DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Name:Protection and Switchgear Subject Code: EE T82

Prepared By:

Verified by: Approved by:

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL PHILOSOPHIES
Basic objectives of System Protection – Essential Qualities and Operating Principles of theRelay –
Classification and Performance of Relays – Torque Equation – RX Diagram –Phasors and Polarity – Relay
Input Sources – Relay Margin – Blackout Case Study.

2 Marks
1. What is protective relay?
 An Electrical device designed to initiate isolation of a part of an electrical installation, or to
operate an alarm signal, in the event of an abnormal condition or a fault
 To detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
part from the rest of the system, thereby protecting the system from damages.

2. What is the need for protection gear in power system?

Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from 415 V to 400 kV or even more. All
such equipment undergoes abnormalities in their life time due to various reasons.

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  Overloading of a motor.
 A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault.
 A lightning strike can cause insulation failure.
 Degradation in performance of insulators which may lead to breakdown.
 Under frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in mechanical damage to its
turbine requiring tripping of an alternator.
It is necessary to avoid these abnormal operating regions for safety of the equipment.
So, Protection Gear system is used in Power system
3. What is function of Protection switch gear?
 Improve system stability
 Minimize damage to equipment
 Protect against overloads

4. What is meant by primary protection and secondary protection?

Primary protection is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be cleared by its
own relay and circuit breaker. It serves as the first line of defence.
A secondary protection is the second line of defense, which operates if the primary
protection fails to activate within a definite time delay.

5. What is back up relay?

A relay which operates usually after a slight time delay, if the normal relay does not
operate to trip its circuit breaker. A backup relay acts as a second line of defense.
6. What are types of back up protection?
a) Relay back up
Same breaker is used by both main and back-up protection, but the protective system is
different. Separate trip may be provided for the same-breaker.
b) Breaker back up
Different breaker are provided for main and backup protection, both the breakers being
in the same station
c) Remote back up
The main and backup protection provided at different station and is
Completely independent.
d) Centrally co-ordinated backup
The system having central control provided with centrally controlled back up.

7. Define pick up value.

A relay is said to pick up when it moves from the off position to the on position. The value of the
characteristic quantity above which this change occurs is known as pickup value.
8. Define reset value or Define dropout
 The value of current/voltage etc. below which the relay resets and back to original position.
 The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc...) below which the relay
is de-energised and returns to its normal position or state.

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  A relay is said to dropout when it moves from the on position to the off position. The value
of the characteristic quantity below which this change occurs is known as dropout or reset
value.
9. Define Operating time.
The time which elapses between the instant of application of a characteristic quantity equal to the
pickup value and the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
10. Define reset time
The time which the operated relay takes to come back to its initial position as a result of a specified
sudden change of the characteristic quantity, the time being measured from the instant at which
change occurs.
11. Define Seal-in-relay
This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energised by the contacts of the main relay. Its contacts are
placed in parallel with those of the main relay and are designed to relieve the contacts of the main
relay from their current carrying duty. It remains in the circuit unit the circuit breaker trips. The
seal in contacts are usually heavier than those of the main relay.
12. Define burden
The power consumed by the relay circuitry at the rated current is known as its burden
13. What are different types of relay?

A) Electromagnetic relay
i) Electromagnetic attraction
a) Attracted armature type relay
b) Solenoid type relay
c) Balanced beam type relay
ii) Electromagnetic induction
a) Shaded pole structure
b) watt-hour-meter structure
c) Induction cup structure
B) Static relay
C) Digital relay
D) Numerical relay
14. What are the causes of short circuit current?
A short circuit is an accidental low-resistance connection between two nodes of an electrical circuit
that are meant to be at different voltages.
15. What are the essential qualities of a relay?
 Selectivity and discrimination
 Speed, time ( Relay time and fault clearing time)
 Sensitivity
 Stability
 Reliability
 Adequateness
 Simplicity and Economy

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16. On what principle, distance relay are operating?
A distance relay has the ability to detect a fault within a pre-set distance along a transmission line or
power cable from its location. Every power line has a resistance and reactance per kilometre related
to its design and construction so its total impedance will be a function of its length. A distance relay
therefore looks at current and voltage and compares these two quantities on the basis of Ohm’s law.

17. What is meant by R-X diagram?

R-X Diagram are useful in plotting characteristic

of Distance relay.
The three variable V,I and Φ are converted
into variable R and X. Impedance Z1 is defined
as ratio of r.m.s values of V and I, i.e.

Z can be plotted on R-X diagram

R1 = Z1 cosΦ , X1 = Z1 sinΦ
Φ is positive if I2 lags V1 , Φ is negative if I leads
V1 .
Thus V1 , I1 can be converted on R-X
diagram as shown in Fig

18. What is meant by relay margin?

Various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-ordinates are those using either time or
overcurrent, or a combination of both. The common aim of all three methods is to give correct
discrimination ( only the faulty section of the power system network) leaving the rest of the system
undisturbed.
19. What is meant by universal relay?
The universal relay monitors and logs signal from up to 8 inputs. Upton 8 limit ( one per input) can
be programmed for each of the 4 output relay. E.g. Alarm 1 can be activated when the temperature
at a sensor at input 1 exceeds a limit or when the signal of a transmitter for pressure at input 5 falls
below a limit.

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 11 MARKS

1. Discuss the essential qualities of protective relaying. (May-14,Apr-13, Apr-12)

A protective relaying scheme should have certain important qualities. Such an essential qualities of
protective relaying are,
1. Reliability
2. Selectivity and Discrimination
3. Speed and Time
4. Sensitivity
5. Stability
6. Adequateness
7. Simplicity and Economy

1) Reliability
A protective relaying should be reliable is its basic quality. It indicates the ability of the relay
system to operate under the predetermined conditions. There are various components which go into the
operation before a relay operates. Therefore every component and circuit which is involved in the operation
of a relay plays an important role. The reliability of a protection system depends on the reliability of
various components like circuit breakers, relays, current transformers (C.T.s), potential transformers
(P.T.s), cables, trip circuits etc. The proper maintenance also plays an important role in improving the
reliable operation of the system. The reliability cannot be expressed in the mathematical expressions but
can be adjusted from the statistical data. The statistical survey and records give good idea about the
reliability of the protective system. The inherent reliability is based on the design which is based on the
long experience. This can be achieved by the factors like,
i) Simplicity ii) Robustness
iii) High contact pressure iv) Dust free enclosure
iv) Good contact material vi) Good workmanship and
vii) Careful Maintenance

2) Selectivity and Discrimination

The selectivity is the ability of the protective system to identify the faulty part correctly and
disconnect that part without affecting the rest of the healthy part of system. The discrimination means to
distinguish between. The discrimination quality of the protective system is the ability to distinguish
between normal condition and abnormal condition and also between abnormal condition within protective
zone and elsewhere. The protective system should operate only at the time of abnormal condition and not at
the time of normal condition. Hence it must clearly discriminate between normal and abnormal condition.
Thus the protective system should select the fault part and disconnect only the faulty part without
disturbing the healthy part of the system.
The protective system should not operate for the faults beyond its protective zone. For example, consider
the portion of a typical power system shown in the Fig. 1.

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 Fig. 1

It is clear from the Fig. 1 that if fault F2 occurs on transmission line then the circuit breakers 2 and
3 should operate and disconnect the line from the remaining system. The protective system should be
selective in selecting faulty transmission line only for the fault and it should isolate it without tripping the
adjacent transmission line breakers or the transformer.

If the protective system is not selective then it operates for the fault beyond its protective zones and
unnecessary the large part of the system gets isolated. This causes a lot of inconvenience to the supplier
and users.
3) Speed and Time
A protective system must disconnect the faulty system as fast as possible. If the faulty system is not
disconnect for a long time then,
1. The devices carrying fault currents may get damaged.
2. The failure leads to the reduction in system voltage. Such low voltage may affect the
motors and generators running on the consumer side.
The total time required between the instant of fault and the instant of final arc interruption in the
circuit breaker is called fault clearing time. It is the sum of relay time and circuit breaker time. The relay
time is the time between the instant of fault occurrence and the instant of closure of relay contacts. The
circuit breaker times is the time taken by the circuit breaker to operate to open the contacts and to
extinguish the arc completely. The fault clearing time should be as small as possible to have high speed
operation of the protective system.
Though the small fault clearing time is preferred, in practice certain time lag is provided. This is because,
1. To have clear discrimination between primary and backup protection
2. To prevent unnecessary operation of relay under the conditions such as transient, starting
inrush of current etc.
Thus fast protective system is an important quality which minimizes the damage and it improves the
overall stability of the power system.

4) Sensitivity
The protective system should be sufficiently sensitive so that it can operate reliably when required.
The sensitivity of the system is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity.

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 It indicates the smallest value of the actuating quantity at which the protection starts operating in
relation with the minimum value of the fault current in the protected zone.

The relay sensitivity is the function of the volt-amperes input to the relay coil necessary to cause its
operation. Smaller the value of volt-ampere input, more sensitive is the relay. Thus 1 VA input relay is
more sensitive than the 5VA input relay.

Mathematically the sensitivity is expressed by a factor called sensitivity factor. It is the ratio of
minimum short circuit current in the protected zone to the minimum operating current required for the
protection to start.
Ks = Is/Io
Where Ks = sensitivity factor
Is = minimum short circuit current in the zone
Io= minimum operating current for the protection

5) Stability
The stability is the quality of the protective system due to which the system remains inoperative and
stable under certain specified conditions such as transients, disturbance, through faults etc. For providing
the stability, certain modifications are required in the system design. In most of the cases time delays, filter
circuits, mechanical and electrical bias are provided to achieve stable operation during the disturbances.

6) Adequateness
There are varieties of faults and disturbance those may practically exists in a power system. It is impossible
to provide protection against each and every abnormal condition which may exist in practice, due to
economic reasons. But the protective system must provide adequate protection for any element of the
system. The adequateness of the system can be assessed by considering following factors,
1. Ratings of various equipment
2. Cost of the equipment
3. Locations of the equipment
4. Probability of abnormal condition due to internal and external causes.
5. Discontinuity of supply due to the failure of the equipment

7) Simplicity and Economy

In addition to all the important qualities, it is necessary that the cost of the system should be well
within limits. In practice sometimes it is not necessary to use ideal protection scheme which is
economically unjustified. In such cases compromise is done. As a rule, the protection cost should not be
more than 5% of the total cost. But if the equipment to be protected are very important, the economic
constrains can be relaxed.

The protective system should be as simple as possible so that it can be easily maintained. The complex
systems are difficult from the maintenance point of view. The simplicity and reliability are closely related
to each other. The simpler system are always more reliable.

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2. Discuss the nature and causes of different faults in a power system. (May-14)

Nature and causes of Faults: Any faults in electrical apparatus are nothing but the defect in its
electricalcircuit which makes current path directed from its intended path. Normally due to breaking of
conductors or failure of insulation, these faults occur. The other reasons for occurrence of fault include
mechanical failure, accidents. Excessive internal and external stresses. The impedance of the path in
the fault is low and the fault currents are comparatively large. The induction of insulation is not
considered as a fault until it shows some effect such as excessive current flow or reduction of
impedance between conductors or between conductors and earth.

When a fault occurs on a system, the voltage of the three phases become unbalanced. As the
fault currents are large, the apparatus may get damaged. The flow of power is diverted towards the
fault which affects the supply to the neighboring zone.

A power system consists of generators, transformers, and switchgear, transmission and

distribution circuits. There is always a possibility in such a large network that some fault will occur in
some part of the system. The maximum possibility of fault occurrence is on the transmission lines due
to their greater lengths and exposure to atmospheric conditions.

The faults cannot be classified according to the causes of their incidence. The breakdown may
occur at normal voltage due to deterioration of insulation. The breakdown may also occur due to damage
on account of unpredictable causes which include perching of birds, accidental short circuiting by snakes,
kite strings, three branches etc. The breakdown may occur at abnormal voltages due to switching surges or
surges caused by lighting
In overhead lines 50% of fault occurs,10% in cables, 15% in switch gear, 12% in transformers, 2%
in CT’s and PT’s,3% in control equipment, 8% miscellaneous.
Among the different types of fault line to ground fault have most occurrence percentage of 85% and
L-L-L fault have less occurrence frequency in the range of 2% or less. Line to line fault occurs in the range
of 8% and L-L-G fault occurs at rage of 5%.

3. List the types of faults in power system(May-14)

Active Faults

The ―Active‖ fault is when actual current flows from one phase conductor to another (phase-to-
phase) or alternatively from one phase conductor to earth (phase-to-earth).

This type of fault can also be further classified into two areas, namely the ―solid‖ fault and the
―incipient‖ fault.

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Passive Faults

Passive faults are not real faults in the true sense of the word but are rather conditions that are
stressing the system beyond its design capacity, so that ultimately active faults will occur.
Typical examples are:
Overloading - leading to overheating of insulation
(Deteriorating quality, reduced life and ultimate failure).

Overvoltage - stressing the insulation beyond its limits.

Underfrequency - causing plant to behave incorrectly.

Power swings - generators going out-of-step or synchronism with each other

Transient & Permanent Faults

Transient faults are faults which do not damage the insulation permanently and allowthe circuit to
be safely re-energized after a short period of time. A typical example would be an insulator flashover
following a lightning strike, which would be successfully cleared on opening of the circuit breaker, which
could then be automatically reclosed.
Transient faults occur mainly on outdoor equipment where air is the main insulating medium.
Permanent faults, as the name implies, are the result of permanent damage to the insulation. In this
case, the equipment has to be repaired and reclosing must not be entertained.

Symmetrical & Asymmetrical Faults

A symmetrical fault is a balanced fault with the sinusoidal waves being equal about their axes,
and represents a steady state condition.

An asymmetrical fault displays a D.C. offset, transient in nature and decaying to the
steady state of the symmetrical fault after a period of time:

The types of faults that can occur on a three phase A.C. system are as follows:
Symmetrical faults
 Three fault (L-L-L)
Unsymmetrical faults
 L-G fault
 L-L fault
 L-L-G fault
 L-L-L-G fault

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4. Classification of protective relay (May-14. April-13)
All the relay consists of one or more element which get energized and actuated by the electrical
quantities of the circuit. Most of the relay used now a day are electromagnetic type which work on the
principle of electromagnetic attraction and electromagnetic induction.
a) Electromagnetic Attraction type Relays
The electromagnetic attraction type relay operate on the principle of attraction of an armature by the
magnetic force produced by undesirable current or movement of plunger in a solenoid. These relay
can be actuated by A.C or D.C quantities. The various types of these relay are,
I. Solenoid type
In this relay, the plunger or iron core moves into a solenoid and the operation of the relay
depends on the movement of the plunger.
II. Attracted armature type
This relay operates on the current setting. When current in the circuit exceed beyond the
limit, the armature gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by the undesirable
current. The current rating of the circuit in which relay is connected plays an important
role in the operation of the relay.
III. Balanced Beam type
In this relay, the armature is fastened to a balanced beam. For normal current, the beam
remains horizontal but when current exceeds, the armature gets attracted and beam get
tilted causing the required operation.
b) Induction type relay
These relay works on the principle of an electromagnetic induction. The use of these relays is
limited to A.C quantities. The various types of these relay are,
I. Induction disc type
In this relay, a metal disc is allowed to rotate between the two electromagnets. The
electromagnets are energized by alternating currents. The two types of construction used
for this type are shaded pole type and watt-hour meter type.
II. Induction Cup type
In this relay, electromagnets act as a stator and energized by relay coils. The rotor is
metallic cylindrical cup type
c) Direction type Relay
These relay work on the direction of current or power flow in the circuit. The various types of these
relay are,
I. Reverse current type
The relay is actuated when the direction of the current is reversed or the phase of the
current becomes more than the predetermined value.
II. Reverse power type
The relay is actuated when the phase displacement between applied voltage and current
attains a specified value.
d) Relay based on timing
In relay the time between instant of relay operation and instant at which tripping of contacts take
place, can be controlled. This time is called operation time. Based on this, the time relay are
classified as,
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 I. Instantaneous type
In this type no time is lost between operation of relay and tripping of contacts. No
intentional time delay is provided.
II. Definite Time Lag type
In this type intentionally a definite time lag is provided between operation of relay and
tripping of contact.
III. Inverse Time Lag type
In this type, the operating time is approximately inversely proportional to the magnitude
of the actuating quantity.
e) Distance Type Relays
These relay work on the principle of measurement of voltage to current ratio. In this type, there are
two coils. One coil is energized by current while other by voltage. The torque produced is
proportional to the ratio of the two quantities. When the ratio reduces below a set value, the relay
operates. The various types of these relay are,
I. Impedance Type
In this type, the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but impedance which is proportional
to the distance of the relay form the fault point.
II. Reactance type
The operating time is proportional to the reactance which proportional to the distance of
the relay from the fault point.
III. Admittance type
This is also called mho type. In this type, the operating time is proportional to the
admittance.
f) Differential type Relays
A differential relay operates when the vector difference of two or more electrical quantities in the
circuit in which relay is connected, exceeds a set value. These are classified as,
I. Current differential type
In this type, the relay compares the current entering a section of the system and
the current leaving the section. Under fault condition, these current are different.
II. Voltage differential type
In this types two transformer are used. The secondary of the transformer are
connected in series with the relay in such a way that the induced e.m.fare in
opposition under normal conditions. Under fault condition, primaries carry
different current due to which induced e.m.f no longer remain in opposition and
the relay operated.
g) Other types of relay
 Static relay
 Digital relay
 Numerical relay

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5. Discuss the basics idea of relay protection (May-14)
It is a device which detects the fault and is responsible to energize the trip circuit of a circuit breaker.
This isolates the faulty part from rest of the system. In an electromagnetic relay, the driving torque is
created based on an electrical principle. While the restraining torque is generally provided with the help of
springs. The two torque are mechanically compared and the relay operates when driving or operates
torque is more than the restraining torque. Thus
Td= Driving torque or operating torque
Tr= Restraining torque
TR= Resultant torque =Td-Tr
Relay operates when the resultant torque TR is positive.

Single phase simplified circuit is shown above. Let part A is the circuit to be protected. The current
transformer (C.T) is connected in series with the relay coil. The relay contacts are the part of a trip circuit
of a circuit breaker. The trip circuit consists of a trip coil and battery, in addition to relay contacts. The trip
circuit can operate on A.C or D.C
If the fault occur as shown in the figure, then current through the line connected to A increases to a
very high value. The current transformer senses this current. Accordingly its secondary current increases
which are nothing but the current through a relay coil. Thus the relay contacts get closed mechanically
under the influence of such a high fault current. Thus the trip circuit of a circuit breaker gets closed and
current starts flowing from battery, through trip coil, in a trip circuit. Thus the trip coil of a circuit breaker
gets energized. This activates the circuit breaker opening mechanism, making the circuit breaker open.
This isolates the faulty part.

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6. Explain the various functions of protective relaying.
1. The prompt removal of the component which is behaving abnormally by closing the trip circuit of
circuit breaker or to sound an alarm.
2. To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to avoid the damage or interface within effective
operation of the rest of system.
3. To prevent the subsequent faults by disconnecting the abnormally operating part.
4. To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to minimize the damage to the faulty part
itself. For example, if there is a winding fault in a machine and if it persists for a long time then there
is a possibility of the damage of the entire winding. As against this, if it is disconnected quickly then
only few coils may get damaged instead of the entire winding.
5. To restrict the spreading of the effect of fault causing least interference to the rest of the healthy
system. Thus by disconnecting the faulty part, the fault effects get localized.
6. To improve the system performance, system reliability, system stability and service continuity.

7. Explain primary protection and backup protection?

The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorized into two types as:
1. Primary protection
2. Backup protection
The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power system
elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection comes into play only when the primary
protection fails. The backup protection is provided as the main protection can fail due to many reasons like,
1. Failure in circuit breaker
2. Failure in protective relay
3. Failure in tripping circuit
4. Failure in D.C. tripping voltage
5. Loss of voltage or current supply to the relay.

Thus if the backup protection is absent and the main protection fails then there is a possibility of
severe damage to the system. When the primary protection is made inoperative for the maintenance
purpose, the backup protection acts like a main protection. The arrangement of backup protective scheme
should be such that the failure in main protection should not cause the failure in back up protection as well.
This is satisfied if back up relaying and primary relaying do no have anything common. Hence generally
backup protection is located at different stations from the primary protection. From the cost and economy
point of view, the backup protection is employed only for the protection against short circuit and not for
any other abnormal conditions.

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 Concept of backup relaying:
Consider the backup relaying employed for the transmission line section EF as shown in the figure

The relays C,D,G and H are primary relays while A,B,I and J are the backup relays. Normally
backup relays are tripped if primary relay fails. So if the primary relay E fails to trip, then backup relays A
and B get tripped. The backup relays and associated backup relaying equipments are physically apart from
the faulty equipment. The backup relays A and B provide backup protection for fault at station K. Also the
backup relays at A and F provide the backup protection for the faults in line DB. The backup relaying often
relay operates, the larger part of the system is disconnected. It is obvious that when the backup relay
operates, the larger part of the system is disconnected.

The important requirement of backup relaying is that it must operate with sufficient time delay so
that the primary relaying is given a chance to operate. When fault occurs, both the type of relays operations
but primary is expected to trip first and backup will then reset without having had time to complete its
relaying operation. When the given set of relays provides the backup protection for several adjacent system
elements then the slowest primary relaying of any of those will determine the necessary time delay of the
given backup relays.

8. Explain the different terms related to protective relaying.

The various terminologies used in protective relaying are as follows.

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9. Explain with neat diagram about Electromagnetic attraction relay and its operating principle.
In these relay, there is a coil which energies an electromagnet. When the operating current becomes
large, the magnetic field produced by electromagnet is so high that it attracts the armature or plunger,
making contact with trip circuit contacts. These are simplest type of relay. The various types of
electromagnetic attraction type relay are
a. Attracted armature relay
b. Solenoid and plunger type relay

a) Attracted armature relay

There are two types of structure available for attracted armature type relay which are
i)Hinged armature type
ii) polarized moving iron type

There exists a laminated electromagnet which carries a coil. The coil is energized by the operating
quantity which is proportional to the circuit voltage or current. The armature or a moving iron is subjected
to the magnetic force produced by the operating quantity. The force produced is proportional to the square
of current hence these relay can be used for a.c as well d.c. The spring is used to produce restraining force.
When the current through coil increases beyond the limit under fault condition, armature gets attracted.
Due to this it makes contact with contacts of a trip circuit, which results in an opening of a circuit breaker.
The minimum current at which the armature gets attracted to close the trip circuit is called Pickup
Current.
Generally the numbers of tapping are provided on the relay coil with which its turns can be selected
as per the requirement. This is used to adjust the set value of an operating quantity at which relay should
operate.
An important advantage of such relay is their high operating speed. In modern relay an operating
time as small as 0.5 msec is possible. The current-time characteristic of such relay is hyperbolic. As shown
below

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 b) Solenoid and plunger type relay
It consists of a solenoid which is nothing but an electromagnet. It also consists a movable iron
plunger. Under normal working conditions, the spring holds, the plunger in the position such that it cannot
make contact with trip circuit contacts.
Under fault condition when current through relay coil increases, the solenoid draws the plunger
upwards. Due to this, it makes contact with the trip circuit contacts, which result in an opening of a circuit
breaker.

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Operating Principle of Electromagnetic Attraction Relay
The electromagnetic force produced due to operating quantity which is exerted on armature,
moving iron or plunger is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap. Thus neglecting the
saturation effect, the force is proportional to the square of the operating current. Hence such relay are
useful for a.c and d.c. both.

For d.coperation :in d.c. operation, the electromagnetic force is constant. When this force exceed the
restraining force, the relay operates.
Fe=KtI2 Fr= K2
Fe = electromagnetic force Fr= Restraining force due to spring including
Kt= constant friction
I= operating current in a coil K2= constant

On the verge of relay operating, electromagnetic force is just equal to the restraining force.
KtI2 = K2
K2
I2 
Kt
This is the current at which
K2
I = constant relay operates in case of d.c. operation
Kt
For a.c operation
1 1
Fe  KI 2  KI m  KI m cos 2t
2 2

2 2
Im=maximum value of the operating current
K=constant
It shows that the electromagnetic force consist of two components,
a) constant, independent of time
b) Pulsating at double the frequency of applied voltage.

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 The total force thus pulsates at double the frequency.
If the restraining force Fr which is produced by the spring is constant then the armature of relay will
be picked up at time t1 and drops off at time t2 as shown in figure below.

Thus relay armature pulsates at double frequency. This causes the relay to hum and produces a
noise. It may cause damage to the relay contacts.
To overcome this difficulty, the air gap flux producing an electromagnetic force is divided into two fluxes
acting simultaneously but differing in time phase. This causes resulting electromagnetic force to be always
positive. If this is always greater than restraining force Frthen armature will not vibrate.

Advantage of electromagnetic attraction type:

1. Can be used for both a.c and d.c
2. They have fast operation and fast reset
3. High operating speed with operating time in few millisecond also can be achieved
4. The pickup can be as high as 90-95% for d.c operation and 60 to 90% for the d.c. operation
5. These are most instantaneous. Through instantaneous, the operating time varies with current. With
extra arrangement like dashpot, copper ring etc. slow operating and resetting times can be obtained.
Disadvantage of electromagnetic attraction type:
1. The directional feature is absent
2. Due to fast operation the working can be affected by the transients. As transient contain d.c as
well as pulsating component, under steady state value less than set value, the relay can operate
during transients.

10. Derive the torque equation for induction type relay.

Induction-type relays are the most widely used for protective-relaying purposes involving ac
quantities. They are not usable with d-c quantities, owing to the principle of operation. An induction-type
relay is a split-phase induction motor with contacts. Actuating force is developed in a movable element that
may be a disc or other form of rotor of non-magnetic current conducting material by the interaction of
electromagnetic fluxes with eddy currents that are induced in the rotor by these fluxes.
The Production of Actuating Force
Figure shows how force is produced in a section of a rotor that is pierced by two adjacent a-c
fluxes. Various quantities are shown at an instant when both fluxes are directed downward and are
increasing in magnitude. Each flux induces voltage around itself in the rotor, and currents flow in the rotor
under the influence of the two voltages. The current produced by one flux reacts with the other flux, and
vice versa, to produce forces that act on the rotor.

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The quantities involved in Fig. above may be expressed as follows:

φ1 = φ1 sin ωt

φ2 = φ2 sin(ωt + θ)

where q is the phase angle by which I2 leads I1. It may be assumed with negligible error that the paths in
which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-inductance, and hence that the rotor currents are in phase
with their voltages.
dφ1
iφ1 ∝ ∝ φ1 cos ωt
dt
dφ2
iφ2 ∝ ∝ φ2 cos(ωt + θ)
dt
We note that Fig. shows the two forces in opposition, and consequently we may write the
Equation for the net force (F) as follows:

F = F2 − F1 ∝ (φ2 iφ1 − φ1 iφ2 )

Substituting the values of the quantities into above equation we get:

F ∝ φ1 φ2 [sin ωt + θ cos ωt − sin ωt cos(ωt + θ)]

F ∝ φ1 φ2 [sin ωt + θ − ωt ]

This reduces to,

F ∝ φ1 φ2 sin θ

ince sinusoidal flux waves were assumed, we may substitute the rms values of the fluxes for the
crest values in equation 3.
It is important to note that the net force or torque acting on the disc is same at every instant. The
action of relay under such a force is free from vibrations.

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 It can be observed from equation (3) if θ is zero than net force is zero and disc cannot rotate. Hence
there must exists a phase difference between the two fluxes .the torque is maximum when phase difference
θ is 90deg.
The direction of net force which decides the direction of rotation of disc depends on which flux is
leading the other.

11. Explain with neat diagram about Electromagnetic induction type relay
These relay work on the principle of the induction motor or an energy meter. In these relay a metallic disc
is allowed to rotate between the two electromagnets. The coils of the electromagnet are energized with the
help of alternating currents. The torque is produced in these relay due to the interaction of one alternating
flux with eddy current induced in the rotor by another alternating flux. The two fluxes have same frequency
but are displaced in time and space.
Based on the construction, the various types of the induction type relay are:
1. Shaded pole type
2. Watt hour meter type
3. Induction cup type

1.Shaded pole type

Itconsists of aluminum disc which is free to rotate in air gap of an electromagnet. The part of pole
face of each pole is shaded with the help of copper band ring. This is called shaded ring. The total flux
produced due to the alternating current split into two fluxes displaced in time and space due to the shading
ring.

Due to the alternating flux, emf gets induced in the shading ring. This emf drives the current causing the
flux to exist in shaded portion. This flux lags behind the flux in the unshaded portion by angle α.

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Torque produced due to interaction of two fluxes, Tαφsφusin α

Assuming fluxesφs and φu to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil,

TαI2sin α

TαK I2

2.Watthour meter type induction relay

It consists of two magnet, one E shaped magnet and other U shaped magnet. The disc is free to
rotate in between these two magnets. The upper E shaped magnet carries both primary winding which is
relay coil and the secondary winding. The primary carries the realy current I1 which produces the φ1. The
emf gets induced in the secondary due to this flux. This drives current I2 through secondary. Due to this
current I2, flux φ2 gets produced in the lower magnet. This flux lags behind the main flux φ1 by an angle α.

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Due to the interaction of these two fluxes, the torque is exerted on the disc and disc rotates.

T= φ1 φ2 sin α

With the help of this suitable number of primary turns can be selected and hence current setting can
be adjusted.

3. Induction Cup Type Relay

The stator consist of two, for or more poles. These are energized by the relay coil. The coil 1 and 1’
are connected while coil 2 and 2’ are connected to form two pair of coils. The rotor is hallow cylindrical
cup type in structure. Compared to induction motor the difference is that in this relay the rotor core is
stationary and only rotor conductor portion is free to rotate about its axis.

The rotating magnetic field is produced by two pair of coils. Due to this, eddy currents are induced
in the cup type rotor. These current produces the flux. The interaction of the two fluxes produce the torque
and the rotates in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. A control spring and the back
carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the cup, are responsible to prevent continuous rotation.

These relay are very fast in operation. The operating time of the order of 10 milliseconds is
possible with this type.

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12. Derive the universal torque equation of relay.
Most of the protection relays consist of some arrangement of electromagnets with armature or
induction disc, which carry contacts. The relays also carry the closing or opening of contacts control
devices like trip coils of circuit breaker. The electromagnets have voltage or both the types of windings.
Currents through windings produce magnetic fluxes and torque is developed by the integration between the
fluxes of same windings or between the fluxes of both the windings. In general the torque produced by
current winding is proportional to square of the current the torque produced by voltage winding is
proportional to square of the voltage, and the torque produced by the windings is proportional to product of
voltage and the current.

Mathematically we can write,

Torque produced by current coil=K1 I2,
Torque produced by voltage coil=K2V2 ,
Torque produced by both the coils=K3 VI cos(θ − τ) ,
Where K1, K2 and K3 = constant =angle between V and I ,
Torque produced by control spring= K4,
The control springs are used as restraining elements
If all the elements are present in a relay then total torque produced by all the causes can be
expressed by a general equation as,
T=K1 I2 +K2 V2+K3 VI cos (𝛉 − 𝛕) +K4.
This equation is called universal torque equation the term K4 can be restraining torque due to
springs or gravity.
By assigning positive and negative signs to certain constants and lets other constants to be zero and
sometimes by adding similar other terms, the operating characteristics equation of all the types of
protective relays can be obtained from universal equation.
For example, for over current relay K2=K3=0 and the spring torque is negative so we get,
T= K1 I2 - K4.
For the directional relay K1=K2=0 and the spring torque is negative so we get,
T= K3 VI cos (𝛉 − 𝛕) - K4.

13. Define phasor representation

The common pictorial form for representing electrical and magnetic phasor quantities uses the
Cartesian coordinates with x (the abscissa) as the axis of real quantities and y (the ordinate) as the axis of
imaginary quantities. This is mathematically documented by the several alternative forms given in the
following equation:

Phasor form Rectangular form Complex form Exponential form Polar form.

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14. Define Polarity
Polarity is important in transformers and in protection equipment.
There are two varieties of polarity: subtractive and additive. Both follow the same rules. Power and
instrument transformers are subtractive, whereas some distribution transformers are additive. The polarity
marking can be a dot, a square, or an X, or it can be indicated by the standardized transformer terminal
markings. Polarity designated by an X in the below diagram.

Polarity definitions for transformers: (a) Subtractive polarity. (b) Additive polarity.

15. Describe the electrical blackout case study in detail.

The 12 biggest electrical blackouts in history

On July 13, 1977, a power outage in New York City pushed its residents to the brink. Frustration
with a failing economy, anxiety over the at-large serial killer Son of Sam, and a sweltering summer day and
night resulted in mass looting across the city. It wasn't all bad news, however; legend has it that the stealing
of DJ equipment from hi-fi stores propelled DJ culture and hip hop music in the city. But the city was no
stranger to being forced into darkness

Fifty years ago today, The Great Northeast Blackout affected approximately 30 million people in
both the U.S. and Canada, making it the single biggest power failure in U.S. history at the time. In
remembrance of its 50th anniversary, here are 12 of the biggest power failures around the world.

1. NORTHEAST UNITED STATES AND NORTHERN CANADA // NOVEMBER 9, 1965

A faulty relay at Sir Adam Beck Station on the Ontario side of Niagara Falls led to what was then
the biggest power failure in U.S. history. At 5:16 p.m., the tripping of a 230-kilovolt transmission line
began a domino effect resulting in a surge of power that overwhelmed transmission lines and put New
York City in the dark at the height of a Tuesday rush hour. 800,000 people were reported trapped in the
subway.

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 In addition to New York, power overloads and automatic system shutdowns affected 30 million
people in New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire,Vermont, Quebec, and
Ontario. 10,000 National Guardsmen and 5,000 off-duty police officers were called into service to prevent
looting, although it turned out to be relatively calm and peaceful. Power was restored for most people
within 13 hours.

2. THAILAND NATIONWIDE BLACKOUT // MARCH 18, 1978

When generators in the South PranakhornPowerplant in SamutPrakan failed, a nationwide blackout

spread throughout Thailand. It would be over nine hours before authorities were able to restore power. In
May 2013, Thailand suffered another major power failure, sparking memories of the massive incident of
'78.

3. CANADA'S GEOMAGNETIC STORM // MARCH 13, 1989

On March 13, 1989 the entire province of Quebec, Canada suffered an electrical power blackout
lasting 12 hours—and it was all thanks to the sun.

Sometimes, the sun emits billion-ton clouds of ionized gas, known as a coronal mass ejection
(CME). On March 10, 1989, a CME "about the size of 36 Earths" and equivalent to "the energy of
thousands of nuclear bombs exploding at the same time" escaped. On the 12th, the gas cloud crashed
against Earth's magnetosphere and caused the Northern Lights to be seen as far south as Texas and Cuba.

Because of this celestial event, six million Quebec residents were thrust into darkness when the
province's power grid lost power. Schools and businesses were forced to close during the 12 hour blackout,
as well as the Montreal Metro and Dorval Airport.

4. SOUTHERN BRAZIL // MARCH 11, 1999

In 1999, approximately 97 million of the 160 million people living in Brazil lost power in what was
the biggest blackout ever at the time. A bolt of lightning struck an electricity substation, which in turn shut
down Itaipu, which was the largest power plant in the world.

1,200 military police officers were placed in Rio to avoid looting, while city tunnels in São Paulo
were closed to prevent assaults. 60,000 subway riders were heavily inconvenienced. To make matters more
complicated, the power system of Brazil was privatized days before the event. Mines and Energy Minister
RodolphoTourinho assured that this had nothing to do with the outage, saying, "A lightning bolt is an
exceptional fact, there is no reason for doubting the reliability of the Brazilian electrical system."

5. INDIA // JANUARY 2, 2001

A 12-hour power outage caused by a failure of an Uttar Pradesh substation triggered India's
northern grid to collapse. This affected about 226 million people, or roughly a quarter of the country's

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population. The Confederation of Indian Industry estimated that the loss to business amounted to about
$107.1 million.

Despite economic expansion in India, the blackout was used by some as an excuse to push for
privatization of the electrical industry to bring it up to date. Enron was reported to have been contacted to
help supply electricity during the crisis but insisted on a price that was three times higher than usual.

6. NORTHEAST UNITED STATES AND CANADA // AUGUST 14-15, 2003

It took months before the real cause of the Northeast Blackout of 2003 was finally determined.
Initially, Canadian Defense Minister John McCallum blamed an outage at a nuclear power plant in
Pennsylvania, which the state's Emergency Management Agency denied. What actually happened was a
high-voltage power line in Northern Ohio brushed against overgrown trees, causing it to shut down. When
the alarm system that would typically alert FirstEnergy Corporation failed, the incident was ignored. In the
next 90 minutes, system operators tried to figure out what happened while three other lines switched off as
a consequence of the first line's failure.

This started a domino effect, and by 4:05 p.m. Southeast Canada and eight Northeastern U.S. states
were without power. 50 million people were inconvenienced for up to two days in what turned out to be the
biggest blackout in North American history. 11 people died and there was a reported $6 billion in damages.
The incident prompted the creation of a joint task force between the U.S. and Canada to minimize future
blackouts.

7. ITALY // SEPTEMBER 28, 2003

Italy's 2003 blackout affected almost all of the country's 57 million people. Usually a middle-of-the-
night power outage means that few people will notice it. However, this event occurred during the early
morning hours after Rome's Nuit Blanche, an all-night arts festival. Because of this, trains were still
running at 3:01 a.m. when a fault on the Swiss power system caused the overloading of two internal lines
near to the Italian border. About 110 trains carrying more than 30,000 passengers were stranded as a result.

8. JAVA AND BALI, INDONESIA // AUGUST 18, 2005

At 10:23 a.m. on a Thursday morning, a failure in a 500 kilovolt transmission line between Cilegon
and Saguling in West Java cut electricity supplies, leading to a massive 5,000 megawatt shutdown. Jakarta,
the capital of the fourth most populated country in the world, lost power, and half of the Indonesian
population — 100 million people — were without electricity for almost 11 hours.

The event didn't come completely without warning. The state power company had been struggling to fulfill
electricity demand following the 1997 monetary crisis and, one year earlier, the government held a special
energy summit to plan for increasing the country's electrical capacity.

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9. GERMANY, FRANCE, ITALY, AND SPAIN // NOVEMBER 4, 2006

When German power company switched off a high-voltage line across the River Ems in order to let
a cruise ship pass, 10-15 million Europeans lost power. The company said that the problems began in
northwestern Germany when its network became overloaded, possibly due to that manual switch off
(although transmission lines had been shut down in the past without incident). The blackouts stopped trains
in Germany and trapped dozens of people in elevators in France and Italy. Austria, Belgium, and Spain
were also affected by the outage.

10. CHENZHOU, CHINA // JANUARY 24 - FEBRUARY 2008

Winter storms resulted in a nearly two-week blackout for 4.6 million people around the central
Chinese city of Chenzhou. Frustratingly, many citizens were without power during Chinese New Year
celebrations. Some residents told reporters that they had to walk one kilometer to a well and back in
freezing temperatures just to procure water. The official Xinhua News Agency said 11 electricians died
while working to restore power, and the storm's death toll exceeded 60.

11. BRAZIL AND PARAGUAY // NOVEMBER 10-11, 2009

When the Itapiu hydroelectric dam on the Paraguay-Brazil border suddenly stopped producing
17,000 megawatts of power, outages quickly spread through both countries. Suspiciously, the blackouts
came two days after 60 Minutes reported that previous Brazilian power outages were caused by hackers.
The CBS news magazine would later report that the 2009 incident was also the work of hackers, but a
Wikileaks document would eventually refute that claim.

To prevent hacking, a voice command was now necessary to disrupt the power system, and access
was only given to a small group of authorized operators. Any sabotage from internal employees would be
deadly to the saboteur, and investigators would have found "physical evidence, including the body of the
perpetrator," had the 2009 incident been the work of foul play.

12. INDIA // JULY 30-31, 2012

In the largest electrical outage in history (so far), the July 31st blackout of India affected an area
encompassing about 670 million people, which is around 9% of the world’s population. On the 31st, three
of the country’s interconnected northern power grids collapsed for several hours, affecting 22 states from
the country's Eastern border with Myanmar to its western border with Pakistan.

Citizens of Delhi dealt with 89% humidity and, in West Bengal, hundreds of miners were trapped
underground for hours after their lifts broke down. In the most disturbing and vivid detail, The Guardian
reported that electric crematoriums stopped operating, some with bodies left half burnt before wood was
brought in to stoke the furnaces. Overloading and human error were eventually blamed for the troubles.

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