iirs DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

POONAM S. TIWARI
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Division
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 1
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

¾Lecture Title- Digital Image Processing-

Image Enhancement Techniques
¾Learning Objectives
™Image Enhancement Techniques
™Point Operations
™Local Operations

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 2
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Image Enhancement
•Modification of an image to alter its impact on viewer
Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual
interpretation and understanding of imagery.
•Process of making an image more interpretable for a
particular application to accentuate certain image
features for subsequent analysis or for image display
• Useful since many satellite images give inadequate
information for image interpretation.
• Attempted after image is corrected for distortions.
• May be performed temporarily or permanently.

In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion
of the available range of digital values (commonly 8 bits or 256
levels).
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 3
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Enhancement Types:
• RADIOMETRIC ENHANCEMENT
• Modification of brightness values of each pixel in an
image data set independently (Point operations).
• SPECTRAL ENHANCEMENT
• Enhancing images by transforming the values of
each pixel on a multiband basis
• SPATIAL ENHANCEMENT
• Modification of pixel values based on the values of
surrounding pixels. (Local operations)

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 4
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

RADIOMETRIC ENHANCEMENT
• Modification of brightness values of each pixel in
an image data set independently (Point
operations).
• Brings out contrast in the image
• Applied separately to each band of data.
• Enhancement applied to one band may not be
appropriate to other bands.
• Contrast Enhancement falls under Radiometric enhancement

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 5
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

CONTRAST
• Amount of difference between average gray level of an
object and that of surroundings
• Difference in illumination or grey level values in an image
or
• Intuitively, how vivid or washed-out an image appears
• Ratio of Maximum Intensity to Minimum Intensity
• Larger the ratio more easy it is to interpret the image

CONTRAST = Max . Grey Value / Min. Grey Value

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 6
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Why is it needed to contrast stretch?

Band1 Band 3

FCC (4,2,1)
Band2 Band4

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 7
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Reasons for Low Contrast

• Scene itself has low contrast ratio
• The individual objects and background that
make up the terrain may have a nearly uniform
electromagnetic response at the wavelength
band of energy that is recorded by the remote
sensing system
• Different materials often reflect similar amounts
of radiant flux through out the Visible, NIR and
MIR portion of EM Spectrum.
• Cultural Factors e.g. People in developing
countries use natural building material (wood,
soil) in construction of urban areas

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 8
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Reasons for Low Contrast- Cont..

• Sensitivity of Detectors
• The remote sensing system may lack sufficient sensitivity to
detect and record the contrast of the terrain. Also, incorrect
recording techniques can result in low contrast imagery
although the scene has a high-contrast ratio
• Detectors on most sensing systems are designed to record a
relatively wide range of scene brightness values (0-255)
without becoming saturated. However very few scenes are
composed of brightness values that utilize the full sensitivity
range of the detectors.
• Atmospheric Scattering
• scattering of electromagnetic energy by the atmosphere can
reduce the contrast of a scene. This effect is most
pronounced in the shorter wavelength portion

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 9
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
ORIGINAL IMAGE AND ITS
HISTOGRAM

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 10
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
LOW CONTRAST IMAGE AND
ITS HISTOGRAM

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 11
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

SATURATED IMAGE AND ITS

HISTOGRAM

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 12
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Original
Saturated

Low Contrast

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 13
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Contrast Enhancement
• Expands the original input values to make use of
the total range of the sensitivity of the display
device.

• The density values in a scene are literally pulled

farther apart, that is, expanded over a greater
range.
• The effect is to increase the visual contrast
between two areas of different uniform densities.
• This enables the analyst to discriminate easily
between areas initially having a small difference in
density.
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 14
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Contrast Enhancement Types

• Non Linear Contrast
• Linear Contrast
Stretch
Stretch
– Input and Output Data
– Input and Output Values do not follow a
Data Values follow a linear relationship
linear relationship • Logarithmic
• Min – Max Stretch • Inverse Log
• % stretch • Exponential
• Std. deviation • Square
Stretch • Square root etc ….
• Piecewise Linear
Stretch
• Saw tooth Stretch

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 15
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Linear Contrast Stretch

• A DN in the low range of the original
histogram is assigned to extreme black,
and a value at the high end is assigned
to extreme white.
• The remaining pixel values are
distributed linearly between these two
extremes

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 16
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Linear Contrast Stretch

• By expanding the original input values of the
image, the total range of sensitivity of the
display device can be utilized.
• Linear contrast enhancement also makes
subtle variations within the data more obvious.
• These types of enhancements are best applied
to remotely sensed images with Gaussian or
near-Gaussian histograms, meaning, all the
brightness values fall within a narrow range of
the histogram and only one mode is apparent.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 17
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Linear Contrast Stretch

255
Y = ax + b

Linear stretch
grey
shade min DN max DN

0
0 DN 255
transfer function
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 18
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Computations
Y = ax+b ………………Eq. 1
The values of 'a' and 'b' are computed from the equations.
a = (Ymax - Ymin )/Xmax - Xmin
b = (Xmax Ymin - Xmin Ymax )/Xmax - Ymin
where,
X = Input pixel value
Y = Output pixel value
Xmin, Xmax , Ymin and Ymax are the min and max
input and output values

To stretch the data between 0- 255 Eq.1 takes the form

X - Xmin
Y = ------------ . 255
Xmax - Xmin
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 19
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

X - Xmin
Y = ------------ . 255
Xmax - Xmin

• What will be the change in the formula to

stretch the input between 45-195

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 20
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Linear stretch

Linear Stretch Min Max (Jensen 1996)

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 21
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Linear stretch

Histogram
Distribution of Grey Values
TM band 4

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 22
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Percentage Cutoff Stretch

• The percentage linear contrast stretch is
similar to the minimum-maximum linear
contrast stretch except this method uses a
specified minimum and maximum values
that lie in a certain percentage of pixels
from the mean of the histogram

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 23
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Percentage Cutoff Linear Stretch

Linear Stretch Cut-off percentages(Jensen 1996)

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 24
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Standard Deviation Linear stretch

• Similar to the minimum-maximum linear contrast
stretch except this method uses a specified
minimum and maximum values that lie outside a
certain standard Deviation of pixels from the
mean of the histogram.
• A standard deviation from the mean is often
used to push the tails of the histogram beyond
the original minimum and maximum values

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 25
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
-1 σ µ +1 σ

-2 σ +2 σ

-3 σ
+3 σ

• In a normal distribution, about 68% of the values

are within one standard deviation of the mean
and about 95% of the values are within two
standards deviations of the mean.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 26
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Standard Deviation Linear stretch

µ
σ
1.2 σ

Linear Stretch standard deviation(Jensen

threshold
1996)

µ = MEAN
σ = STANDARD DEVIATION
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 27
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Std. Dev. Stretch

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 28
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Piecewise linear Stretch

• When the distribution of a histogram in an image
is bi or tri-modal, an analyst may stretch certain
values of the histogram for increased
enhancement in selected areas.
• This method of contrast enhancement is called a
piecewise linear contrast stretch.
• A piecewise linear contrast enhancement
involves the identification of a number of linear
enhancement steps that expands the brightness
ranges in the modes of the histogram.
• In the piecewise stretch, a series of small min-
max stretches are set up within a single
histogram.
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 29
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Piecewise linear stretch

255
transfer function

Piecewise
grey
shade
linear stretch

0
0 DN 255

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 30
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Saw Tooth Stretch
• The continuous data is divided into Interval Data
• Each Range is then stretched from 0 to 255
255

grey
shade

0 DN 255

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 31
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Non-Linear Contrast Enhancement
• Input and Output Data Values do not follow linear
relationships
• Input and output are related via a transformation
function

Y = ƒ(x)
• Increases or decreases contrast in different
regions of histogram
Transfer Function Types:
Mathematical Statistical
* Logarithmic * Histogram Equalization
* Inverse Log * Gaussian Stretch
* Exponential
* Square Trigonometrical
* Square root * Arc tangent ( tan-1)
* Cube
* Cube Root
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 32
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Logarithmic Contrast Stretch

• In this process the logarithmic values of the input
data are linearly stretched to get the desired output
values.
• It is a two step process. In the first step we find out
the log values of the input DN values.
• In the second step the log values are linearly
stretched to fill the complete range of DN no. (0-255).
• Logarithmic stretch has greatest impact on the
brightness values found in the darker part of the
histogram or on the low DN values.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 33
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Logarithmic Stretch

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 34
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Transfer Function – Non Linear
Stretch

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 35
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Histogram Equalisation
¾ In this technique, histogram of the original image is
redistributed to produce a uniform population density.

¾This is obtained by grouping certain adjacent gray values.

¾Thus the number of gray levels in the enhance image is

less than the number of gray levels in the original image.

¾Contrast is increased at the most populated range of

brightness values of the histogram (or "peaks").

¾It automatically reduces the contrast in very light or dark

parts of the image associated with the tails of a normally
distributed histogram

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 36
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Histogram Equalisation
• Image analysts must be aware that while
histogram equalization often provides an image
with the most contrast of any enhancement
technique, it may hide much needed
information.
• This technique groups pixels that are very dark
or very bright into very few gray scales.
• If one is trying to bring out information about
data in terrain shadows, or there are clouds in
your data, histogram equalization may not be
appropriate.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 37
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Histogram Equalisation

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 38
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Histogram equalization

Histogram

TM band 4
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 39
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Spatial frequencies
• Radical variation in • Slowly varying changes
gray scale in gray scales

High frequency image Low frequency image

"Rough" textured areas of an image, "smooth" areas with little variation in
where the changes in tone are abrupt tone over several pixels, have low spatial
over a small area, have high spatial frequencies
frequencies,

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 40
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Spatial frequencies
Definitions
Numbers of changes in the brightness values per unit distance for any
particular part of the image
Image Composed of
1. High frequency details
2. Low frequency details
Low Frequency Details
Few changes in brightness value over a given area
High Frequency Details
Brightness values change dramatically over short distances

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 41
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

¾ zero spatial frequency— a flat image, in which every pixel

has the same value
¾low spatial frequency— an image consisting of a smoothly
varying gray scale
¾highest spatial frequency— an image consisting of a
checkerboard of black and white pixels

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 42
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Spatial Filtering
• Spatial Filtering is the process of dividing the image into its
constituent spatial frequencies, and selectively altering certain spatial
frequencies to emphasize some image features.

• Process of suppressing (de-emphasizing) certain frequencies &

passing (emphasizing) others.
• This technique increases the analyst’s ability to discriminate detail.

• Local operation i.e. pixel value is modified based on the values

surrounding it.
• used for enhancing certain features
• removal of noise.
• Smoothening of image

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 43
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Where are the low and high
frequencies ?

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 44
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Filters
• are Algorithms for filtering
• Composed of
• Window mask /Kernal / Convolution mask and
• Constants (Weights given to mask)
• Mask size 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, 9x9………
ex. Square mask
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 45
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Convolution ( Filtering Technique)

• Process of evaluating the weighted neighbouring pixel
values located in a particular spatial pattern around the i,j,
location in input image.

Technique
– Mask window is placed over part of image
– Convolution Formula is applied over the part of image (Sum of the
Weighted product is obtained (coefficient of mask x raw DN
value)/ sum of coefficients)
– Central value replaced by the output value
– Window shifted by one pixel & procedure is repeated for the entire
image.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 46
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Convolution Process
Please Note that:
• Using 3x3 kernel results in output image
2 lines and 2 columns smaller.
• Boundary pixels are either copied from
original image
– Or

• Duplicated from the sides and then

computed

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 47
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Central Pixel

Window mask
010
111 BV5, out = 932 / 5 = 186
010

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 48
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Filtering

Before Filtering After filtering

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 49
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Filter Types
• Low Pass Filters
• block high frequency details
• has a smoothening effect on images.
• Used for removal of noise
• Removal of “salt & pepper” noise
• Blurring of image especially at edges.
• High Pass Filters
• Preserves high frequencies and Removes slowly varying
components
• Emphasizes fine details
• Used for edge detection and enhancement
• Edges - Locations where transition from one category to other
occurs

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 50
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

High Pass Filtering

Types
– Linear
• output brightness value is a function of linear combination of BV’s
located in a particular spatial pattern around the i,j location in the
input image
– Non Linear
• use non linear combinations of pixels

• Edge Detection - Background is lost

• Edge Enhancement
• Delineates Edges and makes the shapes and details more
prominent
• background is not lost.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 51
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Laplace Filter
• Laplace Edge Detectors
-1 -1 -1 0 -1 0
-1 8 -1 -1 4 -1
-1 -1 -1 0 -1 0
• Laplace Edge Enhancement filter
-1 -1 -1 0 -1 0
-1 16 -1 -1 5 -1
-1 -1 -1 0 -1 0
(12-16)

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 52
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Additional Edge Detector Masks
-1 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 1 1
-1 0 -1 0 0 0 -1 0 1
-1 0 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 0
Vertical Horizontal Diagonal

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -1 2 -1
2 2 2 -1 2 -1 -1 2 -1
-1 -1 -1 2 -1 -1 -1 2 -1
Horizontal forward diagonal vertical

¾Directional, or edge detection filters are designed to highlight linear features, such as
roads or field boundaries.
¾These filters can also be designed to enhance features which are oriented in specific
directions.
¾These filters are useful in applications such as geology, for the detection of linear geologic
structures.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 53
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Directional Filters
Detects/ Enhances edges in specified directions

1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 -1
1 -2 1 -1 -2 1 -1 -2 1 1 -2 1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 1 1 1
North North east East South

-1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 1
-1 -2 1 1 -2 -1 1 -2 -1 1 -2 -1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1
South East South West West North West

The Mask name suggest the slope direction of maximum response.

Eg. East gradient mask produces a maximum output for horizontal
brightness value changes from west to east.

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 54
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Image Transformation
• Image transformations typically involve the
manipulation of multiple bands of data, whether
from a single multispectral image or from two or
more images of the same area acquired at
different times (i.e. multitemporal image data).

• Either way, image transformations generate

"new" images from two or more sources which
highlight particular features or properties of
interest, better than the original input images

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 55
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Image Division
• The most common transforms applied
to image data.
• On a pixel-by-pixel basis carry out the
following operation…
• Band1/Band2 = New band
• resultant data are then rescaled to fill the
range of display device
• Very popular technique, commonly
called ‘Band Ratio’

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 56
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Mathematically
BVi,j,r = BVi,j,k / BVi,j,l

Where
BVi,j,k Brightness value at the location line
i, pixel j in k band of imagery
BVi,j,l Brightness value at the same
location in band l
BVi,j,r Ratio value at the same location

(Note: If Denominator is 0 (zero) then Denominator BV is

made 1)

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 57
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Mathematical Domain of the Function

0 1/255 1 255
• The values between 1/255 to 1 are stretched
between 1-128 using the formula
INT ((BVi,j,r * 127)+1)

• And the ratio values between 1 to 255 are

stretched between 128 – 255 by the function
INT (128 + (BVi,j,r / 2))

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 58
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Reasons / Application of Ratios

• Undesirable effects on recorded radiances (e.g.
variable illumination) caused by variations in
topography.
– Sometimes differences in BV’s from identical surface
material are caused by topographic slope and aspect,
shadows or seasonal changes
– These conditions hamper the ability of an interpreter
to correctly identify surface material or land use in a
remotely sensed image.
• Ratio transformations can be used to reduce the
effects of such environmental conditions
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 59
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Ratios for Elimination of Topographic Effect
Landcover/ Digital Number Ratio
Illumination Band A Band B
Decidous
Sunlit 48 50 .96
Shadow 18 19 .95
Coniferous
Sunlit 31 45 .69
Shadow 11 16 .69

• Same cover type

• Radiance at shodow is only 50% of radiance at
sunlit
• Ratio nearly identical
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 60
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Use/ Application of ratios

• Certain aspects of the shape of spectral reflectance

curves of different Earth surface cover types can be
brought out by ratioing.
• In addition ratios may provide unique information not
available in any single band
• Ratios discriminate subtle spectral variances
• Ratios clearly portray the variations of slopes of spectral
reflectance curves between two bands involved
• Ratios are independent of the absolute pixel values
• Ratios can be used to generate false colour composites
by combining three monochromatic ratio data sets

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 61
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Which bands to Ratio
1 2 3 4 5 7

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 62
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Which bands to Ratio-example

• Healthy vegetation reflects strongly in the near-infrared
portion of the spectrum while absorbing strongly in the
visible red.
• Other surface types, such as soil and water, show near
equal reflectances in both the near-infrared and red
portions.
• Thus, a ratio image of Near-Infrared (0.8 to 1.1 µm) divided
by Red (0.6 to 0.7 µ m) would result in ratios much greater
than 1.0 for vegetation, and ratios around 1.0 for soil and
water.
• Thus the discrimination of vegetation from other surface
cover types is significantly enhanced.
• Also, we may be better able to identify areas of unhealthy
or stressed vegetation, which show low near-infrared
reflectance, as the ratios would be lower than for healthy
green vegetation.
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 63
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

InfraRed Red

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement RATIO IR/R
minakshi@iirs.gov.in 64
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Commonly used Vegetation Indices

• Vegetation Index or Ratio Vegetation
Index (RVI) = IR / R
• Normalized Differential Vegetation Index
(NDVI) = (IR - R)/(IR + R)
• Transformed Vegetation Index (TVI)
= {(IR - R)/(IR + R) + 0.5}1/2 x 100

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 65
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Vegetation Index

RATIO IR/R (RVI) NDVI {(IR-R)/(IR+R)}

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 66
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

• Different bands of multispectral data are

often highly correlated and thus contain
similar information.
• We need to Transforms the original
satellite bands into new “bands” that
express the greatest amount of variance
(information) from the feature space of
the original bands

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 67
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

PCA Cont..
• The objective of this transformation is to reduce
the dimensionality (i.e. the number of bands) in
the data, and compress as much of the
information in the original bands into fewer
bands.
• The "new" bands that result from this statistical
procedure are called components.
• This process attempts to maximize (statistically)
the amount of information (or variance) from the
original data into the least number of new
components.
Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 68
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

Graphical Conceptualization

• PCA is accomplished by a linear

transformation of variables that
corresponds to a rotation and translation
of the original coordinate system

Image
Digital Preprocessing
Image Enhancement minakshi@iirs.gov.in 69
Poonam S.Tiwari
iirs

PCA- Graphical Conceptualization

• Consider the two-dimensional distribution of pixel
values obtained in two bands, which are labeled
simply Band 1 and Band 2.
• A scatterplot of all the brightness values
associated with each pixel in each band is plotted,
along with the location of the respective means.
• The spread or variance of the distribution of points
is an indication of the correlation and quality of
information associated with both bands.
• If all the data points clustered in an extremely tight
zone in the two-dimensional space, these data
would probably provide very little information as
they are highly correlated.
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Correlation Scatterplot
Data 2

Data 2
Data 1 Data 1

Negative Correlation Positive Correlation

Data 2

Data 1

No Correlation
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PCA- Graphical Conceptualization

• Translate and/or
route the original
axes so that the
original brightness
values on axes
Band 1 and Band 2
are redistributed
(reprojected) onto a
new set of axes or
dimensions, Band 1'
and Band 2'.

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PCA- Graphical Conceptualization
• The Band 1' coordinate system is
then be rotated about its new origin
(Mean1, Mean2) in the new
coordinate system some φ degree
so that the axis Band 1' is
associated with the maximum
amount of variance in the scatter of
points . This new axis is called the
first principal component (PC1 = λ1).
• The second principal component
(PC2 = λ2) is perpendicular
(Orthogonal) to PC1. Thus, the
major and minor axes of the
ellipsoid of points in bands 1 and 2
are called the principal
components.
• The second principal component
describes the variance that is not
already described by the first

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PCA- Graphical Conceptualization

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Principal Component 1
• The first principal
component,
broadly simulates
standard black and
white photography
and it contain most
of the pertinent
information
inherent to a
scene.

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Principal Component 2

• Thus as is the
convention
the second
PC has a
smaller
variance than
the first PC

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Principal Component 3
• Some of the gray
patterns can be
broadly correlated
with two
combined classes
of vegetation: The
brighter tones
come from the
agricultural fields.
Moderately darker
tones coincide
with some of the
grasslands, forest
or tree areas.
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Principal Component 4
• Very Little
Information
Content

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Composite PC Image
• Forest appears
green, river bed
in blue, water in
Red – orange ,
vegetation
appears in
varying shades
of green and
fallow
agriculture field
as pink to
magenta

Color Composite PC1,PC2,PC3

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THANK YOU

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