. But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the ‘m’ slots per pole per phase available for distribution of the winding. So if 'x’ conductors per phase are distributed amongst the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding. So in distributed type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the 'm’ slots per phase, under every pole. Distributed winding makes the waveform of the induced e.m.f. more sinusoidal in nature. Also in concentrated winding due to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is poor. Key Point : So im practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature winding is preferred for the alternators. mm Example 4.4: Drazw tle developed diagram for full pitch armature winding of a three phase, 4 pole, 24 slots alternator. Assume single layer winding and of distributed type Note : This example will explain all the winding terminologies discussed earlier. Solution: P= 4, 24 slots , 3 phase n = Slots per pole = a =6 m = Slots per pole per phase =Electrical Machines - lt 1-17 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 0° B = Slot angle = er _ 1 6 Full pitch coils are to be used so if phase 1 say R is started in slot 1, it is to be connected to a coil in slot 7 so that coil span will be 6 slots i.e. ‘n’ slots ie. 1 pole pitch. As distributed winding is to be used, both the slots per pole per phase (m = 2) available are to be used to place the coils. And all coils for one phase are to be connected in series. So from slot No.7 we have to connect it to coil slot No.2 and slot No.2 second end to slot No.8 and so on. After finishing all slots per phase available under first pair of pole, we will connect coil to slot No.13 under next pole and winding will be repeated in similar fashion. The starting end R, and final end Rr winding for R-phase are taken out finally. Connections for R-phase only are shown in the Fig. 1.15, Lo» JLos JL» JL os iM of 21 f2el2a}24 All coils per phase in series Fig. 1.15 Developed winding diagram for ‘R' phase Now we want to have a phase difference of 120° between 'R' and 'Y’. Each slot contributes 30° as fi = 30°. So start of Y’ phase should be 120° apart from start of 'R’ ie. 4 slots away from start of R. So start of 'Y' will be in slot 5 and will get connected to slot No.11 to have full pitch coil. Similarly start of ‘B' will be further 120° apart from 'Y' ie. 4 slots apart start of "Y’ ie. will be in slot No.9 and will continue similar to 'R’. Finally all six terminals of three sets will be brought out which are connected either in star or delta to get three ends R,Y and B outside to get three phase supply. The entire winding diagram with star connected windings is shown in the Fig. 1.16.Electrical Machines - I! 1-18 Synchronous Machines : Alternators me KS Anat Star har N Fig. 1.16 Winding diagram for all three phases 1.12 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Let 6 = Flux per pole, in Wb P = Number of poles N, = Synchronous speed in r.p.m. f = Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz Z = Total number of conductors Zp, = Conductors per phase connected in series Zpn = © as mumber of phases = 3. Consider a single conductor placed in a slot. The average value of e.m{. induced in a conductor do dt For one revolution of a conductor, Flux cut in one revolution Cy conductor =~ Cur mone revowon 6 Per Time taken for one revolution Total flux cut in one revolution is § x P. Time taken for one revolution is £ seconds.Electrical Machines - II 1-19 Synchronous Machines 0 avg per conductor But f= Substituting in (1), Cave per conductor = 2f ¢ volts Assume full pitch winding for simplicity ie. this conductor is connected to a conductor which is 180° electrical apart. So these two em-fs will try to set up a current in the same direction ie. the two emf. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f. per tum will be twice the e.m.f, induced in a conductor. emf. per turn = 2 x (e.m-f. per conductor) = 2x (2 fo) =4 £6 volts. Let T,n be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated winding, we is can say that all are placed in single 186 —eye slot per pole per phase. So induced Ionductor1 | Conductor 2 em.fs in all turns will be in phase as placed in single slot. Hence net emf per phase will be algebraic sum of the e.m.fs per turn. — 1 tun — Fig. 1.17 Turn of full pitch coil Average Ep Ty, (Average e.m.f. per turn) = Tyr 4 fo But in a.c. circuits R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal e.m-f. Average Ey R.M.S. K, = =i for sinusoidal Average RMS. value of Ey, = K, * Average value Ll x4 £6 Toy =444f9T,, voltsElectrical Machines - i 1-20 Synchronous Machines : Alternators. Key Point: This is the basic e.m,f. equation for an induced e.m,f. per phase for full pitch, concentrated type of winding. where Tpn = Number of turns per phase as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch hence emf. induced slightly gets affected. Let us see now the effect of distributed and short pitch type of winding on the emf. equation. 1.12.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (K.) In practice short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is form by connecting one coil side to another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180°, The coil is generally shorted by one or two slots. Key Point: The angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as ‘a’ a = Angle by which coils are short pitched. As coils are shorted in terms of number of slots ic. either by one slot, two slots and so on and slot angle is B then angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot angle B ‘Actual coll span tae a =f} x number of slots by which coils are short pitched. or a = 180° Actual coil span of the coils. Fig. 1.18 Angle of short pitch This is shown in the Fig. 1.18. Now let E be the induced e.m.f. in each coil side. If coil is full pitch coil, the 1 Pole induced e.m4f. in each coil side help each pach other. Coil connections are such that both 180 will try to set up a current in the same \ direction in the external circuit. Hence Fig. 1.19 Full pitch coil the resultant e.m.f. across a coil will be algebraic sum of the two. Ey = E+E=2E ... (for full pitch) Now the coil is short pitched by angle ‘a’. the two em. in two coil sides no longer remains in phase from external circuit point of view. Hence the resultant e.m.Electrical Machines 1-21 Synchronous Machines : Alternators is also no longer remains algebraic sum of the two but becomes a phasor sum of the two as shown in the Fig. 1.20. Obviously Ex in such a case will be less than what it is in case of full pitch Fig. 1.20 Phasor sum of two e.m.f.s coil. From the geometry of the Fig. 1.20, we can write, AC is perpendicular drawn on OB bisecting OB. 1@C) = KCB) = EX and ZBOA = a/2 = OC_ER cos (a/2) = OA 3E Eg = 2 Ecos (a/2) ... (For short pitch) This is the resultant e.mJ. in case of a short pitch coil which depends on the angle of short pitch ‘a’. Key Point: Now the factor by which, induced emf. gets reduced due to short pitching ts called pitch factor or coil span factor denoted by K.. It is defined as the ratio of resultant e.m.f. when coil is short pitch to the resultant emf. when coil is full pitched. It is always less than one. 2Ecos( Ex when coil is short pitched _ cos( $] Ex when coil is full pitched 2E = coal K.= co $} where a = Angle of short pitch 4.12.2 Distribution Factor (K,) Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt is made to use all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced emf. more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding. Consider 18 slots , 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole ie. n = 9. m = Slots per pole per phase = 3 180° BegElectrical Machines - It 1-22 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Let E = induced e.m.f. per coil and there are 3 coils per phase. In concentrated type all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induced e.m-f. in all the coils will achieve maxima and minima at the same time ie all of them will be in phase. Hence resultant emf, after connecting coils in series will be algebraic sum of all the e.m.fs as all are in phase. As against this, in distributed type, coil sides will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots per phase available under a pole as shown in the Fig. 1.21 (a). O. E incolt Ein coll 2 Eincoi3 (2) Distributed winding {b) Phase difference between induced e.m-f. Fig. 1.21 Though the magnitude of AB=8C=E emf. in each coil will be same as cal E’, as each slot contributes phase difference of B? i.e. 20° in this case, there will exist a phase difference of B° with respect to each other as Fig. 1.22 Phasor sum of e.m.ts shown in the Fig. 1.21 (b). Hence resultant e.m.f. will be phasor sum of all of them as shown in the Fig. 1.22. So due to‘distributed winding resultant em. decreases Key Point: The factor by which there is a reduction in the emf. due to distribution of coils is called distribution factor denoted as Ki Derivation of Distribution Factor : In general let there be ‘n’ slots per pole and ‘m’ slots per pole per phase. So there will be ‘m’ coils distributed under a pole per phase, connected in series. Let E be the induced em. per coil. Then all the ‘m’ em.és induced in the coils will have successive phase angle difference of | = 1°. white finding out the phasor sum of all of them, phasor diagram will approach a shape of a ‘m’ equal sided polygon circumscribed by a semicircle of radius ‘R’. This is shown in the Fig. 1.23 AB, BC, CD etc., represent e.m.f. per coil. All the ends are joined at ‘O’ which is centre of the circumscribing semicircle of radius ‘R’.Electrical Machines 1-23 Synchronous Machines : Alternators e. AB=BC=CD=......=E Sy ‘AM = Eq Fig. 1.23 Phasor sum of ‘m’ e.mf.s Angle subtended by each phasor at the origin ‘O’ is B® This can be proved as below All the triangles OAB, OBC ... are similar and isosceles, as AB = BC = CD = ... = E Let the base angles be ‘x’ ZOAB = ZOBA = 2 OBC 4 x and ZAOB = ZBOC = ... = y say Now in AOAB, 2x +y = 180° while ZOBA + ZOBC +f = 180° () ie 2x + B = 180° vs Q) Comparing (1) and (2), y =B So ZAOB = 2 BOC = ZCOD=... =p 9 If ‘M’ is the last point of the last B phasor, 2AOM =mxf=mp and AM = & R Consider a 4 OAB separately as shown in the Fig. 1.24. Let OF be the perpendicular drawn on AB. bisecting angle at apex ‘O’ as f/2. 5 5 HAB)= EB. T(AK= = = Resultant of all the e.m-fs. Fig. 1.24 and KOA) = R.Electrical Machines - li 1-24 Synchronous Machines : Alternators E= 2n sin( 8) « Q) Now consider A OAM as shown in the Fig. 1.23 and OG is the perpendicular drawn from ‘O’ on its base bisecting 2 OAM 2 AOG = 2 GoM = me 1(AM) = Ex _ Er 1(AG) = > mB\ _ AG _ Ep /2 sin { ™P (2) > OAT TR Eg = 2R sin (F} This is the resultant emf. when coils are distributed. If all ‘m’ coils are concentrated, all would have been in phase giving Ex as algebraic sum of all the emfs. Ex =mxE for concentrated From equation (3), = 2R sin (8) =2mRsin(&) Eg =2m sin( 5) This is resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant e.m.f. when coils are distributed to the resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one. mp K, = Exwhen coils are distributed zm 2R sin( E when coils are concentrated — (8 2mRsin| (5 =) i ky \ ; msin( 3) where m = Slots per pole per phaseElectrical Machines - i! 1-25 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 6B " Slot angle = 180° n n= Slots per pole 1.12.3 Generalised Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Considering full pitch, concentrated winding, Ey = 444 £6 Ty, volts. But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this Ep, will reduce by factors Ke and Ky. So generalised expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as Ep, = 444K. Ky 6 Ty | volts. For full pitch coil, Ko = 1 For concentrated winding Kg = 1 Key Point: For short pitch and distributed winding K. and Ka are always less than unity. vm Example 1.2: An armature of a three phase alternators has 120 slots. The alternators has 8 poles. Calculate its distribution factor. Solution : mm Example 1.3: In a 4 pole, 3 phase alternator, armature has 36 slots. It is using an armature winding which is short pitched by one slot. Calculate its coil span factor. Solution : Slots _ 36 = Poe 47? p = 180 20°Electrical Machines - ll 1-26 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Now coil is shorted by 1 slot i.e. by 20° to full pitch distance. a = angle of short pitch = 20° K = cos 5 }= cos (10) \2 = 0.9848 1.12.4 Line Value of Induced E.M.F. If the armature winding of three phase altemator is star connected, then the value of induced e.m-f. across the terminals is {3 Epx where Ep is induced e.m.f. per phase. While if it is delta connected line value of e.m.f. is same as Epa. This is shown in the Fig. 1.25 (a) and (b). (a) Star connection (b) Delta connection Fig. 1.25 Practically most of the alternators are star connected due to following reasons : 1. Neutral point can be earthed from safety point of view. 2. For the same phase voltage, voltage available across the terminal is more than delta connection 3. For the same terminal voltage, the phase voltage in star is Fi times tine value. This reduces strain on the insulation of the armature winding. um Example 1.4: An alternator runs at 250 r.p.m. and generates an e.mf at 50 Hz. There are 216 slots ench containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and full pitch, Ail the conductors of each phase are in series and flux per pole is 30 mWb which is sinusoidally distributed. If the winding is star connected, determine the value of induced e.m.f. available across the terminals.Electrical Machines 1-27 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Solution : N, = 250 rpm. f = 50 Hz 120f P __ 12050 K. = 1 as full pitch coils. Total number of conductors Z = 216 x 5 = 1080 _ Z _ 1080 _ Zpn =F = AGE = 360 zZ, Tp = = .. (2 conductors constitute 1 tum) — 360 _ a wi 180 Eph = 444 Ke Ka f6Tph = 4.44 « 1 x 0.9597 « 30 x 10-3 « 50 x 180 = 1150.48 V Eline = 3 Eph .. (star connection) = {3 = 115048 = 1992.70 V. mm> Example 1.5: A 3 phase, 16 pole, star connected alternator has 144 slots on the armature periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It 1s driven at 375 r.p.m. The line value of emf. available across the terminals is observed to be 2.657 kV. Find the frequency of the induced e.mf. and flux per pole. Solution : P=16 Ny = 375 rp.m.Electrical Machines - I! 1-28 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Slots = 144 Conductor /slots = 10 Eline = 2.657 kV Ns 375 = ‘ f Assuming full pitch winding, Ke Total conductors = Slots x Conductors/slot ie. Z = 144 10 = 1440 Now Epn = 4.44 Ke Ka £ 6Tpn 1.534 x 108 = 4.44 «1 0.9597 x 6 « 50 x 240 © = 0.03 Wb = 30 mWb 1.13 Harmonics In case of alternators, the voltage and currents induced are having sinusoidal waveforms. But practically we can not get sinusoidal waveform when such alternators are loaded. Due to the loading condition, the generated waveform deviates from ideal waveform. Such a non sinusoidal waveform is called complex wave. By FourierElectrical Machine “0 1-29 Synchronous Machines : Alternators transform this complex waveform can be shown to be built of a series of sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are integral multiples of the frequency of fundamental wave. These sinusoidal components or harmonic functions are called harmonics of the complex wave. The fundamental wave is defined as that component which. is having same frequency as that of complex wave. The component which is having double the frequency of that of fundamental wave called second harmonic. While the component which is having the frequency three times that of fundamental is called third harmonic and so on. The complex waveform contains both the even as well as odd harmonics. Consider a complex wave which is represented by, e = Etim sin (ot + $1) + Exm sin (2 wt + $2) + Esm sin (3 wt + 3) + ... + Enm sin (n wt + bn) where Etm sin (wt + 1) is fundamental component of maximum value Erm having an angle $1 from instant of zero of the complex wave. Similarly Enm sin (nwt + $n) represents n> harmonic of maximum value Enm and having phase angle $, with respect to complex wave. Out of the even and odd harmonics a complex wave containing fundamental component and even harmonics only is always unsymmetrical about x-axis whereas a complex wave containing fundamental component and odd harmonics only is always symmetrical about x-axis. In case of alternators the voltage generated is mostly symmetrical as the field system and coils are all symmetrical. So the generated voltage or current will not have any even harmonics in most of the cases. The complex waveform of voltage can be analysed experimentally by using the phenomenon of resonance. If voltage waveform containing harmonic content is applied to the circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance, then the circuit will resonate at one of the harmonic frequencies. The voltage drop across the resistance can be analysed by using an oscillograph. The values of inductance and capacitance can be changed so that resonance can be obtained at fundamental, third harmonic, fifth harmonic etc. The voltage on the oscillograph indicates the presence of particular harmonics. 1.13.1 Slot Harmonics The voltage generated in armature windings is derived assuming that the surface of armature to be smooth. However in practice armature is not smooth but is made slotted. Due to this slotting certain harmonic emfs of undesirable order are produced The reluctance at any point in the air gap depends on whether there is a slot or teeth in the magnetic path. Since in case of alternators armature is moving, the teethElectrical Machines - It 1-30 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Field and slots alternately occupy positions at this point. This will vary the reluctance. The ripples will be PLLA Armature formed due to variation of reluctance from point to ' +— Field point. in the air gap which is shown in the Fig. 1.26. ph OR seo je These ripples will not move with respect to conductors but glide on the distribution of flux. The Fig. 1.26 ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and teeth which are causing them. Thus the harmonics which are generated in the em. due to slotting is called slot harmonics. It can be seen that the main source of harmonics is the non-sinusoidal field form which can be made sinusoidal and the harmonics can be eliminated. The air gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path. This air gap if made to vary sinusoidally around the machine, the field form would also be sinusoidal. Even the air gap is made to vary sinusoidally, the field form can not be sinusoidal due to saturation in iron parts which is unavoidable. But there should not be high degree of saturation so that approximately sinusoidal waveform will be obtained. Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical rotor construction. 1.13.2 Harmonics Minimization To eliminate or minimize the harmonics from the voltage waveform, the windings must be properly designed. The different ways to eliminate the harmonics from generated voltage are, i) Distribution of armature windings : Instead of having concentrated type of windings, they should be distributed in different slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less than that of the fundamental and hence magnitude of harmonic e.m.f. is small. ii) Chording : The e.m4f. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x a./2) where a is angle of chording and x is order of harmonic. If proper value of angle of chording is selected then harmonic ems can be reduced significantly. Fractional slot windings : The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating the use of fractional slot windings as the distribution factor will be smaller compared to that with the fundamental. iv) Skewing : Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the slot harmonics. v) Large length of air gap : The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot harmonics can be reduced.Electrical Machines 1-31 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.14 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced e.m.f. The flux density distribution around the air gap in all well designed alternators is symmetrical with respect to abscissa and also to polar axes. Thus it can be expressed with the help of a Fourier series which do not contain any even harmonics. So flux density at any angle 8 from the interpolar axis is given by, B = Bm sin @ + Bas sin 30 +... + Bau sin x0 +... where x = Order of harmonic component which is odd Boi Bs = Amplitude of 3 harmonic component of flux density Bunx Amplitude of fundamental component of flux density Amplitude of x (odd) harmonic component of flux density The e.m.f. generated in a conductor on the armature of a rotating machine is given by, e& = Bly Substituting value of B, ec = [Bm sin @ + Bra sin 30+... + Bmx sin xO + ...J Iv | = Active length of conductor in metre d = Diameter of the armature at the air gap Linear velocity = nd ng where . = Synchronous speed in rps. 120f Ne Ns = —— low ; = OF * "OP 2f v nd - Substituting in the expression for e, ee = [Bei sin 8 + Bra sin 38+. + Br sin x 8] 1. 28Af <2 sin® + Bry mt 2 fsin 30 +....+ Bax aa 2tsinx0| Area of each fundamental pole, Ar = “4! = [BmtAi 2f sin @ + Bms Ai2 f sin 30+... + Bmx Ar 2f sin x 0]Electrical Machines - lt 1-32 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Area of x* harmonic pole, A, = 24! = At Px This is because, there are xP poles for the xi* order harmonic. ec = 2f [BrtAr sin @ + Bys. 3As sin 3.0 +... + Bmx Ax sin x 6] Now BmiAi = $1m = Maximum value of fundamental flux per pole 1 = 2 om = Average value of fundamental flux per pole Similarly average value of x harmonic flux per pole can be obtained as, ox = 2 As Bmx Substituting the values of flux in e, we get the expression for e.m.f. induced per conductor as, ec = m1 sin® +393 sin 30+ ... +x bx sin x 0) Instantaneous value of fundamental frequency e.m.f. generated in a conductor is : eat = mfoisind V Hence the RM. value of fundamental frequency e.mf. generated in a conductor . wits Ea = 222 fo v2 Hence RMS. value of x harmonic frequency e.m-f. generated in a conductor is, Eq = 2226. xf But ee x tx 2A Bo = 222.2 Ad xf Bm zx = 1.4132 Ai f Bmx Now Ea = 222 fr = 2226 2 But Ar = 1.4132 f Boa At Eq _ 1.4132 AifBa __B, Ea T4320, fBar Bat It can be observed that the magnitude of harmonic e.m.fs are directly proportional to their corresponding flux densities.Electrical Machines - lt 1-33 Synchronous Machines : Alternators The R.MS. value of f. of a conductor i: 1.14.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor We know that, a = Angle of short pitch for fundamental flux wave then it changes for various harmonic component of flux as, 3a = for 3“ harmonic component Sa = for 5t harmonic component xu = for x" harmonic component Hence the pitch factor is expressed as, co where x = Order of harmonic component 1.14.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor Similar to the pitch factor, the distribution factor is also different for various harmonic components. The general expression to obtain distribution factor is, where x = Order of harmonic component sin 2B For x = Ka = fundamental msin§ sinh For x = 3, Kn = 2 vx. 3 harmonicElectrical Machines - lt 1-34 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1.14.3 Total e.m.f. Generated due to Harmonic Components Considering the windings to short pitch and distributed, the emf. of a fundamental frequency is given by, 4.44 Ka Karo: f Tph V where Tph = Turns per phase in series Eph $1 = Fundamental flux component While the phase e.m-. of x'* order harmonic component of frequency is given by, Eqph = 444 Ke Kix xo fTphV The total phase e.m-f. is given by, Eph = J Etpn)? + (Espa)? +E)? V Line emf. : For star connected, the line or terminal induced emf. is 3 times the total phase emf. But it should be noted that with star connection, the 3+ harmonic voltages do not appear across line terminals though present in phase voltage Eline = ( Eva? + Es? )Y3 V In delta connection also, 3%, 9%, 15 .., harmonic voltages do not appear at the line terminals. Taking ratio of fundamental frequency em.f. and x! order harmonic frequency emf. we can write, Ein 4.44 Ka Kari fT. Ker Ku Engh WK Ka XO, fT pn Ke Kas Bow Exph = Etpn - pe SPN KS Kar Bun Epn = 4.44 61 f Tph Ka Kar mp Example 1.6: A 3 phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has an armature with a diameter of 0.25 m and length 0.3 m. The’ equation for flux density distribution is, B=0.15 sin 8 + 0.03 sin 3.8 + 0.02 sin 5 @ Wo/m? The armature has 60 coils with 10 turns per coil arranged in double layer. The phase spread is 60°. a) Determine voltage generated per coil b) Determine voltage generated per phase ©) Determine terminal voltage available Assume coil span 13/15 of a pole pitch.Electrical Machines - I 1-35 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Solution: The given values are , d = 0.25 m,/ = 0.3 m, P=4 Ai = Area of each fundamental pole = xal « 0.25x« eo Sexes a 9-3 0.0589 m? From the given equation of B we can write, Bt = 0.15, Bms = 0.03, Bas = 0.02 41 = Average value of fundamental flux per pole = 2 Bai Ar=2 «015 «0589 = 562% 10 Wo a) To find voltage generated per coil The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency emf. generated in a single conductor is, Eq = 1.11 x 2 f 61 = 0.6238 V Now winding coil span is z of pole pitch So Coil span = 13 x 180° = 156° i a = 180°- 156° = 24° Ka = cos 5 = 0.9781 Ke = = 0.809 Ks = = 05 The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency e.m-f. generated in one tum is, Eu = Kerx(2Ea) as two conductors constitute 1 turn = 09781 x 20.6238 =122 V Note: Remember that for a single turn, Ky is unity for all harmonic components. Now Eq = Ea Bm . Bas _ 4, 0-03 Ea = Fa pt = 06238 * 555 = 0.1247 V .1-36 Synchronous Machines : Alternators and Es = Bar. 3 = 06238 = = 0.0831 V Eg = Ke x2 Fea = 0,809 x 2 x 0.1247 = 0.2018 V and Es = Kes x 2 Eos = 0.5 x 2 x 0.0831 = 0.0831 V Total em. per tum = E = f(Eu)?+(EuP +(Es)> = 124V There are 10 turns in each coil. Voltage generated per coil = Number of turns per coil x Total e.m.f. per turn = 10x 124 24aVv b) To find voltage generated per ph: Eiph = 444 Ka Kar 1 Tpn There are 60 coils with 10 turns per coil Total turns = 60 = 10 = 600 600 3 = 200 Ton = The winding is double layer i.e. each slot has 2 coil sides. In each coil there are 10 turns i.e. in each coil side there are 10 turns i.e. in each coil side there are 10 conductors. Hence total conductors per slot = 20 as shown in the Fig. 1.27. 600 2 conductors constitute 1 turn Total conductors = 2 x 600 = 1200 Fig. 1.27 No. of slots = —Total conductors ‘Conductors per slot 1200 = a7 = Remember that for double layer winding, number of slots is equal to number of coils of armature. Now total turnsElectrical Machines - 1-37 Synchronous Machines : Alternators. Kas and Espn " 4.44 x 0.9781 x 0.9567 x 5.62 x 103 « 50x 200 233.48 V Ko Key Baw Key Kar Bau 0.809 x 0.647 «0.03 23-48 « To7arx0 S61~ 0.15 ~ 2014 V Eph - 233.48 x Total voltage generated per phase Epn VE)? + Espn? (Espn)? ¥ (233.48)? + (26.14)? + (3.32)? 234.9 V ¢) To determine terminal voltage The 34 harmonic e.m.f. does not appear at the terminals Eline V3 = [Eig + (Espn? 3 x (233.48)? + (3.32)? 404.4. VElectrical Machines - It Examples with Solutions vm Example 1.7: In a 3 phase, star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides per stot and 16 turns per coil. Armature has 288 slots on its periphery. When driven at 250 rpm. it produces 6600 V between the lines at 50 Hz. The pitch of the coil is 2 slots less than the full pitch. Calculate the flux per pole. Solution : N, = 250 rp.m,, f = 50 Hz Slots = 288, Eline = 6600 V 120 f P 120 «50 Ns = 250 = y Now coil is short pitched by 2 slots. a = Angle of short pitch = 2 f= 2 15 = 30° K cos ($= cos (15) = 0.9659 Each coil consists of 16 turns, i.e. in a slot each coil side consists of 16 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.28. And in each slot there are 2 coil sides. So each slot consists of 16 per coil side x 2 Le. 32 conductors.Electrical Machines 1-39 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Conductors/slot = 32 Total conductors = Slots « Conductors/slot Z = 288 x 32 = 9216 Zpn = Conductors/phase = ae = 3072 ... (2 conductors — | turn) Now 3810.51 V Epy = 4.44 Ke Kao f Tpn 3810.51 = 4.44 x 0.0959 x 0.9576 x = 50 x 1536 4 = 0.012 Wb = 12 mWb mm Example 1.8 : A single phase 1500 rp.m., 4 pole alternator has 8 conductors per’slot with total of 24 slots. The winding is short pitched by i th of full pitch. Assume distributed winding with flux per pole as 0.05 Wb. Calculate the induced emf. Solution : N, = 1500 rp.m., P = 4, Slots = 24; Conductors/slot = 8 Note that the alternator is single phase and not the three phase. PN, _ 4% 1500 £ = spo = 29 = 50 He n= Slots 24 _ Pole 4 m = n= 6as number of phases is one 180° 180° _ 4, Ba maa sn( M2) an 222 Ka = = 0.6439 Full pitch = n= 6 slots Coil short pitched by i th of full pitch ie. by z x6 = 1SlotElectrical Machines - Il 1-40 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Angle of short pitch = 1 slot angle Ke Total conductors: z But as no. of phase = Tph Ep a> Example 1.9: A full pitch winding. = B=30° = c05/$) cos (15) = 0.9659 \ = Conductors cog Slot = 8x24= 192 1, Z= Zpy = 192 Zon _ 192 2 2 = 444 Ke Kao Ton = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.6438 x 0.05 x 50 x 96 = 662.74 V 96 .. 2 conductors — 1 turn) three phase star connected alternator has 9 slots per pote, carrying The alternator has 48 poles and driven at 125 r.p.m. The winding is double layer having 4 turns in a coil. If flux per pole is 51.75 mWb, determine the value of induced emf. between the lines. Solution: P = 48, N,=125rp.m, n= 9 double layer 4 tums/coil, = 51.75 mWb 120% f P _ 120xf ar) = 50 Hz = 1as full pitch winding = 9 givenElectrical Machines - il 1-41 Synchronous Machines : Alternators. Now winding is double layer means in each slot there are two coil sides. Each coil has 4turns means in a slot, each coil side contains 4 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.29. Slot with 2 coil sides (Double layer) Fig, 1.29 Conductors Conductors/slot = SS2CUSIO8S . Number of coil sides Coil side Conductors/slot = 4 «2 = Now Total slots = “8 < Number of poles Pole = nxP =9x 48 = 432 Total conductors = Conductors x Number of slots Z = 8x 432 = 3456 Zn = % = WE = 1152 Tph = Se = 1 = 576 Hence Eph = 4.44 Ke Kao f Tph = 444 « 1 « 0.9597 x 51.75 « 10-3 x 50 x 576 = 6350.69 V Eine = 3 Eph as star connection = {3 * 6350.69 = 11000 V = 11 kV mm Example 1.10: A 12 pole, three phase. 600 rp. r connected alternator kas 180) slots. There are 2 coil sides per slot and total 10 conductors per slot. If flux per pole is 0.05 Wb determine from first principles, i) rms. value of emf. in a conductor ii) rams, value of emf. in a tern iti) rms. value of emf. in a coil iv) per phase induced emg. Assuime full pitch coils.Electrical Machines - It 1-42 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Solution : P= 12, N,= 600 cpm. PxNy _ 12x 600 120 120 = 60 Hz. i) Average value of e.m4f. in a conductor = 2 f rms. value = L11 x2 f= 2.22 x 60 x 0.05 = 6.66 V ii) Average value of emf. in a turn = 4 £6 As 2 conductors joined properly form a turn. rms. value = 1.11« 4 = 4.44 x 60 « 0.05 = 13.32 V iii) Now each slot has 10 conductors and 2 coil sides. So conductors/coil side = 2 =5 Such coil sides are connected to another coil sides to form a coil. So in a coil there are 5 turns as shown in Fig. 1.30. Coil side + Coil side 2 Fig. 1.30 rms. value of em. ina coil rms. value of e.m.f. No.of tums turn coil = 13.32 5 = 66.6 Conductors: iv) Now total conductors Z = £2 « No. of slots Coil side Z = 10% 180 = 1800 Zpn Tpn = And neElectrical Machin " Kg or Eph = 1-43 Synchronous Machine: rms. value per turn x Th x Ky x Ke 13.32 300 x 0.9566 x 1 3822.88 V 4.44 Ke Ka @ f Tpn 4.44 x 1 x 0.9566 x 0.05 x 60 x 300 3822.8 V nm Example 1.14: A 3 phase, 8 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 96 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The coil pitch is 10 slots. If the flux per pote is 60 mWb find i) the phase voltage ii) the line voltage iti) if each phase is capable of carrying 650 A, what is the KVA rating of the machine ? Solution : Given values are, P= No. of slots = ne m = Coil pitch = a= 8 f=50Hz, 9 =60mWb, Coil pitch = 10 slots 9% Slots per pole = = =12 BO" = 15° 7 Slot angle = Slot per pole per ph = 2 =4 10 slots = 10 x B = 150° electrical Angle of short pitch = 180° - 150° 0° cos z = cos 15° = 0.9659Electrical Machines - li 1-44 Synchronous Machi : Total conductors. = Number of slots x Conductors/slot = % x4= 384 Total tums = 384 - 192 Ton = 2 = 68 0 Eph = 444K. Ka f Tph = 444 « 0.9659 « 0.9576 «x 60 «10-9 «50 x 64 = 788.497 V ii) Eline = 3 Ep = 3 * 788.497 = 1365.71 V ii) Lh = 650A =I as star connected KVA rating = 3 Elie IL = 1537.56 kVA a> Example 1.12: The flux distribution of a 600 r.p.m., 3 phase, 10 pole alternator is given by B= (sin ® + 0.3 8 + 0.2 sin 5 ®) Tesla where @ is measured from neutral axis. The pole pitch is 35 cm and core length is 30 cm. The stator coil span is 89 of a pole pitch. Determine phase and tine values of induced emf. if there are 8 conductors per slot in to layers and 3 slots per pole per phase. Solution : The given values are, No = 600rpm, Ps10, 1=30em Pole pitch = bi = 35m 1 Area of each fundamental pole = Ai = "2! = 30 x 35 = 1050 cm? = 0.105 m? From the given flux density equation we can write, Bm = 1 Bms=0.3 and — Bms = 0.2 o= 2 As Bm = 2 x 0.105 x 1 = 0.0668 Wb 120 120¢ Nes p= 10x 600 fe 720 = 50 Hz Coil span = 8x pote pitch = 8 x 180° = 160°Electrical Machines - Il Kar Kas Kas Total slots Total conductors Total turns Tpn Eph Eqn 180° - Coil span = 20° a cos > 1-45 = 0.9848 Slots/pole/ph = 3 = Slots/pole = 33 = 9 Synchronous Machines : Alternators .. given Slots/pole x No. of poles = nx P = 9x 10 = 90 Conductors/slot x No. of slots = 8 x 90 = oY = 360 2 360 3 120 4.44 Ke Kar $1 f Th 4.44 x 0.9848 = 0.9597 = .0.0668 x 50 = 120 1681.87 V Eph x Bmw Key Kav Bui Key Kar 20 .. 2 conductors 1 turn .. x is order of harmonicElectrical Machines - I) 1-46 Synchronous Machines : Alternators . 0.3 « 0.866 « 0.6667, Esph = 1681.87 * 7x0.5848~ 0.9597 = 308.23 V 0.2 0.6427 x 0.2175 Tx 0.9848 x 0.9507 Eph = Vv (Eien 7 + CE sph 1? Ina line value, 3 harmonic does not appear Enne = f 3% f(Bip )? + (Es)? = 2914358 V ‘Ma Example 1.13: A three phase, 6 pole, 1000 r.p.m. alternator has an air gap diameter of 28 cm and a core length of 23 cm. A two layer winding with 60° phase spread is used and the winding is accommodated in 4 slots/pole/phase with 8 conductors/slot. The coils are short pitched by one slot. The flux density wave consists of a fundamental of 0.87 Wh/m?, a 3 harmonic of 0.24 Wh/m? and a 5% harmonic of 0.14 Wh/m?. Estimate the resultant phase and line voltages for star and delta connections. and Esph = 1681.87 « 9.75 V ( cn P= 1710.602 V Solution : The given values are, P26 N= 1000 rpm, d= 28cm, [= 23cm Bot: = 087, Bns = 024, Bas = 0.14, m=4 + 120f Nes pr 1208 og = 120" f = 50Hz Area of each fundamental pole is, Aim Bal. 2A 28*29 367.1976 033719 m? Average flux per pole (fundamental component) is or = 2 Ay Bm = 2 x 0.033719 = 0.87 = 0.01867 Wb 3 4 Slots per pole per ph = 4 n= Slots per pole = 4x3 = 12 _ 180° _ 180° _ y 2, B= Soe ay 15 Coils are short pitched by 1 slotElectrical Machines - tl Ker Kar 1-47 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 1 slot angle = = 15° a £ = 0.99 cos 5 0.9914 cos 3 = 0.9238 cos *& = 07933 < mxp sine «XP msin=- Total slots Total conductors Total turns Tph Eiph Now Exph Espn and Espn = nx P=12x6=72 Conductors/slot x No. of slots = 8 x 72 = 576 576 = 288 --. 2 conductors 1 turn 288 7% 444 Ko Kar gn f Tpn 4.44 = 0.9914 x 0.9576 x 0.01867 = 50 x 96 377.75. V Eiph x Ga Bo Be ... x is order of harmonic 377.75x 0.14 + 0.7933 0.2053 _ 19 45 y 0.87 x 0.9914 x 0.9576Electrical Machines - it 1-48 Synchronous Machines Alternators Eph = y (Eng)? + (Espn)? + (Espn)? = 383.654 V .. total phase voltage Ina line value, 3 harmonic does not appear in both star and delta connection Biine = (3% J (Ein)? + (Eqn)? = 654.52 V «for star and Eine = yf (Etpn 2 + (Esm = 377.89 V ... for delta um Example 1.14 The stator of a 3 ph 16 pole alternator has 144 slots and there are 4 conductors per stot connected in 2 layers and the conductors of each phase are connected in series. If the speed of the alternator is 375 rp.m. Calculate the emf. induced per phase. Resultant flux in the air gap is 5%10-> weber per pole sinusoidal distributed. Assume cot! span as 150° electrical. [April-96, Dec.-06] Solution : P=16, N, = 375 rpm. fe n m= 2e2e3 373 Coil span is 150° while coil span for full pitch coil is always 1 pole pitch i.e. 180°. Angle of short pitch a = 180° - Actual coil span = 180° ~ 150° = 30° a K. = Now, Ky = B= Ka = sin 0” _ 0.95 ‘ 30) Fain 10° ~ 97 3sin| = |} Total conductors = C&PAUCtOrS , Number of slots1-49 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Z = 4«144 = 576 576 Zn = AP =192 Zp _ 192 2 em. induced in 1 phase, Ey, = 444K.Kyo fy = 4.44% 0.9659% 0.9597 5x 10°3 x 50x 96 Eyn = 98.77 volts mm Example 1.15: Calculate the speed and open circuit line and phase voltages of a 4-pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator with 36 slots and 30 conductors per slot. The flux per pote is 0.05 Wb smusordally distributed. (Madras Univ., April - 97) Solution: P-=4, f=50 Hz, No. of slots = 36, Conductors/slot = 30 ne Slots per pole = 38 =9 oor _ 10° 7 = 20' > " Slot angle = m = Slots per pole per phase = 3 Ko =1 assuming full pitch coil. 6 (3220) m{ sin| sin ™B Ky = 2 = pn = 09597 msin5 3 Tae) sin zr Total conductors, Z = No. of slots x Conductors per slot = 36x 30 = 1080 Total tums per phase, Ty, = 1280-180 Speed, Ns = cs £ 120% 50 «1500 r.p.m. em.. induced, Ey, = 444 Ke Ka @ fT pn = 44x 1 0.9597 0.05% 50x 180 Epn = 1917.48 volts. Eine = V3-Epy = ¥3-1917.48 Eline = 3321.17 volts mm Example 1.16: A 3 pliase, 50 Hz, 20 poles salient pole alternator with star connected stator winding has 180 slots on the stator. Each slot consists of 20 conductors. The fluxa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Electrical Machines - Il 1-51 Synchronous Machines : Alternators Slots/pole = & 9 m = Slots/pole/ph = B= 1 or mB 3x20 sin( =P Ky = hee msin( 2) 3sin 2) Speed, N, = 120 _ 120550 _ 1500 rpm. Total conductors = Number of slots x Conductors/slots = 36x40 = 1440 Total turns = 0 720 720 Tyr = 72-240 emf. induced, Ey = 444K Kad Tn = 4.44 x1 x 0.9597 « 0.06% 50x 240 Epn = 3067.96 V Eine = V3-Epn = V3 x 3067.96 Eqn = 5313.87 V ima Example 1.18: A 3 phase, 8 pole, 750 r.p.m. star connected alternator has 72 slots on the armature. Each slot has 12 conductors and the winding is short charged by 2 slots Find the induced e.mf. between lines given flux per pole is 0.06 Wb. Solution : P = 8, No. (Madras Univ., April - 99] of slots = 72, N, = 750 rp.m. , Conductors/slot = = 0.06 Wb = 120f P _ PN, 8x 750_ = 0 “aa 70H = Slots/pole = 2 =9 9 = Slots/pole/ph =a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Electrical Machine: Ky = Ky = 0.9659 Total conductors = Conductors/slot x Number of slots Z = 4x60 = 240 Total turns = 2 =120 Tyh = emf. induced, Epp = 4.44K-Kad fTpn 4.44 « 1 « 0.9659 x 0106 50x 40 = 514.631 volts Line voltage, Ete = ¥3-Epn = ¥3 (514.631) = 891.367 volts Hz, 3 phase star connected alternator has three slots per pole per phase. There are four conductors per slot. It has full pitch double layer winding. A flux of 0.05 Wb per pole is distributed sinusoidally across the air gap. Find (i) distribution factor, Gi) speed and (iii) induced e.mf. (Madras Univ., April-2001] Solution : P= 64, f = 50 Hz, m = Slots/pole/ph =3 ~. Slots/pole = 9. n= 9 Conductors/slots = 4, $ = 0.05 Wb nN, = 220xf ee =93.75 p.m. Speed = 93.75 rpm. ~ SpeedElectrical Machines - I 1-54 Synchronous Machines : Alternators 3x20 2) _ sin30° ; Ky = oul) = Fae 7 09597 ~ distribution factor 3sin| > 2z Now, Slots/pole = 9 Slots = 9x 64 =576 Total conductors = Conductors/slot x No. of slots = 4576 = 2304 Total turns = Tph = For full pitch coils, K =1 ema. induced, Eph = 444 KKyd fTyn = 4.44 1x 0.9597 « 0.05 « 50 x 384 En = 4090.62 volts V3-Epn = V3x 409062 7085.17 volts Ff z u Eine um Example 1.21: A 3 ph, ¥ connected alternator has the following data : Voltage required to be generated on O.C. is 4000 V at 50 Hz, speed is 500 rp.m., stator slots/pole/ph is 3, conductors/slot is 12. Calculate the number of poles and useful flux/pole. Assume all conductors/ph to be connected in series and coil to be full pitched. (May-2005) Solution : Etne = 4000 V, f = 50 Hz, N, = 500 rp.m. m = 3, Conductors/slot = 12, full pitch coil. 120f Nos pr _ 120%50 500 = P P=12 Kea ..-Full pitch coil n = Slots/pole = mx3=9 p = 180 22° nElectrical Machines - Il 1-55 Synchronous Machines : Alternators wi 2) an 22") Total slots = nx P= 9x12 = 108 Z = Slots x Conductors/slot = 108 x 12 = 1296 = 0.9597 Zyn = VE = a32 Tw = B=n6 Eine _ 4000 And Epn = Ente. = $000. a399.4011 v me BB Now Eph = 444 K-Kad fTpn 2309.4011 = 4.44 1 x 0.9597 x «50x 216 $ = 0.501 Wb = 50.18 mWb wm Example 1.22: A three phase, star-connected 16 pole alternator has 192 slots with 8 conductors/slot, coil spain = 160 electrical degrees, speed of alternator = 375 rp.m., flux/pole = 55 mWb. Calculate the phase and line voltages. (Nov.-2004) Solution : p = 16, 192 slots, 8 Conductors/slot, Coil span = 160°, N, = 375 rpm, = 55 mWb PN, _ 16%375 _ = 10x97 = 5 720 ~~ 129 0 He Slots _ 192 _ 4 Pole 16 f= a = Angle of short pitch = 180°~160° = 30° K. = cos{ $= cos 15") = 0.9659 _ 180° _ 180° _ 4. B = Slot angle = MO = 18%" «15 Ka = mee(l) 4nn( 3) (Conductors /slot) x Slots = 8« 192 = 1536 N "a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.(1 - 58)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Methods for Caiculating Electrical Machines gulation of Alternator 2-4 2.5.1 Unity Power Factor Load Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor, As induced e.m.f. Eps drives a current of Isp, and load power factor is unity, Ep and apn are in phase with each other. If 6) is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing Ej» then Ep, lags @ by 90°. Now current through armature I,, produces the armature flux say .. So flux . and I, are always in the same direction. This relationship between ;, 6a, Ep and Igy can be shown in the phasor diagram, Refer to the Fig, 2.4. Main flux Flux a * 89, Main fux ' 0_ Armature flux Wi. awd aon | "8 y Armature flux ofa ge nnnnnnny - Time En lL, Induced em, i due 10 6, : Fig. 2.4 Armature reaction for unity p.f. load It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90° between the armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also shown in the Fig. 2.4. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes ‘oppose each other on the left half of each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence average flux in the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets distorted. Key Point ; Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity p,f. condition of the load is called cross magnetising effect of armature reaction. Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the alternator. 2.5.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging power factor. This indicates that lyn driven by Epn, lags Ep, by 90° which is the power factor angle 6. Induced e.m.f. Epn lags main flux + by 90° while 6. is in the same direction as that of |. So the phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.5. It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the armature flux and the main flux are exactly in opposite direction to each othera You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Methods for Calculating Electrical Machines - 2-8 Regulation of Alternator and E yy = Vipn +1,Z, ... (Phasor sum) 2.8 Voltage Equation of an Alternator In dc. generators, we have scen that due to the armature resistance drop and brush drop it is not possible to have all the induced e.m.f. available across the load The voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage. The concept is same in case of altemators. The entire induced e.m.f. can not be made available to the load due to the various internal voltage drops. So the voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage denoted as Vjx. In case of three phase alternators as all the phases are identical, the equations and the phasor diagrams are expressed on per phase basis. So if Ey is the induced em. per phase in the alternator, there are following voltage drops occur in an alternator. i) The drop across armature resistance I, Ry both L, and R, are per phase values. ii) The drop across synchronous reactance 1, X, both 1, and X. are per phase values. After supplying these drops, the remaining voltage of Epn is available as the terminal voltage Vpn. Key Point: Now drop I. R. is always in phase with 1, due to a resistive drop current I, lags by 90° with respect to drop LX, as it is a drop across purely inductive reactance while Hence all these quantities can not be added or subtracted algebraically but must be added or subtracted vectorially considering their individual phases. But we can write a voltage equation in its phasor form as, This is called voltage equation of an alternator. From this voltage equation, we can draw the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions and establish the relationship between Eph and Vpq, in terms ‘of armature current i.e. load current and the power factor cos ($) 2.9 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator The above voltage equation is to be realised using phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions. For drawing the phasor diagram consider all per phase values and remember following steps. Steps to draw the phasor diagram : 1. Choose current I, as a reference phasor.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Methods for Calculating Electrical Machines - (1 2-12 Regulation of Alternator reaction. While Vpn is more than Epn for leading pf. condition due to the magnetising effect of armature reaction. Thus in general for any power factor condition, (Epn)? = (Vpn cosh +1, Ra)? + (Vpn sing +1,.X5)? + Sign for lagging p.f. loads ~ Sign for leading p.f. loads and Vph = Per phase rated terminal voltage Ia = Per phase full load armature current From this discussion, we can now define the voltage regulation of an alternator. 2.10 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator Under the load condition, the terminal voltage of alternator is less than the induced e.m.f. Epy- So if load is disconnected, Vpn will change from Vpx to Epn, if flux and speed is maintained constant. This is because when load is disconnected, I, is zero hence there are no voltage drops and no armature flux to cause armature reaction. This change in the terminal voltage is significant in defining the voltage regulation. Key Point : The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage when full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated terminal voltage. So if Vpn = Rated terminal voltage " No load induced e.m-f. 0 Eph then voltage regulation is defined as, % Regulation The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the power factor of the load. For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the terminal voltage hence regulation values are always positive. While for leading capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as load current increases Hence regulation is negative in such cases. The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called load characteristics of an alternator. Such load characteristics for various load power factor conditions are shown in Fig. 2.13.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Methods for Calculating Electrical Machines - It 2-16 Regulation of Alternator 1. Direct loading method 2. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method 3. Ampere-turns method or M.M.F. method 4. Zero power factor method or Potier triangle method 5. ASA modified form of M.M.F. method 6. Two reaction theory Let us discuss these methods in detail. 2.13 Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading The Fig. 2.14 shows the circuit diagram for conducting the direct loading test on the three phase alternator. The star connected armature is to be connected to a three phase load with the help of tripple pole single throw (TPST) switch. The field winding is excited by separate d.c. supply. To control the flux ie. the current through field winding, a rheostat is inserted in series with the field winding. The prime mover is shown which is driving the alternator at its synchronous speed TPST switch Prime mover Star connected armature winding Field vending of alternator TT } Supply & Fig. 2.14 Circuit diagram for direct loading test on alternator Procedure : The alternator is first driven at its synchronous speed Ns by means of a prime mover Now Eon x @ (From e.m.f. equation) By giving dc. supply to the field winding, the field current is adjusted to adjust the flux so that rated voltage is available across the terminals. This can be observed on the voltmeter connected across the lines. The load is then connected by means of a TPST switch. The load is then ii creased so that ammeter reads rated value of current This is full load condition of the alternator. Again adjust the voltage to its rated value