Understanding Dissolved Gas Analysis of Ester

Liquids:
an Updated Review of Gas Generated in Ester Liquid by Stray Gassing,
Thermal Decomposition and Electrical Discharge

D. Hanson, K. Li, J. Plascencia, C. Beauchemin C. Claiborne, D. Cherry, G. Frimpong

TJ|H2b Analytical Services ABB Inc.
corresponding email: beauchemin@tjh2b.com
R. Martin
J. Luksich, A. Lemm† M&I Materials, Ltd.
Cooper Power Systems.

Abstract — In the last twenty years, natural ester liquids
have come into wider use. As with mineral oil, under normal
operating conditions the ester liquid in transformers is not
expected to produce gases. However ethane has frequently
been observed without apparent fault activity (stray gassing)
and other gases have been reported from routine analysis.
Results from experimental study of the temperature, electrical
discharges and light exposures influence on gas production in
ester liquids are presented here. Thermal faults have also been
reported as producing gas in ratios that differ from mineral oil.
Pyrolysis studies are used to help understand the significance
of different chemical structures and reveal that the quantities
of gas generated by thermal faults in ester liquids is larger than
that for mineral oil. A statistical study of results obtained in
routine DGA to evaluate how this could affect caution and
warning limit is also presented. Finally, preliminary results of
a on-going study of decomposition under partial discharge and
D1 discharge conditions are presented.
aromatic carbons, the carbon-carbon double bonds in mineral
oils are not abundant.
Figs. 2a and 2b illustrate the features of natural ester
liquids. The principal features (Fig. 2a) are the ester groups,
acid group (COOH), paraffinic carbon sequences up to
seventeen carbons and abundant carbon-carbon double bonds
(Fig 2b, R, R' and R'' of Fig 2a). Compared to mineral oil, the
ester liquids provide a high concentration of the heteroatom
oxygen (O). Also, the hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acid
components lack the aromatic and napthenic groups found in
mineral oils.
An examination of the fatty acid of several natural ester
liquids (Table I) shows their compositions to be nearly 100%
of the mixture of five fatty acids: palmitic, stearic

Keywords — DGA, Ester Liquids, Insulating Liquids, Stray

Gassing, Thermal Faults, Partial Discharges.

I. INTRODUCTION
Synthetic ester liquids have been in use for more than
thirty years and in the last twenty years natural ester liquids
Fig. 1. Chemical features of mineral oil molecules
have also come into much wider use. However, most
practitioners’ experience has been with the DGA of mineral
oils.
Natural ester liquids have important differences in
chemical structure from those of mineral oils. Therefore
difference in gas generating behaviour when ester liquids are
subjected to thermal and electrical stress are to be expected.
The work presented here review findings from investigation
performed to determine gas generation under various
conditions in the natural ester used as electrical insulating
liquids. (a) (b)
Fig. 1. shows the principal features of mineral oils: Fig. 2. Chemical features of natural ester liquids: a) the ester groups b)
paraffinic, napthenic and aromatic carbons. Apart from the most common fatty acid structures
 TABLE I. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION (%) OF SOME
NATURAL ESTER LIQUIDS
R' Name Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic
R' Length C16 C18 C18 C18 C18
Source \ C = C 0 0 1 2 3
Grape Seed 8 4 15 73 <1
Peanut 11 2 48 32 <1
HO Sunflower 5 4 82 9 <1
Walnut 11 5 28 51 5
Soybean 11 4 24 54 7
Rape Seed 4 2 62 22 10
Flax Seed 3 7 21 16 53
Fig. 3. Free radical initiation, propagation and termination steps of the
autoxidation mechanism.
II. STRAY GASSING
formation of hydroperoxides by autoxidation (Fig. 3) and
(16 or 18C; saturated, no double bond), oleic (18C; formation of hydroperoxides by singlet oxygen reactions
monounsaturated, single double bond), linoelic and linolenic (Fig. 4)
(18C; polyunsaturated, two or three double bonds).
Considering only the predominant components, we can limit Autoxidation requires the formation of a lipid free radical
our discussion to oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid. to begin (Fig. 3) The propagation is supported by triplet
(Bottom 3 acids of Fig. 2b). oxygen (3O2). Autoxidation occurs more rapidly at elevated
temperatures and in the presence of polyunsaturated fats
Under normal operating conditions, oil-filled (such as linoelic and linolenic fatty acid), which are more
transformers are not expected to produce gases. Nonetheless, susceptible to initiation than saturated and monounsaturated
it is not uncommon to see small amounts of gas produced fatty acids.
over the lifetime of a normally operating transformer.
The second oxidation pathway, the singlet oxygen
Beginning in the late 1980’s, significant changes in the mechanism (1O2), is dependent on the presence of
mineral oil refining practices resulted in the observance of photosensitive species and exposure to light (Fig. 4).
various fault gases being produced from slight temperature Photosensitive species that might be found in natural ester
excursions [1,2]. Because these gases are not the result of liquids include chlorophyll, pheophytins, and pheophorbides.
fault processes, they have come to be identified as stray
gases. Increased awareness of stray gas production has led to These two mechanisms work differently but produce
industry studies and the development of standardized tests, some of the same products. For a more detailed study of
such as ASTM D7150-05, to characterize various insulating these two mechanisms, and their resulting product, see [8, 9].
liquids.
Fortunately for the determination of the process of stray
As with mineral oil, the ester liquid in transformers is not gas generation, the literature has suggested a compelling
expected to produce gases under normal operating hypothesis that can easily be tested. A series of experiments
conditions. However, in the course of testing in-service ester were prepared to evaluate these oxidation mechanisms as the
liquids over the last decades, a relatively high level of ethane source of stray gas production in natural ester liquids. In
has frequently been observed without apparent fault activity these experiements, the gas under study was ethane.
[3]. Subsequently, similar ethane production has been
reported as a stray gas under the conditions of ASTM
D7150.
The concern of transformer owners is to know when
those gases, associated with both faults and stray gassing are,
in fact, being produced by faults. Knowledge of the
unidentified nonfault related mechanisms of gas production
should help when making this determination.

III. PRODUCTION OF ALKANES FROM ESTER LIQUIDS

A review of ester liquid literature reveals well
documented chemical pathways that yield alkanes from fatty
acids. These chemical pathways are part of a larger system of
reactions thoroughly documented by the food and flavorings
industry [4–7].
Production of alkanes via these pathways begins with the
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (Fig. 2b). The oxidation
of these unsaturated fatty acids proceeds by two mechanisms, Fig. 4. Formation of singlet oxygen via photosensitive species.
 With this in mind, four key features were chosen to test TABLE III. COMPARISON OF ETHANE PRODUCTION (PPM) TO
LINOLENIC ACID CONTENT.
these mechanisms:
Sunflower* Peanut Soybean Flaxseed
• The relationship of ethane to oxidation α Linolenic ~0.2% ~0.2% ~7% ~53%
H2 357 282 316 708
• The relationship of ethane to linolenic fatty acid CH4 21 10 10 17
content C2H6 4 26 563 2371
C2H4 8 16 7 16
• The relationship of ethane to temperature
C2H2 0 0 0 0
• The relationship of ethane to light exposure. CO 203 389 408 977
CO2 876 2232 1330 3212
The coincidence of all four of these relationships to the * High Oleic Sunflower seed oil
hypothesis should be convincingly persuasive, if not
rigorously sufficient, to confirm it.
VI. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ETHANE TO TEMPERATURE
IV. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ETHANE TO OXIDATION The relationship between ethane and temperature was
repeatedly demonstrated in the various tests of this study.
Natural ester liquids have a particular susceptibility to Table IV provides one demonstration. Oxygen was provided
oxidation that is managed with oxidation inhibitors. These to all three samples and heat was provided to two samples to
liquids contain some natural oxidation inhibitors specific to promote oxidation prior to testing. Examination of these data
autoxidation and some that are specific to singlet oxygen shows a direct relationship between oxidation and
activity. For use in transformers, additional oxidation temperature. This direct relationship is consistent with what
inhibitors are added to meet specified levels of performance. would be expected for the autoxidation mechanism.
A first test of the relationship between ethane production Production of CO and CO2 is also notable.
and oxidation is an evaluation of ethane content in the same
liquid with and without the additional oxidation inhibitor VII. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ETHANE TO LIGHT EXPOSURE
(Table II). The samples were exposed to oxygen and heat to During the exposure to ultraviolet light, a fluorescent
promote oxidation prior to testing as per ASTM D7150. The
effect was observed in natural ester samples. After several
data in Table IV indicate a direct relationship between ethane days of ultraviolet light exposure, this effect ceased. The
and the progress of oxidation. It could be observed that gas
fluorescence is a clear indication of the presence of a
generated in this manner are Hydrogen and Ethane, as photosensitive species in the fluid (Fig. 5). The fluorescence
expected from autoxidation by radical pathway. does not appear to be in the region of the spectrum
commonly associated with chlorophyll, pheophytins or
V. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ETHANE TO LINOLENIC ACID phoephorbides. At this time the specific photosensitive
CONTENT species remains unknown.
The relationship between ethane production and linolenic
acid content was examined by comparing ester liquids with TABLE IV. COMPARISON OF ETHANE PRODUCTION (PPM) TO
different fatty acid contents. As with the previous test, TEMPERATURE FROM SOYBEAN OIL
oxygen and heat were provided to promote oxidation prior to Ambient 90°C 120°C
testing as per ASTM D7150. The test data (Table III) H2 0 1060 403
demonstrate a direct, but not exactly proportional, CH4 0 9 17
relationship between ethane and the linolenic acid content. It C2H6 0 314 448
is suspected that the lack of an exact relationship arises from C2H4 0 2 3
the different types and amounts of inhibitors added to each C2H2 0 0 0
liquid. CO 7 161 188
CO2 784 814 954

TABLE II. COMPARISON OF ETHANE PRODUCTION (PPM) TO

OXIDATION. (AIR SPARGE, 1 DAY 120°C)
With Without
Inhibitor Inhibitor
H2 403 1049
CH4 17 16
C2H6 448 2104
C2H4 3 6
C2H2 0 0
CO 188 195
CO2 954 952 Fig. 5. Natural ester liquid showing fluorescence from photo activity (left)
and after this activity had subsided (right).
 TABLE V. COMPARISON (PPM) OF SAMPLES STORED IN VARIOUS
LOCATIONS FOR 1 WEEK PRIOR TO TESTING. SAMPLES WERE ANALYSED
USING THE HEADSPACE METHOD (ASTM D3612C) AT 70°C.
Counter Top Top Tray Sunlight
H2 165 155 1380
CH4 4 4 131
C2H6 2 2 2418
C2H4 0 0 114
C2H2 0 0 0 replicates these experiment that collected gases are
CO 37 39 5922
CO2 463 554 1883
To better understand the relative impact of environmental
light exposure and to examine concerns about sample
storage, a series of light exposures were conducted on natural
ester liquids in glass syringes. Table V shows the comparison
of a sample exposed to ambient fluorescent light at counter
top height, a sample exposed to ambient fluorescent light on
the top tray of a mobile laboratory storage rack (three feet
above the counter top), and a sample exposed to direct
sunlight. The samples were exposed for one week. Data for
samples analysed using ASTM D3612C at 70°C (headspace)
are shown in Table V.
Several other tests were performed to evaluate stray
gassing due to light exposure, including the effect of long
term storage. Refer to [8] for a more detailed account.
Proper storage of samples, in a closed cardboard box, for
shipping and handling prior to processing is important. Both
ambient temperature and light exposure can produce a
measurable change in test results. The effect under normal
laboratory conditions appears to be small. On the other hand,
samples stored in direct light during collection and transport
could demonstrate dramatic shifts in results.
VIII. THERMAL DECOMPOSITION
Review of the literature reveals that abundant pyrolysis
work has been performed with ester liquids for other
industries [10–16]. The work presented here review findings
from an investigaion performed to determine the pyrolysis
chemical reaction pathways in natural ester liquids used as
electrical insulating liquids [17].
The setup used in the study is illustraded in Fig 6. A
heating time of 8 hours was selected for the trials to allow
detection of gases at 250°C and management of gases at
700°C. The volume of insulating liquid used in these tests
was 1.5 liters. Note that gas volumes in excess of 100 liters
were generated for ester liquids at 700°C.
Several precautions had to be taken to handle and
measure the large volume of gases generated by these
experiments. The authors whish to warn those who want to
flammable and should be handled with all appropriate
precaution, especially considering that volume in excess of
100 liters have been generated with the higher temperature.
The data from studies [17] on soybean oil, high oleic
sunflower oil and mineral oil are shown in Fig.7 a) to Fig.
7c). The gas value are the combination of gas measured from
the gas phase and the gas dissolved in the oil. Values in
excess of 1,000,000 ppm are not a computational error, but
reflect the fact that gas volume produced far exceeded the
initial oil volume. It should also be noted that in a HV
electrical equipment, it is only a small portion of the total
liquid volume that is expected to be subjected to the fault
temperature tested here. Therefore, actual gas concentration
in HV equipment should be orders of magnitude lower than
the values reported here, due to a very large dilution factor.
As a result, values presented here should be used only for
comparison purpose between the results obtained with
various liquids and should not be used to infer actual values
found in operating equipment.
Fig. 7d) also show a notable difference between ester
liquids and mineral oil in terms of the onset of gas generation
temperature. This is further illustrated by table VI listing the
total volume of gas produced in an 8 hours period at different
temperature.
IX. ACID PRODUCTION
One of the principal ester liquid pyrolysis reactions (Fig.
8) is the decomposition of the triglyceride to two free fatty
acids, propenal (acrolein) and the ketene from the third fatty
acid. The data obtained during this study (Table VI) show
large increases of acid content through much of the
temperature range. By comparison, there is no similar effect
for mineral oil. The total acid number data as well as GCMS
data confirms this pathway. Specifically, GCMS analysis
reveals the presence of the most abundant fatty acids, ketenes
and propenal. [17]

TABLE VI. ACIDITY LEVEL AND GAS VOLUME PRODUCED IN

PYROLYSIS

Soybean Oil Sunflower Oil Mineral Oil

Temperature Acid Volume Acid Volume Acid Volume
°C Number (Liters) Number (Liters) Number (Liters)
250° 0.026 <1.2 0.043 <1.2 0.010 <1.2
300° 0.049 <1.2 0.061 <1.2 0.010 <1.2
350° 0.084 <1.2 0.066 <1.2 0.010 <1.2
400° 0.328 <1.2 0.150 <1.2 0.010 <1.2
450° 9.035 <1.2 0.262 <1.2 0.011 <1.2
Fig. 6. Equipment Setup for the Pyrolysis Studies: Expansion chamber 500° >10 4.3 8.762 3.7 0.010 <1.2
maintained at atmospheric pressure with isolation valve (1). Pressure 550° >10 13.4 >10 11 0.010 <1.2
gauge (2). Defined volume gas space that can be sealed by the isolation 600° >10 25.5 >10 15.7 0.047 2.8
valve from the expansion chamber (3). Liquid reservoir (4). Circulationg 650° >10 48.7 >10 53.4 0.048 26.2
pump moving liquid from the reservoir to the oven (5). Oven (6). 700° >10 126.9 >10 114.5 0.048 67.7
 Soybean Oil
CH2OCOR’ CH2
1,000,000 | ||
CHOCOCH2R’’ ➙ CH + R’COOH + R’’’COOH + R’’CH=CO
Amount of Gas (ppm)

H2
H2
800,000 CH4
CH4
C2H6
C2H6
| |
600,000 C2H4
C2H4 CH2OCOR’’’ CHO
C2H2
C2H2
400,000 CO
CO Fig. 8. Thermal decomposition of triglycerides to produce free fatty acids
CO2
CO2 (-COOH), a ketene (-CH=CO) and propenal.(CH2=CH-CHO)
200,000

0
300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C X. CARBON OXIDES AND ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
Temperature
Data obtained from Ester shows large increases of carbon
(a) oxides that correspond to increases in acid content. Review
of reaction mechanism for the decomposition product show
Sunflower Oil that the greatest number of reaction pathways produce
carbon monoxide [17]. This offers the possibility of greater
1,000,000
production of carbon monoxide compared to carbon dioxide.
Amount of Gas (ppm)

H2
H2
800,000 CH4
CH4
The experimental data [17] clearly demonstrates that carbon
C2H6
C2H6 monoxide is slighly more abundant than carbon dioxide. A
600,000 C2H4
C2H4 significant amount of ethylene is also produced while carbon
C2H2
C2H2
400,000 CO
CO
monoxide is being generated. Because ethylene production in
CO2
CO 2 mineral oil at the highest temperatures is very similar to that
200,000
in the natural ester liquids, it is more difficult to observe the
0 contributions to ethylene from these reactions. The
300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C contributions at 450°C, 500°C and 550°C provide the most
Temperature notable indications.
(b) The hydrocarbon portions of the fatty acid components
are similar to the carbon structures of mineral oil and are
Mineral Oil subject to five similar reaction pathways [17]. There are
1,000,000
three noteworthy observations about these pathways. First,
hydrogen is produced by four of the five reactions. Yet the
Amount of Gas (ppm)

H2
H2
800,000 CH4
CH4 abundance of hydrogen is less than any one of the
C2H6
600,000
C2H6 hydrocarbon gases. This suggests that either the hydrogen
C2H4
C2H4
C2H2
C2H2 producing reactions are considerably less active than the
400,000 CO
CO hydrocarbon producing reactions or that considerable
CO2
200,000
CO 2 amounts of hydrogen are being consumed in other reactions.
0 Second, two of these reactions can produce ethylene.
300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C These two reactions could never exceed the amount of
Temperature carbon monoxide. Comparison of ethylene to carbon
monoxide levels indicates that one or both of the reactions
(c) must become very active at higher temperatures.
Total Gas Generation Third, only one of these reactions can produce methane
and ethane. Interestingly, through part of the higher
140
Soybean
temperature range methane and ethane are produced in
120
similar quantities for natural ester liquids. In mineral oils,
Volume (liters)

100 Sunflower
Mineral this is not the case. The short hydrocarbon sequences of
80
mineral oils and the long sequences of natural ester liquids
60
may be part of the explanation for this difference.
40
20 Comparison of data from different triglycerides made of
0 single fatty acids indicates that the specific fatty acid
300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C composition affects the temperature at which this occurs.
Temperature Table I shows the fatty acid composition of the two ester
liquids reported in these studies. Fig. 7a) and 7b) show the
(d)
approximate temperatures of this phenomenon. These data
Fig. 7. Transition to high rates of gas generation in the study fluids. a) show an approximate temperature difference of 50°C
Soybean; b) Sunflower; c) Mineral; d) Comparison of total volume of gas between soybean oil and high oleic sunflower oil.
produced Interestingly, this difference is characterized by carbon oxide
formation and is echoed by rising total acid numbers.
 TABLE IX. D1 DISCHARGE STUDY COMPARING MINERAL OIL TO
VARIOUS ESTER OILS
5 High Oleic Synthetic
Mineral Oil Soybean Oil Sunflower Oil Rape seed Oil Ester Oil
H2 3462 2136 1282 2269 1664
CH4 452 155 80 60 69
C2H6 2 1 6 0 0
C2H4 554 532 327 180 154
C2H2 3251 3339 2477 2660 2495
CO 10 785 381 527 749
CO2 352 915 537 777 665

4 TABLE X. SECOND D1 DISCHARGE STUDY COMPARING MINERAL OIL

TO VARIOUS ESTER OILS
3
High Oleic
Mineral Oil Soybean Oil Sunflower Oil
H2 452 112 95
2 1
CH4 20 8 8
C2H6 8 2 2
Fig. 9. Apparatus for partial discharge study: Liquid under study (1). Salt C2H4 13 8 6
bath (2). N2 or Air (3). Discharge electrode (4). Tesla coil (5). C2H2 54 26 22
CO 4 28 21
CO2 473 558 671
XI. GAS PRODUCTION FROM ELECTRICAL DISCHARGES
Studies for partial discharge (Fig. 9) and D1 discharge XII. DGA STATISTICAL STUDY
have been performed using a Tesla coil as the voltage source. A statistical study was performed to compare routine
Result were somewhat dependant of the set-up used in the DGA result from natural ester liquid to mineral oil. Table XI
experiments. Comparison between mineral oil and ester and XII show the 90 and 95 percentile values for a
liquids give broadly similar composition of decomposition population of ester liquids DGA (6035 samples) compared to
products but notable differences in the degree of their a population of mineral oil DGA (168550 samples). They
development. Table VII give results obtained for partial indicate that, in line with some of the results presented here,
discharges in air above the oil. Table VIII give results ethane is the hydrocarbon having the highest percentile in the
obtained with the same set-up but with the discharges in ester liquids, being also about 3 time the value in the mineral
Nitrogen rather than in air. oil. It is also to be noted that hydrogen is about equal in both
Table IX and X give the results obtained with two liquids while methane, ethylene, acetylene, carbon monoxide
different set-ups for discharge of type D1 where the electrode and carbon dioxide are lower in the ester liquids. Note that
was imersed in oil. As with partial discharge, the level of gas there is no information available on the condition of the
generated is smaller in ester based oil. We could also observe equipment in this study, so the proportion of faulty
the difference between liquids for methane, ethylene and equipment is unknown for the mineral oil and is believed to
carbon oxide. We have not been able to observed discharges be very small or inexistent for the Ester oil population.
of type D2.
TABLE XI. 90 PERCENTILE VALUES (PPM) FOR ESTER LIQUIDS AND
MINERAL OIL
TABLE VII. PARTIAL DISCHARGE STUDY IN AIR COMPARING MINERAL
90 Percentile H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 CO CO2
OIL TO VARIOUS ESTER OILS
Mineral Soybean High Oleic Rape seed Rape seed Synthetic Ester Liquids 106 12 332 11 0 138 1497
Oil Oil Sunflower Oil Oil A Oil B Ester Oil Mineral Oil 81 94 106 62 0 680 6680
H2 4733 537 179 1462 3110 2977
CH4 251 167 0 38 188 129
C2H6 22 18 0 70 7 0 TABLE XII. 95 PERCENTILE VALUES (PPM) FOR ESTER LIQUIDS AND
C2H4 2 1 0 2 0 0 MINERAL OIL
C2H2 0 0 0 0 0 0 95 Percentile H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 CO CO2
CO 4818 2041 2535 1079 1336 1245 Ester Liquids 159 21 583.3 19 2 195 2269
CO2 5885 9432 5826 10311 4702 5379 Mineral Oil 186 182 225 135 8 893 9471

TABLE VIII. PARTIAL DISCHARGE STUDY IN N2 COMPARING MINERAL

OIL TO VARIOUS ESTER OILS
Soybean High Oleic Rape seed Rape seed Synthetic
Mineral Oil Oil Sunflower Oil Oil A Oil B Ester Oil
H2 5718 153 24 352 4947 4589
CH4 527 23 0 31 214 162
C2H6 61 7 0 12 13 11
C2H4 0 0 0 0 0 0
C2H2 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO 954 1428 532 1846 625 632
CO2 310 1940 578 3202 918 1243

XIII. DISCUSSION
The chemical structure of electrical insulating liquids
determines their reactive chemistry under fault conditions in
high voltage equipment. The differences in the structures of
natural ester liquids from other insulating liquids naturally
lead to question about the differences in the reactive
chemistry.
This study demonstrates some of the differences as well
as some of the similarities. The formation of acids, carbon
oxides and ethylene are the most significant differences
observed between liquids.
A correlation between the oxidation mechanisms detailed
in the literature and ethane found in electrical insulating ester
liquids has been demonstrated. The correlation includes
several points of coincidence: the relationships to oxidation
in general, to linolenic acid content, to free radical oxidation
or autoxidation, and singlet oxygen oxidation including the
presence of photosensitive species.
The range of ethane levels that might be found from these
processes is suggested by these studies. From our experience
to date, the non-fault related (stray gassing) ethane levels
remain within the bounds suggested by these studies.
The opportunity for photoactivity presents some concerns
for liquid storage and sample handing that do not seem to be
realized in the limited cases examined in this paper. Further
examination is suggested to better clarify the likelihood of
these concerns.
Previous research has described numerous pyrolytic
reactions of natural ester liquids. In this study, some have
been confirmed as active in ester based insulating liquids.
While this study was not designed to specifically model
thermal faults in HV equipment, the conditions of pyrolysis
were not unlike conditions that might be found in faulty
equipment.
During the course of this study, it was observed that
results are somewhat dependant of the set-up used, so
caution should be used when comparing partern observed in
operating transformer to those obtained in laboratory. This
study should be understood as being comparative (between
type of oil) rather than be relied on for absolute values.
Analyzing samples from operating equipment
experiencing a variety of faults will be important to conclude
this work and to integrate ester data with those data produced
by other materials found in the equipment.
This is a on-going study. Additional natural ester liquids
as well as synthetic ester liquids are being studied. New
findings will be reported as they become available.
Ultimately, it is the hope of the authors that information
from this study will begin to find use in the diagnostic
assessments of ester liquid filled equipment[18].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Cooper Power
Systems, ABB Inc. and M&I Materials Ltd. for their
contributions and support of this work.
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